EthnographyEthnographyEthics and Methods in Cultural Ethics and Methods in Cultural Anthropology Anthropology

This chapter introduces students to the field methods and research methods employed by cultural anthropologists. It pays special attention to the field methods of ethnographers, the history of ethnography and the ethics that apply to cultural anthropologists.

EthicsEthics The AAA Code of Ethics states that anthropologists The AAA Code of Ethics states that anthropologists

have ethical obligations to their scholarly field, to the have ethical obligations to their scholarly field, to the wider society and culture, to the human species, other wider society and culture, to the human species, other species, and the environment.species, and the environment.

To work in a host country and community, To work in a host country and community, researchers must obtain the informed consent from all researchers must obtain the informed consent from all affected parties.affected parties.

Before the research begins, people should be told Before the research begins, people should be told about the purpose, nature, and procedures of the about the purpose, nature, and procedures of the research.research.

Also, people should be told of the potential costs and Also, people should be told of the potential costs and benefits of the research before the project begins.benefits of the research before the project begins.

EthnographyEthnography

Ethnography Is the Firsthand Personal Ethnography Is the Firsthand Personal Study of a Local Cultural SettingStudy of a Local Cultural Setting

Ethnographers try to understand the Ethnographers try to understand the whole of a particular culture, not just whole of a particular culture, not just fragments (e.g., the economy).fragments (e.g., the economy).

An extended period of time living with An extended period of time living with the group the group

Key cultural consultantsKey cultural consultants

Life HistoriesLife Histories

Life histories Life histories intimate and personal collections of a intimate and personal collections of a

lifetime of experiences from certain lifetime of experiences from certain members of the community being studiedmembers of the community being studied

Life histories reveal how specific people Life histories reveal how specific people perceive, react to, and contribute to perceive, react to, and contribute to changes that affect their lives.changes that affect their lives.

Observation and Observation and Participant ObservationParticipant Observation

““Participant observation,” as practiced Participant observation,” as practiced by ethnographers, involves the by ethnographers, involves the researcher taking part in the activities researcher taking part in the activities being observed.being observed.

Ethnographers do not isolate variables Ethnographers do not isolate variables or attempt to manipulate the outcome or attempt to manipulate the outcome of events they are observing.of events they are observing.

Conversation, Conversation, Interviewing, and Interviewing, and Interview SchedulesInterview Schedules

Ethnographic interviews range in Ethnographic interviews range in formality:formality: undirected conversationundirected conversation open-ended interviews focusing on open-ended interviews focusing on

specific topicsspecific topics formal interviews using a formal interviews using a

predetermined schedule of questions.predetermined schedule of questions.

The Genealogical MethodThe Genealogical Method

Early anthropologists identified types Early anthropologists identified types of relatedness as being the of relatedness as being the fundamental organizing principles of fundamental organizing principles of nonindustrial societies.nonindustrial societies. Such as:Such as:

KinshipKinship DescentDescent MarriageMarriage

Emic vs. EticEmic vs. Etic

An emic (native-oriented) approach An emic (native-oriented) approach investigates how natives think, categorize investigates how natives think, categorize the world, express thoughts, and interpret the world, express thoughts, and interpret stimuli.stimuli.

An etic (science-oriented) approach An etic (science-oriented) approach emphasizes the categories, emphasizes the categories, interpretations, and features that the interpretations, and features that the anthropologist considers important.anthropologist considers important.

Bronislaw Malinowski Bronislaw Malinowski

Bronislaw Malinowski is generally Bronislaw Malinowski is generally considered the father of ethnography.considered the father of ethnography.

He did salvage ethnography, recording He did salvage ethnography, recording cultural diversity that was threatened by cultural diversity that was threatened by westernization.westernization.

His ethnographies were scientific His ethnographies were scientific accounts of unknown people and accounts of unknown people and places.places.

Bronislaw Malinowski Bronislaw Malinowski

Malinowski believed that all aspects of Malinowski believed that all aspects of culture were linked and intertwined, making culture were linked and intertwined, making it impossible to write about just one cultural it impossible to write about just one cultural feature without discussing how it relates to feature without discussing how it relates to others.others.

Malinowski argued that understanding the Malinowski argued that understanding the emic perspective, the native’s point of view, emic perspective, the native’s point of view, was the primary goal of ethnography.was the primary goal of ethnography.

Ethnographic realismEthnographic realism

The writer’s goal was to produce an The writer’s goal was to produce an accurate, objective, scientific account of accurate, objective, scientific account of the study community.the study community.

The writer’s authority was rooted in his or The writer’s authority was rooted in his or her personal research experience with her personal research experience with that community.that community.

Evolution of EthnographyEvolution of Ethnography

Interpretive anthropologists believe that Interpretive anthropologists believe that ethnographers should describe and ethnographers should describe and interpret that which is meaningful to the interpret that which is meaningful to the natives.natives.

Experimental anthropologists, like Marcus Experimental anthropologists, like Marcus and Fischer, have begun to question the and Fischer, have begun to question the traditional goals, methods, and styles of traditional goals, methods, and styles of ethnographic realism and salvage ethnographic realism and salvage ethnography.ethnography.

Ethnographic PresentEthnographic Present

The early ethnographies were often written The early ethnographies were often written in the in the ethnographic presentethnographic present, a romanticized , a romanticized timelessness before westernization, which timelessness before westernization, which gave the ethnographies an eternal, gave the ethnographies an eternal, unchanging quality.unchanging quality.

Ethnographers today recognize that cultures Ethnographers today recognize that cultures constantly change and that this quality must constantly change and that this quality must be represented in the ethnography.be represented in the ethnography.

Problem-Oriented Problem-Oriented EthnographyEthnography

Ethnographers typically address a Ethnographers typically address a specific problem or set of problems within specific problem or set of problems within the context of broader depictions of the context of broader depictions of cultures.cultures.

Variables with the most significant Variables with the most significant relationship to the problem being relationship to the problem being addressed are given priority in the addressed are given priority in the analysis.analysis.

Longitudinal ResearchLongitudinal Research

Longitudinal research is the long-term Longitudinal research is the long-term study of a community, region, society, or study of a community, region, society, or culture based on a series of repeated culture based on a series of repeated visits.visits.

Longitudinal research study has become Longitudinal research study has become increasingly common among increasingly common among ethnographic studies, as repeat visits to ethnographic studies, as repeat visits to field sites have become easier.field sites have become easier.

Survey ResearchSurvey Research

Anthropologists working in large-Anthropologists working in large-scale societies are increasingly scale societies are increasingly using survey methodologies to using survey methodologies to complement more traditional complement more traditional ethnographic techniques.ethnographic techniques.

Survey research is considerably Survey research is considerably more impersonal than ethnography.more impersonal than ethnography.

Anthropology in Complex Anthropology in Complex Societies.Societies.

Kottak argues that the core Kottak argues that the core contribution of ethnology remains contribution of ethnology remains the qualitative data that result from the qualitative data that result from close, long-term, in-depth contact close, long-term, in-depth contact between ethnographer and subjects.between ethnographer and subjects.