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Linguistic Survey of Nepal (LinSuN)

Central Department of Linguistics

Tribhuvan University, Nepal

in cooperation with

John W. Eppele is a sociolinguistic research consultant for SIL International. He has lived and worked in South and Southeast Asia for 13 years, conducting or consulting on research in over 60 languages. M. Paul Lewis is the editor of the Ethnologue® and a Senior Sociolinguistics Consultant for SIL International. He received his PhD in Linguistics from Georgetown University in 1994. Dan Raj Regmi is the head of the Central Department of Linguistics, Tribhuvan University, and the director for the Linguistic Survey of Nepal (LinSuN) project. He received his PhD in Linguistics from Tribhuvan University. Yogendra P. Yadava is professor and former head of the Central Department of Linguistics, Tribhuvan University, and founding director of the Linguistic Survey of Nepal (LinSuN) project. He received his PhD in Generative Syntax in 1984. He is a life member of the Nepal Academy.

Languages of NepalLanguages of Nepal

Linguistic Survey of Nepal (LinSuN)

Central Department of Linguistics

Tribhuvan University, Nepal

Edited by: John W. Eppele

M. Paul Lewis

Dan Raj Regmi

Yogendra P. Yadava

SIL International Partners in

Language Development

Edited byJohn W. Eppele

M.Paul LewisDan Raj Regmi

Yogendra P. Yadava

Linguistic Survey of Nepal (LinSuN)Central Department of Linguistics

Trivhuvan University, Nepal

SIL InternationalPartners in

Language Development

Languages of Nepal

Languages of Nepal

Linguistic Survey of Nepal (LinSuN

)

Central Departm

ent of Linguistics

Tribhuvan University, N

epal

Edited by: John W

. Eppele

M. Paul Lew

is

Dan Raj Regm

i

Yogendra P. Yadava

SIL International Partners in

Language Developm

ent

Price NRS 350.00

Ethnologue®: Languages of Nepal is the product of a collaborative effort between the SIL Ethnologue® and the Central Department of Linguistics of Tribhuvan University, Nepal. It was our goal to review and revise the information listed in the Ethnologue® for each language spoken in Nepal. This goal grew into a shared vision to publish this information and related language maps in this bilingual English-Nepali volume.

Edited byJohn W. EppeleM. Paul LewisDan Raj Regmi

Yogendra P. Yadava

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Ethnologue®: Languages of Nepal

Editorial and production staff:Ethnologue editor: M. Paul Lewis

Regional editors for Nepal: John W. Eppele, Dan Raj Regmi, and Yogendra P. Yadava

Nepal language maps:The maps have been produced under the direction of SIL’s Lead Cartographer, Irene Tucker, with the help of Matt Benjamin, Eva

(Ujlakyova) Horton, and Stephen Tucker.

Nepali translation:Karnakhar Khatiwada and Balaram Prasain, Central Department of

Linguistics (Tribhuvan University), translated the English-language en-tries into Nepali. The translation was checked and approved by

Dan Raj Regmi and Yogendra P. Yadava.

This volume is the result of the hard work of a large number of scholars, organizations, and language community members. Full

acknowledgements can be found on page 103.

Published by SIL International Nepal in cooperation with the Central Department of Linguistics, Tribhuvan University, Nepal.

English content and maps Copyright © 2012 SIL International.

Nepali language content and translation Copyright © 2012 Central Department of Linguistics,

Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur, Kathmandu, Nepal.

ISBN: 978-9937-2-5615-5

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means – elec-tronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise – without the prior written permission of SIL International and the Central Department of Linguistics (Tribhuvan University, Nepal), with the exception of brief

excerpts in articles or reviews.

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Contents

Foreword .........................................................................................................1

Introduction ....................................................................................................4

Language endangerment and development in Nepal .................................9

Layout of language entries for Nepal .........................................................19

Abbreviations ...............................................................................................31

Nepal language entries .................................................................................32

Bibliography .................................................................................................99

Acknowledgments ......................................................................................103

Language maps of Nepal ...........................................................................109

ljifo–;"rL

g]kfnL cg'jfbsf ;DaGwdf (Foreword to the Nepali translation) .............113

cª\u|]hL–g]kfnL kfl/eflifs zAbfjnL (English-Nepali glossary) .....................116

;ª\If]kLs[t zAb–;"rL (Abbreviations) ...........................................................122

g]kfnsf efiffx?sf k|ljli6 (Nepal language entries) ...................................123

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ForewordThis volume is the product of a collaborative effort between the SIL Ethnologue and the Central Department of Linguistics (CDL) of Tribhuvan University (Kirtipur, Nepal). It was our goal to review and revise the information listed in the Ethnologue for each language spoken in Nepal. This goal grew into a shared vision to publish this information, and related language maps, in this bilingual English-Nepali volume.

The purpose of the Ethnologue is to provide a comprehensive listing of the known living languages of the world. The Ethnologue is intended more as a catalog than as an encyclopedia and so provides summary data rather than more extensive descriptions of identified languages. Information comes from numerous sources and is confirmed by consulting both reliable published sources and a network of field correspondents. Even a relatively limited range of information on all of the world’s languages is not available, so the scope of Ethnologue’s descriptions varies. The information is organized within specific categories as described in “Layout of language entries for Nepal” (page 19) and no effort is made to gather data beyond those categories. Much of the focus of the Ethnologue is on the less commonly known languages.

The 2001 census of Nepal enumerated 92 living languages (spoken and signed) in use among the 103 caste and ethnic groups of the nation. Many languages of Nepal are spoken by people of ethnicities recognized by the National Foundation for Development of Indigenous Nationalities (NFDIN) Act, No. 20 (2002), and we have sought to note that relationship in the Ethnologue entries.

The Ethnologue is obliged to follow the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) 639-3 standard for language identification, giving a brief description of each ISO 639-3 code. In early 2012, ISO 639-3 listed 124 languages for Nepal (spoken and sign), including 120 living languages and four reported as having no known mother tongue speakers. Not all language varieties have a commonly-used autonym, thus at times the ISO has compensated with the use of terms relating to a specific geography or related ethnicity.

The Ethnologue provides scholars and the general public with baseline descriptions of each language listed by ISO 639-3. In the past year, ISO has both added and deleted from their listing of language entries for Nepal. A notable addition is the recognition of Dotyali [dty], which is widely known in Nepal as a mother tongue and de facto lingua franca in

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the Far West Region. This volume reflects those ISO changes, as well as changes to some language reference names and spellings, in order to more closely match those used by speakers of those languages.

Information about the ISO 639-3 standard and procedures for requesting additions, deletions, and other modifications to the ISO 639-3 inventory of identified languages can be found at the ISO 639-3 website: www.sil.org/iso639-3.

The editors are deeply grateful to a great number of individuals and institutions for their input and involvement in this effort. This data review process was somewhat like a collaborative “audit” of the Ethnologue entries and maps for Nepal, consisting of three distinct phases:

The first phase of this data review was to elicit feedback on each Ethnologue entry from scholars with expertise on each particular language and language family. Each scholar (listed on pages 103-106) responded by completing a form which allowed them to add to and/or correct information for each category of that particular entry.

The second phase of the data review comprised of a series of meetings held in Kathmandu, Nepal (in December 2010, February 2011, and July 2011). These meetings served as a peer review for the feedback received on each language, deliberated upon by scholars present at those meetings (listed on page 106).

The third phase of this process involved joint review by the regional editors, checking the data and maps for consistency and accuracy. Following that, the content was translated into Nepali for this volume.

Two highlights of this effort are a series of fully updated language maps for Nepal, and a revision of the Ethnologue’s genetic classification system for Tibeto-Burman languages. The map series is the culmination of a gargantuan effort, led by Irene Tucker and her cartography team, with input from a great number of scholars (listed on pages 106-107). The Tibeto-Burman classification revision involved linguists from around the world (listed on page 107). The work on classification of the Tibeto-Burman languages of Nepal was led by Christopher P. Wilde.

This collaboration is a result of an ongoing Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) between SIL International and the Central Department of Linguistics of Tribhuvan University. It is our hope that the demographic, geographic, vitality, development, and linguistic information included in this volume can be useful to language

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communities, language activists, linguists, translators, anthropologists, bilingual educators, language planners, government officials, aid workers, potential field investigators, students, and others with language interests.

The Ethnologue data, Nepali translation, and maps will soon be available for online access. The English-language entries and maps for Nepal will be accessible at: www.ethnologue.com. English-language entries and maps, as well as Nepali translation will also be viewable on the SIL Nepal website: www.sil.org/asia/nepal. The Nepali content will be available for viewing at the Central Department of Linguistics, Tribhuvan University, website: www.cdltu.edu.np

M. Paul LewisYogendra P. Yadava Dan Raj Regmi John W. Eppele

November 2012Kathmandu, Nepal

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IntroductionThe diversity of Nepal. Despite its small size, Nepal accommodates an amazing cultural diversity, including linguistic plurality. The 2001 census has identified 92 languages spoken as mother tongues. Besides, a number of languages have been reported as ‘unknown’ languages (CBS 2001), which need to be precisely identified on the basis of field observation and its analysis. This multilingual setting confers on Nepal a distinctive position on the linguistic map of the world and renders it as one of the most fascinating areas of linguistic research. It is important that the language situation in Nepal be analyzed to facilitate linguistic studies and language planning. Such an analysis is also important to examine the social structure of the country’s population since language constitutes one of its main indicators. (Yadava 2003)

Most of the 124 languages listed for Nepal by ISO 639-3 are classified into four language families: the Tibeto-Burman branch of Sino-Tibetan (86 languages in Nepal), the Indo-Aryan branch of Indo-European (29 languages), Austro-Asiatic (three languages), and Dravidian (one language). ISO 639-3 also lists four deaf sign languages for Nepal and Kusunda, which has been treated as a language isolate.

Typological features. Despite their genetic diversity, the languages of Nepal exhibit some similarities in linguistic features, perhaps as a consequence of convergence. Almost all languages of Nepal are verb-final. Consequently, the ‘dependent-head’ word order is consistently maintained in all types of constituents. Thus, (i) postpositions follow the nominal expressions they express; (ii) genitives, adjectives, and numerals precede the head nouns they modify; (iii) relative clauses often precede their antecedents; (iv) the adverb precedes the verb it modifies; and (v) the auxiliary follows the main verb. Besides, as in other typical verb-final languages, the polar questions in Nepal's languages are formed by inserting a question word sentence finally and content question words appear in situ. Nepal's languages are mostly split-ergative. They are often agglutinative. Some of these languages have no passive construction. Some of the Sino-Tibetan languages are tonal as well.

Language and ethnicity. Nepal is a multiethnic nation, and its ethnic diversity is coupled with its linguistic plurality. They are found to interact with one another, resulting in a threefold structure. First, there are a number of ethno-linguistic communities in Nepal, each of which has a

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common mother tongue. Mother tongues associated with various ethnic groups include Limbu, Sherpa, Rajbanshi, Sunwar, Kumhali, Majhi, Danuwar, Chepang, Thangmi, Thakali, Bote, Dhimal, Darai, Lapcha, Byangsi, Raute, Raji, and so on. Such a situation having one-to-one relation between languages and ethnic groups is characterized by “one tribe one language” formula. It is, however, to be noted that this formula is not exempt from exceptions. Secondly, there are ethnic communities within which several mother tongues are spoken. One example of this “one tribe with several languages” pattern in Nepal is the Rai group in the eastern hills. This single group speaks various Kirati languages, such as Bantawa, Chamling, Kulung, Yakkha, Thulung, Khaling, Dumi, Puma, Wambule, Nachering, Koi, Yamphu, Lohorung, Tilung, Jerung, Chhingtang, etc. This trend is also illustrated in the plains of southern Nepal, known as the Tarai. In this region, various castes and tribes such as Brahmin, Rajput, Yadav, Teli, Kurmi, Chamar, Khatawe, etc. speak Maithili in the Maithili-speaking area, Bhojpuri in the Bhojpuri-speaking area and Avadhi in the Avadhi-speaking area. Thus, there exists no one-to-correspondence between ethnic communities and their mother tongues in the Tarai. Thirdly, we find the “several tribes with a common language” formula. Different ethnic groups are found to speak a single mother tongue. This formula has been exemplified by Nepali, which is spoken as a mother tongue by various ethnic groups such as Bahun, Kshetri, Kami, Damai, Thakuri, Sarki, Sanyasi, and so on. Being a lingua franca, it has also been adopted as a mother tongue by people from different ethnic groups as well. Hence, it is called an “interethnic language.” Similarly, the Newar consist of various ethnic groups but all these groups speak a single language, viz. Newar or Nepal Bhasa. (Yadava 2003)

Languages as particles, waves, and fields. In part because of the interaction of ethnicity and language, spread over diverse geographic regions, scholars are recognizing that languages are not always easily nor best treated as discrete, identifiable, and countable units with clearly defined boundaries between them (Makoni and Pennycook 2006). Rather, a language is more often comprised of continua of features that extend across time, geography, and social space. The nature of this relationship can be seen in a number of different ways, including through a common linguistic history, or culture, or perhaps through economic ties or social ties such as inter-marriage (Watters 2008). There is growing attention being given to the roles or functions that language varieties play within the linguistic ecology of a region or a speech community.

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The Ethnologue approach to listing and counting languages does not preclude a more dynamic understanding of the linguistic makeup of the countries and regions we report on. While discrete linguistic varieties can be distinguished, we also recognize that those varieties exist in a complex set of relationships to each other. Languages can be viewed, then, simultaneously as discrete units (particles) amenable to being listed and counted, as continua of features across time and space (waves) that are best studied in terms of variational tendencies as examples of “change in progress”, and as parts of a larger ecological matrix (field), where functional roles and usage of the linguistic codes for a wide range of purposes are more in focus. All three of these perspectives, language as particle, wave, and field (Lewis 1999; Pike 1959), are useful and important. Ethnologue focuses primarily on the unitary nature of languages without prejudice against the other perspectives.

Languages and dialects. Every language is characterized by variation within the speech community that uses it. Those varieties, in turn, are more or less divergent from one another. These divergent varieties are often referred to as dialects. They may be distinct enough to be considered separate languages or sufficiently similar to be considered merely characteristic of a particular geographic region or social grouping within the speech community. Often speakers may be very aware of dialect variation and be able to label a particular dialect with a name. In other cases, the variation may be largely unnoticed or overlooked. Not all scholars share the same set of criteria for distinguishing a “language” from a “dialect”. Since the fifteenth edition, Ethnologue has followed the ISO 639-3 inventory of identified languages as the basis for our listing. That standard applies the following basic criteria for defining a language in relation to varieties which may be considered dialects:

• Two related varieties are normally considered varieties of the same language if speakers of each variety have inherent understanding of the other variety at a functional level (that is, can understand based on knowledge of their own variety without needing to learn the other variety).

• Where spoken intelligibility between varieties is marginal, the existence of a common literature or of a common ethnolinguistic identity with a central variety that both understand can be a strong indicator that they should nevertheless be considered varieties of the same language.

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• Where there is enough intelligibility between varieties to enable communication, the existence of well-established distinct ethnolinguistic identities can be a strong indicator that they should nevertheless be considered to be different languages.

These criteria make it clear that the identification of “a language” is not solely within the realm of linguistics.

Macrolanguages. The ISO 639-3 standard defines three-letter codes for both individual languages and macrolanguages. The latter are defined in the standard as “multiple, closely related individual languages that are deemed in some usage contexts to be a single language.” The ISO 639-3 standard defines three-letter codes for the macrolanguages it recognizes, and it enumerates the set of individual languages that are the members of each macrolanguage. Macrolanguage entries are brief, consisting largely of a listing of the individual languages that comprise them.

Sign languages. There are hundreds of sign languages in the world, created and used by deaf people. As the primary language of day-to-day communication for their respective communities of users, these languages fall within the scope of the Ethnologue. The deaf sign languages listed in language entries are those used exclusively within deaf communities.

Language additions or deletions. New and updated editions of the Ethnologue are published on a regular basis. Although this edition of the entries for Nepal has almost entirely been updated and corrected from the previous one, this edition makes no claims for completeness.

Requests for identification of a previously unidentified language or other modifications to the inventory of identified languages can be made directly to the ISO 639-3 Registrar by sending an email (iso639-3@sil.org) or by going to the ISO 639-3 website (www.sil.org/iso639-3/). Change request forms can be downloaded from the website.

Corrections. If you believe any of the information in the Ethnologue is in error, send your proposed change to the editor using one of the addresses given below. Be sure to report the source of your information.

The Ethnologue staff will seek to verify the proposed change before accepting it. The submitter can expect to receive an acknowledgment from the Ethnologue editor.

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Submit corrections and additions by e-mail to the Ethnologue editor (Editor_Ethnologue@sil.org), or by post to:

Editor, Ethnologue SIL International 7500 West Camp Wisdom Road Dallas, Texas 75236, U.S.A.

Corrections to the Nepali content. If you have any corrections or queries regarding the Nepali translation and content, please send them to the Central Department of Linguistics, Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur, at cdltu2012@gmail.com or www.cdltu.edu.np

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Language endangerment and development in Nepal

Language endangerment, as described by EGIDSLanguage endangerment is a serious concern to which linguists and language planners have turned their attention in the last several decades. For a variety of reasons, speakers of many smaller, less dominant languages stop using their heritage language and begin using another in its place. Parents may begin to use only that second language with their children and gradually the intergenerational transmission of the heritage language is reduced and may even cease. As a consequence there may be no speakers who use the language as their first or primary language and eventually the language may no longer be used at all. A language may become dormant or extinct, existing perhaps only in recordings or written records and transcriptions. Languages which have not been adequately documented disappear altogether.

The concern about language endangerment is centered, first and foremost, around the factors which motivate speakers to abandon their language and the social and psychological consequences of language death for the community of (former) speakers of that language. Since language is closely linked to culture, loss of language almost always is accompanied by social and cultural disruptions. More broadly, the intangible heritage of all of human society is diminished when a language disappears. Secondarily, those concerned about language endangerment recognize the implications of the loss of linguistic diversity both for the linguistic and social environment generally and for the academic community which is devoted to the study of language as a human phenomenon.

There are two dimensions to the evaluation and characterization of endangerment: the number of persons who identify with a particular language and the number and nature of the functions for which the language is used. A language may be endangered because there are fewer and fewer people who claim that language as their own and therefore neither use it nor pass it on to their children. It may also, or alternatively, be endangered because it is being used for fewer and fewer daily activities and so loses the characteristically close association of the language with particular social or communicative functions. Since form follows function, languages which are being used for fewer and fewer domains of life also tend to lose structural complexity, which in turn may affect the perceptions of users regarding the suitability of the language for use in a broader set of functions. This can lead to a downward spiral which eventually results in the complete loss of the language. The

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Ethnologue reports data that are indicators of both of these dimensions of language use (users and functions).

The best way to identify the level of vitality of a language has not always been clear. However, a scholarly consensus that can be applied worldwide is developing, and a global evaluation of the state of language vitality is becoming increasingly possible. Sociolinguists and linguistic anthropologists seek to identify trends in language use through the description of some direct measures of language vitality such as changes in the number of speakers or in the use of the language in certain domains or functions. Less directly, an increase in bilingualism, both in the number of bilinguals and in their proficiency levels, is often associated with these trends, though a high level of bilingualism is not, in itself, a sufficient condition for language shift or death. In addition there are numerous economic, political and social factors that affect a community's self perception and motivations. When data are available, we report the following factors which may contribute to the assessment of language endangerment: low speaker population (but see also Grimes 1986), the number of those who connect their ethnic identity with the language (whether or not they speak the language), the stability of and trends in that population size, information about the use of second languages, language attitudes within the community, the age(s) of the speakers, the domains of use of the language, residency and migration patterns of speakers, official recognition of languages within the nation or region, and whether or not children are learning it at home or being taught the language in schools. Non-linguistic factors such as economic opportunity or the lack thereof may also be included in comments in each language entry. Such factors interact within a society in dynamic ways that are not entirely predictable but which do follow recognizable patterns and trends. The general scholarly consensus, however, is that the key factor in gauging the relative safety of an endangered language is the degree to which intergenerational transmission of the language remains intact.

Language endangerment is a matter of degree. At one end of the scale are languages that are vigorous, and perhaps are even expanding in numbers of speakers or functional areas of use. At the other end are languages that are on the verge of dormancy (loss of nearly all day-to-day functions) or extinction (loss of practically all individuals who continue to identify the language as being related to their identity). In between are many degrees of greater or lesser vitality. Because of the complexity of the interrelated factors described above, it is helpful to categorize the vitality of a language using a summary label. Various schemas have been proposed, each with a particular focus. For various reasons, none of these have

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proved adequate for a comprehensive global assessment of the state of the world's languages.

With this edition of the Ethnologue we are able to dramatically increase our reporting of vitality of the languages of the world by using the Expanded Graded Intergenerational Disruption Scale (EGIDS) (Lewis and Simons 2010), an adaptation and expansion of Fishman’s (1991) Graded Intergenerational Disruption Scale (GIDS). For the first time we report a vitality status estimate for every identified language in each country where that language is spoken.

The EGIDS is a multi-dimensional scale which focuses on different aspects of vitality at different levels of the scale. Like Fishman's GIDS, the EGIDS measures disruption in use. Higher numbers on the scale represent greater levels of disruption. At the weakest levels of vitality, EGIDS 9 (Dormant) and EGIDS 10 (Extinct) the primary factor in focus is the function of the language as a marker of identity. As described above, if no one still associates the language with their identity, the language can be considered to be Extinct. If there is an ethnic group that associates its identity with the language but uses the language only for symbolic or sentimental purposes to remind themselves of that identity, the language can be categorized as Dormant (EGIDS 9). At EGIDS levels 6a (Vigorous), 6b (Threatened), 7 (Shifting), 8a (Moribund), and 8b (Nearly Extinct), the primary factor in focus is the state of daily face-to-face use and intergenerational transmission of the language. Each successively weaker level on the scale represents the loss of use, generation by generation. EGIDS 4 (Educational) and EGIDS 5 (Developing) bring into focus the degree to which the ongoing use of the language is supported and reinforced by the use of the language in literacy and education. This largely focuses around issues of standardization and literacy acquisition and the degree to which those are institutionally supported and have been adopted by the community of language users. EGIDS 3 (Wider Communication) focuses primarily on the notion of vehicularity. If a language (whether written or not) is widely used by others as a second language and as a means of intergroup communication, it has greater vitality than a language with a smaller number of users and which is seen as being less useful by outsiders. EGIDS 2 (Provincial) and EGIDS 1 (National) focus on the level of recognition and use given to the language by government. Beyond purely official use, however, the focus includes the widespread use of the language in media and the workplace at either the provincial (sub-national) or national levels. EGIDS 0 (International) is a category reserved for those few languages that are used as the means of communication in many countries for the purposes

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of diplomacy and international commerce. Because the Ethnologue organizes the language entries by country, EGIDS 1 (National) is the strongest vitality level that we report.

The EGIDS levels are hierarchical in nature. The scale assumes that each stronger level of vitality entails the characteristics of the levels below it. Thus, for example, a language cannot be characterized as EGIDS 5 (Developing) if it cannot also be characterized as being at EGIDS 6a (Vigorous). Thus a language with written materials which is not used for day-to-day communication by all generations and which is not being passed on to all children cannot be categorized as EGIDS 5 (Developing). The one exception to this principle is EGIDS 3 (Wider Communication) where the vehicularity of languages of wider communication is counted as being more salient than the use of the language in education.

The EGIDS recognizes that there is a growing number of languages at the weaker end of the scale that are in the process of being revived. The default labels used for levels 6b (Threatened) through 9 (Dormant) apply most appropriately when a language is losing vitality. Those labels are used as the default in order to emphasize the crisis of language endangerment. In those cases where language revival efforts are underway, the progress of that revival can be indicated by using an alternative set of labels with somewhat modified definitions as follows:

• 6b Re-established - Some members of a third generation of children are acquiring the language in the home with the result that an unbroken chain of intergenerational transmission has been re-established among all living generations.

• 7 Revitalized - A second generation of children is acquiring the language from their parents who also acquired the language in the home. Language transmission takes place in the home and community.

• 8a Reawakened - Children are acquiring the language in community and some home settings and are increasingly able to use the language for some face-to-face daily communicative needs.

• 8b Reintroduced - Adults of the parent generation are reconstructing and reintroducing their language for everyday social interaction.

• 9 Rediscovered - Adults are rediscovering their language for symbolic and identificational purposes.

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This alternate set of labels indicating various levels of language revitalization are a recent innovation in EGIDS, developed since the data review efforts in Nepal. In the future, we would like to highlight language revitalization efforts that are in progress in some parts of Nepal.

Summary definitions for each level of EGIDS are given in Table 1.

Table 1. Expanded Graded Intergenerational Disruption Scale

LEVEL LABEL DESCRIPTION

0 International The language is used internationally for a broad range of functions.

1 NationalThe language is used in education, work, mass media, government at the nationwide level.

2 Provincial The language is used for local and regional mass media and governmental services.

3 Wider Communication

The language is used for local and regional work by both insiders and outsiders.

4 EducationalThe language is being transmitted and standardization promoted through a system of institutionally supported education.

5 Developing

The language is used for face-to-face communication by all generations and has effective educational support in parts of the community.

6a Vigorous

The langauge is used for face-to-face communication by all generations and is being learned by children as their first language.

6b ThreatenedThe language is used for face-to-face communication by all generations but only some of of the children are learning it.

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7 Shifting

The child-bearing generation knows the language well enough to use it among themselves but it is not being transmitted to their children.

8a MoribundThe only remaining active users of the language are members of the grandparent generation.

8b Nearly Extinct

The only remaining users of the language are members of the grandparent generation or older who have little opportunity to use the language.

9 Dormant

The language serves as a reminder of heritage identity for an ethnic community. No one has more than symbolic proficiency.

10 ExtinctNo one retains a sense of ethnic identity associated with the language, even for symbolic purposes.

Most of the EGIDS levels reported in this edition of the Ethnologue were arrived at by the review process described in the Foreword. Any remaining unreviewed or uncertain estimates have been more closely scrutinized by the editors and, after soliciting additional commentary from knowledgeable sources, decisions made as to how best to evaluate the EGIDS level in each case. Where the data were not sufficient, we set the EGIDS default value at EGIDS 6a. In a few cases, there is some doubt as to whether the language actually exists as a distinct variety. Although an ISO 639-3 code is assigned, the data on the language variety is either very old or in doubt. In such cases, we mentioned in the language entry that attestation for the language is questionable.

Language endangerment in NepalThe existence of an EGIDS estimate for practically every language in every country provides a useful new resource for the assessment of language vitality globally, regionally, and country-by-country. In addition, other kinds of analyses can be carried out, such as the evaluation of the

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vitality of language families (see Whalen and Simons 2012 for example).

EGIDS estimates for each language can help assess the state of language vitality and endangerment for a country as a whole. Such an assessment for Nepal is presented in Table 2. The horizontal axis of Table 2 shows each EGIDS level and label. The vertical axis displays the number of ISO 639-3 identifiers that were reported at each EGIDS level in Nepal.

Table 2. EGIDS summary for Nepal

A broad profile of language endangerment in Nepal can be made by grouping EGIDS levels into categories of Institutional, Developing, Vigorous, In Trouble, Dying, or Extinct (Simons 2012).

• Institutional: EGIDS levels 0 (International), 1 (National), 2 (Provincial), 3 (Wider Communication), and 4 (Educational) could be described as “Institutional” languages. These are languages that already exhibit clearly sustainable levels of literacy. Development is sustained by institutions beyond the home and community. A total of 11 languages in Nepal have been described in this way.

• Developing: Fourteen languages of Nepal have been categorized as EGIDS level 5 (Developing). Language use and intergenerational

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transfer are vigorous throughout each of these language communities. Each language is also being used in written form by many people in their community, though literacy is not yet sustained through a formal institution.

• Vigorous: A total of 36 languages in Nepal have been described by EGIDS level 6a (Vigorous). These languages exhibit a sustainable level of orality, as they are have vigorous oral use among all generations. Although they are rarely written, this level of intergenerational transfer currently provides a degree of protection for the language.

• In Trouble: Languages categorized by EGIDS levels 6b (Threatened) or 7 (Shifting) could be described as “In Trouble”, or endangered. This infers that intergenerational transfer is not consistent throughout the language community. A large proportion of Nepal’s languages (53, or 43%) can be described in this way. They are still being spoken, but are in danger of moving towards language death. However, at least some members of the child-bearing generation are still fluent in the language. This provides an opportunity for language revitalization efforts to be successful.

• Dying: EGIDS levels 8a (Moribund), 8b (Nearly Extinct), and 9 (Dormant) could be grouped together as “Dying” languages. Nine of Nepal’s languages have been described as only the grandparent generation still using the language, if at all. The language primarily serves as an identity marker, only being used fluently by the eldest demographic of the community, if at all. Where this is true, it is highly unlikely for the language to be restored to natural intergenerational transfer in the home.

• Extinct: One language of Nepal, namely Waling [wly], is described by EGIDS level 10 (Extinct). This infers that no one continues to associate their ethnic identify with the language.

Language developmentEven in the face of mounting external and internal pressures resulting in language endangerment, not all languages are endangered. Many communities are taking steps to resist those pressures by preserving the vitality of their languages and by finding ways to use their languages in new ways. In addition, many languages have well-established literary traditions and are used for a wide variety of functions. Ethnologue records

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and reports data about these aspects of language use under the rubric of Language Development.

The term Language Development is commonly used among psychologists and others to refer to the phenomenon of child language acquisition (how infants acquire language). Ethnologue uses the term in the sense given to it by Charles Ferguson (1968) who defined language development as primarily dealing with three areas of concern:

• Graphization: the development of a system of writing,

• Standardization: the development of a norm that overrides regional and social dialects,

• Modernization: the development of the ability to translate and carry on discourse about a broad range of topics in ways characteristic of “industrialized, secularized, structurally differentiated, ‘modernized’ societies”.

These development activities are now generally considered to be language planning activities, subsumed specifically within what is called “corpus planning” (Cooper 1989).

More broadly, Ethnologue defines language development as: the result of the series of on-going planned actions that language communities take to ensure that they can effectively use their languages to achieve their social, cultural, political, economic, and spiritual goals.

Those planned actions most often consist of the development of writing systems, standardization activities, and the elaboration of terminology designed to expand the “reach” of a language as Ferguson proposed. They may also go well beyond that and cover a broad range of activities including advocacy on behalf of minority languages and other actions outside of the realm of linguistics proper. This broader definition of language development encompasses not only the acquisition of the means of reading and writing the language, but also the uses of the language in a variety of media and for as many functions as the speech community finds useful.

Ethnologue provides data not only on the factors which are indicators of endangerment but also on numerous indicators of development. Notable among the data that we report are:

• Literacy rates in the language as well as in the dominant languages in the region

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• Comments on the use of the language by others as their second language

• Identification of the writing system(s) in use both currently and historically. Where a language is known to be unwritten, it is so identified

• The existence of language documentation comprised of dictionaries, grammars (whether descriptive or pedgogical), and other resources that might serve to preserve a record of the language and its structures

• The existence of various kinds of literature including poetry, stories, translated materials including health and development literature as well as the Bible, and other print media such as newspapers and magazines

• The use of the language in the broadcast media (radio, television, recorded materials on compact disc, tape, digital video discs, etc.), or in films and videos

• The use of the language in so-called “new media” such as on web pages, in chat rooms, podcasts and MP3 downloads, and for SMS texting on mobile phones or other electronic devices

These indicators of the state of development of a language are presented in different sections of the language entry according to their nature and focus.

The threshold of stable oral use identified by EGIDS 6a serves as a categorical boundary line, though each specific case may be characterized by a complex configuration of indicators of both endangerment and development.

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Layout of language entries for Nepal

Sources and references citedBecause the Ethnologue is produced by extracting data from a database, there is a great deal of uniformity, and some woodeness in the wording and phrases used. Data is reported using a set of predetermined categories and labels. Because of this, it is exceedingly rare for the Ethnologue to quote any source verbatim. Sources are acknowledged wherever specific statements or facts can be directly attributed to them.

There are two kinds of source citations:

• Published works are identified using standard in-text citations enclosed in parentheses. These consist of the author’s or editor’s surname followed by the year of publication. Up to three authors are listed in that way. Published works authored or edited by more than three persons are cited using the first author's surname followed by “et al.” and the year of publication. Citations do not distinguish between multiple works by the same person published in the same year. Neither are persons with the same surname distinguished in the citations. Generally, the corresponding references identified by such ambiguous citations can be identified clearly based on the language entry in which the citation is made and the title of the work in the bibliography.

• Unpublished sources are also acknowledged when specific statements or facts are attributed to them. Unpublished works, which may include personal communications, manuscripts, unpublished reports, and other materials submitted to us, are identified using in-text citations enclosed in parentheses which show the year of the communication, followed by the source’s first initial and surname. Unpublished sources with multiple authors are handled in much the same way as are published source citations, except for the inversion of the order of the citation elements as just described. Unpublished sources are not included in the bibliography. However, the primary reviewers for each language entry are listed in the Acknowledgments section.

Over the history of the Ethnologue the number of published and unpublished sources with which we must deal has grown immensely. Generally, we treat the data provided by government census departments and other non-governmental organizations and agencies as unpublished

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even though there may be electronic or print publications where such data can be accessed. We have made strenuous efforts to track and identify all the sources cited in the text and we are happy to supply details upon request.

We solicit corrections, updates, and additions to the source information and apologize for any errors or omissions. We also gratefully acknowledge the many contributors of information in the Acknowledgments section.

Layout of country descriptionThe entries for Nepal begin with a header paragraph giving summary information about the country. This header is followed by an entry for each language of the country that is not a language of recent immigrants or temporary residents. The country header has the following form:

Official country name. Country population. Languages with recognized functions in the country. Country literacy rates. Immigrant languages. General sources of information about the languages of the country. Deaf population. Language counts.

Official country name. This is the name used by the country in its official documents.

Country population. This figure was taken from the most recent national census data available at the time of writing (a provisional population count released from the 2011 census of Nepal).

Languages with recognized functions. Languages which have been categorized as having a recognized function at the national level are listed and that function is identified.

Country literacy rates. These rates are estimates of the percentage of the population in the country that is literate in any language of the country.

Immigrant languages. Immigrant languages are categorized as such if they are spoken by relatively recently arrived or transient populations which do not have a well-established, multi-generational community of language users in the country. Population estimates, if known, are shown in parentheses immediately following the language name. These languages do not have a separate language entry in this country and are not included in the language counts for the country. Given the transitory

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nature of these populations and the difficulty in obtaining up-to-date information, this listing may be inaccurate or incomplete.

General sources of information. Published sources of general information about the languages of the country are given. This list includes some references that have influenced multiple language entries. It is not intended to be an exhaustive list and more current works may have been omitted.

Deaf population. The country header gives information on the number of audiologically deaf people (which is generally larger than the number of deaf people who use a sign language) and an approximate count of the deaf institutions (schools, clubs, associations).

Language counts. The number of individual languages indigenous to the country is given along with a breakdown of the number of living individual languages and the number that are extinct or have no remaining speakers. Macrolanguages are not included in these counts since they are not distinct from, but overlap, the individual languages that are already counted.

Layout of language entriesA complete language entry has the following form and content:

Primary language name [ISO code] (Alternate names). Country speaker population. Population stability comment. Population in all countries. Monolingual population. Population remarks. Ethnic population. Location. Status: EGIDS level. Language function in country. Class: Linguistic affiliation. Macrolanguage membership. Dialects: Dialect names. Intelligibility and dialect relations. Lexical similarity. Type: Linguistic typology information. Lg Use: Language function. Bilingualism remarks. Domains of use. User age groups. Language attitudes. Vitality remarks. Lg Dev: Literacy rates. Literacy remarks. Use in elementary or secondary schools. Publications and use in media. Writing: Scripts used. Other: General remarks. Religion.Within the language entry, italicized labels are used to organize the entry into topical sections. A label appears in a given entry only if the entry contains one or more of the pieces of information associated with that topic. Eight such labels are used:

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• Status for the EGIDS level and recognized function(s) of the language in the country;

• Class for the language classification, including macrolanguage membership if applicable;

• Dialects for information about the names of dialects of the language, including information on lexical similarity and intelligibility with other varieties if available;

• Type for typological information, including brief descriptions of basic word order, significant phonological, morphological, and syntactic features, and other matters of interest to linguists;

• Lg Use for information about the use and viability of the language and the use of other languages by the community;

• Lg Dev for information about literacy rates, written materials, and use in education;

• Writing for information about writing systems and scripts; and

• Other for all additional information.

Information in all of these categories is not available for every language.

Primary language name. Each entry begins with the anglicized form of the name used to refer to that language in that country. In most cases the name is the one that the speakers prefer if such a preference is known. However, speakers within a language community may have different opinions about which name they prefer. These preferred names are recorded using English spellings, though diacritical marks may be included.

ISO code. The code assigned to the language by the ISO 639-3 standard (ISO 2012) is given in lower-case letters within square brackets. When a given language is spoken in multiple countries, all of the entries for that language use the same three-letter code. The code distinguishes the language from other languages with the same or similar names and identifies those cases in which the name differs across country borders. These codes ensure that each language is counted only once in world or area statistics.

Alternate names. Many languages are known by or have been referred

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to by more than one name. The entries list alternate names to assist the reader in identifying a language. These are enclosed in parentheses and listed in alphabetical order separated from each other by commas. Alternate names come from many diverse sources: speakers may have more than one name for their language, or neighboring groups may use different names. Other names may have been assigned by outsiders and used in ethnographic or linguistic publications before the name used by the speakers themselves was known. Another source of alternate names is variant spellings of what is essentially the same name. In many cases, spellings used in languages of wider communication or regional languages are also included in this list. We list names for the ethnic group and identify place names that have been used in the literature as names for the language following the label Other:) in the language entry.

Some names in use by others are offensive to the speakers of the language. Those are identified, wherever they are listed, by enclosing the name in double quotation marks and appending the label pej. (pejorative) following the name. We include these names as a means of helping users find languages they may have only heard referred to by such names. By so doing, Ethnologue in no way implies any endorsement of the pejorative names.

Country speaker population. The first population figure given is the estimated number of first-language (L1) speakers in the country in focus. Where it is available we provide the source and date of the information in parentheses following the conventions described above for source citations. Populaton data have been provided from many different sources over a number of years. This diversity among sources and dates frequently causes the totals of the populations for all of the languages in any given country to differ markedly from the total current population of the country.

We do not extrapolate population estimates to bring them up-to-date, since populations of language communities do not increase at the same rate within a country and since some initial estimates themselves turn out to have been incorrect to start with. However, some population data submitted to the Ethnologue may be the result of extrapolation.

The Ethnologue provides the number of first-language speakers wherever possible. It is often difficult to get an accurate figure for the speakers of a language. All figures are only estimates--even census figures. Some sources do not include all dialects in their figures or may count as a single language two languages identified separately in the ISO 639-3 inventory.

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Some sources count members of ethnic groups, who, in some cases, may not be speakers of the language. Some sources do not make clear whether they refer to the total number of speakers in all countries, or only to those in one of the countries. Some do not distinguish first-language (L1) speakers from second-language (L2) speakers.

Languages that are no longer in use, but still have ethnic group members who identify with the language, are listed as having “No known speakers” in place of a population figure. Languages that have neither societal use nor remaining ethnic group members are described as “Extinct”. Languages which have no L1 speakers but which are used for specific purposes by a community are identified as “Second Language Only”.

Dates and sources for population data are given where available using the conventions described above for Sources and references cited.

Population stability comment. For some languages, we are able to indicate whether the speaker population is increasing or decreasing. This information also contributes to an overall evaluation of ethnolinguistic vitality. There may be a few cases where the actual speaker population count is not known or is unreported, but the stability and general trend of the population is evident and has been commented on.

Population in all countries. When a language has first-language speakers in more than one country, the entry for the primary country lists the calculated total speaker population for all countries. Since information may come from multiple sources, the sum of the individual country populations may not equal the figure given for all countries in other sources. In some cases, the L1 speaker population of one or more countries may not be available and is not included in this calculation.

Monolingual population. Where the data are available, the number of those who are monolingual is reported. In some cases it is reported as a percentage of the L1 speaker population. This figure can be compared with the total speaker population as an indicator of the vitality of the language.

Population remarks. Additional information concerning populations may include population breakdowns (by dialect, gender, ethnic groups, or specific villages or communities), the population of the deaf community, or other comments on demographics.

Ethnic population. Where it is known, the population of those who identify themselves as part of the ethnic group, whether or not they speak

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the language, is given. A language with no first-language speakers will be reported as extinct when the ethnic population figure is zero, absent, or unknown. When the speaker population is zero but there is an ethnic population figure, the language will be reported as having “No known speakers”.

Location. A description of the location where the language is spoken is included in each entry where a specific area can be defined. Those languages that are scattered through a country or wide region may not have this information in the entry or may be reported as “Widespread”. These languages may not appear on the country maps. A list of all countries where the language is spoken is provided in the primary entry for a language spoken in multiple countries. Generally, regional locations are listed in descending order from largest geopolitical unit to smallest. The list of locations may not be exhaustive.

Status:

EGIDS level. The estimate of the status of the language in the country on the Expanded Graded Intergeneratonal Disruption Scale (EGIDS) is reported. For a more complete description of the EGIDS and a brief definition of each level on the scale, see the extended descriptions in the Language endangerment and development in Nepal section.

Language function in country. Languages which have been officially recognized or which serve particular functions at the national or provincial levels are identified using the categories described in Status.

Linguistic affiliation. All languages are slowly changing, and linguistically related varieties may be diverging or merging. Most languages are related to other languages--to some more closely and to others more distantly. Linguists have used terms such as phylum, stock, family, branch, group, language, and dialect to refer to these relationships in increasing order of linguistic similarity. The classification information for each language follows this general order from largest grouping to smallest. More inclusive group names are given first, followed by the names for less inclusive subgroups, separated by commas.

Language classification information comes from a variety of sources. The Ethnologue attempts to report the generally accepted consensus of scholars working in the language family based on published works and scholarly review. For this edition, the classifications for Tibeto-Burman languages have undergone thorough review and revision. The sources on

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which the classifications are based are not overtly cited in the language entry but are available on request by contacting the editor (Ethnologue_Editor@sil.org).The full set of classification trees is available as a dynamic presentation on the Ethnologue website at www.ethnologue.com.

Macrolanguage membership. If an individual language is listed as a member of a macrolanguage, that is reported following the language classification information. The listing gives the name of the macrolanguage and the ISO code for the macrolanguage.

Dialect names. Speech varieties which are functionally intelligible to each other’s speakers because of linguistic similarity are considered dialects of the same language and the names of all such dialects are listed under that language. In addition, alternate names for individual dialects may be listed in parentheses following the primary name for the dialect. When one of these names is known to be offensive to its speakers, it is placed in double quotes (and tagged as pejorative with the abbreviation pej. as is also done for alternate language names).

This listing of dialect names does not represent the results of rigorous dialectological investigations. As with the alternate names, we list the names of dialects which may have been mentioned in published or other sources. Some of these names are village or regional names and may not actually represent significant linguistic variants.

Intelligibility and dialect relations. The ability of the users of one variety to understand another variety, based only on the similarity of those two varieties, is called inherent intelligibility. A measure of inherent intelligibility with other varieties is given by percent. Values of less than 85% are likely to signal difficulty in comprehension of the indicated language. Intelligibility may not be reciprocal or mutual, thus the wording of the intelligibility description may indicate the direction of the intelligibility (e.g., 85% intelligibility of another variety, or 85% intelligibility by speakers of another variety). If the direction of intelligibility is not indicated (e.g., 85% intelligibility with another variety) or is identified as being mutual, it should be understood as being reciprocal with speakers of each of the varieties mentioned understanding each other equally well.

The ability of speakers to understand another variety because of previous exposure to it or learning is called acquired intelligibility and may be commented on in some language entries.

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Lexical similarity. The percentage of lexical similarity between two linguistic varieties is determined by comparing a set of standardized wordlists and counting those forms that show similarity in both form and meaning. Percentages higher than 85% usually indicate a speech variant that is likely a dialect of the language with which it is being compared. Unlike intelligibility, lexical similarity is bidirectional or reciprocal.

Type:

Linguistic typology. For some languages, brief lists of linguistic phenomena found in the language are given. Constituent order (Subject, Object, Verb = SOV) is the most commonly reported feature. Other basic features that are of particular interest to linguists are also reported when the data is available. In growing number of cases these listings are more extensive and cover a range of linguistic features, including information about the existence of prepositions versus postpositions, constituent order in noun phrases, gender, case, transitivity and ergativity, canonical syllable patterns, the number of consonants and vowels, and/or the existence of tone, and in some cases whether users of the language also use “whistle speech”. These descriptions are no more than brief mentions, however, and do not constitute adequate descriptions of the language. A list of the typological features that we wish to collect data on is available upon request.

Lg Use:

Bilingualism remarks. Because second languages are usually learned later than first languages and access to the means of acquiring proficiency in a second language is not always equally available, bilingualism is usually not uniform across a community. When speakers can use a second language, different speakers usually have varying degrees of bilingual proficiency in it, ranging from the ability to use only greetings, to engage in trade to proficiency adequate for freely expressing anything in the second language. Language communities are sometimes reported to be bilingual if a few of the speakers can use a second language to some degree, or if there are no monolinguals; whereas other sources would not classify groups as bilingual unless a large majority of their members could use the second language very well. Leaders, the educated, men, traders, those who travel, those in population centers, and people in certain age groups may be more bilingual than others. Where information is available, these factors about bilingualism are described.

Domains of use. When more than one language is used in a community,

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speakers often establish patterns of language use for specific configurations of speakers, topics, and locations. These domains of language use can be described by answering the well-known question, “Who is speaking to whom, about what, and where?” The Ethnologue does not have sufficient data about each language to permit a full description of the domains of use in this technical sense, but uses the term to refer most often to a general set of categories most often associated with a particular location (e.g., home, school, community) and thus only indirectly related to the topics and speakers most generally associated with those settings. Knowledge of these patterns of language use can help in evaluating ethnolinguistic vitality and in developing strategies for language revitalization or language development.

User age groups. As language use shifts from a traditional language to one of wider communication, differences in use appear between age groups. As language change takes place, older adults tend to be the final speakers of the traditional language. The use of a language by children is thus a significant indicator of the patterns of intergenerational language transmission which is key to language maintenance. Data reported in this category is most often reported in terms of generations (children, adolescents, young adults, adults, older adults) but occasionally specific age ranges may be identified.

Language attitudes. What people think and how they feel about their own language is important to those promoting literacy or other development activities as more positive attitudes generally correspond to stronger ethnolinguistic vitality. Attitudes are difficult to assess directly and equally difficult to describe adequately. We report only summary attitude evaluations as Positive Attitudes, Neutral Attitudes, or Negative Attitudes.

Viability remarks. A number of viability indicators are given. As a general summary, where the language is being passed on to children as their first language, or where it is used frequently and widely within the community, the term “Vigorous” is most often used. General estimates of viability may be given. These indicators and general comments are taken into account in assigning the EGIDS status.

Lg Dev:

Literacy rates. Where available, percentages of the speaker population who are literate are given for the first and second (L2) languages.

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Literacy remarks. Information concerning motivation for literacy and existence of government (and other) literacy programs are given where available. Additional information concerning literacy that does not appear in related categories may also be given.

Use in elementary or secondary schools. The language may be used either as a language of instruction or taught as a subject within one or more schools in the language area.

Publications and use in media. The existence of materials that have been produced in the language such as linguistic documentaton (dictionaries, grammars), printed materials, broadcast media, and new media (SMS, email, websites, etc.) are indicated when known. We report the existence of such materials but do not list titles individually. For many languages this information is very incomplete at this time.

The most widely published book in the world is the Bible with at least portions having been translated and published in many of the living languages listed in the Ethnologue. This figure is based on the thorough archival efforts of the United Bible Societies and the American Bible Society. Information about Bible publication for each language is given with the dates of the earliest and most recent published Bible, New Testament (NT), Old Testament (OT), or complete books (portions).

Writing:

Writing scripts used. Full statistics on the number of languages that have written form are not available. However, for each language, the script used for written materials is given if known. Where multiple scripts are in use they are reported in alphabetical order. Where possible we also report any specific style of a script that is used, the years when a script began to be used or ceased to be used, and other comments regarding writing and orthography. Languages which are known to be unwritten are so identified. Since many languages use the Latin script, that fact is not always reported if its use is obvious.

Other:

General remarks. These are general statements about the language or its context that do not fall into other specific categories. Alternate identifications of the language community or ethnic group may be identified here. These may include government recognized or official nationalities, ethnic names (usually identified by the label “Ethnonym:”, or the identification of the meanings or derivations of certain names.

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Other historical or ethnograhic information may be included here as well.

Religion. The religious affiliations of the speakers of the language are given where known. These are generally listed in descending order of number of adherents.

Nearly extinct. The phrase “Nearly extinct” is used to indicate those languages of fewer than 50 speakers and other languages for which the number of speakers is a very small fraction of the ethnic group and where revitalization efforts, where they exist, have not yet demonstrated any inhibiting effect on the process of language loss.

Layout of macrolanguage entriesEntries for macrolanguages follow the same general format as individual language entries but with much less detail. Further detail is found by consulting the entries for the listed member languages. The layout of a macrolanguage entry is as follows:

Macrolanguage name [ISO code]. A macrolanguage; see Introduction. Includes: Individual language name [ISO code], Individual language name [ISO code], etc. Population total all countries.

Each cross-referenced individual language entry includes a reference back to the macrolanguage entry as part of the language classification information.

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Abbreviationsalt. alternate name foralt. dial. alternate dialect name forClass Language classificationCPDP Chhintang-Puma Documentation Programme dial. primary dialect name forGR Global RecordingsINF International Nepal Fellowship IPA International Phonetic AlphabetISO International Organization for Standardizationkm kilometer(s)L1 / L2 first language / second (or other additional) languageLEDBL Linguistic and Ethnographic Documentation of the

Baram Language Lg Dev Language developmentLg Use Language useLWC language of wider communicationm meter(s)NFDH Nepali Federation of the Deaf and Hard of Hearing NFDIN National Foundation for the Development of Indigenous

NationalitiesNT New Testamentpej. pejorativepl. pluralsg. singularSIL SIL InternationalSOV Subject-Object-Verb (also SVO, Subject-Verb-Object)UN United NationsUNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural

OrganizationUNHCR United Nations High Commission on RefugeesVDC Village Development Committee

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Nepal language entriesState of Nepal. 26,621,000 (2011 census). National language: Nepali. Nepali is used for official purposes. All languages spoken as the mother tongue in Nepal are considered national languages. Literacy rate: 59% (UNESCO). Immigrant languages: Dzongkha (300), English. Information mainly from Bista 1967, 1973, 1996; Burling 2003; Ebert 1994; Hale 1982; Hansson 1991; Hugoniot 1970; Linguistic Survey of Nepal 2011; Matisoff, Baron, and Lowe 1996; Toba 1976, 1983, 1991; Tribhuvan University, Central Department of Linguistics 2011–2012. Deaf population: 192,000. Deaf institutions: 3. The number of individual languages listed for Nepal is 124. Of those, 120 are living languages and 4 have no known speakers.

Angika [anp] (Anga, Angikar, Chhika-Chhiki). 15,900 in Nepal (2001 census), decreasing. Population total all countries: 740,900. Kosi Zone, Morang and Sunsari districts. Also in India. Status: 6b (Threatened). Class: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Eastern zone, Unclassified. Dialects: None known. 79% inherent intelligibility with Brahmin Maithili. Lexical similarity: 81% (Brahmin) to 87% (non-Brahmin) with Darbhanga Maithili. Type: SOV; postpositions; noun head final; content q-word in situ; clause constituents indicated by case-marking; passives and voice; nontonal. Lg Use: All are bilingual in Nepali [npi], Maithili [mai] or Hindi [hin]. Writing: Devanagari script. Other: Hindu, Muslim.

Athpariya [aph] (Arthare, Athapre, Athpare, Athpre, Sanango Ring). 2,000 (Ebert 1994), decreasing. Kosi Zone, Dhankuta District, north of the Tamur, between the Dhankuta khola west, and the Tangkhuwa east; Dhankuta Municipality and Bhirgau VDC. Status: 6b (Threatened). Language of recognized nationality (2002, Education Plan, Section 1.1.3), Rai nationality. Class: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Western Tibeto-Burman, Himalayan, Kiranti, Eastern. Dialects: None known. Athpare and Belhariya [byw] are very similar, but not mutually intelligible (Bickel 1996). Type: SOV; postpositions; genitives, adjectives, numerals before noun heads; polar questions marked with a suffix attached to the verb sentence final; noun head final; no noun classes or genders; content q-word in situ; content questions can have the same word order as assertive sentences, or the question word occurs directly before the verb; up to 2 prefixes, up to 9 suffixes; clause constituents indicated by case-

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marking; affixes indicate case of noun phrase; verbal affixation marks person, number, object—obligatory; split ergative; comparatives with Nepali ‘Bhanda’; both tense and aspect; no passives or voice; CV, CVC, CVCC; 24 consonant and 5 vowel phonemes; non-tonal. Lg Use: Shifting to Nepali [npi]. Home, religion; mixed use: Friends. All ages. Positive attitudes. All are bilingual in Nepali [npi]. Lg Dev: Literacy rate in L2: 2%. Taught in 5 MLE schools since 2008. Taught in primary schools. Poetry. Magazines. Newspapers. Radio programs. Videos. Dictionary. Grammar. Writing: Devanagari script. Other: Communities prefer to be called Kirati rather than Kirant. Traditional religion (Kirat), Christian.

Avadhi [awa] (Abadhi, Abadi, Abohi, Ambodhi, Awadhi, Dehati, Deshi, Gawnaru, Koseli). 561,000 in Nepal (2001 census), increasing. The 2001 census does not distinguish between the Avadhi and Bhojpuri languages in the Rupandehi and Nawalparasi districts. Speakers of Dehati (alternate name for Avadhi in the Kailali and Kanchanpur districts) were not included in the 2001 census. Population total all countries: 3,091,000. Lumbini Zone, Nawalparasi, Rupandehi and Kapilvastu districts; Bheri Zone, Banke and Bardia districts; Rapti Zone, Dang District; Seti Zone, Kailali District; Mahakali Zone, Kanchanpur District. Also in India (Awadhi). Status: 4 (Educational). Class: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, East Central zone. Dialects: Baiswari, Chhatisgadhi. The Awadhi dialects are generally mutually intelligible. Lexical similarity: with Bhojpuri [bho], Rana Tharu [thr], Maithili [mai], Nepali [npi], Hindi [hin]. Also Sanskrit [san] borrowings. Type: SOV; postpositions; noun head final; 2 genders; clause constituents indicated by case-marking; verbal affixation marks person, number and genders of subject and object; no ergativity; tense and aspect; passives and voice; 30 consonant and 8 vowel phonemes; non-tonal. Lg Use: Strongly vital, vigorous. Home, friends; mixed use: Religion, work, education. All ages. Positive attitudes. Some also use Nepali [npi] and Hindi [hin]. Lg Dev: Taught in primary and secondary schools. Writing: Devanagari script. Other: Hindu, Muslim, Buddhist, Christian, Sikh.

Bagheli [bfy] (Bagelkhandi, Bhugelkhud, Gangai, Kawathi, Kenat, Kevat Boli, Kevati, Kewani, Kewat, Kewati, Kewot, Mandal, Mannadi, Riwai). Population total all countries: 2,860,000. Ethnic population: 137,000 Kewat (2001 census). Koshi Zone, Morang District. Also in India. Status: 6a (Vigorous). Language of recognized nationality (2002, NFDIN Act,

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No. 20). Class: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, East Central zone. Dialects: Godwani (refers to Bagheli-speaking Gonds), Kumhari (refers to Bagheli-speaking Kumhar). Though geographic and caste variation is found in Bagheli, no dialect is prevalent. Rewa area variety is considered standard. Lexical similarity: 79%–99% between all Bagheli varieties; 72%–91% with Hindi [hin]. Writing: Devanagari script. Other: Further research is needed to identify whether Bagheli in Nepal is linked with Gangai (and Rajbanshi [rjs] or with Avadhi [awa]) as is Bagheli in India. Hindu.

Bahing [bhj] (Baying, Bayung, Kiranti-Bayung). 12,600 (Lee et al 2005). Sagarmatha Zone, northeastern Okhaldhunga District, Harkapur, Ragdip, Bigutar, Baruneswor, Okhaldhunga, Rumjatar, Barnalu, Mamkha, Ratmate, Serna, Diyale, Bhadaure VDCs (Rumdali dialect); mid southeastern Okhaldhunga District, Ketuke, Moli, Waksa, Ubu VDCs (Tolocha dialect); southern tip of Solukhumbu District, Necha Batase, Sallyan VDCs; Khotang District; Kathmandu. Status: 6a (Vigorous). Class: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Western Tibeto-Burman, Himalayan, Kiranti, Western. Dialects: Hangu, Moblocha, Nechali, Rumdali, Tolacha. 85% or above intelligibility among all dialects. Rumdali is best understood among all Bahing dialects (Lee et al 2005); Bahing is more homogeneous than most Kiranti languages. Related to Sunwar [suz]. Lexical similarity: 83%–95% with dialects, 48% with Sunwar [suz] (Lee et al 2005). Type: SOV. Lg Use: Reportedly still used often by younger generation. Shift to Nepali [npi] relatively low (Winter 1991); High vitality (Lee et al 2005). Home, friends, religion, work. All ages. Positive attitudes. 40% have inadequate Nepali [npi] proficiency to understand or discuss complicated or abstract concepts. (Lee et al 2005). Lg Dev: A Bahing orthography has been developed and introduced through community-based orthography development efforts, and the publication of two books (Dec 2009). The Bahing orthography is still in the process of being promoted and accepted for widespread use by the whole Bahing community. Poetry. Magazines. Radio programs. Dictionary. Writing: Devanagari script. Latin script. Other: Traditional religion (Kirat), Hindu, Christian.

Bantawa [bap] (Bantaba, Bantawa Dum, Bantawa Rai, Bantawa Yong, Bantawa Yüng, Bontawa). 371,000 in Nepal (2001 census). Less than 5% monolinguals. Population total all countries: 404,600. Koshi Zone,

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Morang, Dhankuta, Bhojpur, Sunsari districts; Sagarmatha Zone, Khotang, Okhaldunga, Udayapur districts; Mechi Zone, Ilam, Jhapa, Panchthar, Taplejung districts. Amchoke dialect also in Limbu area, especially Ilam District. Homeland is Eastern hills but many migrated to the Tarai. Also in Bhutan, India. Status: 6b (Threatened). Language of recognized nationality (2002, NFDIN Act, No. 20, Section 2C), Rai nationality. Class: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Western Tibeto-Burman, Himalayan, Kiranti, Eastern. Dialects: Amchoke (Western Bantawa), Dhankuta (Eastern Bantawa), Dilpali (Northern Bantawa), Hatuwali (Southern Bantawa). Dialects are reportedly mutually inherently intelligible. Rungchenbung and Yangma are subvarieties of Dilpali. Eastern dialect is most divergent. Lexical similarity: Bantawa dialects and closely related languages form a continuum. Differences are primarily in meaning shifts and usage. Type: SOV; postpositions; noun heads initial; no noun classes or genders; content q-word in situ; genitives, adjectives, numerals before noun heads; polar questions marked only with rising intonation; content questions same word order as assertive sentences or question word directly before the verb; up to 2 prefixes, 10 suffixes; clause constituents indicated by word order; affixes indicate case of noun phrases; verbal affixation mark person, number, object—obligatory; tense and aspect; no passives or voice; split ergative; comparatives use Nepali word, ‘bhanda’; 25 consonant and 6 vowel phonemes; numbers above 3 are borrowed from Nepali [npi]; CV, CVC, CVCC; non-tonal. Lg Use: Some shift to Nepali [npi] evident, especially among Northern dialect speakers (2003 SIL). Some varieties are used as traditional lingua franca among Rai minorities in eastern Nepal, Sikkim, India, and Bhutan, and as L1 among Rai of other origin. (Bradley 1996). Home, religion; mixed use: Friends, work. All ages. Positive attitudes. Most also use some Nepali [npi]. Wide range of proficiency. In some regions, young people prefer Nepali. Hindi [hin] common among ex-soldiers. Lg Dev: Nepali literacy rapidly increasing. Taught in some primary schools. Poetry. Magazines. Newspapers. New Media. Radio programs. Films. Videos. Dictionary. Grammar. Writing: Devanagari script. Other: Traditional religion (Kirat), Christian.

Baram [brd] (Baraamu, Baramu). 50 (2010 LEDBL), decreasing. Ethnic population: 7,380 (2001 census). Gandaki Zone, Central and southern Gorkha District, Dandagaun, Mailung VDCs, Takhu village up the Doraundi Khola, east side above Chorgate, near Kumhali, about

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7 villages. May be in Dhading District. Status: 8b (Nearly extinct). Language of recognized nationality (2002, NFDIN Act, No. 20, Section 2C). Class: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Western Tibeto-Burman, Himalayan, Central Himalayan, Thangmi-Baraamu. Dialects: Dandagaun, Mailung. Related to Thangmi [thf] (Grierson-Konow). Type: SOV; postpositions; noun head final; 2 noun classes (animate and inanimate); genitives, adjectives, numerals before noun heads; content q-word in situ; maximum number of prefixes 3, 1 suffix; clause constituents indicated by case-marking; affixes indicate case of noun phrase; verb affixation does not mark person or number—obligatory; ergative; both tense and aspect; no passives or voice; causatives, comparatives; simple syllable patterns: V, CV, VC, CVC; nontonal; 21 consonant and 6 vowel phonemes. Lg Use: Shifting to Nepali [npi]. Home, religion; mixed use: Friends, work. Older adults and elderly. Positive attitudes. All also use Nepali [npi]. Lg Dev: Literacy rate in L1: Low. Literacy rate in L2: 49% in Nepali [npi]. Newspapers. Radio programs. Dictionary. Grammar. Writing: Devanagari script, recently developed. Other: Traditional religion, Hindu, Christian.

Belhariya [byw] (Athpagari, Athpahariya, Athpare, Athpariya, Belhare). 3,500 (2002 UNESCO), decreasing. Koshi Zone, Dhankuta District, Belhara village and hill west of Dhankuta Bajar. Status: 6b (Threatened). Language of recognized nationality (2002, NFDIN Act, No. 20, Section 2C), Rai nationality. Class: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Western Tibeto-Burman, Himalayan, Kiranti, Eastern. Dialects: None known. Different from Athpariya [aph], although also called and closely related to it (Winter 1991). Not intelligible with Athpariya although Athpariya speakers claim full intelligibility (Bickel 1996:21). Type: SOV; postpositions; noun head final; no genders; content q-word in situ; up to 3 prefixes, up to 10 suffixes, and several clitics; clause constituents indicated by case-marking; verbal affixation marks person and number; ergativity; passives and voice; non-tonal; 22 consonant and 8 vowel phonemes. Lg Use: Many parents only use Nepali [npi] with their children, citing advantages for economic and social success. Religion; mixed use: Home, friends, work. Adults and elderly. Some use among children and adolescents. Negative attitudes. All also use Nepali [npi] (Bickel 1996). Lg Dev: About 5 speakers are literate in their mother tongue. Dictionary. Grammar. Writing: Devanagari script, recently developed. Other: Athpare refers to the ethnic group made up of Belhare and Athpariya which have close cultural ties, but who recognize

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their linguistic differences. They clarify by calling the Dhankuta people Noupagari and the Belhare people Athpagari (Bickel 1996). Traditional religion (Kirat), Hindu.

Bengali [ben] (Bangala, Bangla, Bangla-Bhasa). 23,600 in Nepal (2001 census), increasing. Population total all countries: 193,172,900. Mechi Zone, Jhapa District; Koshi Zone, Morang and Sunsari districts; Sagarmatha Zone, Saptari District. Some in Kathmandu, Bhaktapur, Patan, Birgunj, Bhairawa, Nepalguni, Janakpur. Also in Bangladesh, Canada, India, Malawi, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, United Arab Emirates, United Kingdom, United States. Status: 4 (Educational). Class: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Eastern zone, Bengali-Assamese. Dialects: Barik, Bhatiari, Chirmar, Kachari-Bengali, Lohari-Malpaharia, Musselmani, Rajshahi, Samaria, Saraki, Siripuria. Similar to Assamese [asm]. Lexical similarity: 40% with Nepali [nep]. Type: SOV; postpositions; noun head both initial and final; 3 genders: male, female, neuter; content q-word initial and final; clause constituents indicated by case-marking and word order; tense; passives and voice; tonal; 35 consonant and 5 vowel phonemes. Lg Use: Vigorous use if both parents are of Bengali origin. Home, friends; mixed use: Religion, work. All ages. Positive attitudes. Writing: Bengali script, primary usage. Braille script. Newar (Prachalit Nepal) script, no longer in use. Other: Classified as a cultural group (2001 census). Hindu, Muslim, Christian.

Bhojpuri [bho] (Bajpuri, Bhojapuri, Bhozpuri). 1,710,000 in Nepal (2001 census), increasing. Population total all countries: 39,846,000. Narayani Zone, Rautahat, Bara, Parsa, Chitwan districts; Lumbini Zone, Nawalparasi, Rupandehi districts; Janakpur Zone, Sarlahi District. Also in India, Mauritius. Status: 4 (Educational). Class: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Eastern zone, Bihari. Dialects: Banarsi Boli, Bangar Boli, Bhojpuri Tharu, Kashika, Mallika, Purbi Boli, Sheikh Boli. May be more than 1 language. Extent of dialect variation in India and Nepal not yet determined. The cover term ‘Bihari’ (a pejorative alternate name for Bhojpuri) is also used for Maithili [mai], and Magahi [mag]. Bhojpuri Tharu dialect is spoken by Tharu caste in Nepal and India. Distinct from other Tharu languages. Type: SOV; postpositions; final noun head; 2 noun classes or genders; content q-word in situ; 1 prefix, up to 5 suffixes; clause constituents indicated by both case-marking and word order; verbal affixation marks person, number and genders of subject and object;

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no ergativity; both tense and aspect; non-tonal; 34 consonant and 6 vowel phonemes, about 4 diphthongs. Lg Use: 74,148 L2 speakers (1991 census). Home, friends, work; mixed use: Religion, education. All ages. Positive attitudes. Also use Hindi [hin], Maithili [mai], Nepali [npi], or Avadhi [awa]. Lg Dev: Literacy rate in L2: 50%–75%. Literate in Nepali [npi], Hindi [hin]. Taught as a subject in secondary schools. Writing: Devanagari script. Kaithi script. Other: Hindu, Muslim, Christian.

Bhujel [byh] (Bujal, Bujhel, Bujheli, Bujhyal, “Gharti” pej., Pukhgyal Ngur, Western Chepang). 3,900 (Regmi 2007), decreasing. No monolinguals. Ethnic population: 7,200 (2007 D. Regmi). Gandaki Zone, Tanahun District, Kulmun, Arthumpka, Andimul, Baniyatar; Gorkha District, Beltar; Lumbini Zone, Nawalparasi District, Dhodeni; Narayani Zone, Chitwan District, Chanaute. Separated from the Chepang by the Trisuli (Narayani) River. Status: 7 (Shifting). Language of recognized nationality (2002, NFDIN Act, No. 20, Section 2C). Class: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Western Tibeto-Burman, Himalayan, Central Himalayan, Chepang-Bhujel. Dialects: Andimul, Arthumpka, Baniyatar, Beltar, Chanaute, Dhodeni, Kulmun. More than 80% intelligibility among all the dialects. Pronominal affix differences hinder intelligibility with Chepang [cdm]. Lexical similarity: Between 34% (2011 D. Regmi) and 98% (Caughley 2004) with Chepang [cdm]. Type: SOV; postpositions; genitives, adjectives, numerals, before noun heads; relatives before or without noun heads; noun head final; content q-word in situ; question word final; no noun classes or genders; 1 prefix, up to 5 suffixes; clause constituents indicated by case-marking; consistently ergative; anti-dative marking; affixes indicate case of noun phrase; verb affixation marks person, number and direct relations; no passives or voice; causatives; comparatives; CV to CCCVCCC with certain restrictions; non-tonal; 31 consonant and 16 vowel (including 6 diphthongs) phonemes. Lg Use: Shifting to Nepali [npi] (2007). Home; mixed use: Work, education. Older adults and elderly. Positive attitudes. Youth use some Nepali [npi]. Lg Dev: Literacy rate in L2: 15% in Nepali [npi]. Grammar. Writing: Devanagari script, recently developed. Other: Similar culturally to Magar and Gurung living near the Bhujel. Gharti is a sub-caste name associated with former slavery. Bhujels reject the name, but outsiders often use it. Hindu, Buddhist, Christian.

Bote [bmj] (Bote-Majhi, Pakhe-Bote, Pani-Bote). 2,820 (2001 census),

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decreasing. No monolinguals (UNESCO survey 2002). Ethnic population: 79,700. Along the rivers in Tanahun, Nawalparasi and Chitwan districts, especially the Gandaki River. Status: 6b (Threatened). Language of recognized nationality (2002, NFDIN Act, No. 20, Section 2C). Class: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Eastern zone, Unclassified. Type: SOV; postpositions; final noun head; no noun classes or genders; content q-word in situ; 1 prefix, up to 2 suffixes; clause constituents indicated by case-marking; verbal affixation marks person and number; ergativity; both tense and aspect; passives and voice; non-tonal; 29 consonant and 6 vowel phonemes. Lg Use: Use is mostly local. Rapid shift to Nepali [npi] (Van Driem 2007). Mixed use: Home, friends, religion, work. Elderly. Some use among children, adolescents, younger and older adults. Positive attitudes. Growing language activism. Also use Nepali [npi] or Bhojpuri Tharu [bho]. Lg Dev: Literacy rate in L1: None. Generally, literacy programs are conducted in Nepali [npi]. Newspapers. Writing: Devanagari script, recently developed. Other: 2 groups of Bote: Pani (water) Bote and Pakhe (land) Bote. Hindu.

Byangsi [bee] (Byangkho Lwo, Byanshi, Byansi, Byasi, Sauka, Shauka). 1,730 in Nepal (2001 census), decreasing. Almost no monolinguals (UNESCO survey 2002). Population total all countries: 4,560. Ethnic population: 2,100. Mahakali Zone, Darchula District, Byas Valley. 9 villages. Also in India. Status: 6a (Vigorous). Language of recognized nationality (2002, NFDIN Act, No. 20, Section 2C). Class: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Western Tibeto-Burman, Bodish, West Himalayish, Almora. Dialects: Byansi, Pang Sungkhu Boli, Rang, Sauka, Yerjungkhu Boli. Dialects of Byangs, Chaudangs and Darma valleys are unintelligible to each other (Sharma 1994). Those in Kuti (India) and Tinkar (Nepal) are closely related and quite different from those in other Byangsi villages. Tinkar variety differs from Byangsi, Chaudangsi [cdn], and Darmiya [drd] in forms of agreement affixes and basic vocabulary. Minor dialect differences correspond to geographical divisions (Sharma 2001). Lg Use: 161 L2 speakers in Nepal (1991 census, under Byanshi). Home, friends. Also use Nepali [npi], Hindi [hin], or Kumaoni [kfy]. Lg Dev: Literacy rate in L2: 26% in Nepali [npi]. Dictionary. Grammar. Writing: Devanagari script, recently developed.

Chamling [rab] (Camling, Chamlinge Rai, Rodong). 12,100 in Nepal (2006), decreasing. Very few monolinguals. East, Sagarmatha Zone,

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mainly central Khotang District and northern Udayapur districts. Also in India. Status: 6b (Threatened). Language of recognized nationality (2002, NFDIN Act, No. 20, Section 2C), Rai nationality. Class: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Western Tibeto-Burman, Himalayan, Kiranti, Eastern. Dialects: Balamtali, Halesi, Ratanchhali. Ratanchhali and Halesi dialects are similar to each other but Balamtali is very different. Most similar to Bantawa [bap] and Puma [pum] linguistically. Many speak a variety mixed with Nepali [npi]. Type: SOV; postpositions; noun head final; no noun classes or genders; content q-word in situ; up to 2 prefixes, up to 7 suffixes; clause constituents indicated by case-marking; verbal affixation marks person and number; split and inverse ergativity; mixed tense-aspect; no passives or voice; non-tonal; 28 consonant and 5 vowel phonemes. Lg Use: Home, religion; mixed use: friends, work. All ages. Lg Dev: Poetry. Magazines. Radio programs. Films. Videos. Dictionary. Grammar. Writing: Devanagari script, recently developed. Other: Many ethnic subgroups, but linguistically homogeneous. Traditional religion (Kirat), Hindu, Christian.

Chantyal [chx] (Chantel, Chantel Kham, Chentel, Chhantel, Khamkura). 2,000 (Noonan 1997), decreasing. No monolinguals. Ethnic population: 9,820 (2001 census). Dhaulagiri Zone, Myagdi District, Kali Gandaki River Valley. Ethnic Chantel also in Baglung District. Status: 6b (Threatened). Language of recognized nationality (2002, NFDIN Act, No. 20, Section 2C). Class: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Western Tibeto-Burman, Bodish, West Bodish, Gurung-Tamang, Gurungic. Dialects: None known. Related to Gurung [ggn], Manangba [nmm], Tamang [tdg], Thakali [ths] (Noonan 1996). Lg Use: Home, villages (Noonan 1996). Not used for singing. All also use Nepali [npi]. Lg Dev: Dictionary. Grammar. Writing: Devanagari script, recently developed. Other: Some believe Chantyal will be replaced soon (Noonan 1995). Outsiders often regard it as Magar, but they claim a Thakuri origin (de Sales 1993). Much lexical borrowing from Nepali. Sometimes called Khamkura as are Kham languages, which can have a general meaning of ‘local non-Nepali dialect’. (Watters 2002). Traditional religion, Buddhist.

Chepang [cdm] (Praja Bhasa, Tsepang). 36,800 (2001 census), decreasing. No monolinguals. Ethnic population: 52,200. Narayani Zone, Makwanpur, Chitwan districts; Bagmati Zone, southern Dhading District; Gandaki Zone, southern Gorkha District. Status: 6b (Threatened).

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Language of recognized nationality (2002, NFDIN Act, No. 20, Section 2C). Class: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Western Tibeto-Burman, Himalayan, Central Himalayan, Chepang-Bhujel. Dialects: Eastern Chepang, Western Chepang. Bhujel [byj] is closely related to Western Chepang, but has difficult intelligibility with Chepang due to different pronominal suffix morphology. Dialects of Chepang differ in verb forms. Similar in morphology to Kirati languages. Lexical similarity: 98% with Bhujel [byh] (2004 Caughley, based on 100-item word list). Type: SOV; postpositions; noun head final; no noun classes or genders; relatives before or without noun heads; content q-word in situ; no prefixes, up to 8 suffixes; clause constituents indicated by case-marking; affixes indicate case of noun phrase; verbal affixation marks person and number; ergative; tense and aspect; voice; causatives; comparatives; CV to CCCVCCC with certain restrictions; 18 consonant and 6 vowel phonemes; non-tonal (not phonemic, but phonetic pitch). Lg Use: Home; mixed use: Friends, religion, work. Young adults and older. Some use among children and adolescents. Positive attitudes. Speakers over 5 know some Nepali [npi]. It is often learned in school. Men can talk about most common topics and political affairs. Women know greetings and vocabulary for trade. Young people may sometimes speak Nepali to each other. Lg Dev: Literacy rate in L1: 1%–5%. Literacy rate in L2: 40% men, 15% women in Nepali [npi]; 14% ethnic group (1991 census). Difficulties in reading Chepang: long words, consonant clusters. Written Chepang has lower prestige than Nepali. Motivation high for Nepali. Newspapers. Radio programs. Films. Videos. Dictionary. Grammar. NT: 1993. Writing: Devanagari script. Other: Whistle speech recorded. Traditional religion, Christian.

Chhintang [ctn] (Chhintange, Chintang, Chintang Rûng, Teli). 3,500 (2008 CPDP), decreasing. No monolinguals. Ethnic population: 5,000. Eastern Region, Koshi Zone, Dhankuta District, Chhintang, Aahale VDCs. Status: 6b (Threatened). Language of recognized nationality (2002, NFDIN Act, No. 20, Section 2C), Rai nationality. Class: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Western Tibeto-Burman, Himalayan, Kiranti, Eastern. Dialects: Mulgaun, Sambhugaon. Probably not intelligible with Bantawa [bap], but sometimes considered a dialect of it due to ethnic similarities. Only a few lexical items and grammatical markers are different between the two dialects. Type: SOV; postpositions; noun head final; no noun classes or genders; content q-word in situ; up to 4 prefixes (in free order), up to 7 suffixes; clause constituents indicated by

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case-marking; verbal affixation marks person and number; ergativity; both tense and aspect; no passives or voice; non-tonal; 29 consonant and 6 vowel phonemes. Lg Use: Home, religion, work; mixed use: Friends. Young adults and older. Some use among children and adolescents. Neutral attitudes. Almost all are bilingual in Bantawa [bap]. Lg Dev: Videos. Dictionary. Grammar. Writing: Devanagari script, recently developed. Other: Traditional religion (Kirat), Hindu, Christian.

Chhulung [cur] (Chhilling, Chholung, Chhûlûng Rûng, Chiling, Chulung, Chülüng). 1,310 (2001 census), decreasing. L1 speakers dwindling (Van Driem 2007). Koshi Zone, Dhankuta District, Ankhisalla VDC. Status: 7 (Shifting). Language of recognized nationality (2002, NFDIN Act, No. 20, Section 2C), Rai nationality. Class: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Western Tibeto-Burman, Himalayan, Kiranti, Eastern. Type: SOV; postpositions; verbal affixation marks person and number; tense; non-tonal. Lg Use: Home; mixed use: Friends, religion, work. Older adults and elderly. Some use among children, adolsecents, and young adults. Also use Nepali [npi] or Bantawa [bap]. Writing: Unwritten. Other: Traditional religion (Kirat).

Chukwa [cuw] (Cukwa Ring, Pohing, Pohing Kha). 100 (2011 SIL), decreasing. Only 5 fluent speakers (2011). Koshi Zone, Bhojpur District, Kulung VDC, Jimigau. Status: 8a (Moribund). Language of recognized nationality (2002, NFDIN Act, No. 20, Section 2C), Rai nationality. Class: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Western Tibeto-Burman, Himalayan, Kiranti, Eastern. Dialects: None known. A noticeable number of shared nouns with Lohorung [lbr] (2011 J. Eppele). Type: SOV; postpositions; verbal affixation marks person and number; tense; non-tonal. Lg Use: Shifting to Nepali [npi] and English [eng]. Religion; mixed use: Home. Elderly. Writing: Unwritten. Other: Linguistically between Kulung-Nachering-Sangpang and Meohang-Saam (Hansson 1991), but there is no supporting data. The Chukwa claim a close linguistic and ethnic affiliation with Saam [raq]; they say that their language is very different from Kulung [kle], although Van Driem (2001) lists Chukwa as a sub-group of Kulung. Traditional religion (Kirat), Hindu.

Danuwar [dhw] (Danuwar Rai, Danwar, Denwar, Dhanvar, Dhanwar). 31,800 (2001 census), decreasing. No monolinguals (Toba, Toba and Rai 2005). Ethnic population: 53,200. Narayani Zone, Sindhuli, Kabhrepalanchok, Sindhupalchok, Makwanpur, Lalitpur districts.

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Status: 7 (Shifting). Language of recognized nationality (2002, NFDIN Act, No. 20, Section 2C). Class: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Unclassified. Dialects: Bakultar Danuwar, Dukuchhap Danuwar, Judigaon Danuwar, Kamala Khonch Danuwar, Panchkhal Danuwar, Sindhuli Danuwar. Danuwar Kachariya in Rautahat and elsewhere is probably distinct from Danuwar [dhw]. The dialects spoken in Bakultar, Panchkhal, Judigaon (Kabhrepalanchok) district are mutually intelligible, whereas the dialects spoken in Dukuchhap (Lalitpur district) and Sindhuli are different. Type: SOV; postpositions; noun head final; 2 noun classes or genders; content q-word in situ; 1 prefix, up to 4 suffixes; clause constituents indicated by case-marking; verbal affixation marks person, number and gender of subject; ergativity; both tense and aspect; no passives and voice; non-tonal; 29 consonant and 6 vowel phonemes. Lg Use: Rapidly assimilating to Nepali [npi] (Van Driem 2007). Home, religion; mixed use: Friends, work. Older adults and elderly. Some use among children, adolescents, and young adults. Neutral attitudes. Also use Nepali [npi] and Eastern Tamang [taj] at work and with friends (in Kabhre district). Lg Dev: Although some people are writing in Danuwari, no data is available on L1 literacy. Radio programs. Dictionary. Writing: Devanagari script. Other: Hindu, Buddhist, Christian.

Darai [dry]. 10,200 (2001 census), decreasing. Very few monolinguals. Ethnic population: 14,900. Narayani Zone, Chitwan District, Bharatpur Municipality, Mangalpur, Kathar, Jagatpur, Chainpur VDCs; Gandaki Zone, Tanahun District, Vyas Municipality, Kyamin, Ramjakot VDCs. Status: 6b (Threatened). Language of recognized nationality (2002, NFDIN Act, No. 20, Section 2C). Class: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Unclassified. Dialects: Chitwan, Tanahun. Lexical similarity: 85–90% with Bote [bmj]. Type: SOV; postpositions; noun head final; 2 noun classes or genders; 1 prefix, up to 4 suffixes; clause constituents indicated by case-marking; verbal affixation marks for person and number; nominal-based split ergativity; both tense and aspect; passives and voice; non-tonal; 29 consonant and 6 vowel phonemes; head-marking of noun in genitive construction. Lg Use: Rapidly assimilating to Nepali [npi] (2007). Home; mixed use: Friends, religion, work. Young adults and older. Some use among children and adolescents. Positive attitudes. Most know Nepali [npi] very well, well enough to understand complex subjects. Lg Dev: Magazines. Newspapers. Radio programs. Films. Videos. Dictionary. Writing: Devanagari script. Other: Darai do not have social subdivisions found in most other Nepali groups. They do

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not organize communities into social, religious, economic, or political organizations (Bista 1996). Hindu, Christian.

Dhimal [dhi] (Dhemal). 17,300 in Nepal (2001 census), decreasing. Population total all countries: 17,750. Ethnic population: 19,500. Mechi Zone, Jhapa District, 24 villages; Koshi Zone, Morang and Sunsari districts, 51 villages; eastern and western dialects are separated by Kankai River in Jhapa. Also in India. Status: 6a (Vigorous). Language of recognized nationality (2002, NFDIN Act, No. 20, Section 2C). Class: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Sal, Dhimalish. Dialects: Eastern Dhimal, Western Dhimal. 75%–80% intelligibility between eastern and western dialect speakers. Lexical similarity: 80%–82% with dialects. Type: SOV; postpositions; noun head final; no noun classes or genders; content q-word in situ; genitives, demonstratives, relatives before noun heads; 1 prefix, up to 3 suffixes; clause constituents indicated by case-marking; verbal affixation marks person; non-ergative; tense and aspect; passives and voice; non-tonal; 31 consonant and 16 vowel phonemes (includes 5 basic vowels, 5 long vowels and 5 nasalized vowels); honorificity is marked for 1st person when speaking with in-laws. Lg Use: Home, friends, religion; mixed use: Work. Adolescents and older. Some use among children. Positive attitudes. Most also use some Nepali [npi], Hindi [hin], or Rajbanshi [rjs]. Lg Dev: Literacy rate in L2: 39% (1991 census). Poetry. Magazines. New Media. Radio programs. Dictionary. Grammar. Bible portions: 2000. Writing: Devanagari script. Other: Traditional religion, Hindu, Christian.

Dolpo [dre] (Dolkha, Dolpa Tibetan, Dolpike, Phoke Dolpa). 8,000 (2010 K. Kopp). 6,000 monolinguals (2010 K. Kopp). Ethnic population: 8,000 (2010 K. Kopp). Karnali Zone, Dolpa District, in the Barbung River Valley, villages north and east of Kag. In the Tarap River Valley, Lang Village and north. Beyond mountains west of upper Kali Gandaki River Valley. Confined by the Dhaulagiri Himal south and Tibet north. In the Suligag River Valley, all areas north of Rengi Village including the lake area. Includes the headwaters of Karnali River. Many small villages in Nangong, Panzang, Tarap, and Barbung river valleys. Status: 6a (Vigorous). Language of recognized nationality (2002, NFDIN Act, No. 20, Section 2C). Class: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Western Tibeto-Burman, Bodish, Central Bodish, Central, gTsang. Dialects: None known. Phoksumdo Lake, Barbung River, and Charka areas are slightly different,

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but intelligibility is good. The central valleys of Nankong and Dho Tarap are well understood by other varieties. Lexical similarity: 78% with Loke [loy], 69% with Lhomi [lhm], 68% with Lhasa Tibetan [bod], Walungge [ola], and Kyerung (Kyirong) [kgy], 67% with Nubri [kte], 66% with Helambu Sherpa [scp], 62% with Jirel [jul] and Sherpa [xsr] (K. Kopp 2010). Type: SOV; postpositions; noun head initial; no noun classes or genders; content q-word in situ; 1 prefix, up to 3 suffixes; clause constitutents indicated by case-marking; conjunct or disjunct verbal agree with subject with evidential marking in the verbal auxiliary; gender is marked explicitly in the noun phrase; ergativity; tense and aspect (aspect marked overtly as a verbal suffix); no passives or voice; 36 consonant and 7 vowel phonemes; tonal. Lg Use: Vigorous. Home, friends, religion, work. All ages. Positive attitudes. Many men and a few women also use Tibetan [bod] and Nepali [npi]. Lg Dev: Literacy rate in L1: Less than 10%. Literacy materials have been produced and are being tested. Non-formal classes are being planned (2010). Poetry. Dictionary. Writing: Tibetan script. Other: Buddhist, Bonpo.

Dotyali [dty] (Dotali, Doteli). 250,000 in Nepal (2012 Tribhuvan University). Far western region. Also in India. Status: 4 (Educational). Class: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Northern zone, Eastern Pahari. A member of macrolanguage Nepali [nep]. Dialects: None known. Similar to Nepali [npi] and Kumaoni [kfy]. Lg Use: Vigorous. All domains. All ages. Very positive attitudes. Lg Dev: Poetry. Magazines. Radio programs. TV. Dictionary. Grammar. Writing: Devanagari script.

Dumi [dus] (Dumi Bo’o, Dumi Bro, Hopupo Bro, Lsi Rai, Ro’do Bo’, Sotmali). 2,500 (2009 Isilim magazine), decreasing. No monolinguals. Ethnic population: 12,000. Sagarmatha Zone, north Khotang District, Makpa, Jalapa, Baksila, Sapteshwor, Kharmi VDCs. Status: 7 (Shifting). Language of recognized nationality (2002, NFDIN Act, No. 20, Section 2C), Rai nationality. Class: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Western Tibeto-Burman, Himalayan, Kiranti, Western. Dialects: Kharbari, Lamdija, Makpa. Most similar to Khaling [klr], Koi [kkt]. Makpa dialect is markedly divergent. Type: SVO; postpositions; noun head final; no noun classes or genders; content q-word in situ; 1 prefix, unknown number of suffixes; verbal affixation marks person and number; ergativity; non-tonal; 25 consonant and 14 vowel phonemes. Lg Use: Pressure to shift to Nepali [npi] in education and communication with

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outsiders is strong. Few parents teach Dumi to their children or encourage their children to use their language. Home, religion; mixed use: Friends, work. Young adults and older. Some use among children and adolescents. Most are bilingual in neighboring local languages, then in Nepali [npi]. Lg Dev: Poetry. Magazines. Dictionary. Grammar. Writing: Devanagari script. Other: Efforts have been made by some to preserve the language by creating written materials. Traditional religion (Kirat), Hindu, Christian.

Dungmali [raa] (Arthare, Arthare-Khesang, Dungmali Pûk, Dungmali-Bantawa, Khesange). 220 (2001 census), decreasing. 150 monolinguals. Ethnic population: 10,000. Koshi Zone; eastern Bhojpur District, Thulo Dungma, Sano Dungma, Bastim VDCs, where the eastern border is the Arun River. Status: 6b (Threatened). Language of recognized nationality (2002, NFDIN Act, No. 20, Section 2C), Rai nationality. Class: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Western Tibeto-Burman, Himalayan, Kiranti, Eastern. Dialect: Khesang (Khesange). 82% cognate with Bantawa [bap] but morphology and phonology differ (Winter 1991). Lexical similarity: 80% with Bantawa [bap], 65% with Puma [pum]. Type: SOV; postpositions; noun head final; content q-word in situ; 1 prefix; clause constituents indicated by case-marking; verbal affixation marks person and gender; split ergativity; tense; no passives or voice; tonal; 18 consonant and 6 vowel phonemes. Lg Use: Home, religion. Mixed use: Friends, work. Young adults and older. Some use among children and adolescents. Many also use Bantawa [bap]. Lg Dev: Poetry. Newspapers. Dictionary. Other: Local names which may not be dialects: Chhinamkhang, Chhichhangchha, Hangbang, Khandung, Pungwai, Roktulung, Tuncha, Waitpang. Traditional religion (Kirat).

Dura [drq]. No known L1 speakers. Ethnic population: 3,400 (2001 census). Gandaki Zone, Lamjung District, Dura Danda. Status: 9 (Dormant). Language of recognized nationality (2002, NFDIN Act, No. 20, Section 2C). Class: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Western Tibeto-Burman, Bodish, West Bodish. Type: SOV; postpositions; noun head final; no noun classes or genders; content q-word in situ; 1 prefix, up to 3 suffixes; clause constituents indicated by case-marking; ergativity; tense (2) and aspect; no passives or voice; non-tonal; 37 consonant and 6 vowel phonemes. Lg Use: Shifted to Nepali [npi]. Writing: Unwritten. Other: Tandrange may be a dialect of Dura. Hindu (Dura), Buddhist (Tandrange).

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Ghale, Northern [ghh] (Lila, Ril-Lila). 4,440 (2006 SIL). 400 monolinguals. Gandaki Zone, Gorkha District, Buri Gandaki Valley. Status: 6b (Threatened). Class: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Western Tibeto-Burman, Bodish, West Bodish, Ghale. Dialects: Jagat, Khorla, Nyak, Philim, Uiya. Nyak is most diverse dialect. Philim has 94% intelligibility of Uiya. 75%–79% intelligibility of Barpak in Southern Ghale [ghe]. Dialect chain runs north and south. Lexical similarity: 73%–89% among dialects, 65%–81% with Southern Ghale [ghe], 45%–61% with Kuke [ght], 29%–37% with Western Tamang [tdg], 21%–27% with Nubri [kte], 22%–25% with Tsum [ttz], 19%–23% with Kyerung (Kyirong) [kgy], 19%–21% with Tibetan [bod]. Lg Use: Vigorous. Home, friends, religion, work. Young adults and older. Some use among children and adolescents. Positive attitudes. Speakers in Philim, Lho, and Bihi have no more than basic bilingual proficiency in Nepali [npi]. Writing: Unwritten. Other: Buddhist, Hindu, Christian.

Ghale, Southern [ghe] (Galle Gurung, Lila, Ril-Lila). 21,500 (2006 SIL). Gandaki Zone, Gorkha District, hills south of Macha Khola. Status: 6a (Vigorous). Class: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Western Tibeto-Burman, Bodish, West Bodish, Ghale. Dialects: Barpak, Kyaura, Laprak. Some intelligibility between Northern [ghh] and Southern Ghale. Dialect sub-group. Glover (1974:8–12) identifies a Ghale branch under Bodish intermediate between Tibetan and Gurung branches. Lexical similarity: 75%–78% among dialects, 65%–81% with Northern Ghale, 39%–49% with Kuke [ght], 27%–30% with Western Gurung [gvr], 31% with Western Tamang [tdg], 20% with Nubri [kte] and Tsum [ttz], 18% with Tibetan [bod]. Type: SOV; postpositions; noun head both initial and final; no noun classes or genders; content q-word in situ; up to 2 prefixes, 1 suffix; clause constituents indicated by case-marking; no verbal affixation; no passives or voice; tonal; 18 consonant and 6 vowel phonemes. Lg Use: Vigorous. Home, religion; mixed use: Friends, work. All ages. Positive attitudes. Also use Nepali [npi], Hindi [hin], or English [eng]. Lg Dev: Dictionary. NT: 1992. Writing: Devanagari script. Other: Hindu, Buddhist, Christian.

Ghandruk Sign Language [gds]. 18 (2011 SIL). Gandaki Zone, Kaski District, Ghandruk. Status: 6a (Vigorous). Class: Deaf sign language. Dialects: Similar to Kathmandu and Pokhara dialects of Nepalese Sign Language [nsp]. Lg Use: All domains. Writing: Unwritten.

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Gurung, Eastern [ggn] (Daduwa, Gurung, Tamu Kyi). 227,000 (2007), decreasing. 23,000 monolinguals. 339,000 all Gurung languages in Nepal (2001 census). Ethnic population: 544,000. Gandaki Zone, Lamjung, Tanahu, and west Gorkha districts. Possibly Manang District. Status: 6b (Threatened). Language of recognized nationality (2002, NFDIN Act, No. 20, Section 2C). Class: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Western Tibeto-Burman, Bodish, West Bodish, Gurung-Tamang, Gurungic. Dialects: Gorkha Gurung, Lamjung Gurung, Tamu Kyi. Eastern and Western Gurung [gvr] do not have adequate intelligibility to handle complex and abstract discourse. Daduwa town in Lamjung District seems central linguistically. Type: SOV; postpositions; noun head final; genitives, adjectives, relative clause precede noun heads; numerals after noun heads; rising intonation in bipolar questions; no noun classes or genders; content q-word in situ; 1 prefix on negative verbs; up to 2 suffixes; clause constituents indicated by case-marking; case of noun phrase shown by preposition; no subject or object referencing in verbs; split ergative system according to tense; causatives; benefactives; aspect; no passives or voice; 24 consonant and 5 vowel phonemes; CV, CCV, CCCV; tonal: voice quality or register is part of tone system. Lg Use: Children and young people use Gurung less frequently than those who are older. Passed down only a little from generation to generation (UNESCO). Mixed use: Home, friends, religion, work, education. Some use among all ages. Also use Nepali [npi]. School graduates use some English [eng]. Gurung reinforces ethnic membership. Nepali [npi] viewed as essential, English [eng] as economically advantageous. Lg Dev: Literacy rate in L1: 30%. Literacy rate in L2: 30%. Radio programs. Bible portions: 1994. Writing: Devanagari script. Latin script. Other: Buddhist, Hindu.

Gurung, Western [gvr] (Gurung, Tamu Kyi). 125,000 in Nepal (2007), increasing. 12,000 monolinguals. Population total all countries: 158,000. Ethnic population: 544,000. Gandaki Zone, Kaski, Syangja districts; Dhaulagiri Zone, Parbat District. Possibly in Myanmar. Also in Bhutan, India. Status: 6b (Threatened). Class: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Western Tibeto-Burman, Bodish, West Bodish, Gurung-Tamang, Gurungic. Dialects: Northwestern Gurung (Kaski Gurung), Southern Gurung (Syangja Gurung). Dialect speakers may have enough mutual intelligibility to understand complex and abstract discourse, but not enough with Eastern Gurung [ggn]. Related to Thakali [ths]. Type: SOV; postpositions; genitives, adjectives, relative clauses precede noun heads;

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numerals after noun heads; noun head final; no noun classes or genders; content q-word in situ; rising intonation marks bipolar questions; one negative prefix on verbs; up to 2 suffixes; clause constituents indicated by case-marking; case of noun phrases is indicated by postpositions; no subject or object referencing in verbs; split ergative system according to tense; causatives; benefactives; aspect; no passives or voice; 24 consonant and 5 vowel phonemes; CV, CCV, CCCV; tonal: voice quality or register is part of the tone system. Lg Use: Children and young people use Gurung less frequently than those who are older. Passed down only a little from generation to generation (UNESCO 2002). Home; mixed use: Friends, religion, work. Some use among all ages. Positive attitudes. Also use Nepali [npi]. School graduates speak some English [eng]. Lg Dev: Literacy rate in L1: 30%. Literacy rate in L2: 30%. Poetry. Magazines. Newspapers. New Media. Radio programs. Films. TV. Videos. Dictionary. Grammar. NT: 1982. Writing: Devanagari script. Other: Buddhist, Hindu, Christian.

Helambu Sherpa [scp] (Hyolmo, Yholmo, Yohlmu Tam, Yolmo). 3,990 (2001 census). Very few monolinguals. Bagmati Zone, northern Nuwakot and northwestern Sindhupalchok districts. Status: 6a (Vigorous). Language of recognized nationality (2002, NFDIN Act, No. 20, Section 2C). Class: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Western Tibeto-Burman, Bodish, Central Bodish, Central, gTsang. Dialects: Eastern Helambu Sherpa, Lamjung Yohlmo, LangDang Yohlmo, Western Helambu Sherpa. Melamchi River divides dialects. Understand other dialects even for abstract and complex subjects, including possibly Tarke Ghyang, Kahng-Kharka, Pahndang, but not Kagate [syw]. Lexical similarity: 66% with Dolpo [dre] and Walungge [ola], 65% with Lhasa Tibetan [bod], Jirel [jul], and Kyerung (Kyirong) [kgy], 63% with Loke [loy] and Sherpa [xsr], 61% with Nubri [kte], 60% with Lhomi [lhm]. Type: SOV; postpositions; head noun initial; genitives, relatives before noun heads; articles, adjectives, numerals mostly after noun heads; no noun classes or genders; content q-word is usually the second word in the clause; maximum number of prefixes 1; maximum number of suffixes 4; clause constituents indicated primarily by case-marking, but word order distinguishes subject, object, indirect object some, but normally marked by postpositions; case of noun phrase indicated by postposition; split ergativity; rich system of tense and aspect; no passives or voice; causatives; comparatives; CV, CVC, CVV, CCV, CCVV, CVVC; tonal

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(4 tones); 36 consonant and 10 vowel phonemes. Lg Use: Home; mixed use: Friends, religion, work. Older adults and elderly. Some use among children, adolescents, and young adults. Also use Nepali [npi], Tibetan [bod], or Hindi [hin]. More prestigious and has more original culture preserved than Kagate [syw]. Shermathang-Chhimi area and east is prestigious. Many lamas live there. Not much contact with Kagate; attitudes indifferent toward it. Nepali [npi] viewed as useful. Lg Dev: Literacy rate in L1: Below 1%. Literacy rate in L2: 15%–25%. Literacy motivation not high, except in English [eng]. Radio programs. Dictionary. Grammar. NT: 2000. Writing: Devanagari script. Other: They go to northern India as laborers or resettle in Kathmandu or in India. Buddhist (Lamaist), traditional religion, Christian.

Hindi [hin] (Dakhini, Hindi-Urdu, Hindustani, Khariboli). 106,000 in Nepal (2001 census), increasing. Population total all countries: 260,209,820. Mainly in the Tarai Region in the south; also in Kathmandu Valley. Also in Australia, Bangladesh, Belize, Bhutan, Botswana, Canada, Djibouti, Equatorial Guinea, Germany, Guyana, India, Kenya, New Zealand, Philippines, Singapore, Sint Maarten, South Africa, United Arab Emirates, United Kingdom, United States, Yemen, Zambia. Status: 3 (Wider communication). Class: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Central zone, Western Hindi, Hindustani. Dialects: None known. Formal vocabulary borrowed from Sanskrit, de-Persianized, de-Arabicized. Literary Hindi, or Hindi-Urdu, has 4 varieties: Hindi (High Hindi, Nagari Hindi, Literary Hindi, Standard Hindi); Urdu; Dakhini; Rekhta. Hindustani, though not listed separately in India, refers here to the unofficial lingua franca of northwest India. Has a lexical mixture in varying proportions of Hindi (vocabulary derived from Sanskrit) and Urdu (vocabulary derived from Persian or Arabic). Type: SOV; postpositions; noun head final; 11 noun classes or genders; content q-word in situ; 3 suffixes; clause constituents partially indicated by case-marking, postpositions, and word order; verbal affixation marks person, number, gender, and honorificity of subject; split ergativity; both tense and aspect; passives and voice; non-tonal; 28 consonant and 10 vowel phonemes. Lg Use: Home, friends, religion, education; mixed use: Work. All ages. Lg Dev: Also taught at higher levels of education. Taught in primary and secondary schools. Writing: Braille script. Devanagari script, primary usage. Newar (Prachalit Nepal) script, no longer in use, historic usage. Other: Hindu, Muslim, Christian, Buddhist.

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Humla [hut] (Dangali, “Humla Bhotia” pej., Humli Khyampa, Phoke). 4,000 (Sharma and Gautam 1999). Seti Zone, Bajura District; Karnali Zone, Humla District, villages northwest from Simikot towards China border, villages slightly northeast of Simikot. Some in Kathmandu. Status: 6a (Vigorous). Class: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Western Tibeto-Burman, Bodish, Central Bodish, Central, gTsang. Dialects: Humli Khyampa, La Yakba, Limi, Nyinba, Upper Humla. Nyinba is ‘nearly unintelligible to other Humla Tibetans’ (Levine 1988:269, cited in Wilde 2001) but speakers report all dialects are mutually intelligible (Wilde 2001). Type: SOV; postposition; noun head initial; noun classes or genders; content q-word in situ; 1 prefix, up to 3 suffixes; case-marking and word order; verbal affixation marks person (conjunct vs. disjunct distinction); tense and aspect; no passives or voice; 35 consonants (Limi variety) and 7 vowel phonemes; tonal. Lg Use: Home, friends, religion, work. All ages. Positive attitudes. Lg Dev: Literacy rate in L2: 10%–15% Tibetan [bod]. Some schools using English [eng] medium, some Tibetan [bod] instruction. Writing: Unwritten. Other: Buddhist.

Jerung [jee] (Jero, Jero Mala, Jerum, Jerunge, Jherung, Zero, Zero Mala, Zerum). 2,000 (Opgenort 2004). Janakpur Zone, Sindhuli District, Bahadur Khola west bank villages, Sunkosi River south to Mohangar Village; Sagarmatha Zone, Okhaldhunga District, around the Maulang Khola River, to the north of Sunkosi River. Status: 6b (Threatened). Language of recognized nationality (2002, NFDIN Act, No. 20, Section 2C), Rai nationality. Class: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Western Tibeto-Burman, Himalayan, Kiranti, Western. Dialects: Balkhu-Sisneri, Madhavpur, Ratnawati (Sindhuli). Most similar to Wambule [wme]. Alternate dialect analysis: Northern dialect spoken in Okhaldhunga District, Southern dialect in Sindhuli District. (2004 J. Opgenort). Type: SOV; postpositions; noun head final; 2 genders (non-productive); content q-word can appear anywhere in the phrase, often in initial position; 1 prefix, up to 4 suffixes (word-internal) and 4 phrasal affixes; clause constituents indicated by case-marking; verbal affixation marks person and number; ergativity; aspect; no passives or voice; non-tonal; 31 consonant and 11 vowel phonemes. Lg Use: Home, friends, religion; mixed use: Work, education. Young adults and older. Also use Nepali [npi]. Lg Dev: Magazines. Dictionary. Grammar. Other: ’Chaurasia’ is the name for the linguistic unit combining Jerung and Wambule [wme]. Traditional religion (Kirat), Hindu.

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Jhankot Sign Language [jhs]. Population is 10% of the village population. Karnali Zone, Dolpa District, Jhankot Village. Status: 6a (Vigorous). Class: Deaf sign language. Lg Use: Reportedly used by Deaf and hearing alike throughout the village. All domains. All ages. Positive attitudes. Writing: Unwritten. Other: Existence attested only by a single source (Taylor 1997).

Jirel [jul] (Jiri, Jirial, Ziral). 7,070 (2000), decreasing. Janakpur Zone, Dolakha District, Jiri and Sikri valleys, eastern hills. Jiri is the main area. Also Chhyatrapa; Lumbini Zone, Nawalparasi District; Bagmati Zone, Sindhupalchok District; Narayani Zone, Parsa District. Status: 6b (Threatened). Language of recognized nationality (2002, NFDIN Act, No. 20, Section 2C). Class: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Western Tibeto-Burman, Bodish, Central Bodish, Central, gTsang. Dialects: Accent differences, but not real dialects. Some comprehension of Lhasa Tibetan [bod] and some Tibetan dialects. Grammatically similar to Sherpa [xsr]. Lexical similarity: 67% with Sherpa [xsr], 65% with Helambu Sherpa [scp], 62% with Dolpo [dre] and Loke [loy], 60% with Kyerung (Kyirong) [kgy], 57% with Nubri [kte], Lhomi [lhm], and Walungge [ola], 54% with Lhasa Tibetan [bod]. Type: SOV; postpositions; genitives, demonstratives, adjectives before noun heads; numerals after noun heads; relatives before and without noun heads; content q-word in situ; polar question word final; maximum number of prefixes 1, maximum number of suffixes 4; clause constituents indicated by case-marking; affixes indicate case of noun phrases; ergative; causatives; no passives or voice; CV, CVC, V, VC; tonal. Lg Use: Home, friends. Young adults and older. Some use among children and adolescents. A few know use Sherpa [xsr], very few some Eastern Tamang [taj] and Sunwar [suz]. Most also use Nepali [npi]. Yarsa and Kharok accents more prestigious, more educated. Nepali viewed as prestigious, needed for education, work. Lg Dev: Literacy rate in L1: 25%–30% adults, 60% younger people. Literacy rate in L2: 25%–30% adults, 60% younger people (1991 census). People literate in Nepali can read Jirel. Dictionary. NT: 1992. Writing: Devanagari script. Other: Buddhist, traditional religion, Christian.

Jumla Sign Language [jus]. 8 (2005 INF). 100% monolingual. Karnali Zone, Jumla District, Jumla Town. Status: 6a (Vigorous). Class: Deaf sign language. Dialects: None known. Lexical similarity: 45%–49% with Nepalese Sign Language [nsp]. Writing: Unwritten. Other: Deaf children

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in the Nepalese Sign Language school in Jumla come from 1 or 2 days walk away and do not know Jumla Sign Language.

Jumli [jml] (Central Nepali, Jumla, Jumleli, Khas Kura, Sijali, Singja, Sinjali). 40,000 (2001 SIL). 19,000 monolinguals. Karnali Zone, Jumla, Humla, Kalikot, Mugu districts; Seti Zone, Bajura District, eastern parts of Bajhang, Achham districts. Status: 6a (Vigorous). Class: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Northern zone, Eastern Pahari. Dialects: Asi, Chaudhabis, Paanchsai, Sinja. 73%–89% intelligible with standard Nepali [npi]. Not sufficient to understand complex and abstract discourse. Lexical similarity: 73%–80% with standard Nepali [npi] (Bandhu 1971). Type: SOV; postpositions; noun head final; 2 genders; content q-word in situ; 1 prefix, up to 5 suffixes; clause constituents indicated by case-marking; verbal affixation marks person and number; ergativity; aspect; passives and voice; non-tonal; 31 consonant and 6 vowel phonemes. Lg Use: Home, friends, religion, work. All ages. Mixed attitudes. Some embarrassed by their own speech when speaking to Standard Nepali [npi] speakers. Some also use Nepali [npi] or Hindi [hin]. Lg Dev: Poetry. Magazines. Newspapers. Radio programs. Dictionary. Grammar. Writing: Devanagari script. Other: Traditional religion, Hindu, Buddhist (Lamaist), Christian.

Kagate [syw] (“Kagate Bhote” pej., Shuuba, Shyuuba, Syuuba). 1,270 (2000). Very few monolinguals. Janakpur Zone, Ramechhap District, a ridge of Likhu Khola. Status: 6a (Vigorous). Class: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Western Tibeto-Burman, Bodish, Central Bodish, Central, gTsang. Dialects: Differs from Helambu Sherpa [scp] by less use of the honorific system in verbs, which makes intelligibility more of a problem for the Kagate. It could be considered a dialect of Helambu Sherpa. Type: SOV; postpositions; genitives, adjectives, relatives before noun heads; numerals after noun heads; noun head initial; no noun classes or genders; content q-word early in the clause; 1 prefix, up to 4 suffixes; subject, object, indirect object, case of noun phrase indicated by postpositions; clause constituents indicated by both case-marking and word order; split ergativity; rich tense and aspect system; no passives or voice; impersonal voice; causatives; comparatives; CV, CVC, CVV, CCV, CCVV, CVVC; 26 consonant and 5 vowel phonemes; tonal (4 tones). Lg Use: Home, friends; mixed use: Religion, work. Older adults and elderly. Some use among children, adolescents, and young adults. Positive attitudes. Some

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also use Nepali [npi] at home. Lg Dev: Literacy rate in L2: Few. Literates in Nepali [npi] have very little trouble reading Kagate in Devanagari script. Poetry. Dictionary. Bible portions: 1977. Writing: Devanagari script. Other: Buddhist (Lamaist), syncretism with traditional religion, Muslim, Christian.

Kaike [kzq] (Tarali Kham). 2,000 (2011 SIL), decreasing. No monolinguals. Ethnic population: 2,000 (2011 A. Regmi). Karnali Zone, Dolpa District, Shahartara VDC, Shahartara, Tupatara, Tarakot, Belawa villages. Status: 6a (Vigorous). Class: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Western Tibeto-Burman, Bodish, West Bodish. Type: SOV; postpositions; noun head final; no noun classes or genders; content q-word in situ; 1 prefix, up to 2 suffixes; clause constituents indicated by case-marking; consistently ergative; no passives or voice; semi-tonal; 29 consonant and 10 vowel phonemes; complex conjunct-disjunct system, and nominalization. Lg Use: Vigorous. Home, friends, religion, work; mixed use: Education. All ages. Positive attitudes. Also use Nepali [npi] and Tibetan [bod]. Writing: Unwritten. Other: Kaike sometimes known as Tarali Kham, though quite different from Kham, a Himalayan language of western Nepal. (Bradley 1997:11). Kaike is both the ethnonym and the glossonym, as the fairy language (‘kai’ - fairy, ‘ke’ - language). Buddhist, Hindu.

Kayort [kyv]. 22,000 (2002). Koshi Zone, Morang District, Dakuwa Danga, near Rajbanshi [rjs] area. Status: 6a (Vigorous). Class: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Eastern zone, Bengali-Assamese. Dialects: None known. Ostensibly related to Bengali [ben]. Writing: Unwritten. Other: No known published or survey-based attestation for this as a separate language variety.

Khaling [klr] (Khaling Kura). 18,000 in Nepal (2002 UNESCO), decreasing. No monolinguals. 9,290 (2001 census). Ethnic population: 20,000. Sagarmatha Zone, Solukhumbu District, Kanku, Basa, Waku, Buksa, Jubing, Phuleli villages; Khotang District, Buipa, Kharmi villages; Kosi Zone, Sankhuwasabha District, Tungkhaling village; Sunsari District, Dharan; Mechi Zone, Ilam District, Pang, Sumbek, Mai Pokhari villages. Also in India. Status: 6a (Vigorous). Language of recognized nationality (2002, NFDIN Act, No. 20, Section 2C), Rai nationality. Class: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Western Tibeto-Burman, Himalayan, Kiranti, Western. Dialects: Northern Khaling,

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Southern Khaling. Most similar to Dumi [dus], Koi [kkt]. Type: SOV; postpositions; adjectives, numerals, relatives before noun heads; content q-word initial; no noun classes or genders; 1 prefix, up to 2 suffixes; clause constituents indicated by case-marking; affixes indicate case of noun phrase; verbal affixation marks person and number of subject—obligatory; ergative; causatives; comparatives; passives and voice; CV, V, CCCV; non-tonal; 23 consonant and 9 vowel phonemes. Lg Use: Vigorous. Home, religion; mixed use: Friends, work. Young adults and older. Some use among children and adolescents. Positive attitudes. Most also use Nepali [npi]. Older women are less bilingual and many have only minimal comprehension of Nepali. Lg Dev: Literacy rate in L2: 20% Nepali [npi]. Poetry. New Media. Radio programs. Dictionary. Bible: 2011. Writing: Devanagari script. Other: Traditional religion (Kirat), Hindu, Christian.

Kham, Eastern Parbate [kif] (Eastern Parbate, Nisel, Nishel Kham, Nisi, Nisi Kham). 7,500 (2003 SIL), decreasing. No adult monolinguals. Dhaulagiri Zone, Baglung District, Nishel in Nisi, Bhalkot, Budhathok. Bhujel is in Kuku, Diza, Kang, Masbang, Musuri, and Sukurdung villages. Status: 6b (Threatened). Class: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Western Tibeto-Burman, Himalayan, Central Himalayan, Kham-Magar, Kham. Dialects: Bhujel Kham, Nishel Kham. Partially intelligible with Western Parbate [kjl] dialects. Lexical similarity: 79% between dialects, 71% with Western Parbate [kjl], 55% with Gamale [kgj], 44% with Sheshi [kip]. Lg Use: Young adults and older. Some also use Nepali [npi]. Lg Dev: Literacy rate in L2: Below 5%. Dictionary. Grammar. Writing: Unwritten. Other: Traditional religion, Hindu.

Kham, Gamale [kgj] (Gamale). 13,100 (2000), increasing. Rapti Zone, Rolpa District, Gam Khola, western hills, Gam, Jhyalgung, Chalbang, Tamali, Dangadhara, Sheram, Ghusbang, Huiching, Guwakholagau, Maulabang, Kuipadhara villages. Status: 6a (Vigorous). Class: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Western Tibeto-Burman, Himalayan, Central Himalayan, Kham-Magar, Kham. Dialects: Ghusbanggi, Tamali. Only 30% intelligibility with Western Parbate [kjl] due to radical differences in verbal morphology. Lexical similarity: 71% with Western Parbate (most similar) [kjl], 55% with Eastern Parbate [kif] and Sheshi [kip], 45% with Bhujel [kif]. Type: SOV; postpositions; clause constituents indicated by case-marking; verbal affixation marks person and gender; passives and

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voice; tonal. Lg Use: Vigorous in the villages. Home, friends, work; mixed use: Religion. All ages. Positive attitudes. Younger generation uses some Nepali [npi]. Lg Dev: Literacy rate in L2: 5%–15%. Writing: Devanagari script. Other: Traditional religion, Hindu, Christian.

Kham, Sheshi [kip] (Sheshi). 20,000 (2003), decreasing. Rapti Zone, Rukum District, western hills, Jangkot, Kotgaon (Tapnang), Rimsek, Korcabang, Dangdung, Hwama, Dhangsi, Bhabang, and Ghapa villages. Status: 6b (Threatened). Class: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Western Tibeto-Burman, Himalayan, Central Himalayan, Kham-Magar, Kham. Dialects: Jangkoti, Tapnanggi. 30% intelligibility levels with Gamale Kham [kgj], and even less with Western Parbate [kjl]. Lexical similarity: 55% with Gamale Kham (most similar), 51% with Western Parbate, 46% with Eastern Parbate [kif]. Lg Use: All also use Nepali [npi]. Lg Dev: Literacy rate in L1: Below 1%. Literacy rate in L2: Below 5%. Dictionary. Grammar. Writing: Devanagari script. Other: Traditional religion, Hindu.

Kham, Western Parbate [kjl] (Kham-Magar, Takale, Takale Kham, Western Parbate). 24,500 (2003 SIL), increasing. Rapti Zone, Rukum, Rolpa districts. Taka-Shera is center. Status: 5 (Developing). Class: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Western Tibeto-Burman, Himalayan, Central Himalayan, Kham-Magar, Kham. Dialects: Lukumel, Mahatale, Maikoti, Takale, Thabangi, Wale. Greatest similarities between Eastern [kif] and Western Parbate [kjl]. Parbate, Sheshi, and Gamale groups are all inherently unintelligible. Position of Mahatale and Miruli within the Kham linguistic group is undecided. Lexical similarity: 71% with Gamale Kham [kgj], Eastern Parbate; 58% with Bhujel Kham, 51% with Sheshi [kip]. 25% with Magar and Gurung, slightly below 25% with the Tibetan group, 15% with the Rai and Limbu groups. Type: SOV; postpositions; genitives, adjectives, numerals, relatives before noun heads; noun heads final; no noun classes or genders; maximum number for nouns: 1 prefix, 8 suffixes; for verbs: 5 prefixes, 7 suffixes; clause constituents indicated by case-marking; case marked on NPs by affixes; verbal affixation marks person and number of subject and object—obligatory; split ergative; detransitivization common, some of which is passive-like; a kind of semantic inverse marked in verb morphology; passives and voice; causatives; applicatives; (C)V(V)(C) where the second V is a dipthong or long vowel; tonal. Lg Use: Vigorous in the villages in

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Rukum. Home, friends, religion, work. All ages. Speakers use Nepali [npi] only when outside their homeland. Young men are most proficient, older adult women the least. Most can discuss common topics in Nepali. Lg Dev: Literacy rate in L1: Some. Literacy rate in L2: Some. Poetry. Radio programs. Dictionary. Grammar. NT: 1985. Writing: Devanagari script. Other: Different from the Khams of eastern Tibet as spoken by the Khampa. Previously migrated in summer to the foot of glaciers on west end of Dhaulagiri massif, and in winter to Rolpa District southern hills. Traditional religion, Hindu, Christian.

Kharia [khr]. 1,580 in Nepal (2001 census). Population total all countries: 241,580. Mechi Zone, Jhapa District, near border with India. Also in India. Status: 6b (Threatened). Class: Austro-Asiatic, Munda, South Munda, Kharia-Juang. Writing: Devanagari script. Latin script.

Kisan [sck] (Sadri). 490 in Nepal (2001 census). Population total all countries: 3,290,490. Mechi Zone, Jhapa District, Bahundangi, Dhaijan, Shantinagar, Anarmani VDCs, Damak Municipality. Also in India (Sadri). Status: 6a (Vigorous). Language of recognized nationality (2002, NFDIN Act, No. 20, Section 2C). Class: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Eastern zone, Bihari. Dialects: 77% of Sadri [sdr], Oraon of Bangladesh. Speakers name 3 registers of Sadri: Sadani (finer, respectful, formal), Common Sadri (Nagpuri), and Lower Sadri (rough). Lexical similarity: 77%–96% between dialects, 58%–71% with Hindi [hin], 47%–54% with Oriya [ory], 45%–61% with Bengali [ben]. Writing: Bengali script. Devanagari script.

Koi [kkt] (Kohi, Koyee, Koyi, Koyu). 2,640 (2001 census). Sagarmatha Zone, northeast Khotang District, Sungdel VDC near Rawakhola headwaters, 2 villages: Sungdel, Dipsung. Status: 5 (Developing). Language of recognized nationality (2002, NFDIN Act, No. 20, Section 2C), Rai nationality. Class: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Western Tibeto-Burman, Himalayan, Kiranti, Western. Dialects: Behere, Sungdel. Most similar to Dumi [dus] and Khaling [klr]. Type: SOV; postpositions; noun head final. Lg Use: Home, friends, religion; mixed use: Work. All ages. Positive attitudes. All also use some Nepali [npi], but overall bilingualism is low. Lg Dev: Poetry. Magazines. New Media. Dictionary. Other: Some people, called ‘Koi’, who live scattered in other language areas, speak only Nepali [npi]. Traditional religion (Kirat), Hindu, Christian.

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Kuke [ght] (Bhotte, Kutang, Kutang Ghale). 1,300 (1992). Gandaki Zone, northern Gorkha District, Bihi VDC, Dyang, Rana, Bihi, Ghap, Chak, Kwak, Krak villages. Status: 6a (Vigorous). Class: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Western Tibeto-Burman, Bodish, West Bodish, Ghale. Dialects: Bihi, Chak, Rana. Varieties spoken in Chhak and Kwak villages are similar to each other and different from all other villages. Lexical similarity: 62%–76% among dialects, 39%–49% with Southern Ghale [ghe], 45%–61% with Northern Ghale [ghh], 18% with Western (Banspur) Gurung [gvr], 16%–23% with Tamang varieties, 13%–31% with Nubri [kte], 23%–27% with Tsum [ttz], 22%–27% with Kyerung (Kyirong) [kgy], 19%–24% with Tibetan [bod]. Type: SOV. Lg Use: Vigorous. Some Tibetan religious books translated into Kuke by priests. Home, friends; mixed use: Work. All ages. Positive attitudes. Speakers in Bihi village have minimal bilingual proficiency in Tibetan [bod] and Nepali [npi]. Nepali used for communicating with Northern and Southern Ghale speakers. Many are bilingual in Nubri [kte]. Nubri language is used to communicate with Nubri speakers, since many Nubri speakers do not speak or understand Kuke. Lg Dev: Literacy rate in L1: Some can read Kuke in Tibetan script. Literacy rate in L2: 5%. Writing: Tibetan script. Other: Referred to as thieves’ language, a mixture of nearby languages. Buddhist (Lamaist), Hindu, Christian.

Kulung [kle] (Kulu Ring, Kulunge). 18,700 in Nepal (2001 census). Sagarmatha Zone, Solukhumbu District, in the Hungu River Valley, Bung, Pelmang, Chhemsing, Chheskam, Lucham, Chachalung, Satdi, Gudel, Namlung, Sotang, Chekma villages; Koshi Zone, Sankhuwasabha District, Mangtewa, Yaphu, Seduwa VDCs; Bhojpur District, Phedi, Limkhim, Khartanga, Wasepla VDCs. Also in India. Status: 6b (Threatened). Language of recognized nationality (2002, NFDIN Act, No. 20, Section 2C), Rai nationality. Class: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Western Tibeto-Burman, Himalayan, Kiranti, Eastern. Dialect: Sotto Ring. 100% intelligibility between Kulung and Sotto Ring; only a few words pronounced differently. Related to Sampang [rav] and Nachering [ncd]. Type: SOV; postpositions; noun head final; no noun classes or genders; content q-word initial; 1 prefix, up to 3 suffixes; clause constituents indicated by case-marking; verbal affixation marks person and number; ergativity (O of Tr Cl = S of ITr Cl); tense; no passives or voice; non-tonal; 22 consonant and 6 vowel phonemes. Lg Use: Home, friends, religion. Some use among children and adolescents. Almost

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all can understand some Nepali [npi] at a basic level. Lg Dev: High motivation for literacy. Poetry. Magazines. New Media. Dictionary. Grammar. Bible portions: 1976. Writing: Devanagari script. Other: Exogamous clan marriage. The high number of Kulung reflect the tendency of smaller groups to consider themselves Kulung, but are not Kulung by origin. The Kulung possibly absorb smaller groups. Traditional religion (Kirat), Buddhist, Hindu, Christian.

Kumhali [kra] (Kumali, Kumbale, Kumhale, Kumkale). 6,530 (2001 census), decreasing. No monolinguals. Ethnic population: 99,400. Lumbini Zone, Nawalparasi District, south of the Darai [dry]; small pockets in Arghakhanchi and Palpa districts; Gandaki Zone, Gorkha and Tanahun districts; Rapti Zone, Dang District. Status: 7 (Shifting). Language of recognized nationality (2002, NFDIN Act, No. 20, Section 2C). Class: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Unclassified. Dialects: Arghakhanchi, Gorkha, Nawalparasi, Palpa. All four dialects are mutually intelligible, with Arghakhanchi being the most different. Type: SOV; postpositions; noun head final; 2 noun classes or genders; content q-word in situ; 1 prefix, up to 3 suffixes; clause constituents indicated by case-marking; verbal affixation marks person and number; ergativity; both tense and aspect; passives and voice; non-tonal; 29 consonant and 6 vowel phonemes. Lg Use: Religion; mixed use: Home, friends, work. Older adults and elderly. Some use among adolescents. Increasingly positive attitudes, though not reflected in their language choices. All are bilingual in Nepali [npi]. Most children do not speak Kumal at all. (UNESCO). Lg Dev: Poetry. Magazines. Newspapers. Films. Videos. Dictionary. Writing: Devanagari script. Other: Hindu.

Kurux, Nepali [kxl] (Dhangar, Jangad, Janghard, Jhangad, Jhanger, Oraon, Orau, Uraon, Uraw). 28,600 (2001 census), decreasing. No monolinguals (UNESCO 2002). Ethnic population: 41,800 Dhagar (Jhagar). Koshi Zone, Sunsari District; Sagarmatha Zone, Siraha District; Mechi Zone, Jhapa District; Narayani Zone, Parsa District. India border area, Parsa to Jhapa districts. Status: 6b (Threatened). Class: Dravidian, Northern. Dialects: None known. Some differences from Kurux [kru] in India and Bangladesh, but mutually intelligible. Type: SOV; postpositions; noun head final; 2 noun classes (human, non-human); content q-word initial; 1 prefix, up to 6 suffixes; clause constituents indicated by case-marking; verbal affixation marks person,

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number and genders of subject and object; ergativity; tense and aspect; passives and voice; non-tonal; 29 consonant and 10 vowel phonemes. Lg Use: Home, religion. Mixed use: Friends, work, education. Older adults and elderly. Some use among children, adolescents, and young adults. Also use Maithili [mai], Nepali [npi], Nagpuri [mar], Bhojpuri [bho], or Assamese [asm]. Lg Dev: Taught in primary schools. Poetry. Newspapers. New Media. Radio programs. Videos. Dictionary. Bible portions: 1977. Writing: Devanagari script. Other: The alternate names are used for the people. Hindu.

Kusunda [kgg] (Kusanda). 7 (2005 SIL), decreasing. No monolinguals. 87 reported in 2001 census, in Pyuthan, Dang and Tanahun. Ethnic population: 160. Gandaki Zone, Tanahu District, west hills, Satto Bhatti west of Chepetar, and possibly the jungle south of Ambhu; Rapti Zone, Dang District, Ambapur, Deukhuri; Rolpa District, Tunibot; Lumbini Zone, Argakhachi District. Status: 8b (Nearly extinct). Language of recognized nationality (2002, NFDIN Act, No. 20, Section 2C). Class: Language isolate. Dialects: Gorkha, Rolpa-Dang, Tanahun. The Kusunda speakers of Rolpa, Dang and possibly Arghakhanchi districts of Midwestern Nepal belong to the same family. For this reason, their historical dialects (created by generation and geographical separation) are mutually intelligible. Type: SOV; postpositions; noun head final; 1 prefix, up to 2 suffixes; clause constituents indicated by case-marking; verbal affixation marks person and number; verb pronominalization with subject agreement; 31 consonant and 6 vowel phonemes. Lg Use: Most Kusunda speakers live separately and are married to non-Kusunda speakers. Older adults and elderly. Positive attitudes. All also speak Nepali [npi]. Lg Dev: Dictionary. Grammar. Writing: Unwritten. Other: Traditional religion.

Kyirong [kgy] (Gyirong, Kyerung, Kyirung). 4,790 in Nepal (2000). Population total all countries: 4,890. Bagmati Zone, Rasuwa District, Langtang Region, Rasua Garbi, Birdim, Thangjet, Syabru, and Syabrubensi villages; large concentrations in Kathmandu. Also in China (Kyerung). Status: 6a (Vigorous). Class: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Western Tibeto-Burman, Bodish, Central Bodish, Central, gTsang. Dialects: None known. Similar to Lhasa Tibetan [bod]. Lexical similarity: 68% with Dolpo [dre], Walungge [ola], Lhomi [lhm], and Loke [loy], 65% with Nubri [kte] and Lhasa Tibetan, 63% with Helambu Sherpa [scp], 60% with Jirel [jul], 57% with Sherpa [xsr]. Type: SOV;

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postpositions; content q-word placed directly before copula and main verb; clause constituents indicated by case-marking; ergativity: Split S system; 26 consonant and 24 vowel phonemes; tonal. Writing: Unwritten. Other: Buddhist (Lamaist), traditional religion.

Lapcha [lep] (“Lapche” pej., Lepcha, Nünpa, Rong, Rongke, Rongpa). 2,830 in Nepal (2001 census), decreasing. No monolinguals. Population total all countries: 55,430. Ethnic population: 3,660. Mechi Zone, Ilam District. Also in Bhutan (Lepcha), India (Lepcha). Status: 7 (Shifting). Language of recognized nationality (2002, NFDIN Act, No. 20, Section 2C). Class: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Central Tibeto-Burman, Lepcha. Dialects: Ilammu, Rengjongmu, Tamsangmu. Classification uncertain; has been classified both in Himalayan and Naga groups. Lg Use: Many youth speak Nepali [npi] as L1 and do not speak Lepcha. Older adults and elderly. Writing: Lepcha (Róng) script. Tibetan script. Other: Linguistic position within Tibeto-Burman still under discussion. Buddhist, Christian.

Lhomi [lhm] (“Bho Te bhasha” pej., “Kar Bhote” pej., “Kath Bhote” pej., Lhoket). 5,660 in Nepal (2002 SIL), increasing. Population total all countries: 7,980. Ethnic population: 15,000. Koshi Zone, northern Sankhuwasabha District to the national border, Chepuwa VDC, Chepuwa, Chyamtang, Gumba, Chhumusur, Rukuma (or Ridak) villages; Hatiya VDC, Hatiya, Hungung, Pharang, Syaksila, Simbung (or Shembung), Namase (or Namuchhe), Shiprung villages; southernmost village is Seksum (Syaksum) in the Arun Valley; some in Kathmandu. Also in China, India. Status: 5 (Developing). Language of recognized nationality (2002, NFDIN Act, No. 20, Section 2C). Class: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Western Tibeto-Burman, Bodish, Central Bodish, Central, gTsang. Dialects: None known. Lexical similarity: 69% with Dolpo [dre], 68% with Loke [loy], 66% with Walungge [ola], 65% with Lhasa Tibetan [bod] and Kyerung (Kyirong) [kgy], 64% with Nubri [kte], 60% with Helambu Sherpa [scp], 58% with Sherpa [xsr], 57% with Jirel [jul]. Type: SOV; postpositions; noun head initial; masculine and feminine (limited class); content q-word precedes the main verb; 1 prefix, up to 3 suffixes; clause constituents indicated by case-marking; split ergativity; aspect; no passives or voice; tonal (tense-lax); 23 consonant and 8 vowel phonemes; evidentiality is a salient feature of Lhomi syntax. Lg Use: Vigorous. Home, friends, religion; mixed use: Work. All ages. Positive attitudes.

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90% of men have functional trade level in Nepali [npi]. Women’s use of Nepali is increasing. Educated Lhomis are fluent Nepali speakers and some are also fluent in Tibetan [bod]. Lg Dev: Literacy rate in L1: 25%. Literacy rate in L2: 30%. Bilingual literacy campaign should impact adult (and women’s) literacy rate in Lhomi and Nepali [npi]. Poetry. Newspapers. New Media. Videos. NT: 1995. Writing: Devanagari script. Other: Traditional religion, Buddhist (Lamaist), Christian.

Limbu [lif]. 334,000 in Nepal (2001 census), increasing. Relatively few monolinguals. Population total all countries: 371,300. Eastern hills, east of Arun River; Koshi Zone, Dhankuta, Sankhuwasabha, Terhathum, Dhankuta, and Morang districts; Mechi Zone, Taplejung, Panchthar, Ilam, and Jhapa districts. Possibly migrant workers in Myanmar. Also in Bhutan, India. Status: 6b (Threatened). Language of recognized nationality (2002, NFDIN Act, No. 20, Section 2C). Class: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Western Tibeto-Burman, Himalayan, Kiranti, Eastern. Dialects: Chaubise (Charkhole), Chhatthare (Chatthare, Chhathar), Panthare, Phedappe, Tamorkhole (Taplejunge), Yanggrokke (Yanggruppe). Related to Lohorung [lbr] and Yakkha [ybh]. Yanggrokke, Chaubise and Charkhole are minor variants of the Panthare dialect; Phedappe and Tamorkhole are similar. Chattare is less well understood by other dialect speakers. The dialect spoken in Sikkim, India, is same as Panthare. Intelligibility among all varieties 84% and higher. Type: SOV; postpositions; genitives, articles, adjectives, numerals before noun heads; noun head final; content question word in situ; bipolar question word final; maximum of 3 prefixes, 6 suffixes; affixes indicate case of noun phrases; verb affixes mark subjects, objects, indirect objects—obligatory; verbal affixation marks person and number; split ergativity; reflexes conjugated intransitively can be used as a kind of passive; passives and voice; antipassives; causatives; comparatives; 16 consonant and 13 vowel phonemes; V, CV, CVC, CCV, CCVC; nontonal. Lg Use: Vigorous. A main group in eastern Nepal. Home, religion; mixed use: Friends, work, education. Older adults and elderly. Some use among children, adolescents, and young adults. Positive attitudes. Panthare dialect is dominant in size, prestige, and language development. People prefer their own dialect, but are not negative toward others. A majority of adult speakers have completed 5 years of school, and have good general proficiency in Nepali [npi]. There is a trend toward more use of Nepali, especially among young people, but it is not replacing Limbu in

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any domain. UNESCO (2002) indicates that children are now speaking more Nepali than Limbu with people of all ages. Lg Dev: Motivation for development is high among all. Literacy programs in progress to teach Sirijonga script (Salminen 2007). Poetry. Magazines. Newspapers. New Media. Radio programs. Films. TV. Videos. Dictionary. Grammar. NT: 2009. Writing: Devanagari script, primary usage. Limbu (Kiranti, Sirijonga) script, dating to early 18th century. Other: Priestly high language, known by some older people and priests, is called Mundumban. Traditional religion (Kirat), Christian.

Lingkhim [lii] (Limkhim, Lingkhim Kulung, Lingkhim Rai, Linkhim, Saam). 97 (2001 census). Mechi Zone, Ilam District, Phikkal VDC. Status: 8b (Nearly extinct). Language of recognized nationality (2002, NFDIN Act, No. 20, Section 2C), Rai nationality. Class: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Western Tibeto-Burman, Himalayan, Kiranti, Eastern. Lg Use: May have shifted to Bantawa [bap] (Hansson 1991). Writing: Unwritten. Other: Little information exists to support Lingkhim’s identification as a distinct language. It may be a part of Saam [raq] (Hansson 1988:20–21; Hansson 1991:61, 85). The 2001 census reports 97 speakers of Lingkhim. Van Driem (2001:704) points out that Limkhim is a village in northern Bhojpur district, suggesting that this is an alternate name for Saam.

Lohorung [lbr] (Lohorong, Lohorung, Lohrung, Lohrung Khanawa, Lorung, Northern Lorung). 4,970 (2002 Sankhuwasabha District Development Committee). Koshi Zone, central Sankhuwasabha District, between middle Arun Valley and the Sabhakhola, Pangma, Angala, Higuwa, Khorande, Bardeu, Gairiaula, Malta, Sitalpati, Dhupu. Status: 6b (Threatened). Language of recognized nationality (2002, NFDIN Act, No. 20, Section 2C), Rai nationality. Class: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Western Tibeto-Burman, Himalayan, Kiranti, Eastern. Dialect: Biksit (Bikshi). 44% intelligibility of Yamphu [ybi]. A Kirat Rai group. Related to Yamphu [ybi], Southern Yamphu [lrr], Eastern Mewahang [emg], Western Mewahang [raf] and Yakkha [ybh]. Lexical similarity: 88%–99% between dialects, 64%–67% with Yamphu [ybi], 65%–68% with Southern Yamphu [lrr]. Type: SOV; postpositions; verbal affixation marks person and number; tense; nontonal. Lg Use: Lohorung is an endangered language, picking up Nepali influences (T. P. Neupane, 2002). Home, religion; mixed use: Friends, work. All ages. Positive attitudes. Nearly all

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speak at least some Nepali [npi]. Lg Dev: Radio programs. Dictionary. Writing: Devanagari script. Other: Hansson claims that the Biksit dialect is spoken in Dhupu VDC (Hansson 1991). Traditional religion (Kirat), Hindu, Christian.

Loke [loy] (Glo Skad, Lhopa, Lo Montang, Loba, Lopa, Lowa, Loyu, Mustangi). 7,500 (2001 census). 5,000 Upper Mustang and 2,500 Baragaunle. Dhaulagiri Zone, Mustang District, north central upper Kali Gandaki River area; high valleys north of middle-range Thakali, Gurung and Magar areas. Bahragaun in Kagbeni, Muktinath, Dzong VDCs; Upper Mustang in Ghimi, Tsarang, Lo Monthang, Surkhang, Chhosher, Chunnup VDCs, and Samar Village in Chuksang VDC, a few in Karnali Zone, Dolpa District. Status: 6a (Vigorous). Language of recognized nationality (2002, NFDIN Act, No. 20, Section 2C). Class: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Western Tibeto-Burman, Bodish, Central Bodish, Central, gTsang. Dialects: Baragaunle (Baragaon, Baragaun, Bhoti Gurung), Upper Mustang (Loke). Similar to Dolpo [dre]. High intelligibility between dialects reported. Lexical similarity: 79%–88% between dialects, 59%–71% with Dolpo [dre], 54%–57% with Lhasa Tibetan [bod], 58%–67% with Mugom [muk]. Type: SOV; postpositions; noun head initial; 5 noun classes and 3 genders; content q-word in situ; at least 2 suffixes; no passives or voice; tonal; 44 consonant and 8 vowel phonemes. Lg Use: Some youth totally educated outside language area and may not be able to speak Loke. Tibetan [bod] is used in religious domain. Home, friends. All ages. Positive attitudes. Loke spoken with Seke [skj] and Dolpo [dre]. Also use Nepali [npi] or Tibetan [bod]. Lg Dev: Literacy rate in L2: 41% for whole district, includes Thakalis, Nepalis. (males 57%, females 28%). Non-formal education. Grammar. Writing: Devanagari script. Tibetan script. Other: Distinct from Lhoba in China and India, a Mirish language. Lo inhabitants are called Lopa or Lowa. Their capital is Manthang, called Mustang by outsiders. Manthang has 200 houses, many monasteries. Buddhist mixed with traditional religion.

Lumba-Yakkha [luu] (Yakkhaba Cea). 1,200 (2000). Koshi Zone, North Dhankuta District, Arkhoule Jitpur and Marek Kathar VDCs. Status: 6b (Threatened). Class: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Western Tibeto-Burman, Himalayan, Kiranti, Eastern. Dialects: None known. Related to Yakkha [ybh], Chhulung [cur], Chhintang [ctn], Mugali [lmh] (Hansson 1991). Type: SOV; postpositions; noun head final; verbal affixation marks

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person and number; both tense and aspect, non-tonal. Lg Use: Language retained among some youth (Hansson 1991). Home. Writing: Unwritten. Other: Traditional religion (Kirat), Hindu, Christian.

Magar, Eastern [mgp] (Magari, Manggar). 462,000 in Nepal (2001), decreasing. Isolated enclaves of monolinguals are found in Nawalparasi and southern Tanahu districts. The identification of Magars is complicated by the fact that a number of other ethnic groups (Chantyal, Kham, Kaike, Kusunda, Raute, Raji) have claimed to be Magars to outsiders. Population total all countries: 533,700. Ethnic population: 1,620,000 ethnic Magar (2001 census). Gandaki Zone, Tanahu, southern Gorkha, northern Nawalparasi districts, east of Bagmati River, central mountains; scattered in Kosi Zone, Bhojpur, Terhathum, Dhankuta districts; Sagarmatha Zone, Okhaldhunga District; Mechi Zone, Taplejung, Ilam districts. Also in Bhutan, India. Status: 6b (Threatened). Language of recognized nationality (2002, NFDIN Act, No. 20, Section 2C). Class: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Western Tibeto-Burman, Himalayan, Central Himalayan, Kham-Magar, Magar. Dialects: Gorkha, Nawalparasi, Tanahu. Also long-extant migrant communities scattered throughout the Eastern Development Region speak a different variety from those west of Kathmandu. Reports of intelligibility between these varieties vary. Lg Dev: Literacy rate in L2: 25%–50%. Poetry. Dictionary. NT: 1991. Writing: Akkha script. Devanagari script. Other: Traditional religion, Folk Buddhism, Folk Hinduism, Christian.

Magar, Western [mrd] (Magar, Magari, Mangar, Mangari). 308,000 (2001 census), decreasing. Census statistics likely include non-ethnic Magars and many that do not speak Magar. Ethnic population: 1,620,000 ethnic Magar (2001 census) includes both Eastern and Western Magar. Lumbini Zone, Palpa District; Gandaki Zone, Syangja, Tanahu districts; isolated speakers in Bheri Zone, Surkhet, Jajarkot, Dailekh districts. Status: 6b (Threatened). Language of recognized nationality (2002, NFDIN Act, No. 20, Section 2C). Class: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Western Tibeto-Burman, Himalayan, Central Himalayan, Kham-Magar, Magar. Dialects: Palpa, Syangja. Some differences between dialects, yet reportedly high intellligibility. Type: SOV; postpositions, but mostly case clitics; noun head final; alienable and inalienable noun classes; content q-word in situ; up to 3 prefixes, up to 7 suffixes; clause constituents indicated by case-marking; verbal affixation marks person and number;

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ergativity; tense and aspect; passives; non-tonal; 33 to 37 consonant and 6 vowel phonemes. Lg Use: Fewer people becoming fluent in Nepali [npi] than before, i.e. the older generation speaks better Nepali. Magar language continues to thrive. Mixed use: Home, friends, work. Elderly. Some use among children, adolescents, young and older adults. Mixed attitudes. Rhetoric is positive but language conservation is generally not implemented. Almost all also use at least some Nepali [npi]. Lg Dev: Poetry. Magazines. Newspapers. New Media. Radio programs. Films. Videos. Dictionary. Grammar. Writing: Devanagari script. Other: Traditional religion, Folk Buddhism, Folk Hinduism, Christian.

Maithili [mai] (Apabhramsa, Bihari, Dehati, Maitili, Maitli, Methli, Tirahutia, Tirhuti, Tirhutia). 2,800,000 in Nepal (2001 census), increasing. Population total all countries: 32,800,000. Narayani Zone, Rautahat District; Janakpur Zone, Sarlahi, Mahottari, Dhanusa districts; Sagarmatha Zone, Siraha, Saptari districts; Koshi Zone, Sunsari, Morang districts. Also in India. Status: 5 (Developing). De facto language of national identity. Class: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Eastern zone, Bihari. Dialects: Bajjika, Bantar, Barei, Barmeli, Dehati, Kawar, Kyabrat, Makrana, Musar, Tati, Thenthi. Caste variation more than geographic variation in dialects. Functional intelligibility among all dialects, including those in Nepal. Most similar to Magahi [mag]. Lexical similarity: 91% between Brahmin and non-Brahmin dialects. Type: SOV; postpositions; noun head final; 11 noun classes or genders; content q-word in situ; genitives, articles, numerals before noun heads, adjectives before and after noun heads; 1 prefix, up to 5 suffixes; clause constituents partially indicated by case-marking and postpositions; verbal affixation marks person, number, gender, and honorificity of subject; split ergativity; object marked by position; person, gender, animate distinguished, obligatory for subject; transitives; both tense and aspect; passives and voice; causatives; comparatives; V, VC, VCC, CV, CVC, CVV, CCV, CVCC, CCVCC; nontonal; 29 consonant and 11 vowel phonemes. Lg Use: Spoken by a wide variety of castes. Long literary tradition. A Maithili Academy in Patna; Bihar Maithili taught at L. N. Mithila University in Darbhanga, Patna University, and Janakpur campus of Tribhuvan University. Home, friends. All ages. Some also use Hindi [hin], Nepali [npi], or English [eng] even at home and with other Maithili. Bhojpuri [bho] or Bengali [ben] used with friends from those groups. Lg Dev: Literacy rate in L1: 20%. Literacy rate in L2: 25%–50%. Educated

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read Hindi [hin], Nepali [npi], or English [eng]. If they can read Hindi or Nepali, they can read Maithili. MLE and adult literacy programs have been carried out in Maithili communities throughout the Rajbanshi area. Writing: Devanagari script, primary usage. Kaithi script, used until the turn of the 20th century. Newar (Prachalit Nepal) script, no longer in use, historic usage. Tirhuta script, used until the turn of the 20th century. Other: Written variety considered standard. Hindi [hin] and its speakers considered close, culturally similar; Nepali [npi] accepted. Hindu, Muslim, Christian.

Majhi [mjz] (Manjhi). 21,800 in Nepal (2001 census), decreasing. Population total all countries: 42,200. Ethnic population: 72,600. Janakpur Zone, Ramechhap District, Chisapani, Bhatauli, Pagarbas, Bhaluwajor, Rakathum VDCs. Also in India. Status: 6b (Threatened). Class: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Eastern zone, Bihari. Dialects: Manthali, Rajgaun, Sitkha. Type: SOV; postpositions; noun head final; no noun classes or genders; content q-word in situ; 1 prefix, up to 2 suffixes; clause constituents indicated by case-marking; verbal affixation marks person and number; split ergativity based on nominal hierarchy (the first and second person pronouns do not code ergativity but the third person pronouns do); passives and voice; non-tonal; 29 consonant and 6 vowel phonemes. Lg Use: Being replaced by Nepali [npi] (UNESCO). Religion. All are bilingual in Nepali [npi] (UNESCO). Lg Dev: Radio programs. Writing: Devanagari script, used in India. Other: Distinct from Majhi in Panjabi group or Bote [bmj]. Majhi, Bote, and Kushar all are used by hill peoples. Hindu, Christian.

Manangba [nmm] (Manang, Manang Ke, “Manangbhot” pej., Manange, Manangi, Nyeshang, Nyeshangte, Nyishang). 3,740 (Pohle 1988), decreasing. Gandaki Zone, Manang District, Upper Manang; villages: Pisang, Dhukur Pokhari, Humde, Ghyaru, Ngawal, Braka, Manang, Tengki, Khangsar; Kathmandu. Status: 6b (Threatened). Class: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Western Tibeto-Burman, Bodish, West Bodish, Gurung-Tamang, Gurungic. Dialects: Manang, Pisang. Very high intelligibility of Manang dialect by Pisang residents. Very different from Eastern Gurung [ggn]. Lexical similarity: 94% or greater with all varieties of Manangba. Type: SOV; postpositions; noun head both initial and final; no noun classes or genders; content q-word initial; 1 prefix, up to 2 suffixes; clause constituents indicated by case-marking; verbal

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affixation marks person (not strictly person, but aligns with evidentiality); ergativity; aspect; no passives or voice; tonal; 30 consonant and 6 (plus nasalized) vowel phonemes. Lg Use: Fairly strong vitality. Some community involvement in language and culture preservation activities both in home area and in Kathmandu. Mixed use: Home, friends, work. Older adults and elderly. Some use among children, adolescents, and young adults. Positive attitudes. Nepali [npi] used for business, Tibetan [bod] for some religious domains, Nepali and English [eng] used in local government schools. Lg Dev: Poetry. New Media. TV. Dictionary. Grammar. Writing: Unwritten. Other: Language has Tibetan influence. Most speakers have the surname Gurung or Ghale, but they do not claim to be a part of these distinct ethnolinguistic groups. Buddhist.

Marwari [rwr] (Marwadi). 22,600 in Nepal (2001 census). Population total all countries: 5,622,600. Ethnic population: 44,000. Mechi Zone, Jhapa District; Koshi Zone, Morang and Sunsari districts; Narayani Zone, Parsa District; some in Kathmandu and other urban areas. Also in India. Status: 5 (Developing). Class: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Central zone, Rajasthani, Marwari. Dialects: The standard form of Marwari. May or may not be different from Marwari of Pakistan [mve]. 67% intelligibility of Shekhawati [swv], 61% of Godwari [gdx], 54% of Mewari [mtr], 54% of Dhundari [dhd], 45% of Haroti [hoj], 45% of Mewati [wtm]. 53% intelligibility of Shekawati by Marwari. Lexical similarity: 50%–65% with Hindi [hin], 69%–76% with Merwari [wry], 72%–87% between dialects, 62%–74% with Godwari [gdx], 61%–77% with Shekawati [swv]. Type: SOV; postpositions; noun head final; content q-word in situ; clause constituents indicated by case-marking; both tense and aspect; 38 consonant and 10 vowel phonemes; non-tonal. Lg Use: Home, friends; mixed use: Religion, work. All ages. Positive attitudes. Nearly all also use Hindi [hin], Nepali [npi] and other local languages. Lg Dev: Literacy rate in L2: 88%. Writing: Devanagari script. Other: Hindu.

Meche [brx] (Bara, Bodi, Bodo, Boro, Boroni, Mache, Mech, Mechi, Meci). 3,300 in Nepal (2001 census). No monolinguals. Population total all countries: 1,333,300. Ethnic population: 3,760 (2001 census). Mechi Zone, Jhapa District. Also in India (Bodo). Status: 6b (Threatened). Language of recognized nationality (2002, NFDIN Act, No. 20, Section 2C). Class: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Sal, Bodo-Garo-Northern Naga, Bodo-Koch, Bodo-Garo, Bodo. Dialects: Related to Dimasa [dis],

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Tripuri [trp], Lalunga. West Bengal dialect reportedly different from Assam. Lg Use: Most also use Nepali [npi] or Bengali [ben]. Writing: Bengali script. Devanagari script. Latin script. Other: Traditional religion, Christian.

Mewahang, Eastern [emg] (Eastern Meohang, Mewahang, Newahang, Newahang Jimi, Newang, Newange Rai). Almost no monolinguals. Ethnic population: 3,000. Koshi Zone, Sankhuwasabha District, Mangtewa, Yaphu, Choyang VDCs; upper Arun Valley east of the river. Sunsari dialect in Sunsari District, Bhaludhunga, Bishnupaduka VDC; Dibum (Dibung) dialect in Mangtewa VDC; Mulgaon-Wangtang dialect in Yaphu VDC. Status: 6b (Threatened). Language of recognized nationality (2002, NFDIN Act, No. 20, Section 2C), Rai nationality. Class: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Western Tibeto-Burman, Himalayan, Kiranti, Eastern. Dialects: Dibum, Mulgaon-Wangtang, Sunsari. Structurally different from Western Mewahang [raf]. Type: SOV; postpositions; noun head final; verbal affixation marks person and number; tense and aspect. Lg Use: Shifting to Nepali [npi]. Home, religion; mixed use: Friends, work. Older adults and elderly. Some use among children, adolescents, and young adults. Also use Nepali [npi], Kulung [kle], or Lohorung [lbr]. Lg Dev: Poetry. Dictionary. Writing: Devanagari script. Other: The language is regarded as a dialect of Western Mewahang [raf]. Traditional religion (Kirat), Hindu.

Mewahang, Western [raf] (Mewahang, Newahang, Newahang Jimi, Newang, Newange Rai, Western Meohang). Few monolinguals. Ethnic population: 3,000. Koshi Zone, Sankhuwasabha District, upper Arun Valley west of Arun River, Bala, Yamdang, Tamku, Sisuwa. Bala dialect is in Bala Village, Sankhuwasabha VDC; Bumdemba dialect in Sishuwakhola VDC. Status: 6b (Threatened). Language of recognized nationality (2002, NFDIN Act, No. 20, Section 2C), Rai nationality. Class: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Western Tibeto-Burman, Himalayan, Kiranti, Eastern. Dialects: Bala (Balali), Bumdemba. Structurally different from Eastern Mewahang [emg]. Type: SOV; postpositions; 24 consonant and 14 vowel phonemes. Lg Use: The language is nearly extinct in the village of Tamku, the largest settlement in the area, where many ex-Gurkha pensioners live. Home; mixed use: Friends, religion, work. Young adults and older. Some use among children and adolescents. Positive attitudes. Also use Nepali [npi], Kulung [kle], or

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Lohorung [lbr]. Lg Dev: Poetry. Dictionary. Writing: Devanagari script. Other: Traditional religion (Kirat), Hindu.

Mugali [lmh] (Lambicchong, Lambichhong, Lambichong, Lambitshong, Phangduwali Mugali). 1,500 (2010 I. Rai), decreasing. Very few monolinguals. Koshi Zone, Dhankuta District, Arun River east bank, between Mugakhola and Sinuwakhola; Muga, Pakhribas and Phalate VDCs. Status: 7 (Shifting). Class: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Western Tibeto-Burman, Himalayan, Kiranti, Eastern. Dialect: Phangdhuwali. Similar to Chhulung [cur], Belhariya [byw], Chhintang [ctn]. Type: SOV; postpositions; no gender; verbal affixation marks person and number; split ergativity; tense; no passives or voice; nontonal; 23 consonant and 5 vowel phonemes. Lg Use: Older adults and elderly. Writing: Unwritten. Other: Traditional religion (Kirat).

Mugom [muk] (Mugali, Mugu, Mugum). 6,500 in Nepal (2006 SIL). 25% monolingual (UNESCO 02). Population total all countries: 7,000. Ethnic population: 6,500. Karnali Zone, Mugu District, Mugu, Mangri, Pulu, Kimri, Dolphu VDCs; Jumla District, Jumla; some in Kathmandu. Also in India. Status: 6a (Vigorous). Language of recognized nationality (2002, NFDIN Act, No. 20, Section 2C). Class: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Western Tibeto-Burman, Bodish, Central Bodish, Central, gTsang. Dialects: Karmarong (Karani, Kar-ket, Karmai-kat), Mugom (Moe-ket, Mugali, Mugomba, Mumbai-kat). Intelligibility 89%–93% between dialect speakers (possibly higher). Definitely sufficient to understand complex and abstract discourse. Similar to Humla [hut], Dolpo [dre], Loke [loy]. Lexical similarity: more than 85% between dialects, 75% with Tibetan [bod]. Type: SOV; postpositions; content q-word in situ; clause constituents indicated by case-marking; ergativity; no passives or voice; tonal. Lg Use: Vigorous. Home, friends; mixed use: Religion, work, education. All ages. Positive attitudes. Many also use Nepali [npi] and Tibetan [bod]; monks are bilingual in Tibetan; women are less bilingual in Nepali and Tibetan; some children are being introduced to English [eng]; some men also use Hindi [hin]. Lg Dev: Literacy rate in L2: Up to 22% in Nepali [npi]; men 30%, women 5%. Mugu District ranks very low in literacy among Nepal districts, especially among children and women. Strong affinity felt towards Tibetan [bod] and its writing system because of high lexical similarity. Poetry. Newspapers. Writing: Tibetan script. Other: Karanis want recognition

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as a separate ethnic group. Mugalis may not accept materials written in Karani, and vice versa. Mugom value Nepali and English as a way to higher education. Mugalis see themselves a bit higher than Karanis, and are more influential as they travel and trade more. Buddhist (Lamaist).

Mundari [unr] (Horo, Mandari, Mondari, Munari, Munda, Santhali, Satar). 7,780 in Nepal (2006). Population total all countries: 1,120,280. Mechi Zone, southern Jhapa District; Koshi Zone, Morang District. Also in Bangladesh, India. Status: 4 (Educational). Language of recognized nationality (2002, NFDIN Act, No. 20, Section 2C). Class: Austro-Asiatic, Munda, North Munda, Kherwari, Mundari. Dialects: Hasada, Kera, Latar, Naguri, Santhai, Satar. Related to Ho [hoc] and Santhali [sat]. 75% intelligibility of Ho. Lexical similarity: 70%–84% with the Bhumij dialect. Lg Use: Home; mixed use: Friends, religion, work, education. All ages. Positive attitudes. Lg Dev: Used as subject of instruction in basic education. Writing: Bengali script. Devanagari script. Latin script. Oriya script. Other: Hindu, Christian.

Musasa [smm] (Musahar, Rishidep). 50,000 (2003). 20,000 Musasa and 30,000 Musasa Bantar. Ethnic population: 172,000 in Nepal. Janakpur Zone, Sindhuli, Dolakha, Mahotari, Dhanusa districts; Koshi Zone, Morang, Sunsari districts; Sagarmatha Zone, Siraha, Saptari districts. Status: 6b (Threatened). Class: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Eastern zone, Bihari. Dialect: Bantar. Similar to Kochila (Saptari) Tharu [thq]. Lg Use: Speakers have high proficiency in Nepali [npi]. Writing: Unwritten. Other: Dalit caste. It has been suggested but not documented that they may speak a sociolect of the larger language groups they live among: Maithili [mai], Bhojpuri [bho], Avadhi [awa], and Kochila Tharu [thq]. Not listed in the 2001 Nepal census. Hindu.

Naaba [nao] (Naapa, Naapaa, Naba, Nawa Sherpa). 770 (2006). Koshi Zone, Sankhuwasabha District, Kimathanka VDC, Kimathanka Village, Hatiya VDC, Dangok and Pharang villages; Piibu, Chumusur, Ridak villages; also in Tsanga village, across the border in China. Status: 6a (Vigorous). Class: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Western Tibeto-Burman, Bodish, Central Bodish, Unclassified. Type: SOV; postpositions; clause constituents indicated by case-marking; ergativity; no passives or voice; tonal. Lg Use: All ages. Inhabitants of Pharang and Dangok also use Lhomi [lhm]. Writing: Unwritten. Other: The Lhomi [lhm] consider the Naaba people a distinct group. The Naaba have learned Lhomi

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as a language of wider communication, but are more culturally and linguistically similar to Sherpa [xsr] and Thudam [thw] than to Lhomi. Buddhist.

Nachering [ncd] (Bangdale, Bangdel Tûm, Bangdile, Mathsereng, Nacchhering, Nacering Ra, Nachering Tûm, Nachiring, Nasring). 3,550 (2001 census), decreasing. Sagarmatha Zone, upper northeast Khotang District near Rawakhola Valley, Lidim Khola River slopes area, headwaters and tributaries to Aiselukharke south, Rakha, Bangdel, Dipsun, Para, Badel, Patel, Bakacho, Aiselukharka VDCs; Solukhumbu District, Waddu, Sotang VDCs. Status: 7 (Shifting). Language of recognized nationality (2002, NFDIN Act, No. 20, Section 2C), Rai nationality. Class: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Western Tibeto-Burman, Himalayan, Kiranti, Eastern. Dialects: Bangdele (Achero, Hachero, Hangkula), Parali, Rakhali, Sotange. Related to Kulung [kle] and Sampang [rav]. High comprehension of Kulung among northern Nachering and Sampang among southern Nachering. Type: SOV. Lg Use: Degree of Nepalization is very high. Language retention among the younger generation appears to be limited to Bakachol, Rakha, and Bangdel VDCs. (Hansson 1991:73; 2011 J. Rai). Religion; mixed use: Home. Older adults and elderly. Some use among children, adolescents, and young adults. Positive attitudes. Almost all also use Nepali [npi]. Lg Dev: Poetry. Writing: Unwritten. Other: Different from Sampang, although sometimes called Sangpang or Sampang. Traditional religion (Kirat), Hindu, Christian.

Nar Phu [npa] (Nar-Phu). 600 (2011 K. Hildebrandt). 200 Phu speakers, 400 Nar speakers. Gandaki Zone, Manang District, Nar Valley north of Manang Valley, Nar (Nargaon, Chhuprung) and Phu (Phugaon, Nartwe) villages. Status: 6a (Vigorous). Class: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Western Tibeto-Burman, Bodish, West Bodish, Gurung-Tamang, Gurungic. Dialects: Nar (Lower Nar, Nar-Mä), Phu (Nar-Tö, Upper Nar). Related to Chantyal [chx], Gurung, Manangba [nmm], Tamang and Thakali [ths]; in a dialect continuum with Manangba [nmm] and possibly intelligible with it. Type: SOV; postpositions; noun head initial; no noun classes or gender; content q-word in situ; 1 prefix, up to 2 suffixes; clause constituents primarily indicated by case-marking; tense and aspect; no passives or voice; tonal; 25 consonants, 8 simple vowels and 5 diphthongs. Lg Use: If work is locally oriented, then Nar-Phu

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used; Tibetan [bod] is the liturgical language, but one can hear Nar-Phu in certain contexts during religious festivals. All ages. Many men are fluent in Tibetan [bod]. Lg Dev: Many men are literate in Classical Tibetan. Poetry. Dictionary. Writing: Unwritten. Other: See themselves as separate from Manangba and Gurung. Used as a secret language to confound Manangis and Gurungs who might otherwise understand their conversation (2002 M. Noonan). Buddhist.

Nepalese Sign Language [nsp] (Nepali Sign Language). 5,740 (2001 census). Most are monolingual. Central and Eastern Nepal. Status: 6a (Vigorous). Class: Deaf sign language. Dialects: None known. Developed from local and introduced signs. Related to Indian [ins] and Pakistan Sign [pks] Languages. Lg Use: Used by USA Peace Corps. All domains. All ages. Some comprehension of Nepali [npi] by those who have become literate. Lg Dev: Taught in primary and secondary schools. Magazines. Films. TV. Videos. Dictionary. Other: The NFDH starts schools for the Deaf in the larger towns. A few other smaller organizations also work with the Deaf and have Nepali Sign Language classes for the hearing. Hindu, Buddhist, Muslim, Christian.

Nepali [nep]. A macrolanguage; see Introduction. Includes: Dotyali [dty], Nepali [npi]. Population total all countries: 14,386,700.

Nepali [npi] (Eastern Pahadi, Gorkhali, Gurkhali, Khaskura, Nepalese, Parbate). 11,100,000 in Nepal (2001 census), increasing. Population total all countries: 14,136,700. East and adjacent south central regions. Also in Bhutan, Brunei, India, United States. Status: 1 (National). Statutory national language (1990, Interim Constitution, 2063, Article 5(2)). Language of recognized nationality (2002, NFDIN Act, No. 20, Section 2C). Class: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Northern zone, Eastern Pahari. A member of macrolanguage Nepali [nep]. Dialects: Acchami, Baitadeli (Baitadi), Bajhangi, Bajurali (Bajura), Bheri, Dailekhi, Darchulali (Darjula), Darchuli (Darjula), Gandakeli, Humli, Purbeli, Soradi. Similar to Dotyali [dty]. Dialects listed may be quite distinct from Standard Nepali. Intelligibility is also low among Baitadeli, Bajhangi, Bajurali (Bajura), Humli, Acchami. Type: SOV; postpositions; noun head final; 11 noun classes or genders; content q-word in situ; 1 prefix, up to 5 suffixes; clause constituents indicated by case-marking; verbal affixation marks person, number and gender of subject; split ergativity; both tense and aspect; passives and voice; non-

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tonal; 29 consonant and 11 vowel phonemes. Lg Use: All domains. All ages. Positive attitudes. Lg Dev: Taught at all levels of education. Fully developed. Bible: 1914–2004. Writing: Braille script. Devanagari script, primary usage. Other: Hindu, Buddhist, Muslim, Christian.

Newar [new] (Nepal Bhasa, Newaah Bhaaye, Newal Bhaye, “Newari” pej.). 825,000 in Nepal (2001 census), decreasing. Many women are monolingual. Population total all countries: 839,000. Ethnic population: 1,260,000 including 1,245,000 Newar plus 11,500 Pahari. Widespread. Kathmandu Valley and in many urban areas thoughout Nepal. Fewer in the far west. Also in India. Status: 3 (Wider communication). Language of recognized nationality (2002, NFDIN Act, No. 20, Section 2C). Class: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Western Tibeto-Burman, Himalayan, Central Himalayan, Newar. Dialects: Badikhel Pahari, Baglung, Balami, Bhaktapur, Citlang, Dolkhali (Dolakha), Gopali, Kathmandu-Patan-Kirtipur, Pyang Gaon, Sindhupalchok Pahri (Pahari, Pahri), Totali. The Dolakhae dialect of Dolakha has complex person-number verb agreement with residue reflex in the Pahari dialect of Badikhel. These two dialects are not fully intelligible to the speakers of Kathmandu Valley where the language has a simple conjunct-disjunct agreement. Kirtipur and Lalitpur are similar to Kathmandu. Bhaktapur people mostly understand Kathmandu despite some lexical differences. The Eastern Newar dialects, including at least Dolakha and Tauthali, are mutually unintelligible with the dialects of the Kathmandu Valley. The same may also be true of Pahri of Sindhupalchok and other varieties. Some vocabulary differences between Hindus and Buddhists. Type: SOV; postpositions; genitives, adjectives, demonstratives before noun heads; noun heads final; 4 noun classes: animate, inanimate, common, honored; content q-word in situ; relatives before and without noun heads; in polar questions there is a particle sentence finally; 1 prefix, up to 3 suffixes; clause constituents indicated by case-marking; verbal affixation marks person and number (in Dolakha and Badikhel dialects); affixes or clitics indicate case of noun phrases; ergative; causatives; comparatives; tense and aspect; no passives or voice; V, VC, CV, CVC, CCV, CCVC; nontonal; 28 consonant and 6 vowel phonemes. Lg Use: Language shift greater among Hindus than Buddhists. Home, religion; mixed use: Friends, work, education. Children, young adults and older. Some use among adolescents. Most are multilingual in Nepali [npi], English [eng], Hindi [hin], or Tibetan [bod]. Lg Dev: Literacy rate in L1: 60% (1991 census). Literacy rate in

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L2: 60% (1991 census). Youth more literate than older; men more than women. Taught in primary and secondary schools. Poetry. Magazines. Newspapers. New Media. Radio programs. Films. TV. Videos. Dictionary. Grammar. NT: 1986. Writing: Devanagari script, primary usage. Newar (Prachalit Nepal) script, in common use during the Malla period and earlier, recent efforts to revive usage. Ranjana (Lantsa, Wartu) script, no longer in use. Other: One of the principal languages of Nepal; historically an official language of the Newar Malla Kings of the three cities of Kathmandu Valley. Kathmandu is the prestige dialect with most published materials. English [eng] highly valued; mixed feelings about Hindi [hin]; Tibetan [bod] does not have high prestige. People learn whichever language will help them economically: Nepali [npi], English [eng], Hindi [hin], and others. Buddhist, Hindu, Christian, Muslim.

Nubri [kte] (Kutang, Kutang Bhotia, Larkye). 2,000 (2001 census). 500 monolinguals. Gandaki Zone, North Gorkha District, upper region of the Buri Gandaki River, from Namrung to Samdo and Prok. Status: 6a (Vigorous). Language of recognized nationality (2002, NFDIN Act, No. 20, Section 2C). Class: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Western Tibeto-Burman, Bodish, Central Bodish, Central, gTsang. Dialects: Lho, Namrung, Prok, Sama. Only moderately intelligible with Kyirong Tibetan (74%). The most distinct variety reportedly spoken in Samdo village. Sama is somewhat divergent. Tsum [ttz] reportedly not intelligible with Nubri. The language spoken in the Kutang area is not intelligible with Nubri, although most who live in this area reportedly can speak and understand Nubri. Lexical similarity: 78%–93% among dialects. Prok is more distinct. 71%–78% with Tsum [ttz], 66%–74% with Kyirong Tibetan [kgy]; 67% with Dolpo [dre]; 65% with Loke [loy], 59%–64% with Lhasa Tibetan [bod]; 64% with Olangchung Gola [ola] (Walungge) and Lhomi [lhm]; 61% with Helambu Sherpa [scp]; 57% with Jirel [jul]; 55% with Sherpa [xsr]; 21%–27% with Northern Ghale [ghh], 20%–23% with Southern Ghale [ghe], 14%–31% with Kuke [ght], 14% with Eastern Gorkha Tamang [tge], Western Gurung [gvr], and Banspur Tamang. Type: SOV; postpositions; content q-words in situ. Lg Use: Vigorous. Most domains. Positive attitudes. Speakers have minimal bilingual proficiency in Nepali [npi] and Tibetan [bod]. Nepali is used with outsiders. Lg Dev: Literacy rate in L2: Below 10%. Writing: Unwritten. Other: Nubri marry within their community and from the Kutang community. People trade in Gorkha District and also with Tibet. ‘Bhotia’ or ‘Bhote’ refers to people

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of Tibetan origin; in some contexts derogatory. Ethnic identity is closely affiliated between the Nubri and the Kuke [ght]. Buddhist (Lamaist).

Palpa [plp] (Pahari-Palpa). No known L1 speakers. Lumbini Zone, Palpa Town. Status: 9 (Dormant). Class: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Northern zone, Eastern Pahari. Dialects: Palpa stands midway between Nepali [npi] (Eastern Pahari) and Kumaoni [kfy] (Central Pahari). Might be considered a dialect of Kumaoni or Nepali. Lg Dev: NT: 1827. Writing: Devanagari script. Other: Pahari, of the hills, also refers to a dialect of Newar [new]. Existence of Palpa as a separate language has been questioned.

Phangduwali [phw] (Phangduvali, Phangduwali Poti). Koshi Zone, Dhankuta District, Pakhribas VDC, directly above Mugakhola headwaters. Status: 7 (Shifting). Language of recognized nationality (2002, NFDIN Act, No. 20, Section 2C), Rai natonality. Class: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Western Tibeto-Burman, Himalayan, Kiranti, Eastern. Dialects: None known. Linguistically between Yakkha [ybh] and Belhariya [byw]. The language spoken by the Phangduwali people is well-understood by Mugali [lmh] people and vice versa except for a few lexical items and accents. Type: SOV; postpositions; 23 consonant and 5 vowel phonemes. Writing: Unwritten. Other: Van Driem (2001) claims that the Phangduwali are actually Yakkha [ybh], whereas I.P. Rai (forthcoming) suggests these two languages are distinct. Both assert that Phangduwali and Mugali [lmh] are the same language. Traditional religion (Kirat).

Puma [pum] (Puma Kala, Puma La, Puma Pima). 5,000 (2008 CPDP), decreasing. Sagarmatha Zone, southern Khotang District, Diplung, Chisapani, Devisthan, Mauwabote, Pauwasera VDCs; Udayapur District, Beltar, Saunechour VDCs; the valley of Ruwa Khola to the Buwa Khola across the Dudh Koshi southward. Status: 6b (Threatened). Language of recognized nationality (2002, NFDIN Act, No. 20, Section 2C), Rai nationality. Class: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Western Tibeto-Burman, Himalayan, Kiranti, Eastern. Type: SOV; postpositions; noun head final; content q-word in situ; clause constituents indicated by both case-marking and word order; verbal affixation marks person and number; ergativity; tense and aspect; no passive or voice, but antipassive is a remarkable feature; non-tonal. Lg Use: Adults use L2 as much as L1 (Toba, Toba and Rai 2005). Home, religion, work; mixed use: Friends. Older adults

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and elderly. Some use among children, adolescents, and young adults. Positive attitudes, especially among younger generation. Almost all also use Nepali [npi], Bantawa [bap], or Chamling [rab]. Lg Dev: Poetry. Magazines. Films. Videos. Dictionary. Writing: Devanagari script. Other: Traditional religion (Kirat), Hindu, Christian.

Rajbanshi [rjs] (Gangai, Koch, Koche, Rajbangsi, Rajbansi, Tajpuria). 130,000 (2001 census), increasing. Mechi Zone, Jhapa District; Koshi Zone, Morang and Sunsari districts. Status: 5 (Developing). Language of recognized nationality (2002, NFDIN Act, No. 20, Section 2C). Class: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Eastern zone, Bengali-Assamese. Dialects: Central Rajbanshi, Eastern Rajbanshi, Western Rajbanshi. Intelligibility is fairly high throughout the area (Eppele and Grimes 2001). Lexical similarity: 77%–95% with all varieties in Nepal (Eppele and Grimes 2001). Type: SOV; postpositions; noun head final; 2 noun classes or genders; content q-word in situ; 1 prefix, up to 4 suffixes; clause constituents indicated by both case-marking and word order; verbal affixation marks person and number; non-ergative; tense and aspect; passives and voice (no morphological passive, but 2 analytical passives); non-tonal; 32 consonant and 6–7 vowel phonemes. Lg Use: Vigorous. Home, friends, religion, work; mixed use: Education. All ages. Positive attitudes. A majority of the population uses Nepali [npi] and Hindi [hin] as languages of wider communication. Maithili [mai] and Bengali [ben] also used by some. Lg Dev: Literacy rate in L2: 38% (1991 census). MLE and adult literacy programs have been carried out in villages throughout the Rajbanshi area. Taught in primary schools. Poetry. Newspapers. Radio programs. Films. Videos. Dictionary. Grammar. NT: 2009. Writing: Devanagari script. Other: Hindu, Christian.

Raji [rji] (Ban Raji, Janggali, Rajibar, Rawati, Rjya). 2,410 (2001 census), decreasing. Ethnic population: Over 4,000. Bheri Zone, Surkhet, Banke and Bardiya districts; Seti Zone, Kailali District; Mahakali Zone, Kanchanpur District. Status: 6b (Threatened). Language of recognized nationality (2002, NFDIN Act, No. 20, Section 2C). Class: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Western Tibeto-Burman, Himalayan, Central Himalayan, Raute-Raji. Dialects: Barh Bandale, Naukule, Purbiya. Similar to Rawat [jnl] and Raute [rau]. Speakers of Barh Bandale and Purbiya have difficulty in understanding the Naukule variety. Lexical similarity: From 84% and 86% between the three varieties; 55% with Raute [rau].

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Lg Use: In one village in Kailali District, Khailad VDC, speakers under 6 years of age and over 60 years old are monolingual. Religion; mixed use: Home, friends, work. Some use among all ages. Negative attitudes. Almost all use Nepali [npi], Tharu or Hindi [hin]. Lg Dev: Literacy rate in L2: 22% (1991 census). Literacy in Nepali [npi] is increasing since parents have started sending their children to school. Poetry. Dictionary. Writing: Devanagari script. Other: The Raji were a nomadic group, but now settled. Sharma (1990) identifies Raji in India (perhaps Bodo Gadaba [gbj]) as a Munda language with borrowings from Tibeto-Burman and Indo-Aryan. Barh Bandale dialect is the most prestigious. May be the same as Rawat [jnl] in India. Traditional religion, Hindu, Buddhist, Christian.

Raute [rau] (Boto boli, Khamchi, Raji, Rajwar, Rautya, Rautye). 830 (2006 J. Fortier), decreasing. All nomadic Raute are monolingual. Around 25 nomadic Raute are found in the dense forest of Midwestern and Far Western regions. Around 800 settled Raute in Mahakali Zone, Dadeldhura district, Jogbudha, Sirsa VDCs, in the Karnali River and Mahakali (Kali) River watershed regions. Settled nomadic camp in Bheri Zone, Surkhet District. Status: 6a (Vigorous). Language of recognized nationality (2002, NFDIN Act, No. 20, Section 2C). Class: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Western Tibeto-Burman, Himalayan, Central Himalayan, Raute-Raji. Dialects: None known. There are many similarities with Raji, but the relationship of Raute with and intelligibility between Rawat [jnl] and Raji [rji] needs further investigation. Lexical similarity: 80% with Rawat [jnl], 60% with Chepang [cdm], 25% with Kham. Type: SOV; postpositions; noun head final; no noun classes or gender; content q-word in situ; clause constituents indicated by case-marking; verbal affixation marks person and number; ergativity; both tense and aspect; non-tonal; 35 consonant and 7 vowel phonemes. Lg Use: Vigorous. Home, friends, religion, work. Children, older adults, and elderly. Some use among adolescents and young adults. Nomadic Raute are secretive about their language. Some youth speak Nepali [npi] or Hindi [hin] among themselves in front of outsiders. Settled Raute also use some Nepali [npi] with outsiders. Among nomadic Raute, only the headman is allowed to speak with outsiders. Lg Dev: Literacy rate in L1: 0%. Dictionary. Writing: Unwritten. Other: Ethnic autonym: Ra’te. The name may be of Tibeto-Burman origin, from ra- meaning human plus a person marker, -to or -te. Other scholars suggest it derives from the Sanskrit Indo-Aryan word ‘raut’ from Sanskrit, ‘rajaputra’, prince. Rautes deem their language sacred

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and are linguistically conservative toward adopting non-Raute words or grammatical features. Traditional religion.

Saam [raq] (Saam Rai, Saama Kha, Samakha). 23 (2001 census). Koshi Zone, northern Bhojpur District, Dobhane and Khatamma (Khartangma) VDCs, straddling the Irkhuwa River, in Dangmaya, Okharbote, Khartangma, and Dobhane settlements between the Phedi and Irkhuwa rivers. Status: 8b (Nearly extinct). Language of recognized nationality (2002, NFDIN Act, No. 20, Section 2C), Rai nationality. Class: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Western Tibeto-Burman, Himalayan, Kiranti, Eastern. Dialects: Bungla, Sambya. Lg Use: Shifting to Nepali [npi]. Some use among older adults. Writing: Unwritten. Other: Almost no study or documentation has been done on the languages spoken in northern Bhojpur district. Other groups called ‘Saam’ may be Kulung [kle] or Lingkhim [lii]. Traditional religion (Kirat).

Sampang [rav] (Sampang Gun, Sampang Gung, Sampang Kha, Sampange Rai, Sangpang, Sangpang Gîn, Sangpang Gun, Sangpang Kha). 6,000 (1999 R. Huysmans), decreasing. No monolinguals. Phali dialect spoken by a few elderly speakers. Khotang dialect: Sagarmatha Zone, Khotang district, the upriver portion of the Tap Khola River, villages: Baspani, Khartamcha, Phedi, Patheka; three enclaves in Koshi Zone, Bhojpur District: between the headwaters of the Lahure Khola river (village of Okharbote), the Syam Khola area (villages of Kimalung, Nigale, Talakharka, Surke) and around the bazaar in Dingla. Phali dialect is spoken by a few elderly speakers in Koshi Zone, Bhojpur District, Sangpang. Status: 6b (Threatened). Language of recognized nationality (2002, NFDIN Act, No. 20, Section 2C), Rai nationality. Class: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Western Tibeto-Burman, Himalayan, Kiranti, Eastern. Dialects: Khotang, Phali. Mutual intelligibility between the Khartamcha variety and the Patheka variety of the Khotang dialect is high. Mutual intelligibility between the Khotang and Phali Sampang dialect is difficult to estimate but appears to be low. Type: SOV; postpositions; noun head final; noun classes or gender; content q-word in situ; 1 prefix, up to 6 suffixes; word-order clause constituents; verbal affixation marks person and number; split ergativity; tense and aspect; passives and voice; non-tonal; 28 consonant and 20 vowel phonemes; distinctive pitch-accent, nasal vowel phonemes and syllabic nasals; a prominent role is played in the grammar by an imperfective nominalizing

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suffix; in nominal morphology, the ergative structure is breaking down through the introduction of the Nepali oblique case marker. Lg Use: Shifting to Nepali [npi]. Mixed use: Home, friends, religion, work. Young adults and older. Some use among children and adolescents. Positive attitudes. Most speak some Nepali [npi] but men, educated and younger people have higher proficiency. Nepali is valued as language of education. Lg Dev: Literacy rate in L2: 80%. Dictionary. NT: 2008. Writing: Devanagari script. Other: Traditional religion (Kirat), Hindu, Christian.

Sanskrit [san] (Deva Bhasha, Deva vani, Sanskrit bhasha). No known L1 speakers. Population total all countries: 14,100. Widely dispersed. Also in India. Status: 9 (Dormant). Class: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan. Type: SOV; both prepositions and postpositions; noun head final; 3 genders; content q-word in situ; up to 3 prefixes, up to 5 suffixes; clause constituents indicated by case-marking; verbal affixation marks person, number and genders of subject and object; non-ergative; tense and aspect; passives and voice; non-tonal; 32 consonant and 15 vowel phonemes. Lg Use: Use as an L2 is decreasing. Religion, education; mixed use: Home, friends, work. Positive attitudes. Lg Dev: Mahayana Buddhist schools use Sanskrit. Taught in primary and secondary schools. Writing: Devanagari script. Myanmar (Burmese) script. Newar (Prachalit Nepal) script. Sharada script. Sinhala script. Other: Hindu, Buddhist.

Santhali [sat] (Har, Hor, Sainti, Sandal, Sangtal, Santal, Santali, Santhal, Satar, Sentali, Sonthal). 40,300 in Nepal (2001 census), increasing. Very few monolinguals. Population total all countries: 6,218,900. Ethnic population: 42,700. Koshi Zone, Morang and Sunsari districts; Mechi Zone, Jhapa District. Also in Bangladesh, Bhutan, India. Status: 6a (Vigorous). Language of recognized nationality (2002, NFDIN Act, No. 20, Section 2C). Class: Austro-Asiatic, Munda, North Munda, Kherwari, Santali. Dialects: None known. Similar to Ho [hoc], Mundari [unr], Munda [unx]. Type: SOV; postpositions; noun head final; no noun classes or genders; content q-word in situ; 1 prefix, up to 3 suffixes; clause constituents indicated by case-marking; verbal affixation marks person and number; non-ergative; both tense and aspect; passives and voice; non-tonal; 33 consonant and 6 vowel phonemes. Lg Use: 1,339 L2 Satar speakers; 559 L2 Santhal speakers (1991 census). Migration, seasonal labor, illiteracy, lack of educational facilities are all threats to vitality. UNESCO). Home, friends, religion, work; mixed use: Education. All

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ages. Positive attitudes. Also use Nepali [npi] or Maithili [mai]. At least 25,420 Santali speakers report speaking another language, Nepali (2001 census). Lg Dev: Literacy rate in L1: Few. Taught in primary schools, (MLE schools). Writing: Bengali script. Devanagari script, used in Nepal. Latin script, used in Bangladesh. Ol Chiki (Ol Cemet’, Ol, Santali) script. Oriya script. Other: Traditional religion, Hindu, Christian.

Seke [skj]. 700 (2002 SIL). Dhaulagiri Zone, Mustang District, Chuksang, Tsaile, Tangbe, Tetang, Gyakar villages; Jomsom and Pokhara. Status: 6a (Vigorous). Language of recognized nationality (2002, NFDIN Act, No. 20, Section 2C). Class: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Western Tibeto-Burman, Bodish, West Bodish, Gurung-Tamang, Gurungic. Dialects: Chuksang, Tangbe, Tetang. Similarities with Thakali [ths] and Manangba [nmm]. Very different from Loke [loy]. Tangbe dialect speakers do not understand the Chuksang dialect very well, but the Chuksang understand Tangbe. Reportedly understand Gurung but Gurung do not understand Seke. Lg Use: All ages. Use Nepali [npi] with the Gurung. A few also speak Loke [loy]. Writing: Unwritten. Other: Seke villages are surrounded by Baragaunle [loy] speaking villages. Buddhist.

Sherpa [xsr] (Serwa, Sharpa, “Sharpa Bhotia” pej., Xiaerba). 122,000 in Nepal (2001 census), decreasing. A few elderly monolinguals in remote villages (UNESCO). Population total all countries: 145,800. Ethnic population: 155,000 (2001 census). Sagarmatha Zone, Solu Khumbu District; Janakpur Zone, Dolakha and Ramechhap districts. Also in Bhutan, China, India, United States. Status: 5 (Developing). Language of recognized nationality (2002, NFDIN Act, No. 20, Section 2C). Class: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Western Tibeto-Burman, Bodish, Central Bodish, Central, gTsang. Dialects: Central Sherpa (Solu, South Sherpa), East Sherpa (Dolakha, Ramechhap), North Sherpa (Khumbu), West Sherpa. 95% comprehension of Solu dialect by Western and Khumbu. Lexical similarity: 90% between Solu and Khumbu dialects; 67% with Jirel [jul]; 65% with Helambu Sherpa [scp]; 62% with Loke [loy] and Dolpo [dre]; 58% with Lhomi [lhm] and Lhasa Tibetan [bod]; 57% with Kyerung (Kyirong) [kgy]; 55% with Nubri [kte] and Walungge [ola]. Type: SOV; postpositions; noun head initial; no noun classes or genders; content q-word in situ; 1 prefix, up to 3 suffixes; clause constituents indicated by case-marking; verbal affixation marks person; split ergativity; tense and aspect; no passive forms; tonal; 31 consonant

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and 6 vowel phonemes (also 6 diphthongs). Lg Use: Vigorous in villages but not in urban areas where there is some shift towards Nepali [npi]. Mixed use: Home, friends, religion, work, education. Older adults and elderly. Some use among children, adolescents, and young adults. Positive attitudes. In schools children are teased if they use Sherpa. In Kathmandu parents use Nepali [npi] with school-age children. Some also use Nepali [npi], Tibetan [bod], or English [eng]. Guides (men) learn trekkers’ languages: German [deu], Korean [kor], French [fra] (1998 SIL). At least 90% speak Nepali (UNESCO). Lg Dev: Literacy rate in L1: 8%–9%. The Mountain Institute and the Curriculum Development Centre have published some primary education materials. Lack of language development is source of embarrassment for some. Poetry. Newspapers. Radio programs. Dictionary. Bible portions: 1975–2008. Writing: Devanagari script. Tibetan script. Other: Tourism and increased wealth have given Sherpas the financial means to send their children to Kathmandu and abroad for education contributing to language shift. Buddhist (Lamaist), Christian.

Sonha [soi] (Sonahaa, Sunah, Sunha). 14,700 (2000), decreasing. No monolinguals. Seti Zone, Kailali District, along Karnali River; Bheri Zone, Surkhet District along Bheri River; Bardia District, Daulatpur VDC, Murgawagaon; Mahakali Zone, along Mahakali River; Kanchanpur District, Bhimadatta VDC, Odaligaon, Mahendranagar tahsil. Status: 7 (Shifting). Class: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Central zone, Unclassified. Dialects: None known. Similar to Dangaura Tharu [thl] with 80% intelligibility; similar to Avadhi [awa]. Lexical similarity: 69% with Rana Tharu [thr], 73% with Kathariya Tharu [tkt], 72% with Dangaura Tharu. Sonha and Kathariya [tkt] form a lexical bridge with Rana and Dangaura varieties of Tharu. Type: SOV; postpositions; noun head final; content q-word in situ; clause constituents indicated by case-marking; verbal affixation marks number; split ergativity; passives and voice; non-tonal. Lg Use: Home; mixed use: Friends, religion, work. Young adults and older. Some use among children and adolescents. Writing: Unwritten. Other: ’Sonha’ is an occupational caste (gold panners). Hindu, Christian.

Sunwar [suz] (Bhujuwar, Kirati-Koits, Koits Lo, Mukhiya, Pirthwar, Sunuwar, Sunwari). 26,611 (2001 census). Very few monolinguals. Ethnic population: 95,300 (2001 census). Janakpur Zone, Ramechhap, Dolakha districts, east hills; Sagarmatha Zone, northwest Okhaldhunga

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District. Status: 6b (Threatened). Language of recognized nationality (2002, NFDIN Act, No. 20, Section 2C). Class: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Western Tibeto-Burman, Himalayan, Kiranti, Western. Dialect: Surel. Related to Bahing [bhj], distantly to Thulung [tdh], Wambule [wme], Jerung [jee]. Lexical similarity: more than 80% with Surel. Type: SOV; postpositions; genitives after noun heads; relatives before noun heads; noun heads both initial and final; 5 noun classes; content q-word initial and in situ; up to 2 prefixes and 3 suffixes; clause constituents indicated by split-case marking; verbal affixation marks person and number; causatives; comparatives; passives and voice; CV, CVC CVV, CCV, CCVC, V, VC; tonal; 24 consonant and 6 vowel phonemes; nasal contrastive pairs. Lg Use: Mixed use: Home, friends, religion, work. Adolescents and older. Some use among children. Language is passed down to children only in village areas (UNESCO). Positive attitudes. Younger people speak Nepali [npi] for trade, official purposes with low proficiency (SIL 1998). Most also use Bayung [byh], (Rapacha 2010), Tamang [taj], or Nepali (UNESCO 2002). Lg Dev: Literacy rate in L1: 20% (Rapacha 2010). Literacy rate in L2: Males 15% in villages, 20% in Kathmandu. Poetry. Magazines. Newspapers. New Media. Radio programs. Videos. Dictionary. Grammar. Bible: 2012. Writing: Devanagari script. Other: Traditional religion (Kirati), Hindu, Christian, Taoism.

Tamang, Eastern [taj] (“Bhotia” pej., Ishang, Murmi, Sei). 1,180,000 in Nepal (2001 census), increasing. Monolinguals: In some remote communities, particularly women, children and elderly people. Population total all countries: 1,197,500. Ethnic population: 1,290,000 (2001 census). Kathmandu; Janakpur Zone, Sindhuli, Ramechhap, Dolkha districts; Bagmati Zone, Kavre Palanchok District, west Sindhupalchowk, Lalitpur, Bhaktapur, east Nuwakot districts; Narayani Zone, Makwanpur and Chitwan districts. Also in Bhutan, India. Status: 5 (Developing). Recognized language (2002, NFDIN Act, No. 20, Section 2C). Class: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Western Tibeto-Burman, Bodish, West Bodish, Gurung-Tamang, Tamang. Dialects: Central-Eastern Tamang (Temal Tamang), Outer-Eastern Tamang (Sailung Tamang), Southwestern Tamang. Central-Eastern most widely understood among all tested to date: 85% by both Trisuli and Rasuwa Western Tamang [tdg], 93%–98% by Outer-Eastern, 87% by Southwestern Tamang [tsf]. Comprehension of Outer-Eastern 58% by Western Rasuwa Tamang [tdg], 64%–75%

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by Western Trisuli Tamang [tdg], 67%–54% by Southwestern Tamang [tsf], 88%–93% by Central-Eastern Tamang [taj], and 90%–98% among its own varieties. Southwestern Tamang [tsf] may be a bridge between Eastern and Western Tamang (Varenkamp 1996). Lexical similarity: 88%–99% with Outer Eastern varieties; 89%–100% with Central Eastern; 79%–93% with Outer Eastern and Central Eastern, 77%–82% with Southwestern Tamang [tsf], 86%–93% with Southwestern and Central-Eastern, 74%–80% with Eastern and Western Trisuli Tamang [tdg], 69%–81% with Western Rasuwa Tamang [tdg], 72%–80% with Northwestern Dhading Tamang [tmk], 63%–77% with Eastern Gorkha Tamang [tge] (Varenkamp 1996). Type: SOV; postpositions, genitives after nouns; noun head final; no noun classes or genders; content q-word in situ; 1 prefix, up to 3 suffixes; clause constituents indicated by case-marking; ergative; aspect and tense; no passives or voice; 34 consonant and 16 vowel phonemes; CV, CVC, CCV, V, CCVC; tonal; vowel phonemes include 5 basic, 5 long, 6 diphthongs; aspiration and length are phonemic. Lg Use: Vigorous. Home, friends, religion; mixed use: Work, education. All ages. Those who have been to school or traveled often speak Nepali [npi]; others have limited proficiency, especially women, older adults, children. Lg Dev: Literacy rate in L1: 1%–5%. Literacy rate in L2: 25%–50%. Some non-formal and formal literacy materials, textbooks and classes. Taught in primary schools, up to class 3 as medium of instruction; to class 5 as subject. Poetry. Magazines. Newspapers. New Media. Radio programs. Films. TV. Videos. Dictionary. Grammar. NT: 2011. Writing: Devanagari script. Tibetan script, Tamhig style. Other: Traditional religion, Buddhist, Hindu, Christian.

Tamang, Eastern Gorkha [tge]. 3,980 (2000). Gandaki Zone, North Gorkha District, south and east of Jagat. Status: 6a (Vigorous). Class: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Western Tibeto-Burman, Bodish, West Bodish, Gurung-Tamang, Tamang. Dialects: Kasigaon, Kerounja. Lexical similarity: 89% with dialects, 76%–77% with Northwestern (Dhading) Tamang [tmk], 77%–79% with Western (Trisuli) Tamang [tdg], 72%-73% with Western (Rasuwa) Tamang [tdg], 70%–73% with Southwestern Tamang [tsf], 63%–73% with Eastern Tamang [taj] dialects (Varenkamp 1996), 50% with Western (Banspur) Gurung [gvr], 31%–37% with Northern [ghh] and Southern Ghale [ghe], 18%–23% with Kuke [ght], 14%–16% with Nubri [kte], Tsum [ttz], and Kyerung (Kyirong) [kgy], 12%–14% with Tibetan [bod] (1992 J. Webster). Lg Dev: Literacy rate in

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L2: Below 10%. Writing: Devanagari script. Other: Refer to themselves as Gurung, but recognize their language is different. Traditional religion, Buddhist, Hindu.

Tamang, Northwestern [tmk] (Kath-Bhotiya, Lama Bhote, Murmi, Rongba, Sain, Tamang Gyoi, Tamang Lengmo, Tamang Tam). 55,000 (1991 census), increasing. Bagmati Zone, Nuwakot District, central mountainous strip. Status: 6a (Vigorous). Recognized language (2002, NFDIN Act, No. 20, Section 2C). Class: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Western Tibeto-Burman, Bodish, West Bodish, Gurung-Tamang, Tamang. Dialect: Dhading. All Western Tamang varieties have high intelligibility. Lexical similarity: 94% with Western Trisuli Tamang [tdg], 82%–83% with Western Rasuwa Tamang [tdg], 76%–78% with Southwestern Tamang [tsf], 76%–77% with Eastern Gorkha Tamang [tge], 72%–80% with Eastern Tamang [taj]. Type: SOV; postpositions; noun head both initial and final; no noun classes or gender; no prefixes, up to 4 suffixes; clause constituents indicated by case-marking; ergativity; genitives after noun head; relatives before noun head; question word medial; tense and aspect; no passives or voice; CV, CVC, CCV, V, CCVC, CVCCC; tonal; 25 consonant and 5 vowel phonemes. Lg Use: Home; mixed use: Friends, religion, work, education. All ages. Positive attitudes. Also use Tibetan [bod] in religious contexts, Nepali [npi] in official contexts. Lg Dev: Literacy rate in L1: 1%–10%. Literacy rate in L2: 25%–75%. Taught in primary schools. Poetry. Magazines. Newspapers. New Media. Radio programs. Dictionary. Writing: Devanagari script. Other: Traditional religion, Buddhist, Christian.

Tamang, Southwestern [tsf] (Kath-Bhotiya, Lama Bhote, Murmi, Rongba, Sain, Tamang Gyoi, Tamang Lengmo, Tamang Tam). 109,000 (1991 census), increasing. Bagmati Zone, southern Dhading District; Narayani Zone, Chitwan, northwestern Makwanpur, Bara, Parsa, Rautahat districts. West and northwest Kathmandu District area. Status: 6a (Vigorous). Recognized language (2002, NFDIN Act, No. 20, Section 2C). Class: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Western Tibeto-Burman, Bodish, West Bodish, Gurung-Tamang, Tamang. Dialects: Preliminary results: 86% intelligibility with Western Trisuli Tamang [tdg], 87% by Central-Eastern Tamang [taj], 54%–67% by Outer-Eastern Tamang [taj]. Relationship within Tamang needs evaluation. Southwestern Tamang has 80% lexical similarity with Western Trisuli Tamang [tdg], 76%–78%

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with Western Rasuwa dialect [tdg], 78% with Northwestern Tamang [tmk], 70%–73% with Eastern Gorkha Tamang [tge], 77%–93% with Eastern Tamang [taj]. Type: SOV; postpositions; noun head both initial and final; no noun classes or gender; content q-word initial; up to 4 suffixes; clause constituents indicated by case-marking; genitives after nouns; relatives before nouns; question word medial; ergativity; tense and aspect; no passives or voice; CV, CVC, CCV, V, CCVC, CVCCC; tonal; 24 consonant and 5 vowel phonemes. Lg Use: Home; mixed use: Friends, religion, work, education. All ages. Positive attitudes. Also use Tibetan [bod] in religious contexts, Nepali [npi] in official contexts. Some also learn Bhojpuri [bho] and Maithili [mai]. Lg Dev: Literacy rate in L1: 1%–10%. Literacy rate in L2: 25%–75%. Taught in primary schools. Poetry. Magazines. Newspapers. New Media. Radio programs. Films. Dictionary. Writing: Devanagari script. Other: Buddhist, traditional religion, Christian.

Tamang, Western [tdg] (Murmi, Sain). 323,000 (2000), increasing. Mostly monolingual below school age or over 60 years of age. Bagmati Zone, west Nuwakot, Rasuwa, Dhading districts, northeastern Sindhupalchok District, Bhote Namlan, Bhote Chaur, west bank of Trishuli River towards Budhi Gandaki River; Narayani Zone, northwestern Makwanpur District, Phakel, Chakhel, Khulekhani, Markhu, Tistung, Palung; northern Kathmandu, Jhor, Thoka, Gagal Phedi. Status: 5 (Developing). Recognized language (2002, NFDIN Act, No. 20, Section 2C). Class: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Western Tibeto-Burman, Bodish, West Bodish, Gurung-Tamang, Tamang. Dialects: Northwestern dialect of Western Tamang (Dhading), Rasuwa, Southwestern dialect of Western Tamang, Trisuli (Nuwakot). Preliminary results showed 86% intelligibility with Rasuwa dialect, 81%–88% with Central-Eastern [taj], 78%–88% with Outer-Eastern [taj], 86% with Southwestern [tsf]; 80% of Rasuwa with Trisuli, up to 70% with Outer-Eastern [taj]. Lexical similarity: 94% between Trisuli dialect and Northwestern Tamang [tmk], 82%–83% with Rasuwa, 80% with Southwestern Tamang [tsf], 77%–79% with Eastern Gorkha Tamang [tge], 82%–83% between Rasuwa and Northwestern [tmk], 78% with Southwestern [tsf], 72% with Eastern Gorkha [tge], 69%–81% between Western varieties and Eastern Tamang varieties. Type: SOV; postpositions; noun head both initial and final; genitives after nouns, relatives before nouns; no noun classes or genders; content q-word initial; up to 2 prefixes, up to 11 suffixes; clause

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constituents indicated by word order; ergativity; no passives or voice; 24 consonant and 5 vowel phonemes; CV, CVC, CCV, V, CCVC, CVCCC; tonal. Lg Use: Home, friends, religion; mixed use: Work, education. All ages. Younger population also uses Nepali [npi] due to education in the national language. Lg Dev: Literacy rate in L2: 25%–75%. Taught in primary schools, primary MLE program since 2007. Poetry. Magazines. Newspapers. Radio programs. Videos. Dictionary. NT: 1990. Writing: Devanagari script. Tibetan script. Other: Murmi is the ethnonym used by the Lepcha and Kirati communities and Sain by the Newar. Traditional religion, Buddhist, Christian.

Thakali [ths] (Barhagaule, Panchgaunle, Thaksya). 6,440 (2001 census), decreasing. Ethnic population: 13,000 (2001 census). Dhaulagiri Zone, Mustang District, Thak Khola, mid Kali Gandaki Valley, with Annapurna Himal on one side and Dhaulagiri Himal on the other, Tatopani village in the south to Jomsom in the north. Tukuche dialect is in Tukuche village extending to Thaksatsae, divided into thirteen villages: Tukuche, Khanti, Kobang, Larjung, Dampu, Naurikot, Bhurjungkot, Nakung, Tithi, Kunjo, Taglung, Lete, Ghansa. Many live outside the area. Status: 7 (Shifting). Language of recognized nationality (2002, NFDIN Act, No. 20, Section 2C). Class: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Western Tibeto-Burman, Bodish, West Bodish, Gurung-Tamang, Gurungic. Dialects: Marpha (Puntan Thakali), Syang (Yhulkasom), Tukuche (Tamhang Thakali, Thaksaatsaye, Thaksatsae). Thakali dialects have 91%–97% inherent intelligibility. Tukuche dialect most easily understood by others. Lexical similarity: 41%–46% with Gurung, 46%–51% with Tamang (1994 J. Webster). Thakali dialects in 4 villages have 75%–86% lexical similarity. Type: SOV; postpositions; noun head both initial and final; no noun classes or genders; content q-word final; verbal affixation marks number; tense; no passives or voice; tonal; 27 consonant and 6 vowel phonemes. Lg Use: Youth in Tukuche maintain Thakali strongly. Elsewhere youth use less Thakali, but develop it more fully as they grow older (1994 J. Webster). 1,056 L2 speakers (1991 census). Religion; mixed use: Home, friends, religion, work. Older adults and elderly. Some use among children, adolescents, and young adults. Tukuche is cultural center and the most prestigeous dialect. Lg Dev: Taught in primary schools. Poetry. Videos. Dictionary. Grammar. Writing: Devanagari script. Other: Marpha dialect is in an endogamous village. People of Marpha, Syang, Thini, Chhairo, and Chimang villages are sometimes collectively known as

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Panchgaunle (5 villages), the name used for both the ethnic group and language. Buddhist, Christian.

Thangmi [thf] (Thami, Thangmi Kham, Thangmi Wakhe, Thani). 24,200 in Nepal (Turin 2007), decreasing. 100 monolinguals (UNESCO 2002). Population total all countries: 25,000. Ethnic population: 35,000 (Turin 2007). Janakpur Zone, Dolakha District (western and northern villages), Ramechhap District (a few villages along the Sailung Khola); Bagmati zone, Sindhupalchok District (eastern villages); Kathmandu. Also in China, India. Status: 6b (Threatened). Language of recognized nationality (2002, NFDIN Act, No. 20, Section 2C). Class: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Western Tibeto-Burman, Himalayan, Central Himalayan, Thangmi-Baraamu. Dialects: Eastern Thangmi (Dolakha), Western Thangmi (Sindhupalchok). Related to Baram [brd] (Grierson-Konow). Some cognates with Dolakha dialect of Newar [new]. Dolakha and Sindhupalchok dialects are not mutually intelligible. Differ in phonology, nominal and verbal morphology and lexicon. Type: SOV; both prepositions and postpositions; noun head both initial and final; gender, only some animate nouns; content q-word in situ; up to 3 prefixes, up to 4 suffixes; clause constituents indicated by case-marking; verbal affixation marks person; no ergativity; tense; passives and voice; non-tonal; 33 consonant and 13 vowel phonemes. Lg Use: Ethnic Thangmi outside Dolakha and Sindhupalchok no longer speak Thangmi. Religion; mixed use: Home, friends. Older adults and elderly. Some use among children, adolescents, and young adults. Negative attitudes, but changing to more neutral and positive. Almost all are bilingual. Lg Dev: Literacy rate in L1: Under 10%. Taught in primary schools. Poetry. Magazines. Newspapers. New Media. Radio programs. Films. TV. Videos. Dictionary. Grammar. Writing: Devanagari script. Other: Traditional religion, Hinduism, Buddhism, Christian.

Tharu, Chitwania [the] (Chitoniya Tharu, Chitwan Tharu, Chitwaniya). 285,000 in Nepal (2001 census), increasing. 60,100 Chitwan, 92,800 Nawalparasi, 41,000 Parsa, 63,300 Bara, 27,500 Rautahat (2001 census). Narayani Zone, Chitwan, Bara, Parsa, Rautahat, Makwanpur districts; Lumbini Zone, Nawalparasi District. Also in India. Status: 5 (Developing). Recognized language (2002, NFDIN Act, No. 20, Section 2C). Class: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Eastern zone, Unclassified. Dialect: Nawalpuriya Tharu (Laulpuriya Tharu). Type:

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SOV; postpositions; noun head final; 2 genders; content q-word in situ; up to 3 suffixes; clause constituents indicated by case-marking; verbal affixation marks person and number; tense and aspect; no passive or voice; non-tonal; 34 consonant and 6 vowel phonemes (5 of the vowels can be nasalized). Lg Use: Vigorous within the language community. Home, friends, religion; mixed use: Work, education. All ages. Neutral or negative attitudes. Also use Nepali [npi], Hindi [hin], or Bhojpuri [bho]. Lg Dev: Literacy rate in L1: Below 1%. Taught in primary schools, in 2 schools in Chitwan District only. Poetry. Magazines. Newspapers. New Media. Radio programs. Films. Videos. Bible portions: 1977. Writing: Devanagari script. Other: Hindu, Buddhist, Christian.

Tharu, Dangaura [thl] (Dangaha, Dangali, Dangauli, Dangora, Dangura). 500,000 in Nepal (2003), increasing. 10%–15% monolingual. Population total all countries: 674,000. Rapti Zone, Dang District; Bheri Zone, Bardiya, Banke, Surkhet districts; Seti Zone, Kailali District; Mahakali Zone, Kanchanpur District; Lumbini Zone, Rupandehi, Kapilvastu districts. Also in India. Status: 5 (Developing). Language of recognized nationality (2002, NFDIN Act, No. 20, Section 2C). Class: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Central zone, Unclassified. Dialects: Dangaha (Dang). Closely related varieties: Deukhuri, Malhoriya, Desauriya. 68%–91% intelligibility of Rana Tharu [thr], 95% to 97% of Kathariya [tkt]. Some intelligibility difficulty with speakers from India. Possibly Eastern Hindi Group. Lexical similarity: 85% with Deukhuri, 83% with Malhoriya, 72%–74% with Sonha [soi], 63%–72% with Rana Tharu [thr], 76% with Desauriya, 61%–67% with Chitwania [the], 70% with Kathariya [tkt], 58%–65% with Hindi [hin]. Type: SOV; postpositions; noun head initial; genitives after noun heads; adjectives, numerals before noun heads; content q-word initial (usually); clause constituents indicated by case-marking; verbal affixation marks person and number; tense-aspect; passives and voice; CV, CVC, CCV; non-tonal; 30 consonant and 8 vowel phonemes. Lg Use: High vitality but increasing Nepali [npi] loanwords. Home, friends, religion. All ages. Educated people tend to use more Nepali [npi], men more than women, young people more than older people. Hindi [hin] is also used. Lg Dev: Literacy rate in L2: All Tharu as an ethnic group 28% (1991 census). Poetry. Magazines. Radio programs. Dictionary. Grammar. Bible portions: 2009. Writing: Devanagari script. Other: Traditional religion, Hindu, Christian.

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Tharu, Kathariya [tkt] (Kathoriya, Kathoriya Tharu). 106,000 in Nepal (2006). Seti Zone, Kailali District, Hasuliya, Udasipur, Pahalmanpur, Lalbojhi, Thapapur, Joshipur, Munuwa, Durgauli, Patharaiya, Chauha VDCs. Also in India. Status: 6a (Vigorous). Language of recognized nationality (2002, NFDIN Act, No. 20, Section 2C). Class: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Central zone, Unclassified. Dialects: Speech differences between Nepal and India dialects. Lexical similarity: 70%–76% with Dangaura [thl] and Rana [thr], 66% with Hindi [hin], 66%–69% with Buksa [tkb], 63% with Chitwania [the]. Type: SOV; postpositions; noun head final (unmarked). Lg Use: Some shifting to Hindi [hin]. Also use Nepali [npi] or Hindi [hin]. Lg Dev: Literacy rate in L2: All Tharu as an ethnic group 28% (1991 census). Writing: Devanagari script. Other: Hindu, Christian.

Tharu, Kochila [thq] (Saptariya Tharu). 258,000 in Nepal (2003), increasing. Mostly illiterate older women are monolingual. Population for all Tharu varieties: 1,331,500 (2001 census). Koshi Zone, Morang and Sunsari districts; Sagarmatha Zone, Saptari, Udayapur, and Siraha districts; Janakpur Zone, Mahottari, Sarlahi, Dhanusa districts. Also in India. Status: 5 (Developing). Recognized language (2002, NFDIN Act, No. 20, Section 2C). Class: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Eastern zone, Unclassified. Dialects: Dhanusa, Mahottari, Morangiya, Saptari, Sarlahi, Siraha, Sunsari, Udayapur. Each district has a different variety. Dialect names refer to districts. Type: SOV; postpositions; noun head final; no gender; content q-word in situ; 1 prefix, up to 3 suffixes; clause constituents indicated by case-marking; verbal affixation marks person; tense and aspect; passives (syntactic, not morphological); non-tonal; 32 consonant and 8 vowel phonemes. Lg Use: Vigorous. Home, friends, religion; mixed use: Work, education. All ages. Positive attitudes. Also use Nepali [npi] or Maithili [mai]. Lg Dev: Literacy rate in L1: Below 1%. MLE introduced in one school. Literacy increasing. Taught in primary schools. Radio programs. Films. Videos. Dictionary. Writing: Devanagari script. Other: Tharu from each district usually take the district name as a more specific name or identity. Other Tharu in Siraha, Udayapur, and Saptari districts who call themselves Kochila but speak Sapatariya Tharu. Traditional religion, Hindu, Christian.

Tharu, Rana [thr]. 336,000 in Nepal (2006), increasing. Population total all countries: 486,000. Mahakali Zone, Kanchanpur District; Seti

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Zone, Kailali District. Also in India. Status: 4 (Educational). Recognized language (2002, NFDIN Act, No. 20, Section 2C). Class: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Eastern zone, Unclassified. Dialects: 96%–99% intelligibility among dialects, 90% with Kathariya [tkt], 51%–88% reported with Dangaura [thl]. Differences with dialects in India. Similar to Awadhi (Avadhi) [awa]. Lexical similarity: 83%–97% among dialects, 73%–79% with Buksa, 74%–79% with Kathariya [tkt], 70%–73% with Sonha [soi], 63%–71% with Dangaura [thl], 56%–60% with Chitwania [the], 68%–72% with Hindi [hin]. Type: SOV; postpositions; noun head final; 2 genders; content q-word in situ; 1 prefix, up to 2 suffixes; clause constituents indicated by case-marking; verbal affixation marks person and number; ergativity (O of Tr Cl = S of ITr Cl); tense (4 tenses: past, present, imminent future, irrealis future); passives and voice; non-tonal; 28 consonant and 11 vowel phonemes. Lg Use: Vigorous. Home, friends, religion; mixed use: Work, education. All ages. Positive attitudes. Also use Nepali [npi] or Hindi [hin]. Lg Dev: MLE up to grade three in Kanchanpur. Taught in primary schools. Poetry. Magazines. Radio programs. Films. Videos. Writing: Devanagari script. Other: Hindu, Christian.

Thudam [thw] (“Thudam Bhote” pej.). 1,800 (2000). Koshi Zone, Sankhuwasabha District, Chepuwa VDC, Thudam village. Status: 6a (Vigorous). Language of recognized nationality (2002, NFDIN Act, No. 20, Section 2C). Class: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Western Tibeto-Burman, Bodish, Central Bodish, Unclassified. Dialects: None known. Reportedly similar to Walungge [ola] in Nepal and to the varieties spoken in the villages of Kudo and Sar in Tibet (Furer-Haimendorf 1988). Type: SOV; postpositions; content q-word in situ; clause constituents indicated by case-marking; ergativity; no passives or voice; tonal. Lg Use: Highly bilingual in Nepali [npi]; some older people also speak Lhomi [lhm]. Writing: Unwritten. Other: Culturally akin to the Walungs. Buddhist, Christian.

Thulung [tdh] (Tholong Lo, Thulu Luwa, Thululoa, Thulung Jemu, Thulung La, Thulunge Rai, Toaku Lwa). 30,000 in Nepal (2003). A few elderly monolinguals. Thulung communities also in Bhojpur and Sankhuwasabha districts, scattered in Udayapur, Morang, Panchthar, and Ilam districts. Migrants may not speak Thulung as L1. Sagarmatha Zone, southeast Solukhumbu District, Deusa, Lokhim, Mukli, Jubu, Tingla,

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Salyan, Panchan, Necha VDCs; Khotang District, Salle, Jaleswori, Maheswori VDCs; Okhaldhunga District, Tuintar VCD, 6 or 7 villages; Koshi Zone, Bhojpur District, 1 village; west of the slopes’ highest ridges to Dudhkosi, north of Nechedanda and Halesidanda ranges, east of upper Solu River, and south of the Kakukhola and the confluence of Ingkhukhola and Dudhkosi. Also in India. Status: 5 (Developing). Language of recognized nationality (2002, NFDIN Act, No. 20, Section 2C), Rai nationality. Class: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Western Tibeto-Burman, Himalayan, Kiranti, Western. Dialects: Central Thulung (Mukli Lwa), Eastern Thulung (Jubu Lwa, Lokhim Lwa), Northern Thulung (Deusa Lwa), Southern Thulung (Necha Lwa). Related to Lingkhim [lii], Bahing [bhj], Wambule [wme], Jerung [jee]. Many cognates with Khaling [klr]. Type: SOV; postpositions; noun head final; content q-word in situ; no prefixes, up to 4 suffixes; clause constituents indicated by case-marking; verbal affixation marks person and number; ergativity; tense; passives and voice, but rare; tonal; 29 consonant and 16 vowel phonemes. Lg Use: Language retention high compared to other Rai languages (Winter 1991). Home, friends, religion. All ages. Neutral attitudes. Do not believe each other’s dialect is ’pure’ Thulung. Women speak less Nepali [npi] than men. Most men speak Nepali well. Lg Dev: Poetry. Magazines. Newspapers. New Media. Radio programs. Videos. Dictionary. Bible portions: 2006. Writing: Devanagari script. Other: Interest in development among cultural associations (Thulung Rai Society). Traditional religion (Kirati), Hindu, Buddhist, Christian.

Tibetan [bod] (Bhotia, Bod Skad, Central Tibetan, Phoke, Poke, Zang Wen). 5,280 in Nepal (2001 census), increasing. Population total all countries: 1,173,820. Mainly Kathmandu and Pokhara. Scattered refugee communities along China border. Also in Bhutan, China (Central Tibetan), Taiwan, India, Norway, Switzerland, United States. Status: 4 (Educational). Class: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Western Tibeto-Burman, Bodish, Central Bodish, Central, dBus. Dialects: Diaspora Tibetan, Utsang. In the exile community a so-called diaspora Tibetan has developed. Type: SOV; tonal, 4 tones. Lg Use: Home, religion; mixed use: Friends, work, education. All ages. Positive attitudes. Many also learn some Nepali [npi]. Lg Dev: The written and spoken languages are in a diglossic relationship. There is no literacy based on the spoken variety. Taught in primary and secondary schools. Writing: Phags-pa script. Tibetan script, Uchen, Umed and a less-widely known and more priestly

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style. Other: Spoken as a trade language among Bodish groups in Nepal. Buddhist (Lamaist), Christian.

Tichurong [tcn] (Ticherong). 2,420 (2000). Karnali Zone, Dolpa District, Thuli Bheri River basin. Status: 6a (Vigorous). Class: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Western Tibeto-Burman, Bodish, Central Bodish, Central, gTsang. Dialects: None known. Similar to Dolpo [dre]. Type: SOV; postpositions; noun head final. Writing: Unwritten. Other: Culturally distinct from Dolpo. Buddhist.

Tilung [tij] (Tiling, Tilling, Tilung Blama). 310 (2001 census), decreasing. Sagarmatha Zone, southern Khotang District, Chyasmitar VDC, the last ridge of the Halesi Range, on the bank of the Sunkosi River. Status: 8a (Moribund). Language of recognized nationality (2002, NFDIN Act, No. 20, Section 2C), Rai nationality. Class: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Western Tibeto-Burman, Himalayan, Kiranti, Western. Dialects: Choskule, Dorunkecha. Choskule and Dorungkecha dialects may be related languages. Type: SOV; postpositions. Lg Use: Mixed use: Religion. Elderly. Some use among young and older adults. Writing: Unwritten. Other: Geographically isolated community. Traditional religion (Kirat), Hindu.

Tsum [ttz] (Tsumge). 4,790 (2000). Gandaki Zone, north Gorkha District, Tsum Valley, the region drained by the Shiar Khola north of Ganesh Himal. Chekampar (Chokong) is prestige village. Status: 6a (Vigorous). Class: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Western Tibeto-Burman, Bodish, Central Bodish, Central, gTsang. Dialects: None known. 71%–78% intelligibility of Nubri [kte], 66% with Kyerung (Kyirong) [kgy]; 60%–66% with Lhasa Tibetan [bod]; 22%–25% with Northern Ghale [ghh], 14%–22% with Southern Ghale [ghe], 23%–27% with Kuke [ght]; 6% with Eastern Gorkha Tamang [tge], 14% with Western Gurung [gvr], 15% with Banspur Tamang. Divided into upper region, ‘Yarba’, and lower region, ‘Ushug’. Type: SOV. Lg Use: Vigorous. Home, friends. All ages. Very positive attitudes. Tibetan [bod] viewed very favorably in religious domain; Nepali [npi] viewed fairly positively as language of education and potential advancement. Minimal bilingualism in Nepali [npi], used only with those who do not understand Tsum. Lg Dev: Literacy rate in L2: 10% or less. A few primary schools. Writing: Unwritten. Other: Tibetans in Kathmandu call the people ‘Tsumba’ and the language ‘Tsumge’. Buddhist (Lamaist).

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Urdu [urd]. 175,000 in Nepal (2001 census). Population total all countries: 64,004,800. Southeast districts: Jhapa, Morang, Sunsari, Saptari, Siraha, Dhanusa, Mahottari, Sarlahi, Rautahat, on India border; some in Banke District west. Also in Bahrain, Bangladesh (Bihari), Botswana, Canada, Denmark, Fiji, Germany, India, Malawi, Mauritius, Norway, Oman, Pakistan, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, South Africa, Thailand, United Arab Emirates, United Kingdom, United States, Zambia. Status: 4 (Educational). Class: Indo-European, Indo-Iranian, Indo-Aryan, Central zone, Western Hindi, Hindustani. Dialects: Intelligible with Hindi, but formal vocabulary borrowed from Arabic and Persian. Dakhini dialect of Urdu [urd] in India has fewer Persian and Arabic loans than Urdu [urd]. Rekhta is a form of Urdu used in poetry. Lg Use: 22,932 L2 speakers in Nepal (1991 census). Writing: Arabic script, Nastaliq style, primary usage. Braille script. Other: Muslim.

Waling [wly] (Walung, Walüng). No remaining speakers. Koshi zone, Bhojpur District, Khairang Panchayat. Status: 10 (Extinct). Class: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Western Tibeto-Burman, Himalayan, Kiranti, Eastern. Lg Use: Shifted to Bantawa [bap] in the late 1800s. Writing: Unwritten.

Walungge [ola] (Halung, Halungge, Walongchung Gola, Walung, Walungchung Gola, Walunggi Keccya). 1,500 in Nepal (2001 census), decreasing. 1,200 in the original language area. High language loss among those who have left the language area. Mechi Zone, Taplejung District, upper Tamar and Gunsa valleys. Also in China, India. Status: 6b (Threatened). Language of recognized nationality (2002, NFDIN Act, No. 20, Section 2C). Class: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Western Tibeto-Burman, Bodish, Central Bodish, Unclassified. Dialects: Ghunsa River, Olangchung Gola (Upper Tamar River), Topke Gola (Mewa River). High intelligibility of Thudam [thw]. Similar to Tibetan dialect in Tingay District of Tibet. Lexical similarity: 71% with Lhasa Tibetan [bod], 68% with Dolpo [dre], Loke [loy], and Kyerung (Kyirong) [kgy], 66% with Lhomi [lhm] and Helambu Sherpa [scp], 64% with Nubri [kte], 57% with Jirel [jul], 55% with Sherpa [xsr]. Lg Use: Positive attitudes. Writing: Tibetan script. Other: Cut off from the Lhomi, with more links to Tibet. Some intermarriage with Lhomi and Tibetan. The people call themselves Sherpa. They do not have a specific language name which groups all varieties of the language together and distinguishes the language from

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other Tibetan languages. The word “Walungge” comes from a name of one of the main villages in the language area. Buddhist.

Wambule [wme] (Ambule, Caurasia, Chaurasia, Chaurasya, Chourase, Chourasia, Ombule, Tsaurasya, Umbule, Vambucauras Raduyor, Vambule). 4,470 (2001 census). A few elderly monolinguals. Sagarmatha Zone, southernmost Okhaldhunga District (Wamdyal dialect): Rikdum, Lukuvapani, Wamdyal (Ubu), Huku, Sikapu, Tarkomdada, Salle, Dhepti, Dhaircaur, Khayapu, Lorphe, Thulacaur, Moli, Vaksa, Leva, Sinju, Gairigau, Dhemdalu, Kopsepu, Phasku, Serankhu; (Hilepane dialect): Pipale, Bhadare, Hilepani, Thakle, Mandhare, Sokma Tar, Dundunma, Jakma, Jerun, Ricuva, Lambole; (Udayapur dialect): Udayapur, Phedigau, Barasi, Ghiramdi, Simkaku, Peku; westernmost Khotang District (Jhappali dialect): Kurleghat, Majhkhani, Byanditar, Rupatar, Kharka, Cuvabot, Jhapa, Lurkhudada, Vaitar, Balui, Thumka, Pakauci, Goviar, Gurdum, Jayaram Gha, Bahuni Dada, Todke, Limlun, Damli, Vetagau, Temtuku; Sagarmatha Zone, northernmost Udaypur District and Janakpur Zone, northeasternmost Sindhuli District (Hilepane dialect): Lekhani, Ghurmi, Salle, Sorun, Salleni, Pallo Salleni, Sindure, Majhkhani, Bhirpani, Kusumtar, Jortighat. Status: 5 (Developing). Language of recognized nationality (2002, NFDIN Act, No. 20, Section 2C), Rai nationality. Class: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Western Tibeto-Burman, Himalayan, Kiranti, Western. Dialects: Bonu, Hilepane, Jhappali, Udaipure, Wamdyal. Dialects appear adequately mutually inherently intelligible. Jerung [jee] and Wambule are mutually intelligible (Opgenort 2004). Lexical similarity: 93% with Jerung [jee] (Opgenort 2005). Type: SOV; postpositions; noun head final; no noun classes or genders; content q-word in situ; 1 prefix, up to 4 (word-internal) suffixes and 4 phrasal affixes; clause constituents indicated by case-marking (and verbal marking for agent and patient); verbal affixation marks person and number; ergativity, but an expression of volitionality causes the intransitive subject to have ergative marking; both tense and aspect; no passives or voice; non-tonal; 33 consonant and 9 vowel phonemes; ingressive laterals. Lg Use: Vigorous. Home, friends, religion; mixed use: Work, education. All ages. Nepali [npi] is used. Some bilingualism in Bahing [bhj] and Jerung [jee] resulting from intermarriage. Lg Dev: Taught in primary schools. Poetry. Magazines. New Media. Videos. Dictionary. Grammar. Writing: Devanagari script. Other: Traditional religion (Kirat), Hinduism, Christian.

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Wayu [vay] (Bayu, Hayu, Vayu, Wayo). 1,740 (2001 census), decreasing. No monolinguals. Ethnic population: 1,800 (2001 census) to 2,800 (2000). Janakpur Zone, Ramechhap District, Mudajor and Sukajor villages; Sindhuli District, Manedihi village. Sun Koshi valley and across the Mahabharat Range to the south. Status: 7 (Shifting). Language of recognized nationality (2002, NFDIN Act, No. 20, Section 2C). Class: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Western Tibeto-Burman, Himalayan, Kiranti, Western. Dialects: Marin Khola, Sindhuli. Type: SOV; postpositions; noun head final; no noun classes or genders; content q-word in situ; clause constituents indicated by case-marking; verbal affixation marks person and number; ergativity; tense; no passives or voice; non-tonal; 27 consonant and 8 vowel phonemes. Lg Use: Ethnic Wayu live on the hills on both sides of the Sun Kosi River but the language is only spoken in the villages listed. In 1995 many children in Mudajor were not learning Wayu but the language was alive and well in Manedihi (UNESCO 2002). A growing interest in language preservation. Religion; mixed use: Home, friends. Older adults and elderly. Some use among young adults. Negative attitudes among some Wayu who feel the language is an obstacle to progress; a minority would like to keep speaking it. All also use Nepali [npi]. Writing: Devanagari script. Other: Strong Nepali [npi] influences in phonology, lexicon, and grammar (Matisoff 1991). Traditional religion (Kirat), Hinduism.

Yakkha [ybh] (Dewansala, Yakha, Yakkhaba, Yakkhaba Cea, Yakkhaba Sala, Yakthomba). 14,600 in Nepal (2001 census), decreasing. Very few monolinguals. Population total all countries: 15,410. Ethnic population: 17,000. Koshi Zone, southern Sankhuwasabha, eastern Dhankuta districts, east to Arun River between Hinuwankhola north and Leguwakhola south. Northern Yakkha in south Sankhuwasabha District and adjoining strip of land in extreme north Dhankuta District; Southern Yakkha in Dhankuta District; Eastern Yakkha in Mechi Zone, Ilam and Panchthar districts. Also in India. Status: 6b (Threatened). Language of recognized nationality (2002, NFDIN Act, No. 20, Section 2C). Class: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Western Tibeto-Burman, Himalayan, Kiranti, Eastern. Dialects: Eastern Yakkha (Ilam, Panchthar), Northern Yakkha (Sankhuwasabha), Southern Yakkha (Dhankuta). Dialects have minimal diversity. Related to Lumba-Yakkha [luu], Phangduwali [phw], Chhintang [ctn], Chhulung [cur], Belhariya [byw], Lohorung [lbr], Limbu [lif], and Athpahariya [aph]. Lexical similarity: with Athpariya [aph],

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Limbu [lif], Yamphu [ybi]. Type: SOV; postpositions; noun head final; no noun classes or genders; content q-word in situ; 1 prefix, up to 10 suffixes (depending on analysis); clause constituents indicated by case-marking; verbal affixation marks person and number; ergativity; tense and aspect; passives and voice; non-tonal; 22 consonant and 5 vowel phonemes. Lg Use: Home, friends, religion; mixed use: Work, education. Children and elderly. Some use among adolescents, young and older adults (Toba, Toba and Rai 2005). High bilingualism in Nepali [npi]. Lg Dev: Literacy rate in L2: 10% in Nepali [npi]. There are attempts to teach Yakkha at school, and textbooks are published up to grade 3, but not widely used. Poetry. Dictionary. Writing: Unwritten. Other: Considered by many a distinct group of Kirati not fitting neatly into either Rai or Limbu groups (Bista 1996:39); in terms of mythology and people’s own judgment, they seem closer to Limbu than to Rai groups. Traditional religion (Kirat), Christian.

Yamphu [ybi] (Yamphe, Yamphu Kha, Yamphu Rai). 1,720 (2001 census), decreasing. Koshi Zone, Sankhuwasabha District, Hedangna, Num, Seduwa, Peppuwa, Mangsimma, Karmarang, Tungkhaling, Uwa, Ala, Uling, Walung villages. Eastern hills, upper Arun Valley, Matsayapokhari VDC, extreme north Lorung area, directly southwest of Jaljale Mountains; Koshi Zone, Bhojpur District. Status: 6b (Threatened). Language of recognized nationality (2002, NFDIN Act, No. 20, Section 2C), Rai nationality. Class: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Western Tibeto-Burman, Himalayan, Kiranti, Eastern. Dialects: The Yamphu Rai are closely related to Lohorung Rai and Mewahang Rai. 61% intelligibility of Lohorung [lbr]. Lexical similarity: 84%–90% between dialects, 74%–84% with Southern Yamphu [lrr], 64%–67% with Lohorung [lbr]. Lg Use: Language passed on to children but being steadily replaced by Nepali (Toba, Toba and Rai 2005). Religion. Almost all are bilingual in Nepali [npi] (UNESCO 2002). Lg Dev: Poetry. Dictionary. Grammar. Writing: Unwritten. Other: Traditional religion (Kirat), Hindu, Christian.

Yamphu, Southern [lrr] (Lohorong, Lohrung, Lohrung Khap, Lohrung Khate, Southern Lohorung, Southern Lorung, Yakkhaba Lorung, Yamphu). 2,500 (2011 SIL), decreasing. Koshi Zone, Dhankuta District, Bodhe, Mounabudhuk, Bhedetar, Rajarani; north Sankhuwasabha District, Devitar, Matsya Pokhari. South of the Tamorkhola, between the Jaruwakhola east and the Raghuwkhola west. Status: 6b (Threatened).

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Language of recognized nationality (2002, NFDIN Act, No. 20, Section 2C), Rai nationality. Class: Sino-Tibetan, Tibeto-Burman, Western Tibeto-Burman, Himalayan, Kiranti, Eastern. Dialects: Gessa, Yamphe (Newahang Yamphe, Yakkhaba, Yakkhaba Khap, Yamphe Kha). 61% intelligibility of Lohorung [lbr], 44%–58% (depending on site) intelligibility of Yamphu [ybi]. A Rai group, most closely related to Yamphu [ybi], but distinct in grammar and phonology (Hansson 1991). Also related to Lohorung [lbr], Eastern Mewahang [emg], and Western Mewahang [raf]. Lexical similarity: 84%-89% between Southern Yamphu varieties, 74%–83% with Yamphu [ybi], 65%–68% with Lohorung [lbr]. Type: SOV; postpositions; verbal affixation marks person and number; tense; nontonal. Lg Use: Home, religion, work; mixed use: Friends. Young adults and older. Some use among children and adolescents. Positive attitudes. Lg Dev: Dictionary. Writing: Devanagari script. Other: Speakers of the language identify themselves ethnically as ‘Yamphu’. Hansson (1991) described this group as two separate languages, “Yamphu” and “Southern Lorung” (cf. Ethnologue, 16th edition and earlier). Traditional religion (Kirat), Hindu, Christian.

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Bista, D. B. 1996. People of Nepal. 6th edition. Kathmandu: Ratna Pustak Bhandar.

Bradley, D. 1996. Bantawa Rai. In Wurm, S. A. (ed.). Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. pp. 772–773.

Bradley, D. 1997. Tibeto-Burman languages and classification. In Bradley, D. (ed.). Canberra: Australian National University. pp. 1–72.

Bradley, D. (ed.). 1997. Tibeto-Burman languages of the Himalayas. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics.

Bradley, D. 2002. The subgrouping of Tibeto-Burman. In, Christopher I. Beckwith, ed., Medieval Tibeto-Burman Languages, 73-112. Leiden-Boston-Köln: Brill.

Burling, R. 2003. The Tibeto-Burman languages of Northeast India. In Thurgood, G. and R. J. LaPolla (eds.). London & New York: Routledge. pp. 167–192.

Bybee, J., J. Haiman and S. Thompson (eds.). 1997. Essays on language function and language type: In honor of T Givón. Amsterdam and Philadelphia: John Benjamins.

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Cooper, R. L. 1989. Language planning and social change. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Dahal, D. 2003. Chapter 3: The social composition of the population: Caste, ethnicity and religion in Nepal. In Population Monograph of Nepal. Volume 1. Kathmandu: CBS and UNFPA. pp. 87-136.

Ebert, K. 1994. The structure of Kiranti languages, comparative grammar and texts, Kiranti subordination in the South Asian areal context. Zürich: ASAS.

Elson, B. F. (ed.). 1986. Language in global perspective. Papers in honor of the 50th Anniversary of the Summer Institute of Linguistics 1935-1985. Dallas: Summer Institute of Linguistics.

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developing nations. New York: Wiley and Sons.

Fishman, J. A. 1991. Reversing language shift. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.

Fishman, J. A., C. A. Ferguson, and J. Das Gupta (eds.). 1968. Language problems of developing nations. New York: Wiley and Sons.

Grimes, J. E. 1986. Area norms of language size. In Elson, B. F. (ed.). pp. 5-20.

Hale, A. 1982. Research on Tibeto-Burman languages. Trends in Linguistics: State-of-the-Art Report 14. Berlin: Mouton.

Hansson, G. 1988. Kiranti languages of eastern Nepal. ms.

Hansson, G. 1991. W. Winter (ed.). Linguistic Survey of Nepal: Ethnic and linguistic grouping. Findings of the Linguistic Survey of Nepal. Kathmandu: Centre for Nepal and Asian Studies, Tribhuvan University.

Hugoniot, R. D. (ed.). 1970. A bibliographical index of the lesser known languages and dialects of India and Nepal. Kathmandu: Summer Institute of Linguistics.

Lee, M., B. Rai, B. K. Rai and C. Boone. 2005. Bayung Rai: A sociolinguistic survey. Kirtipur, Nepal: Centre for Nepal and Asian Studies, Tribhuvan University.

Lewis, M. P. 1999. Language (development) as particle, wave, and field. Notes on Sociolinguistics 4(1):3-19.

Lewis, M. P. and Simons, G. F. 2010. “Assessing endangerment: Expanding Fishman’s GIDS.” Revue Romaine de Linguistique 55.103-120.

Makoni, S. and A. Pennycook (eds.). 2006. Disinventing and reconstituting languages. Bilingual education and bilingualism. Bristol, UK: Multilingual Matters.

Matisoff, J. A. 1991. Endangered languages of Mainland Southeast Asia. In Robins, R. H. and E. M. Uhlenbeck (eds.). Oxford: Berg Publishers. pp. 189–228.

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Sharma, H. B. and R. P. Gautam. 1999. Record on Nepalese development: Nepal district profile. A distinctive socio-techno-economic profile along with a comprehensive national profile. 4th edition. Kathmandu: Samudayik Printers.

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Toba, S. 1983. A phonological reconstruction of Proto-Northern Rai. M.A. thesis, University of Texas at Arlington.

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AcknowledgmentsThis volume is the result of the hard work of a large number of scholars, organizations, and language community members. We would like to take a moment to thank the editorial team, the primary reviewers, those that participated in the peer review meetings, those that gave input on the maps, the translation team, and institutional sponsors. We have done our best to thank everyone for their invaluable contributions.

EditorsEthnologue editor: M. Paul Lewis.

Regional editors for Nepal: John W. Eppele, Dan Raj Regmi, and Yogendra P. Yadava.

Nepali translationKarnakhar Khatiwada and Balaram Prasain, of the Central Department of Linguistics (Tribhuvan University), translated the English-language entries into Nepali. The translation was checked and approved by Dan Raj Regmi and Yogendra P. Yadava.

Primary reviewersThe Ethnologue (16th edition, 2009) data for most languages of Nepal (as identified by ISO 639-3) was reviewed by one or more individuals. Their contributions created the new base of data, which was then thoroughly reviewed by peers during a series of meetings in Kathmandu. Sometimes the contributions were more complete than the scope or length of the Ethnologue could allow. In addition, the contributions themselves were edited during the peer review sessions, either due to disagreement over the content or in an attempt to merge the contributions of multiple reviewers of the data for a single language. Therefore, we would like to give credit to each primary reviewer for their contribution, while acknowledging that no single reviewer is responsible for all of the information in any single entry. The primary reviewers for each Ethnologue entry were:

Angika [anp]: Yogendra P. Yadava; Athpariya [aph]: Karen Ebert; Avadhi [awa]: Vishwa Nath Pathak, Vikram Mani Tripathi; Bagheli [bfy]: [peer review only]; Bahing [bhj]: Maureen Lee; Bantawa [bap]:

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Kwang-Ju Cho, Marius Doornenbal, John W. Eppele, Netra Mani Dumi Rai, Novel Kishore Rai; Baram [brd]: Tej R. Kansakar; Belhariya [byw]: Balthasar Bickel; Bengali [ben]: Tapasi Bhattacharya; Bhojpuri [bho]: Gopal Thakur, Yogendra P. Yadava; Bhujel [byh]: Dan Raj Regmi; Bote [bmj]: Balaram Prasain; Byangsi [bee]: Bhim Lal Gautam; Chamling [rab]: Karen Ebert; Chantyal [chx]: Balman Chhantyal; Chepang [cdm]: Ross Caughley, Dan Raj Regmi; Chhintang [ctn]: Balthasar Bickel, Netra Mani Dumi Rai, Novel Kishore Rai; Chhulung [cur]: Netra Mani Dumi Rai, Novel Kishore Rai; Chukwa [cuw]: John W. Eppele; Danuwar [dhw]: Bhabendra Bhandari; Darai [dry]: Dubi Nanda Dhakal; Dhimal [dhi]: Karnakhar Khatiwada; Dolpo [dre]: Kevin Kopp; Dotyali [dty]: Chura Mani Bhandu, R.D. "Prabhas" Chataut, John W. Eppele, Madhav P. Pokharel; Dumi [dus]: Netra Mani Dumi Rai, Novel Kishore Rai; Dungmali [raa]: Nirajan Rai Batas; Dura [drq]: Madhav P. Pokharel; Ghale, Northern [ghh]: Jeffrey Webster; Ghale, Southern [ghe]: Krishna Poudel; Ghandruk Sign Language [gds]: Hope Hurlbut; Gurung, Eastern [ggn]: Warren Glover; Gurung, Western [gvr]: Warren Glover; Helambu Sherpa [scp]: Anna Maria Hari; Hindi [hin]: Yogendra P. Yadava; Humla [hut]: Christopher P. Wilde; Jerung [jee]: Jean Opgenort; Jhankot Sign Language [jhs]: Hope Hurlbut; Jirel [jul]: Anita Maibaum, Esther Strahm, Nirmal Man Tuladhar; Jumla Sign Language [jus]: Hope Hurlbut; Jumli [jml]: Brataraj Acharya, Chura Mani Bandhu, Prem Chaulagain, Ramesh Khatri, Laxmi Raj Pandit, Madhav P. Pokharel; Kagate [syw]: Annemarie Hari; Kaike [kzq]: Ambika Regmi; Kayort [kyv]: [peer review only]; Khaling [klr]: Sueyoshi Toba; Kham, Eastern Parbate [kif]: Christopher P. Wilde; Kham, Gamale [kgj]: Christopher P. Wilde; Kham, Sheshi [kip]: Christopher P. Wilde; Kham, Western Parbate [kjl]: Christopher P. Wilde; Kharia [khr]: Yogendra P. Yadava; Kisan [sck]: Dev Narayan Yadav; Koi [kkt]: Jeewan Khaling, Yona Khaling, Dankaji Sampang; Kuke [ght]: Mari-Sisko Khadgi; Kulung [kle]: Gerard Tolsma; Kumhali [kra]: Bhim Lal Gautam, Krishna P. Parajuli; Kurux, Nepali [kxl]: Kent Gordon, Ram Kishun Uranw; Kusunda [kgg]: Madhav P. Pokharel, Balaram Prasain; Kyirong [kgy]: Matthew Hedlin; Lapcha [lep]: Netra Mani Dumi Rai, Novel Kishore Rai; Lhomi [lhm]: Olavi Vesalainen; Limbu [lif]: Jeffrey Webster; Lingkhim [lii]: John W. Eppele; Lohorung [lbr]: John W. Eppele, Holly Hilty, Jessica Mitchell; Loke [loy]: Chhing Chippa Lhomi; Lumba-Yakkha [luu]: [peer review only]; Magar, Eastern [mgp]: Tejman Angdembe, Andrea Csépe, Karen Grunow-

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Hårsta; Magar, Western [mrd]: Tejman Angdembe, Andrea Csépe, Karen Grunow-Hårsta; Maithili [mai]: Yogendra P. Yadava; Majhi [mjz]: Dubi Nanda Dhakal; Manangba [nmm]: Christy Grimes, Kristine Hildebrandt; Marwari [rwr]: Yogendra P. Yadava; Meche [brx]: [peer review only]; Mewahang, Eastern [emg]: Martin Gaenszle; Mewahang, Western [raf]: Martin Gaenszle; Mugali [lmh]: Ichchha Purna Rai; Mugom [muk]: Daniel Watters; Mundari [unr]: [peer review only]; Musasa [smm]: [peer review only]; Naaba [nao]: David Greninger; Nachering [ncd]: Jeewan Khaling, Yona Khaling, Dankaji Sampang; Nar Phu [npa]: Kristine Hildebrandt; Nepalese Sign Language [nsp]: Hope Hurlbut; Nepali [npi]: Madhav P. Pokharel; Newar [new]: Carol Genetti, Tej R. Kansakar; Nubri [kte]: Dubi Nanda Dhakal, Missy Ryan, Kerry Woods; Palpa [plp]: [peer review only]; Phangduwali [phw]: Ichchha Purna Rai; Puma [pum]: Balthasar Bickel, Martin Gaenszle, Netra Mani Dumi Rai, Novel Kishore Rai, Narayan Sharma; Rajbanshi [rjs]: John W. Eppele, Christopher P. Wilde; Raji [rji]: Ramesh Khatri, Kavita Rastogi; Raute [rau]: Marius Doornenbal, Jana Fortier, Lekhnath Pathak; Saam [raq]: John W. Eppele; Sampang [rav]: Rene Huysmans; Sanskrit [san]: Krishna Paudyal; Santhali [sat]: Indresh Thakur; Seke [skj]: [peer review only]; Sherpa [xsr]: David Greninger; Sonha [soi]: Dan Raj Regmi; Sunwar [suz]: Dörte Borchers, Lal-Shyãkarelu Rapacha; Tamang, Eastern [taj]: Kedar P. Poudel, Bryan Varenkamp; Tamang, Eastern Gorkha [tge]: Jeffrey Webster; Tamang, Northwestern [tmk]: Ajitman Tamang; Tamang, Southwestern [tsf]: Ajitman Tamang; Tamang, Western [tdg]: Ajitman Tamang; Thakali [ths]: Narayan Gautam; Thangmi [thf]: Mark Turin; Tharu, Chitwania [the]: Krishna Paudyal; Tharu, Dangaura [thl]: Edward D. Boehm, Stephanie Eichentopf, Jessica Mitchell; Tharu, Kathariya [tkt]: Edward D. Boehm, Stephanie Eichentopf, Jessica Mitchell; Tharu, Kochila [thq]: Edward D. Boehm; Tharu, Rana [thr]: Sekhar Sheeba; Thudam [thw]: David Greninger; Thulung [tdh]: Hyung-Joon Jung; Tibetan [bod]: David Greninger; Tichurong [tcn]: Ambika Regmi; Tilung [tij]: Netra Mani Dumi Rai, Novel Kishore Rai; Tsum [ttz]: Missy Ryan, Kerry Woods; Urdu [urd]: [peer review only]; Waling [wly]: John W. Eppele; Walungge [ola]: Cathy Bartram; Wambule [wme]: Jean Opgenort; Wayu [vay]: Sulochana Sapkota; Yakkha [ybh]: Diana Schackow; Yamphu [ybi]: John W. Eppele, Holly Hilty, Jessica Mitchell, Roland Rutgers; Yamphu, Southern [lrr]: John W. Eppele, Holly Hilty, Jessica Mitchell; Other entry reviews and contributions by: John W. Eppele,

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Jana Fortier, Holly Hilty, Mari-Sisko Khadgi, Jessica Mitchell, Dan Raj Regmi, Sueyoshi Toba, Stephen Watters, and Yogendra P. Yadava.

Peer review meeting participants Brataraj Acharya, Bikram Angdembe, Tej Man Angdembe, Chura Mani Bandhu, Nirajan Rai Batas, Bhabendra Bhandari, Tapasi Bhattacharya, Toya Nath Bhattarai, Shangbu Bhote, Edward D. Boehm, Freddy Boswell, Ross Caughley, Krishna Prasad Chalise, R.D. “Prabhas” Chataut, Prem Prasad Chaulagain, Balman Chhantyal, Indrajit Chhantyal, Kwang-Ju Cho, Andrea Csépe, Rabindra P. Das, Dubi Nanda Dhakal, Stephanie Eichentopf, John W. Eppele, Tej P. Gauchan, Bhim Lal Gautam, Narayan Gautam, David Greninger, Carl Grove, Karen Grunow-Hårsta, Benjamin Hilty, Holly Hilty, Tej R. Kansakar, Yona Khaling, Karnakhar Khatiwada, Ramesh Khatri, Bhim Kissan, Kevin Kopp, Bipi Lawati, M. Paul Lewis, Chhing Chippa Lhomi, Shobha K. Mahato, Brian Migliazza, Jessica Mitchell, Kedar Bilash Nagila, Til Bikram (Bairagi Kainla) Nembang, Laxmi Raj Pandit, Krishna P. Parajuli, Lekhnath Pathak, Vishwa Nath Pathak, Krishna Paudel, Madhav P. Pokharel, Margaret Potter, Kamal Poudel, Jyoti Pradhan, Balaram Prasain, Ichchha Purna Rai, Jeewan Rai, Netra Mani Dumi Rai, Novel Kishore Rai, S. K. Rai, Purna Bahadur Rana, Lal-Shyãkarelu Rapacha, Ambika Regmi, Dan Raj Regmi, Missy Ryan, Dankaji Sampang, Sulochana Sapkota, Suren Sapkota, Reema Shresta, Dwarika Shrestha, Vishwambhar Nath Shukla, K. Subba, Ajitman Tamang, Gopal Thakur, Indresh Thakur, Sueyoshi Toba, Vikram Mani Tripathi, Irene Tucker, Dipak Tuladhar, Nirmal Man Tuladhar, Govinda Bahadur Tumbahang, Eva Ujlakyova, Ram Kishun Uranw, Bryan Varenkamp, Jeff Webster, Christopher P. Wilde, Curtis Wong, Kerry Woods, Dev Narayan Yadav, Yogendra P. Yadava, and Amrit Yonjan-Tamang.

Nepal language map contributorsThe maps have been produced under the direction of SIL’s Lead Cartographer, Irene Tucker, with the help of Matt Benjamin, Eva (Ujlakyova) Horton, and Stephen Tucker.

The maps were based on geographic information provided in the entries, with further editing to one or more maps of specific languages made by:

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Bhabendra Bhandari, Shangbu Bhote, Edward D. Boehm, Ross Caughley, Krishna Prasad Chalise, R.D. "Prabhas" Chataut, Kwang-Ju Cho, Andrea Csépe, Rabindra Prasad Das, Dubi Nanda Dhakal, Karen Ebert, John W. Eppele, Tej Prasad Gauchari, Warren Glover, David Greninger, Karen Grunow-Hårsta, Anna Maria Hari, Matthew Hedlin, Kristine Hildebrandt, Holly Hilty, Tej R. Kansakar, Mari-Sisko Khadgi, Karnakhar Khatiwada, Ramesh Khatri, Kevin Kopp, Chhing Chippa Lhomi, Shoba Kumari Mahato, Jessica Mitchell, Ram Mohan, Kedar Nagila, Krishna P. Parajuli, Pigende 1966 map, Madhav P. Pokharel, Balaram Prasain, Netra Mani Dumi Rai, Novel Kishore Rai, Vishnu Singh Rai, Lal-Shyãkarelu Rapacha, Ambika Regmi, Dan Raj Regmi, Dwarika Shrestha, Gopal Thakur, Indresh Thakur, Sueyoshi Toba, Bryan Varenkamp, Olavi Vesalainen, Tiwari Vikrammani, Daniel Watters, Jeff Webster, Christopher P. Wilde, and Yogendra P. Yadava.

The regional editors reviewed the maps for accuracy and clarity.

Tibeto-Burman classification reviewThe Ethnologue Nepal project also included reconsideration of the Ethnologue’s entire genetic classification system for Tibeto-Burman languages (representing roughly 450 ISO 639-3 designations). The current classification system is a modification of Bradley (1997; 2002). The work on the classification was done by Ken Manson, Christopher P. Wilde, and Erik Andvik. Feedback on various aspects of the classification was provided by Chura Mani Bandhu, David Bradley, Andrea Csépe, George van Driem, John W. Eppele, Jana Fortier, Warren Glover, Austin Hale, Ken Hugoniot, Karen Grunow-Hårsta, Tej R. Kansakar, Mari-Sisko Khadgi, Brian Migliazza, Madhav P. Pokharel, Novel Kishore Rai, Lal-Shyãkarelu Rapacha, Dan Raj Regmi, Anju Saxena, Sueyoshi Toba, Yogendra P. Yadava, and Claus Peter Zoller.

Institutional sponsors

Linguistic Survey of Nepal (LinSuN), Central Department of Linguistics, Tribhuvan University: The LinSuN Senior Management Committee (LISMAC): Dan Raj Regmi, Yogendra P. Yadava, Lava Deo Awasthi, Chura Mani Bandhu, Tej Ratna Kansakar, Madhav P. Pokharel, Novel Kishore Rai, Nirmal Man Tuladhar, John W. Eppele, Christopher P. Wilde, and Carl Grove.

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SIL International: Freddy Boswell, Ken Schmitt, Curtis Wong, Gary Simons, Melinda Lyons, and Brian Migliazza.Global Publishing Services: Alan Conner and Gayle Sheehan.Ethnologue staff: M. Paul Lewis, Chuck Fennig, Denise Hovland, and Robert Johnson.Review sessions led by: John W. Eppele, M. Paul Lewis, Christopher P. Wilde, David Greninger, Holly Hilty, and Kwang-Ju Cho.

Nepali National Languages Preservation Institute (NNLPI): S. Khaling, Jeewan Khaling, Yona Khaling, Dankaji Sampang, and Rohit Sunuwar.

With thanks for hosting the meetings: Hillside Hotel (Kirtipur) and Greenwich Hotel (Lalitpur).And with our personal gratefulness to: Carl Grove, Adalee Lewis, Reg Naylor, Clare O’Leary, Ambika Regmi, Daniel Watters, Curtis Wong, and many others that encouraged and supported the editorial team to a successful completion of this project.

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Language maps of Nepal

Nepal Index to Maps

Western Nepal

Central Nepal

Eastern Nepal

Nepal Enlargements

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नेपाली अनुवादका स��ब��ा (Foreword to the Nepali translation) ससारभ�र बो�लन ��� ं ैे ७ हजारको स��यामा रहका भाषाह�को े�ववरण ूःतत ग�रएको ु ए�नोलग को सऽ� सःकरणमां ूःतत नपालमा ु ेबो�लन भाषाह�बारको अ� मे े जेी भाषाको साममीलाई नपाल� भाषामा ेअनवादु /�पा�तरण गन� पाउदा हामीलाई हष�को अनभव भएको छ। यस ँ ुपःतकल नपालका भाषाह�बार जानकार� ूा� गन� चाहन स�पण� ु ूे े े ेभाषाूमी महानभावह�लाई सहयोग गन� करामा हामी �व�ःत छ�।े ु ु अनवादका बममा हामील अनभव गरका कह� ज��लताह�बार यहाँ ु ुे े े ेचचा� गन� सा�द�भ�क ठा�दछ�। ु ए�नोलग' को मल अ�मजी सःकरणमा ू े ंससारभ�र बो�लन अ�हलस�म जानकार�मा आएका सब भाषाको �ववरण ं ैे ेूःतत ग�रएको हदा �यसलाई अ�य�त सऽा�मक बनाएर थोर श�दमा ु ूुँ ै ैधर सचना �दन ूयास ग�रन ःवाभा�वक द�ख�छ। साथे े ेै ैू ु , मलतू : भाषा�व�ान �वषयको धरथोर �ान भएका र अ�मजी भाषामा दखल े ेभएका मा�नसह�ल माऽ ूयोग गन� भएकाल मल सःकरणका े े ू ंस�पादकह�ल अपनाएको स��ेप प��त उपय� प�न द�ख�छ। तर े ेुमल साममीलाई उह� ढाँचामा नपाल�मा अ�रशू े : अनवाद गदा� ु�वषयवःत ःप� �पमा नआउन र अनवा�दत क�त पाठकु ु ृे -मऽी हनसमत ै ु ेनस�न भएकाल हामीलाई क�तपय पदावल� ःतरका सरचनालाई े े ंउपवा�यीय/वा�यीय सरचनामा प�रवत�न गन� पन� वा�यता पन� गएको ं ुछ। यसो ग�ररहदा मल साममील �य� गन� खोजको आशयलाई भन ँ ू े े ेसकस�म जःताको तःत कायम रा� ूयास गरका छ�। अनवादका े े ेै ुबममा हामीलाई ज��लताको अनभव भएको अक� समःया रोमन �ल�प ुर दवनागर� �ल�पका �च�हह�ल ू�त�न�ध�व गन� वण�ह�का बीचको े े

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असमानता प�न हो। दवनागर� �ल�पका े अ र आ वण�का ला�ग रोमन �ल�पको a माऽ ूयोग ग�रने; दवनागर� �ल�पकाे त, थ, द, ध, र ट, ठ, ड, ढ का ला�ग रोमन �ल�पका t, th, d, र dh ल माऽ काम चलाउन े ुपन� जःता कारणल नपाल� अनवादमा आएका क�तपय ःथान नाम र े े ुभाषाका नामह�मा कह� ऽ�टह� हन स�न करामा सचत हदाहद प�न े े ेु ुु ु ुँ ँ ै�ठक �वक�प �दन नस�कएको अवःथा रहको छ। यस बाहक प�न े ेदवनागर� �ल�पल नपालमा बो�लन मलते े े े ू : भोटबम�ल� भाषा प�रवारका भाषाका क�तपय वण�ह�लाई ू�त�न�ध�व गन� नस�न भए प�न ेअनवा�दत साममीलाई दवनागर� �ल�पमा ूःतत गन�पन� वा�यताका ु ु ुेकारण आइपरको ज�टलतालाई समाधान गन� नस�दा �यःता ेभाषाह�ू�त अ�याय भएको हन स�नतफ� हामी सचत छ�। �व� ु े ेपाठकह�बाट ूा� हन सकारा�मक तथा �नमा�णा�मक सझावह�लाई ु े ुआगामी सःकरणमा सम�द जान ूयास ग�रन छ।ं ैे े े अ��यमा, ए�नोलगमा ूःतत नपालका भाषाह�बारको साममीलाई ु े ेनपाल� भाषामा अनवाद गन� िज�मवार� ूदान गन� े ेु 'ए�नोलग स�पादक म�डल' ू�त हा�द�क कत�ता ूकट गद�छ�।ृ अनवादका बममा सझाव ु ुर स�लाहस�हत समयमा काम परा गन� हौसला �दनहन र अनवा�दत ू ु ुु ेसाममी पढर हाॆा ऽ�टह� ��याइ�दनहन आदरणीय ग� ूाे ेु ु ु� ु .डा. योग�� ूसाद यादवे , भाषा �व�ान क���य �वभागका ूमख डाे ु . दानराज र�मी तथा एसे .आइ.एल. इ�टरनशनलका जोन ए�पल� ू�त हा�द�क ेकत�ता �य� गद�छ�ृ ।�यसगर� पःतक ूकाशनको िज�मवार� �लन ै ु े ेभाषा �व�ान क���य �वभाग तथा समर इि�ःट�यट अफ �लि��विःट�स े ुू�त आभार �य� गद�छ� । हामीलाई जःतोसक समःया आइपदा� प�न ु ै�व�भ� �क�समल सहयोग गन�हन आदरणीय ग�ह� ूाे ेु ुु .डा. चडामिण ुब�ध,ु ूा.डा. तजर� ने कसाकारं , ूा.डा. माधव पोखरले , ूा.डा. नोवल

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�कशोर राई तथा ूा. �नम�लमान तला�रू�त हा�द�क आभार ूकट ुगद���� यस गर� अनवादका बममा ू�य�ै ु /अू�य� �पमा हामीलाई सहयोग गन�हन भाषा �व�ान क���य �वभागका सहकम� �म�ह� तथा ु ु े ेनपालको भाषा सव��ण काय�बम अ�तग�त अनस��ाताका �पमा े ुकाय�रत साथीह�ू�त प�न आभार �य� गद���� अ��यमा, अनवादका बममा हामीबाट कन ��ट भएका भए �मा ु ु ुैयाचना गन�का साथ �व� पा�कह�बाट रचना�मक सझाव र ु ुैमाग�दश�नको अप�ा गद����े

अनवादक�यु कणा�खर ख�तव�ा बलराम ूसा�

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अ��ेजी-नेपाली पा��राा�� श��ााली (English-Nepali glossary) अ��मजे श�द नपाल�े �पाातर (English term) (Nepali translation) Abbreviations स�ें प Affix सग� Alternate names वक��पक नामै Anti‐passive ��त‐कम�वा�य

Applicative अन�य��यु Bilingualism ���ा��कता Blind population ����वह�न मनस��या Boundaries सजमा Case marker कारक�य �चाह Class(ification) वग� / वग�करण Clitics �लाात

Codes स�ेत प��त Cognate सहमात Conjunct / disjunct सय��ं ु / �वय��ु

Conservative पर�परा अनयायजु Constituent घटक

Content q-word �व�याप�ज ��वाचक श�दे

Count गणना Countries दशह�े Country literacy rates रा��य सा�रता दर Country population रा��य मनस��या

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Country speaker population रा�भ�रको व�ा स��या Cover term छाता ��� Cultural सांःक�तकृ Database डटाबस े े Deaf �वण��� �व��न Deaf population �वण��� �व��न जनस��या Decreasing ���ो Dialect भा�षका Dialect names भा�षकाका नाम Dialects भा�षका�� Diversity अनकताे Domains (of use) (ूयोग) �े� Domains of use ूयोग‐�े� Dormant / dormancy सषु�ु / सषु�ुता Edition सःकरणं Endangered languages स�टाप� भाषा�� Endangerment / endangered स�टाप�ता / स�टाप� Ergative ऊजा�व�व

Ethnic identity जातीय प��चान Ethnic population जातीय जनस��या Ethnolinguistic identity / जा�तभा�षक प��चान identities Evidentiality ूमाणवाचक Extinct / extinction / ल�ु (लोप भइसककोे ) / लोप / nearly extinct ल� ूायु Fluent speaker ूखर व�ा Form �प

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Function ूकाय� General remarks सामा�य ���पणी Head final शीषा��त Head initial शीषा��द Heritage language प�य��� भाषाु Immigrant आूवासी (Inherent) intelligibility (अ�त�न���त) �ो�ग�यता In situ यथाःथान

Increasing ��दो Indexes अनबमिणकाु (��) Indigenous ःवदशीे / आ�दवासी / दशजे

Individual language �य�� भाषा / भाषा �वशषे Industrialization ��ो�गक�करण Intelligibility and dialect relations �ो�ग�यता र भा�षकागत स���� Intergenerational transmission अ�तरपःतागत �ःता�तरणु Introduction प�र�य Language भाषा Language attitudes भा�षक अ�भवि�ृ Language death भा�षक म�यृ ुLanguage development भाषाको �वकास Language family भाषा प�रवार Language function भा�षक ूकाय� Language planner / भाषा योजनाकार / भाषा योजना language planning Language shift भाषा अपसरण Lexical similarity शाि�दक समानता Lg (language) use (भाषाको) ूयोग

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Lingua franca / lingua francae साझा स�पक� भाषा Linguistic affiliation भा�षक स����न Linguistic diversity भा�षक अनकताे

Linguistic typology भा�षक ूकारता Linguistic vitality भा�षक जीव�तता Literacy rates सा�रता दर Liturgical languages पजन �व��स����ी भाषाू Living languages जीव�त भाषा(��) Location ःथान Macro language(s) ���ृ भाषा(��) Macrolanguage membership ���ृ भाषा सदःयता Mean औसत Median म��यका Mixed �म��त

Modernization ���नक�कर�ु Monolingual एक भाषी Monolingual population एकभाषी जनस��या Moribund मर�ास� Morphological �पता��वक

National or official language रा�भाषा वा सरकार� कामकाजको भाषा Nationality जनजा�त

Neutral तटःथ

Non-indigenous languages गरै ‐दशज भाषाे (��) Non-tonal तान �यवःथा नभएको / तान��न

Number of speakers व�ा‐स��या / व�ा��को स��या

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Other अ�य Pejorative �न�दाथ�क Percent ू�तशत Phonological �व�नताि�वक

Polar question ीवीय ू�ु

Political राजन�तक ै Population in all countries सब दशको कै े ू ल जनस��या Population remarks जनस��यागत ���पणी Postpositional नामानगामीु

Prestigious ू�त��त

Pronominalization साव�नामीकरण

Publications and use in media ूकाशन तथा स�ार मा�यममा ूयोग Relative clause स�ब�धवाचक �पवा�य

Relative word स�ब�धवाचक पद

Religion धम� Sign language(s) सा�े�तक भाषा (��) Social / cultural disruption सामािजक / सांःक�तक �व��दनृ े Sources of information सचनाका �ोत��ू Split ergativity �वभािजत ऊजा�व�व Status अवःथा Structural complexity सरचनागत ज��लतां Syllable structure अ�र सरचनां Tonal तान �यवःथा भएको / तानय�ु

Total कूल Unclassified अवग�कतृ

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Use in elementary or secondary ूाथ�म� तथा मा�य�म� तहमा

schools ूयोग Valley ��सी / �प�य�ा Variation �व�व�ता Variety / varieties भदे /भदह�े Vigorous ूवल Wider communication �याप� स�ा� Word order पदबम

Writing script used �ल�प�ो ूयोग

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स��ेपीकृत श��-सूची (Abbreviations)

स��ेपीकत �पृ पण� �पू (Abbreviation)  (Full form) 

ःव ःवर �य �य�न आजउराू आ��वासी / जनजाटत उ��ान रास�य ूटत�ान गा.सव.स. गाउ सवकास सटमटतँ एस.आइ.एल. समर इ��ः��य� अफ टल���व�ः��स ु इ��रन�नले टससपटपसप ट��ता�-पमा पकम��सन ू�ज��ु ु े े े आइ.एन.एफ. International Nepal Fellowship

NT नया करार स�ट� �टलट�जने

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नेपालका भाषाह�का ूव�व� (Nepal language entries1) 

नपालकोे रा��य जनगणना २०११ अनसार नपालको कल जनस��या ु ूे२६,६२१,००० छ। नपालमा सरकार� कामकाजका ला�ग नपाल� े ेभाषाको ूयोग ग�र�छ। नपालमा मातभाषाका �पमा बो�लन सब े ेृ ैभाषाह� नपालका रा�भाषा हन।े ु ् यनःकोको ू�तवदन अनसार नपालको सा�रता दर ु ुे े े ५९% छ। �वदशी ेभाषाह�: जो� खा (३००) र अ��जी। सचनाका ूमख ौोतह�े ू ु : �बःट (१९६७, १९७३, १९९६); ब�ल�ङ (२००३); एबट� (१९९४); हल े(१९८२); �ा�सन (१९९१); हगो�नय ु (Hugoniot) (१९७०); नपालको भा�षक सव��ण े (२०११); �या�टसो�, �यारोन र लोव े(१९९६); तोबा (१९७६,१९८३,१९९१); भाषा�व�ान क���य �वभागे , ��भवन �व��व�ालय ु (२०११-२०१२) हन। नपालमा सःतु ् ुे -ौवण भएका मा�नसह�को कल जनस��या ु १,९२,००० छ।सःतु -ौवणसग ँस�ब���त तीनवटा सःथाह� छन। नपालमा नपाल� सा� कं ् े े े �तक भाषास�हत १२४ वटा भाषाह� सचीकत छन। तीम�य ू ृ ् े १२० वटा भाषा जी�वत छन भन चारवटा भाषाका व�ाबार जानकार� ूा� छन।् े े ै

अ��का [anp] (अ�ा, अ��कार, �छका�छक�)। व�ा स��या: नपालमा े१५,९०० (रा��य जनगणना २००१) ��दो बम। कल जनस��याु : ७,४०,९००।बो�लन �े�े : कोशी अ�लका मोरङ तथा सनसर� ु�ज�ला। भारतमा समत बो�लन।े े भाषाको अवःथा: ६ख (स�टाप�)। भाषा प�रवार: भारोपल�े , भारत-�रानल�े , आय�-भारतीय, पव� �े�ू ,

1 The Nepali translation of the Nepal entries lists languages in alphabetical order according to Devanagari script.

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अवग�कत। ृ भा�षका: जानकार� नभएको। म�थल�को भाषाको �ा�ण ैभदसग े ँ ६९% अ�त�न��हत बोधग�यता। शाि�दक समानता: ८१% म�थल� ै (�ा�ण भदे ) दिख दरभ�ा म�थल� े ै ८७% (गरै -�ा�ण) स�म। भाषाको ूकार: कता� कम� �बया (पदबम); नामानगामीु ; नाम शीषा��त; �वषयाप�ी ू�वा�ी श�दे यथाःथानमा। कारक�य ि��हबा� �पवा�यका ��कह� ि�ि�हत हनेु; कम� र भाववा�य हनेु; तानह�न भाषा। भाषाको ूयोग: सब व�ाह� नपाल� ै े [npi], म�थल� ै [mai] वा �ह�द� [hin] मा �भा�षक। ै �ल�पको ूयोग: दवनागर� �ल�प। े अ�य: �ह�दू, मिःलम।ु

अवधी [awa] (अबधी, अबद�, अबोह�, अ�बोधी, अवधी, दहातीे , दसीे , गवना�, कोसल�े )। व�ा स��या: नपालमा े ५,६१,००० (रा��य जनगणना २००१), ब�दो बम। रा��य जनगणना (२००१) मा �प�दह� र नवलपरासी िज�लामा अवधी र भोजपर� भाषाका े ुव�ाह�को स��या न���ाइएकोु ; कलाल� र क�नपर िज�लाका ै ुदहाती े (अवधीक वकि�पक नामै ै ) भाषाका व�ाह�को स��या रा��य जनगणना (२००१) मा ��लख नग�रएको। कल जनस��याे ू : ३०,९१,०००।बो�लन �ेऽे : लि�बनी अ�लका नवलपरासीु , �प�दह� ेर क�पलवःत िज�लाु ; भर� अ�लका बाँक र ब�द�या िज�लाे े ; रा�ी अ�लको दाङ िज�ला; सती अ�लको कलाल� िज�लाे ै ; महाकाल� अ�लको क�नपर िज�ला। भारतमा प�न अवधी भाषा बो�लन।ु े भाषाको अवःथा: ४(शि�कै )। भाषा प�रवार: भारोपल�े , आय�-इरानल�े , आय�-भारतीय, पव� क���य �ेऽ। ू े भा�षकाह�: बःवार�ै , ��ीसग��। अवधीका भा�षकाह� सामा�यतया परःपर बोधग�य रहका। शाि�दक ेसमानता: भोजपर� ु [bho], राना था� [thr], म�थल� ै [mai], नपाल� े [npi] र �ह�द� [hin] सग। सःकतँ ं ृ [san] त�सम श�दह� पाइन।े भाषाको ूकार: कता� कम� �बया (पदबम); नामानगामीु ; नाम शीषा��त;

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�याकरिणक �ल� �यवःथा भएको; कारक�य ि��ह�ारा उपवा�यका घटकह� ि�ि�हत हनेु; उजा�व�व नभएको; काल, प� र वा�यजःता �याकरिणक को�ट भएको; कम� तथा भाववा�य भएको; ३० वटा �य�न तथा ८ वटा ःवर भएको; तान �यवःथा नभएको; भाषाको ूयोग: सश� जीव�तता, ूवल। घरमा र साथीभाइह�सगँ; �मि�त ूयोग: धा�म�क काय�मा, कामकाजमा तथा िश�ामा।सब उमर समहका ै े ूमा�नसह�ल बो�न। भाषाू�तको अ�भवि� सकारा�मक। कह�ल नपाल� े े े े ेृ[nep], तथा �ह�द� [hin] बो�ने; भाषाको �वकास: ूाथ�मक तथा मा�य�मक तहमा पठनपाठन हन। �ल�पको ूयोगु े : दवनागर�। अ�ये : �ह�दू, मिःलमु , बौ�, �बि�यन र �सख। आठप�रया [aph] (आथ�रे, आठू,े आठपरे, आ�ू,े साना�ो �रङ)। व�ा स��या: २००० (एबट�,१९९४), घ�दो बम। बो�लन े�े�: कोशी अ�ल, धनकटा िज�लाु , तमोर खोलाको उ�र� �े�, धनकटा खोला पि�म र टा�ुवा ु उद� ू [urd]।व�ा स��या: नपालमा े १,७५,००० (रा��य जनगणना २००१)। कल जनस��याू : ६,४०,०४,८००। बो�लन �े� े : नपालका ेदि�ण पव� िज�लाह�ू : झापा, मोरङ, सनसर�ु , स�र�, �सरहा, धनषाु ,

महो�र�, सला�ह�, रौतहट, भारतीय सीमा �े�; बाँक िज�लाको पि�मका ेकह� �े�े । बहराइन, ब�लादश े (�बहार�), बो�ःवाना, �यानडा, डनमाक�े , ��जी, जम�नी, भारत, मालावी, मौ�रसस, नव�, ओमान, पा�कःतान, कतार, साउद� अर�बया, �सगापरं ु , दि�ण अ��का, थाइ�या�ड, सय� अरब इ�मरटसं ु े , सय� अ�धरा�य ं ु (बलायते ), सय� ं ुरा�य (अम�रकाे ), जाि�बया। भाषाको अवःथा: ४ (शि�कै )। भाषा प�रवार: भारोपल�े , आय�-इरानल�े , भारतीय-आय�, क���ये , पि�मी �ह�द�,

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�ह�दःतानीु । भा�षकाह�: �ह�द�सग बोधग�य तर आ�धका�रक श�दह� ँअरबी र �ास� ौोतबाट �लइने। भारतमा बो�लन उद� े ू [urd] को दि�णी भा�षकामा अरबी र �ास� आग�तक श�दह� उद� ु ू [urd] मा भ�दा कम। प�मा ूयोग हन उद�लाई र�ता भ�नन।ु े े ेू भाषा ूयोग: नपालमा े२२,९३२ दोॐो भाषाका व�ाह� (रा��य जनगणना १९९१)। �ल�पको ूयोग: अरबी �ल�प, नाःता�लक शल� ै ( ूाथ�मक ूयोग)। ॄल �ल�पे ।

अ�य: मिःलमु । काइक े [kzq] (तराल� खाम)। व�ा स��या: २,००० (२०११ एस.आइ.एल.), घ�दो बम। एकभाषी व�ा नभएको।जातीय जनस��या: २,००० (२०११ अ. र�मीे )। बो�लन �े�े : कणा�ल� अ�ल, �ो�पा िज�लाका सहरतारा गा.�व.स.का सहरतारा, तपाताराु , ताराकोट र बलवा गाउह�।े ँ अवःथा: ६क (ूवल)। भाषा प�रवार: ि��नयाँ-�त�बती, भोट-बम�ल�, पि�मी भोट-बम�ल�, बो��स, पि�मी बो��स। भाषाको ूकार: कता� कम� �बया (पदबम); नामानगामीु ; नाम शीषा��त; नाम वग� वा �याकरिणक �ल� नभएको; �वषयाप�ी ू�वा�क श�द ेउपवा�यका अिघ आउने; एउटास�म उपसग� र २ वटास�म ू�यय �लने; कारक�य ि��हल उपवा�यीय घटकह�लाई ि�ि�हत गन�े ; ऊजा�व�वमा एक�पता; कम�वा�य वा भाववा�य नभएको; अध�-तान (semi- tonal) �यवःथा भएको; २९ वटा �य�न वण� र १० वटा ःवर वण� भएको; ज�टल सयि�ं ु -�वयि�ु �यवःथा र नामीकरण ू�बया भएको।भाषाको ूयोग: ूवल।घरमा, साथीभाइसगँ, धा�म�क काय�मा र कामकाजमा। �मिौत ूयोग: िश�ामा। सब उमर समहकाल बो�न। ै े े ेूभा�षक अ�भवि� सकारा�मक।नपाल�ृ े [npi] र �त�बती [bod] प�न ूयोग गन�। �ल�पको ूयोग: लखन ूणाल� �वकास नभएको। े अ�य: काइक ेभाषा तराल� खाम भनर ि��नन भए प�न खाम े े (पि�म नपालमा बो�लन े े�हमाल� भाषा) भ�दा �नक �भ� रहकोै े (ॄ�ल� े १९९७:११)। जाती र

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भाषा दवलाई काइक भ�नन।पर� ु ै े े (अ�सराह�को भाषा ('काई'-पर� (अ�सरा), 'के'-भाषा) अ�य: ब��, �ह�द।ू

कागते [syw] (“कागत भोटे े” �न�दाथ�क, शबाू , ँयबाू , ःयू:बा)। व�ा स��या: १,२७० (२०००)। एकभाषी व�ा अ�य�त कम।बो�लन े�े�: जनकपर अ�लु , रामछाप िज�लाे , �लख खोलाको ु�कनार।अवःथा: ६क (ूवल)। भाषा प�रवार: िच�नयाँ-�त�बती, भोट-

बम�ल�, पि�मी भोट-बम�ल�, बो��स, क���य बो��से , क���य चाङ े(gTsang)। भा�षकाह�: �बयामा आदराथ�को कम ूयोग हन हदा ु ुे ँहल�ब शपा�े ेु [scp] भ�दा ब�ल। यस कारणल कागतका व�ाह�लाई े े ेै ैहल�ब शपा� ब�न गा� होे ेु ु हन। कागतलाई हल�ब शपा�को एउटा ु े े े ेुभा�षका मा� स�कन। े भाषाको ूकार: कता� कम� �बया (पदबम); नामानगामीु ; स�ब�� वाचक पद, �वशषण र स�ब��वाचक उपवा�य ेनाम शीष�भ�दा अिघ आउने; स��यावाची श�द नाम शीष�भ�दा प�छ आउने; नाम शीषा��द; नाम वग� वा �याकरिणक �ल� नभएको; �वषयाप�ी ू�वाचक श�द उपवा�यका अिघ आउने े; एउटा उपसग� र ४ वटास�म ू�यय �लने; नामानगामीह�ल कता�ु े , कम�, अू�य� कम� र नाम पदावल�को कारकलाई िचि�हत गन�; कारक�य िच�ह तथा पदबमल उपवा�यीय घटकह�लाई िचि�हत गन�े ; �वभािजत उजा�व�व; काल तथा प� �यवःथाल स�प�े ; कम�वा�य वा भाववा�य भएको; अवयि�क ै (impersonal) वा�य भएको; ूरणाथ�क ता तलनाथ�क े ु�यवःथा भएको; अ�र सरचनां : �यःव, �यःव�य, �यःवःव, �य�यःव, �य�यःवःव, �यःवःव�य; २६ वटा �य�न वण� र ५ वटा ःवर वण� भएको; तान �यवःथा भएको (४ तहको तान); भाषाको ूयोग: घरमा, साथीभाइसगँ; �मि�त ूयोग: �ा�म�क काय�मा र कामकाजमा। यवा तथा ुू��ह�ल ूयोग गन�। बालबा�लकाे , �कशोर�कशोर� तथा यवायवतीलु ु े

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प�न धरथोर ूयोग गन�। भा�षक अ�भवि� सकारा�मक।क�तपयल े ेृघरमा नपाल�े [npi] प�न ूयोग गन�। भाषाको �वकास: दोॐो भाषामा सा�रता: कह�। नपाल�े े [npi] भाषाका सा�रह�ला� दवनागर� �ल�पमा ेलिखएको कागत प�न अ�लअ�ल माऽ गा� होे े हन। क�वता र श�दकोश ु ेूकािशत।बाइबलका भागह� ूकािशत: १९७७। �ल�पको ूयोग:

दवनागर� �ल�प।े अ�य: ब�� (लामावाद�), पर�परागत धम�सग सि�म�णँ , मिःलमु , ��िःचयन।

कायोट� [kyv]।व�ा स��या: २२,००० (२००२)। बो�लन �ेऽे : कोशी अ�ल, मोरङ िज�लाको डाकवा डाँगाु , राजवशीं [rjs] �ेऽको आसपास। भाषाको अवःथा: ६क (ूवल)। भाषा प�रवार: भारोपल�े , भारत-इरानल�े , भारतीय-आय�, पव� �ेऽू , ब�ाल�-आसामी। भा�षकाह�: जानकार� नभएको। ब�ाल� [ben] सग स�बि�धत ँ (अस�भा�य)।

�ल�पको ूयोग: लखन ूणाल� �वकास नभएको। े अ�य: �� भाषा ु ैभएकोबार सव��णमा आधा�रत कन ूमाण ूा� नभएको।े ु ै

�कसान [sck] (सा��)। व�ा स��या: नपालमा े ४९० (रा��य जनगणना २००१)। स�पण� जनस��या ू : ३२,९०,४९०। बो�लन �ेऽे : मची ेअ�लको झापा िज�लाका बाह�डाँगीु , धाइजन, शाि�तनगर र अनारम�न गा.�व.स.ह� एव दमक नगरपा�लका। भारतमा प�न बो�लन ं े (सा��)। अवःथा: ६क (ूवल)। आ�दवासी जनजा�तमा सचीकतह�को भाषाू ृ

(२००२, आजउराू ऐन, नं. २०, ख�ड २ग)। भाषा प�रवार:

भारोपल�े , भारत-इरानल�े , भारतीय-आय�, पव� �ेऽू , �बहार�। भा�षकाह�:

सा�� [sdr] सगँ ७७%, उराउ ँ (ब�लादशे )।व�ाह�ल सा��का सदानी े(श�ु, ू�त��त, �पचा�रक), सामा�य सा�� (नागपर�ु ) र �न�न सा�� (अिश�) भ�े गरको। शाि�दक समानताे : भा�षकाह�बीच ७७%–९६%

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समानता, �ह�द� [hin] सगँ ५८%–७१%, उ��या[ory] सग ँ ४७%५४%

स�म। ब�ाल� [ben] सग ँ ४५%–६१% स�म।�ल�पको ूयोग: ब�ाल� �ल�प, दवनागर� �ल�प।े

ककु े [ght] (भो�े, कटाङु , कटाङ घलु े)।जनस��या: १,३०० (१९९२)। बो�लन �े�े : ग��क� अ�लको उ�र� गोखा�मा पन� �बह� गा.�व.स.का �ाङ, राना, �ब�ह, घाप, चाक, �वाक, बाक गाउह�।ँ भाषाको अवःथा: ६क (ूवल)। भाषा प�रवार: िच�नयाँ-�त�बती, भोट-बम�ल�,

पि�मी भोट-बम�ल�, बो��स, पि�मी बो��स, घल। े भा�षकाह�: �ब�ह, चाक, राना। छाक र �वाक गाउका भदह�बीच समानता भए प�न ँ ेअ�य गाउका भदह� �भ�। �ाि�दक समानताँ े : भा�षकाह�बीच ६२%–

७६% स�म; दि��ी घल े [ghe] सग ँ ३९%–४९% स�म; उ�र� घल े[ghh] सग ँ ४५%–६१% स�म, पि�मी (बाँसपरु) ग�ङ ु [gvr] सग ँ१८% स�म, तामाङका भदह�सग े ँ १६%–२३% स�म; नॄी ु [kte] सग ँ१३%–३१% स�म; चम ु (Tsum ) [ttz] सगँ २३%–२७% स�म। �य�ङ े (ि�यरोङ) [kgy] सग ँ २२%–२७% स�म। �त�बती [bod] सग ँ१९%–२४% स�म। भाषाको ूकार: कता� कम� �बया (पदबम); भाषाको ूयोग: ूवल। धम�ग�ह�लु े कह� �त�बती धा�म�क ��थह� ेककमा अनवाद गरका। घरमाु ुे े , साथीभाइसगँ; �मि�त ूयोग: कामकाजमा।सब उमरका मा�नसह�ल बो�न।भाषाू�तको अ�भवि� ै े े े ृसकारा�मक। �बह� गाउका व�ाह�को �त�बतीँ [bod] र नपाल� े [npi] मा �यनतम ��भा�षक द�ता।उ�र� तथा दि��ी घल व�ाह�ल ू े ेआपसमा कराकानी गन� नपाल�को ूयोग गन�। धर व�ाह�ु े े ै नॄीु [kte] मा �भा�षक। नॄी व�ाह�सग कराकानी गदा� नॄीक ूयोग गन� ै ैु ु ुँ�कनभन धर नॄी व�ाह�ल कक बो�दनन वा ब�दनन। े े े ेै ै ैु ु ् ु ् भाषाको �वकास: प�हलो भाषामा सा�रता दर: कह�ल �त�बती �ल�पमा लिखएको े े े

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कक लखपढ गन� स�छन। दोॐो भाषामा सा�रता दरु ्े े : ५%। �ल�पको ूयोग: �त�बती �ल�प। अ�य: छउछाउका भाषाह�बाट �मसमास ेग�रएको भाषा भ�नन। े अ�य: ब�� (लामावादल), �ह�दू, �ब�ःचयन। क�हाललु [kra] (कमाललु , क�बालु े, क�हालु े, क�कालु े)।व�ा स��या: ६५३० (रा��य जनगणना २००१), घ�दो बम। एकभाषी व�ा नभएका। जातीय जनस��या: ९९,४००। बो�लन �ेऽे : ल��बनी ुअ�ल, नवलपरासी �ज�ला, दराई [dry] भाषा �ेऽबाट द��ण। अघा�खाँची र पा�पा �ज�लामा स-साना �ेऽ; ग��क� अ�लका गोखा� र तनह �ज�लाुँ ; रापती अ�लको दाङ �ज�ला। भाषाको अवःथा: ७ (अपसरणशील)।आ�दवासी जनजा�तमा सचीकतह�को भाषाू ृ (२००२,

आजउराू ऐन, नं. २०, ख�� २ग)। भाषा प�रवार: भारोपलले , भारत-

इरानलले , भारतीय-आय�, अवग�कत।ृ भा�षकाह�: अघा�खाँची, गोखा�, नवलपरासी, पा�पा। चारवट भा�षका परःपर बोधग�य। अघा�खाँची ैसबभ�दा �भ�। ै भाषाको ूकार: कता� कम� �बया (पदबम), नामानगामीु , नाम शीषा��त; २ वटा नाम वग� र �ल�; �वषयाप�ी ेू�वाचक श�द यथाःथानमा; एउटा उपसग�, तीनवटास�म ू�यय; कारक�य �च�हह�ल उपवा�यीय घटकह�लाई �च��हत गन�े ; �बया�मक सग�ह�ल प�ष तथा वचन �च��हत गन�े ु ; ऊजा�व�व भएको; काल र प� दव �यवःथा भएकोु ै ; कम� वा�य वा भाव वा�य भएको; तानर�हत भाषा; २९ वटा �य�न वण� र ६ वटा ःवर वण�।भाषाको ूयोग: धा�म�क काय�मा। �म��त ूयोग: घरमा, साथीभाइसगँ, कामकाजमा। अधब�स तथा ब�ब�ाल ूयोग गन�। �कशोर�कशोरलल प�न धरथोर े े े ेृ ृबो�न। मातभाषाू�तको अ�भव�� सकारा�मक �पमा ब�द गएको भए े ृ ृ ैप�न भाषा चयनमा उ� ूव�� न��कन। नपाललृ े े [npi] मा सब ै��भा�षक। अ�धकांश कटाकटलल कमाल भाषा पट� नबो�ने े े ेु ै (यनःकोु े )।

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भाषाको �वकास: क�वता। पऽप�ऽका। समाचार पऽ ूकािशत।�सनमा ेतथा �भ�डयो �नमा�ण। श�दकोश ूकािशत।�ल�पको ूयोग: दवनागर� े�ल�प। अ�य: �ह�द।ू क�खु , नपाल�े [kxl] (धाँगर, जाँगड, ज�ाड�, झागड, झाँगर, ओराउँ, ओराउ, उराउँ, उराउ) व�ा स��या: २८,६०० (रा��य जनगणना २००१), घ�दो बम। एकभाषी व�ा नभएको (यनःको ु े २००२)। जातीय जनस��या: ४१,८०० धागर (झागर)। बो�लन �ेऽे : कोशी अ�लको सनसर� िज�लाु ; सगरमाथा अ�लको �सरहा िज�ला; मची ेअ�लको झापा िज�ला; नारायणी अ�लको पसा� िज�ला। पसा�दिख ेझापा िज�लास�मको भारतीय सीमा �ेऽ।भाषाको अवःथा: ६ख

(स�टाप�)। भाषा प�रवार: ��वडल�े , उ�र�। भा�षकाह�: जानकार� नभएको। भारत तथा ब�लादशमा बो�लन क�खे े ु [kru] भ�दा कह� े�भ� भए प�न परःपर बोधग�यता भएको; भाषाको ूकार: कता� कम� �बया (पदबम), नामानगामीु , नाम शीषा��त; २ वटा नाम वग� (मानवीय, मानवतरे ); �वषययाप�ी ू�वाची श�द ूार�भमाे ; एउटा उपसग�, ६ वटास�म ू�यय; कारक�य िच�हह�ल उपवा�यीय ेघटकह�ला� िचि�हत गन�; �बया�मक सग�ह�ल कता� र कम�को प�षे ु , वचन र �ल� िचि�हत गन�; ऊजा�व�व भएको; काल र प� दव ु ै�यवःथा भएको; कम� वा�य वा भाव वा�य भएको; तानर�हत भाषा; २९ वटा �य�न वण� र १० वटा ःवर वण� भएको; भाषाको ूयोग: घरमा, धा�म�क काय�मा।�मि�त ूयोग: साथीभाइसगँ , कामकाजमा र िश�ामा। अधब�स तथा ब�ब�ाल ूयोग गन�। कटाकट�े े े ेृ ृ , �कशोर�कशोर� तथा यवायवतील प�न धरथोर ूयोग गन�। म�थल�ु ु े े ै [mai], नपाल�े [npi], नागपर�ु [mar], भोजपर�ु [bho] वा आसामी [asm] प�न बो�न।ेभाषाको �वकास: ूाथ�मक �व�ालयमा पठनपाठन हन। क�वता तथा समाचार ु े

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पऽ ूकािशत। स�ारका नयाँ मा�यम: र�डयो काय�बम। �भ�डयो े�नमा�ण। श�दकोश।बाइबलका भागह� ूकािशत १९७७। �ल�पको ूयोग: दवनागर� �ल�प। े अ�य: मा�नसलाई बझाउन वकि�पक नामह� ु ैूयोग हन। �ह�द।ु े ू

कलङ ु ु [kle] (कल �रङु ु , कल�ेु ु )। व�ा स��या: नपालमा े १८,७००

(रा��य जनगणना २००१)। बो�लन �ेऽे : सगरमाथा अ�लको सोलख�ब िज�लामा पन� ह�ु नद�को ब�सीु ु ु ु , बङु, प�माङे , छि�सङे , छःकामे , लचामु , चाचलङु, सा�द�, गडलु े , ना�लङु, सोताङ र च�मा ेगाउह�ँ ; कोशी अ�लको स�ुवासभा िज�लाका मा�तबाे , याफ र सदवा ु ुेगा.�व.स.ह�; भोजपर िज�लाका फद�ु े , �लि�खम, खाता��ा र वास�ला ेगा.�व.स.ह�। भारतमा प�न बो�लन। े भाषाको अवःथा: ६ख (स�टाप�)। आ�दवासी जनजा�तमा सचीकतह�को भाषाू ृ (२००२,

आजउराू ऐन, नं. २०, ख�ड २ग)। राई जनजा�त। भाषा प�रवार: िच�नयाँ-�त�बती, भोट-बम�ल�, पि�मी भोट-बम�ल�, �हमाल�, �कराती, पव�।ू भा�षकाह�: सो�ो �रङ। कलङ र सो�ो र�� काु ु बीचमा १००% बो�ग�यता; कह� श�दह� माऽ फरक उ�चारण ग�रन। सा�पाङे े [rav]

र नाछ�रङे [ncd] सग स�बि��त।ँ भाषाको ूकार: कता� कम� �बया (पदबम); नामानगामीु ; नाम शीषा��त; नाम वग� वा �ल� �यवःथा नभएको; �वषयाप�ी ू�वाचक श�द उपवा�यका ूार�भमाे ; एउटा उपसग�, ३ वटा ू�यय; सग�ह�ल नाम पदावल�को कारक िचि�हत गन�े ; �बया�मक सग�ह�ल कता� तथा कम�को प�ष र �ल� िचि�हत गन�े ु ; ऊजा�वत कारक् (सकम�क उपवा�यको कम� = अकम�क उपवा�यको कता�); काल �यवःथा भएको; कम� वा भाववा�य नभएको; तानर�हत भाषा।२२ वटा �य�न र ६ वटा ःवरवण�।भाषाको ूयोग: घरमा, साथीभाइसगँ, �ा�म�क काय�मा। क�तपय कटाकट� तथा �कशोर े े

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�कशोर�ल प�न ूयोग गन�े ; ूाय: सबल आधारभत तहको नपाल�ै े ेू [npi]

ब�न। ु े भाषाको �वकास: सा�रताू�त उ�च आकष�ण। क�वता लखने , पऽप�ऽका ूकाशन तथा नवीन स�ार मा�यममा ूयोग; श�दकोश तथा �याकरण ूकािशत। बाइबलका ख��ह� (१९७६) ूकािशत। �ल�पको ूयोग: दवनागर� �ल�प। े अ�य: बा�हर� गोऽका मा�नसह�का बीच माऽ �ववाह गन�। थूल आफह�लाई कलङ भ�े गर प�न ु ू ु ुै े ेज�मजात �पमा ती कलङ नभएका।ु ु स�भवत: कल�ह�ल ससाना ु ु ेसमहलाई आफमा समा�हत गन�ू ू ; अ�य: पर�प�रत धम� (�करात), ब��, �ह�दू, �बिःचयन।

कस��ाु ु [kgg] (कस��ाु )। व�ा स��या: ७ (२००५ एस.आइ.एल.), घ�दो बम। एकभाषी व�ा नभएका। रा��य जनगणना २००१ मा �य�ानु , दाङ र तनहमा गर� ुँ ८७ जना उ�लिखत।े जातीय जनस��या: १६०। बो�लन �ेऽे : ग��क� अ�लको तनह िज�लाका पि�मी ुँपहा�ह�, चपटारको पि�मप�� सा�ो भ�ी र अ�भभ�दा दि�णको े े ुज�ल; रापती अ�लको दाङ िज�लामा पन� अ�बापरु, दउखर�े ु ; रो�पा िज�लाको टनीबोटु ; लि�बनी अ�लको अघा�खाँची िज�ला। ु भाषाको अवःथा: ८ख (मतूायृ )। आ�दवासी जनजा�तमा सचीकतह�को भाषाू ृ

(२००२, आजउराू ऐन, नं. २०, ख�� २ग)। भाषा प�रवार: एकल भाषा। भा�षकाह�: गोखा�, रो�पा-दाङ, तनह। म�यपि�म नपालका ुँ ेरो�पा, दाङ र स�भवत: अघा�खाँची िज�लाका कस��ाह� एउट ु ु ैप�रवारमा पन�। यस कारण उनीह�का ऐ�तहा�सक भा�षकाह� ै(पःतागत र भ�गो�लक �भ�ताल सजना गरकोु ृे े ) परःपर बोधग�य रहका।े भाषाको ूकार: कता� कम� �बया (पदबम); नामानगामीु ; नाम शीषा��त; एउटा उपसग�, दईवटा स�म ू�यय �लनु े; कारक�य िच�हह�ल उपवा�यीय घटकह�लाई िचि�हत गन�े ; �बया�मक

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सग�ह�ल प�ष तथा वचन िचि�हत गन�े ु ; कता� �बया स��त तथा �बया साव�नामीकरण; ३१ वटा �य�न वण� र ६ वटा ःवर वण�। भाषाको ूयोग: धरजसो कस��ाह� अलग अलग बसोबास गद�छन र कस��ा े ै ु ु ् ु ुइतरसग �ववाह गरका छन। ब�ब�ाल बो�न। भाषाू�तको अ�भवि� ँ े े े् ृ ृ ृसकारा�मक। सबल नपाल�ै े े [npi] प�न बो�न। े भाषाको �वकास: श�दकोश तथा �याकरण ूकािशत। �ल�पको ूयोग: लखन ूणाल�को े�वकास नभएको। अ�य: पर�परागत धम�।

कोइ [kkt] (कोह�, कोयी, को�य, कोय)ु। जनस��या: २,६४० (रा��य जनगणना २००१)।बो�लन �ेऽे : सगरमाथा अ�ल, उ�रपव� खोटाङ ूिज�ला, स�दल गाु े .�व.स. (रावाखोलाको महानका छउछाउु े ) का स�दल र �द�सङ गाउ।ु ुे ँ भाषाको अवःथा: ५ (�वकासशील)। आ�दवासी जनजा�तमा सचीकतह�को भाषाू ृ (२००२, आजउराू ऐन, नं. २०, ख�� २ग)। राई जनजा�त। भाषा प�रवार: िच�नयाँ-�त�बती, भोट-बम�ल�,

पि�मी भोट-बम�ल�, �हमाल�, �कराती, पि�मी। भा�षकाह�: बहर र े े ेस�दलु े ।दमीु [dus] र खाल�ङ [klr] धर �म�न।े ेै भाषाको ूकार: कता� कम� �बया (पदबम); नामानगामीु ; नाम शीषा��त; भाषाको ूयोग: घरमा, साथीभाइसगँ, धा�म�क काय�मा; �मि�त ूयोग: कामकाजमा। सब उमर समहकाल बो�न। भा�षक अ�भवि� सकारा�मकै े े ेू ृ ।सबल ै ेअ�लअ�ल नपाल� े [npi] ूयोग गर प�न समम ��भा�षकतामा कमी। ेभाषाको �वकास: क�वता लखने , पऽप�ऽका ूकािशत। नयाँ मा�यम। श�दकोश ूकािशत। अ�य: अ�य भाषाभाषी �ेऽमा छ�रएर रहकाे 'कोइ' भ�नन कह� मा�नसह�ल नपाल�े े े े [npi] माऽ बो�न। पर�परागत धम� े(�करात), �ह�दू, �बिःचयन।

ि�यरोङ [kgy] (ि�यरोङ, �य�ङे , ि�य�ङ)। व�ा स��या नपालमा े४,७९० (२०००)। कल जनस��याू : ४,८९०। बो�लन �ेऽे : बा�मती

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अ�लको रसवा िज�लाु , लामटाङ �े�, रसवा गाब�ु , �ब�द�म, था�जटे , ःयाॄ र ःयाॄब�सी गाउह�। ूशःत व�ाह� का�माड�मा कि��त। ु ु ँ ेिचनमा प�न बो�लन े (�य�ङे )। भाषाको अवःथा: ६क (ूवल)। भाषा प�रवार: िच�नयाँ-�त�बती, भोट-बम�ल�, पि�मी भोट-बम�ल�, बो�डस, क���य बो�डसे , क���ये , चाङ (gTsang)। भा�षकाह�: जानकार� नभएको। �हासा �त�बती [bod] सग �म�न। शाि�दक समानताँ े : डो�पो [dre], वाल�ेु [ola], �होमी [lhm], र लोके [loy] सग ँ ६८%; नॄीु [kte] र �हासा �त�बती सग ँ ६५%; हल�ब शपा�े ेु [scp] सग ँ ६३%, िजरले [jul] सग ँ ६३%, शपा�े [xsr] सग ँ ५७%। भाषाको ूकार: कता� कम� �बया (पदबम); नामानगामीु ; �वषयाप�ी ू�वाचक श�द सहायक �बया तथा ेम�य �बया भ�दा लग� अिघ आउनु ै े; कारक�य िच�हह�ल उपवा�यीय ेघटकह� िचि�हत गन�; ऊजा�व�व भएको: �वभािजत कता� (S) प��त। २६ वटा �य�न वण� र २४ वटा ःवर वण�। तान �यवःथा भएको। �ल�पको ूयोग: लखन ूणाल�को �वकास नभएको।े अ�य: ब��

(लामावाद�), पर�परागत धम�

ख�डया [khr] जनस��या: १,५८० (नपालमाे ) (रा��य जनगणना २००१)। कल जनस��याू : २,४१,५८०।बो�लन �े�े : मची अ�ले , झापा िज�ला, भारतको पव� �समाना। भारतमा प�न बो�लन।ू े भाषाको अवःथा ६ख (स�टाप�)। भाषा प�रवार: अःशो-ए�सयाल�, म�डाु , दि�णी म�डाु , ख�डया-जआङ। ु �ल�पको ूयोग: दवनागर� �ल�पे , �या�टन (रोमन) �ल�प।

खाम, गमाले [kgj] (गमाले)। व�ा स��या: १३,१०० (२०००), ब�दो बम। बो�लन �े�े : रा�ी अ�ल, रो�पा िज�लामा पन� गाम खोलाको पि�मी पहाडका गाम, �या�गङु, चा�बाङ, तामाल�, डा�ाधारा, शरामे , घःबाङु , हइिचङु , गवाखोला गाउु ँ, माउलाबाङ, कइपाधारा गाउह�।ु ँ

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भाषाको अवःथा: ६क (ूवल)। भाषा प�रवार: ि��नयाँ-�त�बती, भोट-

बम�ल�, पि�मी भोट-बम�ल�, �हमाल�, क���य �हमाल�े , खाम-मगर, खाम। भा�षकाह�: घःबा��गीु , तामाल�। �बया-�प�व�ानमा ट�कारो �भ�ता भएकाल पि�मी पब�ते े [kjl] सगँ ३०% माऽ बोधग�यता।शाि�दक समानता: पि�मी पब�ते [kjl] सग ँ ७१% (धरजसो �म�ने ेै ); पव� पब�तू े [kif] र शशीे [kip] सग ँ ५५%; भजलु े [kif] सगँ ४५%।भाषाको ूकार:

कता� कम� �बया (पदबम); नामानगामीु ; कारक�य ि��हह�ल ेउपवा�यीय घटकह�ला� ि�ि�हत गन�; �बया�मक सग�ह�ल प�ष र े ु�ल� ि�ि�हत गन�; कम�वा�य वा भाववा�य भएको; तान �यवःथा भएको; भाषाको ूयोग: गाउ घरमा ूवल। घरमाँ , सा�थभाइसगँ, कामकाजमा; �मि�त ूयोग: धा�म�क काय�मा। सब उमर समहकाल ै े ेूबो�न। भाषाू�तको अ�भवि� सकारा�मक।े ृ यवा पःताका व�ाह�ल ु ु ेकह�े नपाल�े [npi] प�न बो�न।ेभाषाको �वकास: दोॐो भाषामा सा�रता दर: ५%–१५%। �ल�पको ूयोग: दवनागर� �ल�प। े अ�य: पर�परागत धम�, �ह�दू, �बिः�यन।

खाम, पि�मी पव�त े [kjl] (खाम-मगर, तकाले, तकाल खामे , पि�मी पब�ते)। व�ा स��या: २४,५०० (एस.आइ.एल. २००३), ब�दो बम। बो�लन �ेऽे : रा�ी अ�लका �कमु र रो�पा िज�ला। क��ःथल टाकाे -शरा हो।े भाषाको अवःथा : ५ (�वकासशील)। भाषा प�रवार: ि��नयाँ-�त�बती, भोट-बम�ल�, पि�मी भोट-बम�ल�, �हमाल�, क���य �हमाल�े , खाम-मगर, खाम। भा�षकाह�: लकमलु ु े , महतले, माइकोट�, तकाले, थबा�ी, वाल।े सबभ�दा ब�� समानताै पव�ू [kif] र पि�मी पव�ते [kjl] सग। पव�तँ े, शशीसग र गमाल भा�षकाह� े ेँअ�त�न��हत �पम अबोधग�य। खाम भा�षक समह�भऽ महतल र ै ू े�म�ल�को ःथान अ�नि��त। शाि�दक समानता: गमाल खामे [kgj] र पव� पव�तसग ू े ँ ७१%; भजल खामसग ु े ँ ५८%, शशी े [kip] सगँ ५१%।

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मगर र ग��सग ु ँ २५%। �त�बती समहसगू ँ २५% भ�दा कह� कम। ेराई तथा �ल�ब समहसगु ू ँ १५%। भाषाको ूकार: कता� कम� �बया (पदबम); नामानगामीु ; स�ब�धवाचक, �वशषणे , स��यावाचक पद तथा स�ब�धवाचक उपवा�य नाम शीष�भ�दा अिघ आउने; नाम शीषा��त; नाम वग� वा �ल� �यवःथा नभएको; अ�धकतम सग�-स��या नाममा: एउटा उपसग�: ८ वटा ू�यय; �बयामा: ५ वटा उपसग�, ७ वटा ू�यय; कारक�य िच�हह�ल उपवा�यीय घटकह�लाई िचि�हत गन�े ; सग�ह�ल ना�मक पदको कारक िचि�हत गन�े ; �बया�मक सग�ह�ल ेकता� तथा कम�को प�ष र �ल� िचि�हत गन� ु (अ�नवाय�); �वभािजत उजा�व�व; अकम�क�करण सामा�य (कह� भाववा�यजःताे ); �बया �पत�वमा एक खालको आथ� �वपर�तता िचि�हत हनुे; कम� वा भाववा�य भएको; ूरणाथ�क तथाे अनूयो�य भएकोु ; अ�र सरचनां : (�य)ःव (ःव)(�य) यसमा दोॐो ःवर ��ःवर वा द�घ�ःवर हन। तान ु े�यवःथा भएको। भाषाको ूयोग: �कमका गाउह�मा ूवल।ु ँ घरमा, साथीभाइसगँ, धा�म�क काय�मा, कामकाजमा।सब उमर समहकाल ै े ेूबो�न। गाउघरभ�दा बा�हर हदा माऽ व�ाह�ल नपाल�े े ेँ ँ ु [npi] बो�न। ेयवा प�षह�मा नपाल�को द�ता सबभ�दा ब��ु ु े ै , ब�� म�हलाह�मा ुसबभ�दा कम द�ता। धरजसोल सामा�य �वषयमा नपाल� भाषामा ै ैे े ेछलफल गन� स�न।ेभाषाको �वकास: प�हलो भाषामा सा�रता दर: कह�। दोॐो भाषामा सा�रता दरे : कह�। क�वताे , र��यो ेकाय�बम।श�दकोश, �याकरण। NT: १९८५। �ल�पको ूयोग: दवनागर�। े अ�य: पव� �त�बतकाू खा�पाह�ल बो�न खाम भ�दा �भ�। े ेप�हल प�हल गम� याममा ध�ला�गर� �हम��लाका �हमनद�ह�का े े ृछउछाउ�तर र �हउदमा रो�पा िज�लाका दि�णी पहा�ह��तर बसाइ े ँ ँसन� गरका। े अ�य: पर�परागत धम�, �ह�दू, �बि�यन।

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खाम, पव� पब�तू े [kif] ( पव� पव�तू े, �नसले , �नशल खामे , �न�स, �न�स खाम। व�ा स��या: ७,५०० (२००३ एस.आइ.एल.), घ�दो बम।एकभाषी अधब�स नपाइन।बो�लन �ेऽे े े : ध�ला�गर� अ�ल, बा�लङ ुिज�ला, �नसी, भा�कोट र बढाथोकमा �नशलु े , भजलभाषीह� ककु ु ुे , �डजा, काङ, माःबाङ मसर� र सकद�ङ गाउह�मा।ु ु ु ु ु ँ भाषाको अवःथा: ६ख

(स�टाप�)। भाषा प�रवार: िच�नयाँ-�त�बती, भोट-बम�ल�, पि�मी भोट-

बम�ल�, �हमाल�, क���य �हमाल�े , खाम-मगर, खाम। भा�षकाह�:

भजल खामु े , �नशल खाम।े पि�मी पव�त े [kjl] भा�षकाह�सग आिशक ँ ं�पमा बोधग�य। शाि�दक समानता: भा�षकाह�का बीचमा ७९%, पि�मी पव�ते [kjl] सग ँ ७१%, गमाले [kgj] सगँ ५५%, शशीे [kip] सग ँ४४%। भाषाको ूयोग: अधब�स यवा तथा ब�ब�ाल माऽ ूयोग े ेु ृ ृगन�। क�तपयल नपाल�े े [npi] प�न बो�न।ेभाषाको �वकास: दोॐो भाषामा सा�रता दर: ५% भ�दा कम।श�दकोश तथा �याकर� ूकािशत। �ल�पको ूयोग: लखन ू�ाल�को �वकास नभएको।े अ�य:

पर�परागत धम�, �ह�द।ू

खाम, शशीे [kip] (शशीे ) व�ा स��या: २०,०००। घ�दो बम। बो�लन �ेऽे : रापती अ�लको �कम िज�लाका पि�मी पहाडमा पन� ुजा�ोट, कोटगाउ ँ (तापनाङ), �र�सके , कोचा�बाङ, डा�डङु, �ामा, धा�सी, भावाङ र घापा गाउह�।ँ भाषाको अवःथा: ६ख (स�टाप�)।

भाषा प�रवार: िच�नयाँ-�त�बती, भोट-बम�ल�, पि�मी भोट-बम�ल�, �हमाल�, क���य �हमाल�े , खाम-मगर, खाम। भा�षकाह�: जा�ोट�, ता�ना��गी। गमाल खामे [kgj] सगँ बोधग�यताको तह ३०%, पि�मी पव�ते [kjl] सग सो भ�दा प�न कम। शाि�दक समानताँ : गमाल खामसगे ँ

५५% (सबभ�दा बढ� �म�नै े), पि�मी पव�तसगे ँ ५१%। पव� पव�तू े [kif] सग ँ ४६%। भाषाको ूयोग: सबल नपाल�ै े े [npi] प�न बो�न। े भाषाको

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�वकास: मातभाषामा सा�रता ृ १% भ�दा कम। दोॐो भाषामा सा�रता दर: ५% भ�दा कम। श�दकोश तथा �याकरण ूकािशत।�ल�पको ूयोग: दवनागर� �ल�प।े अ�य: पर�परागत धम�, ���द।ू

खा�लल [klr] (खा�लल कराु )। व�ा स��या: १८,००० (नपालमाे )

(यनःको ु े २००२), घ�दो बम। एकभाषी व�ा नपाइन। व�ा ेस��या: ९,२९० (रा��य जनगणना २००१)। जातीय जनस��या: २०,०००। बो�लन �े�े : सगरमाथा अ�ल, सोलख�ब िज�लाका ु ु ुका�कु, बासा, वाकु, ब�साु , ज�बल र �लल� गाउ��ु ु े ँ ; खोटाल िज�लाका बइपा र खाम� गाउ��ु ँ ; कोशी अ�लको स�ुवासभा िज�लामा पन� त� खाु �लल गाउँ; सनसर�ु िज�लाको धरान; मची अ�लको इलाम ेिज�लाका पाल, स�बक र माइपोखर� गाउ��ु े ँ ; भारतमा प�न बो�लन। ेभाषाको अवःथा: ६क (ूवल)। आ�दवासी जनजा�तमा सचीकत��को ू ृभाषा (२००२, आजउराू ऐन, नं. २०, ख�� २ग), राई जनजा�त।

भाषा प�रवार: िच�नयाँ-�त�बती, भोट-बम�ल�, पि�मी भोट-बम�ल�, ��माल�, �कराती, पि�मी। भा�षका��: उ�र� खा�लल, दि�णी खा�लल। दमीु [dus] र कोइ [kkt] सग धर �म�न।ँ े ेै भाषाको ूकार: कता� कम� �बया (पदबम); नामानगामीु ; �वशषणे , स��यावाची र स�ब�ध सचक पद नाम शीष�भ�दा अिघ आउनू े; �वषयाप�ी ू�वाचक ेश�द उपवा�यका ूार�भमा आउने; नाम वग� वा �याकरिणक �ल� नभएको; एउटास�म उपसग� र २ वटास�म ू�यय �लने; कारक�य िच��ल उपवा�यीय घटक��लाई िचि��त गन�े ; सग���ल नाम ेपदावल�को कारक िचि��त गन�; �बया�मक ू�यय��ल कता�को प�ष े ुतथा वचन (अ�नवाय�) िचि��त गन�; उजा�व�व भएको; ूरणाथ�के , तलनावाचीु ; कम�वा�य वा भाववा�य भएको; अ�र सरचनां : �यःव, ःव, �य�य�यःव; तान �यवःथा नभएको; २३ वटा �य�न वण� र ९ वटा

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ःवर वण� भएको; भाषाको ूयोग: ूवल। घरमा, धा�म�क काय�मा; �मि�त ूयोग: साथीभाइसग र कामकाजमा।ँ यवा तथा मा�थ�लो उमर ु ेसमहकाल बो�न। बालबा�लका तथा �कशोर�कशोर�ल प�न धरथोर ू े े े ेबो�ने; भा�षक अ�भवि� सकारा�मक। धरजसोलृ े ेै नपाल�े [npi] प�न बो�न। ब�ाह�मा ��भा�षकतामा कमीे ृ , धर ब�ाह�ल नपाल� े े ेै ृअ�लअ�ल माऽ ब�न। ु े भाषाको �वकास: दोॐो भाषा नपाल�े [npi] मा सा�रता दर: २०%। क�वता ूकािशत। स�ारका आध�नक मा�यममा ुर��यो काय�बम। श�दकोश ूकािशत। बाइबल े (२०११) ूकािशत। �ल�पको ूयोग: दवनागर� �ल�प। े अ�य: पर�परागत धम� (�करात), �ह�दू, �बिःचयन। खोला पव�को भभाग। धनकटा नगरपा�लका र ू ू ु�भरगाउ गाँ .�व.स.। भाषाको अवःथा: ६ख (स�टाप�)। आ�दवासी जनजातीमा सचीकतह�को भाषा ू ृ (२००२, िश�ा योजना, ख�� १.१.३), राई जनजा�त। भाषा प�रवार: िच�नयाँ-�त�बती, भोट-बम�ल�, पि�मी भोट-बम�ल�, �हमाल�, �कराती, पव�। ू भा�षकाह�: अ�ात। आठपर र बलह�रया े े [byw] बीच �नक समानता छ तर परःपर ैबोधग�यता छन ै (�बकल े १९९६)। भाषाको ूकार: कता� कम� �बया (पदबम); नामानगामीु ; स�ब�धवाचक पद, �वशषण तथा स��यावाचक ेपद नाम शीष�भ�दा अिघ आउन।े 'हो' वा 'होइन' उ�र आउन ीवीय े ुू� �नमा�ण गन� आउन ू�यय वा�या�तको �बयामा टाँ�सने े; नाम शीषा��त; �याकरिणक �ल� र नाम वग� नभएको; �वषयाप�ी ू�वाची ेश�द यथाःथानमा; लामो उ�र आउन ू� े (�वषयगत ू�) र सामा�याथ�क वा�यको पदबम एउट हन। ू�वाचक सव�नामै ु े

�बयापदभ�दा लग� अिघ आउन। ै े २ वटास�म उपसग� �लने; ९

वटास�म ू�यय �लने; कारक�य िच�हल उपवा�यीय घटकह�लाई ेिचि�हत गन�; नाम पदावल�को कारक �नधा�रणका ला�ग सग�ह�को ूयोग हनेु; समा�पका �बयामा जो��न ू�ययल प�षे े ु , वचन तथा कम�-

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अ�नवाय� िचि�हत गन�; �वभािजत उजा�व�व; नपाल�को े 'भ�दा' ल ेतलनावाची ू�ययको काय� गन�ु ; काल र प� �यवःथा भएको; वा�य �यवःथा नभएको; अ�र सरचनां : �यःव, �यःव�य र �यःव�य�य; २४ वटा �य�न र ५ वटा ःवर वण�; तान �यवःथा नभएको। भाषाको ूयोग: नपाल� े [npi] �तर अपसरण; घरमा, धा�म�क काय�मा; �मि�त ूयोग: साथीभाइसग।ँ सब उमर समहका मा�नसह�ल बो�नै े े ेू ; भाषाू�तको अ�भवि� सकारा�मक। सबल नपाल� ृ ै े े [npi] भाषा बो�न। ेभाषाको �वकास: दोॐो भाषामा सा�रता दर २%। सन ्२००८ दिख े५ वटा बहभा�षक �व�ालयमा पठनपाठन हद आएको। ूाथ�मक तहमा ु ुँ ैपढाइ हन। क�वताु े तथा पऽप�ऽका ूकािशत; र��यो काय�बमे , �भ��यो, श�दकोश तथा �याकरणको ूकाशन भएको। �ल�पको ूयोग: दवनागर� �ल�प। अ�ये : आ�ह�ला� �कराँत होइन �कराती भनाउन ूचाहन। पर�प�रत धम� े (�करात), �बि�यन।

ग�ङु , पव�ू [ggn] (दादवाु , ग�ङु , तम �यीु )। व�ा स��या: २,२७,००० (२००७), घ�दो बम। मातभाषामाऽ बो�नको स��याृ े : २३,०००।सब ग�ङ भाषाबो�नह�को कल स��या ै ु ुे (नपालमाे ) ३,३९,०००(रा��य जनगणना २००१)।जातीय जनस��या: ५,४४,०००। बो�लन �ेऽे : ग��क� अ�लका लमजङु, तनह र गोखा� ुँिज�लाको पि�मी भाग। स�भवत: मनाङ िज�ला प�न। भाषाको अवःथा: ६ख (स� कटाप�)। आ�दवासी जनजा�तमा सचीकतह�को भाषाू ृ

(२००२, आजउराू ऐन, नं. २०, ख�� २ग) भाषा प�रवार: िच�नयाँ-�त�बती, भोट-बम�ल�, पि�मी भोट-बम�ल�, बो��स, पि�मी बो��स, ग�ङु -तामाङ, ग��ी। ु भा�षकाह�: गोखा� ग�ङु , लमजङ ग�ङु ु , तम ु�यी। पव� र पि�मी ग�ङू ु [gvr] भाषीबीच ज�टल तथा अमत� स�थन ूब�न स�न खालको बोधग�यता नभएको। लमज� ु ुे को दादवा बजार ुभाषाव�ा�नक ���लै े म�य भए �� ला�न।ु े भाषाको ूकार: कता� कम�

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�बया (पदबम), नामानगामीु ; नाम शीषा��त, स�ब�धवाचक पद, �वशषण पद र स�ब�ध वाचक उपवा�य नामशीष� भ�दा अिघ आउने े; स��यावाचक श�द नाम शीष�भ�दा प�� आउने; ���वीय ू� �नमा�णमा ुआरोह� अनतानको ूयोग ग�रन। नाम वग� वा �याकरिणक �ल� ु ेनभएको; �वषयाप�ी ू�वाचक श�द यथाःथानमाे ; अकरण �बयापदल ेएउटा उपसग� �लने; २ वटास�म ू�यय �लने; कारक�य िच�हह�ल ेउपवा�यीय घटकह�लाई िचि�हत गन�; पव� सग�ल नाम पदावल�को ू ेकारक िचि�हत गन�। �बयापदमा कता� वा कम� स�दभ� नदिखन े े(साव�नामीकरण नभएको); �वभािजत उजा�व�व (कालका आधारमा); ूरणाथ�क सरचना र लाभक र प� �यवःथा भएकोे ं ; कम� वा�य वा भाव वा�य नभएको; २४ वटा �य�न वण� र ५ वटा ःवर वण� भएको। अ�र सरचनां : �यःव, �य�यःव र �य�य�यःव; तान �यवःथा भएको: �व�न गण वा रिज�र तान �यवःथाका अ�। ु भाषाको ूयोग:

कटाकट� तथा यवायवतील अधब�स तथा ब�ब�ाल भ�दा कम ूयोग े े े े ेु ु ृ ृगन�। नयाँ पःतामा हःता�तरण अपि�त भ�दा कमु े (यनःकोु े )। �मि�त ूयोग: घरमा, साथीभाइसगँ, धा�म�क काय�मा, कामकाजमा र िश�ामा। सब उमर समहकाल धरथोर बो�न। नपाल� ै े े े े ेू [npi] को प�न ूयोग गन�। �व�ालय तह परा गरकाल अ�लअ�ल अ��जी ू े े े [eng] प�न बो�न। ेग�� भाषाल जातीयतालाई ूवल बनाउनु े े; नपाल�े [npi] लाई अ�नवाय�जःत मा�ेै ; अ��जीे [eng] लाई आ�थ�क स�प�ताका ला�ग लाभदायक �ा�े।भाषाको �वकास: मातभाषामा सा�रता दरृ :३०%। दोॐो भाषामा सा�रता दर: ३०%। र��यो काय�बम। बाइबलका ेभागह� १९९४। �ल�पको ूयोग: दवनागर� �ल�पे , �या�टन �ल�प। अ�य: ब��, �ह�दू

ग��ु , पि�मी [gvr] ( ग��ु , तम �यीु )। व�ा स��या: नपालमा े१,२५,००० (२००७)। ब�दो बम। मातभाषामाऽ बो�नको स��याृ े :

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१२,०००। भाषा बो�नह�को कल स��या े ु १,५८,०००।जातीय जनस��या: ५,४४,०००। बो�लन �े�े : ग��क� अ�लका काःक� र ःया�जा िज�ला; ध�ला�ग�र अ�लको पव�त िज�ला। स�भवत: �या�मारमा बो�लन। भटान तथा भारतमा समत बो�लन।े े ेु अवःथा: ६ख

(स� कटाप�)। भाषा प�रवार: िच�नयाँ-�त�बती, भोट-बम�ल�, पि�मी भोट-बम�ल�, बो��स, पि�मी बो��स, ग�ङु -तामाङ, ग��ी। ु भा�षकाह�: उ�र पि�मी ग�ङु (काःक� ग�ङु ), दि�णी ग�ङु (ःया�जा ग�ङु )। �व�भ� भा�षकाका व�ाह�मा ज�टल तथा अमत� स�थन समत ब�न ू ुे ेखालको परःपर बोधग�यता रहको तर पव� ग�ङ े ू ु [ggn] राॆो नब�न। ु ेथकाल� [ths] सग स�बि�धत।ँ भाषाको ूकार: कता� कम� �बया (पदबम), नामानगामीु ; स�ब�धवाचक पद, �वशषण पद र स�ब�ध ेवाचक उपवा�य नाम शीष� भ�दा अिघ आउने; स��यावाचक श�द नाम शीष�भ�दा प�� आउने; नाम शीषा��त। नाम वग� वा �याकरिणक �ल� नभएको; �वषयाप�ी ू�वाचक श�द यथाःथानमाे ; ���वीय ू� ु�नमा�णमा उ�च अनतानको ूयोग ग�रनु े; अकरण �बयापदल एउटा ेउपसग� �लने; २ वटास�म ू�यय �लने; कारक�य िच�हह�ल ेउपवा�यीय घटकह�ला� िचि�हत गन�; पव� सग�ल नाम पदावल�को ू ेकारक िचि�हत गन�। �बयापदमा कता� वा कम� स�दभ� नदिखन े े(साव�नामीकरण नभएको); �वभािजत ऊजा�व�व (कालका आधारमा); ूरणाथ�क सरचना र स�ूदाने ं , र प� �यवःथा भएको; कम� वा�य वा भाव वा�य नभएको; २४ वटा �य�न वण� र ५ वटा ःवर वण� भएको। अ�र सरचनां : �यःव, �य�यःव र �य�य�यःव; तान �यवःथा भएको: �व�न गण वा रिज�र तान �यवःथाका अ�। ु भाषाको ूयोग:

कटाकट� तथा यवायवतील अधब�स तथा ब�ब�ाल भ�दा कम ूयोग े े े े ेु ु ृ ृगन�। नयाँ पःतामा हःता�तरण अपि�त भ�दा कमु े (यनःकोु े २००२)। घरमा; �मि�त ूयोग: साथीभाइसगँ, धा�म�क काय�मा, कामकाजमा। सब ै

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उमर समहकाल धरथोर बो�न। मातभाषाू�तको अ�भवि� े े े ेू ृ ृसकारा�मक। नपालर े [npi] को प�न ूयोग गन�। �व�ालय तह परा ुगरकाल अ�लअ�ल अ��जी े े े [eng] प�न बो�न। े भाषाको �वकास:

मातभाषामा सा�रताृ दर: ३०%। दोॐो भाषामा सा�रता दर: ३०%। क�वता लखने , पऽप�ऽका तथा अखबार ूकािशत, नयाँ मा�यम: र��यो ेकाय�बम, �सनमाे , ट�ल�भजने , �भ��यो। श�दकोश तथा �याकर�। NT:

१९८२। �ल�पको ूयोग: दवनागरर �ल�प। े अ�य: ब��, �ह�दू, �बि�यन।

घले, उ�रर [ghh] ( �लल, �रल-�लल)। जनस��या: ४,४४० (२००६ एस. आइ.एल.)। मातभाषामाऽ बो�नको स��याृ े : ४००। बो�लन �ेऽे : ग��क� अ�ल, गोखा� िज�ला, ब�र ग��क� ब�सी।ु भाषाको अवःथा: ६ख (स�टाप�)। भाषा प�रवार: िच�नयाँ-�त�बती, भोट-बम�लर, पि�मी भोट-बम�लर, बो��स, पि�मी बो��स, घल। े भा�षकाह�: जगत, खोला�, �याक, ���लम, उइया। �याक सबभ�दा �भ� भा�षका। ���लम र ैउइया बीच ९४% बोधग�यता। दि��ी घल े [ghe] र बापा�क भदका ेबीचमा ७५%–७९% बोधग�यता। उ�रदिख दि��स�म न भा�षकागत े ै(बोधग�यताको) �नर�तरता पाइन।शाि�दक समानताे : उ�रर घलका ेभा�षकाह�बीच ७३%–८९% स�म, दि��ी घल े [ghe] सगँ ६५%–८१% स�म, कक ु े [ght]सग ँ ४५%–६१% स�म, पि�मी तामाङ [tdg] सग ँ२९%–३७% स�म, नॄीु [kte] सग ँ २१%–२७% स�म, चम ु (Tsum)

[ttz] सगँ २२%–२५% स�म, �यरोङे (ि�यरोङ) [kgy] सगँ १९%–२३% स�म, �त�बती [bod] सग ँ १९%–२१% स�म। भाषाको ूयोग: ूवल।

घरमा, साथीभाइसगँ, धा�म�क काय�मा, कामकाजमा। अधब�स यवायवती े ु ुतथा ब�ब�ाल ूयोग गन�।ृ ृ े कटाकटर तथा �कशोर�कशोरल प�न कहर े े े ेूयोग गन�। भाषाू�तको अ�भवि� सकारा�मक। ���लमृ , �हो र �बहरका व�ाह�ल नपालरे े [npi] मा सामा�य बोलचालमाऽ गन� स�न।े

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�ल�पको ूयोग: लखन ूणाल�को �वकास नभएको।े अ�य: ब��, �ह�दू, �बिःचयन। घले, दि�णण [ghe] (ग�ल ग�ङे ु , �लल, �रल-�लल)।जनस��या: २१,५०० (२००६ एस.आइ.एल.)।बो�लन �े�े : ग�डक� अ�ल, गोखा� िज�ला, माछा खोलाको दि�णमा अविःथत पहाडण भभाग।ू भाषाको अवःथा: ६क (ूवल)। भाषा प�रवार: िच�नयाँ-�त�बतण, भोट-बम�ल�,

पि�मण भोट-बम�ल�, बो�डस, पि�मण बो�डस, घल। भा�षकाह�े : बापा�क, �याउरा, लाूाक।उ�र� [ghh] तथा दि�णण घलबणच कह� बो�ग�यता।े े

भा�षका उप-समह। �लोवरू (१९७४: ८-१२) ल घल शाखालाई े ेबो�डस अ�तग�तका �त�बतण र ग�ङका �बचमा राखर िचनाएका छन।ु ्े

शाि�दक समानता: भा�षकाह�बणच ७५%–७८% स�म, उ�र� घल े [ghh]

सग ँ ६५%–८१% स�म। ककु े [ght] सग ँ ३९%–४९% स�म, पि�मण ग�ङु [gvr] सग ँ २७%–३०% स�म, पि�मण तामाङ [tdg] सग ँ ३१%,

नॄणु [kte] र चम ु [ttz] सग ँ २०% स�म, �त�बतण [bod] सग ँ १८%

स�म। भाषाको ूकार: कता� कम� �बया (पदबम), नामानगामणु ; नाम शणषा��द र शणषा��त दवैु; नाम वग� वा �याकरिणक �ल� नभएको;

�वषयाप�ण ू�वाचक श�द यथाःथानमाे ; २ वटास�म उपसग� �लने; एउटास�म ू�यय �लने; कारक�य िच�हह�ल उपवा�यणय घटकह�लाई ेिचि�हत गन�; �बया�मक सग�ह�को अभाव; कम� वा�य वा भाव वा�य नभएको; तान �यवःथा भएको; १८ वटा �य�न वण� र ६ वटा ःवर वण� भएको; भाषाको ूयोग: ूवल। घरमा, �ा�म�क काय�मा; �मि�त ूयोग: साथणभाइसग र कामकाजमा। सब उमर समहकाल बो�न। ँ ै े े ेूभाषाू�तको अ�भवि� सकारा�मक। नपाल�ृ े [npi], �ह�द� [hin] र

अ��जणे [eng] प�न बो�न।े भाषाको �वकास: श�दकोश। NT:

१९९२। �ल�पको ूयोग: दवनागर� �ल�प। े अ�य: ब��, �ह�दू, �बिःचयन।

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घा��ि सा�े�ति भाषाु : [gds]। ूयोगिता�: ८ (२०११ एस.आइ.एल.)। ूयोग �ेऽ: ग��ि� अ�ल, िाःि� िज�ला, घा��ि। ु अवःथा: ६ि (ूवल)।भाषािो ूिार: सःतु -ौवण सा�े�ति भाषा। भा�षिा: नपाल� ेसा�े�ति भाषा [nsp] िा िा�मा�� र पोखरा भदसग �म�न।े ेँ भाषािो ूयोग: सब ूयोग �ेऽ। ै �ल�पिो ूयोग: लखन ूणाल� �विास ेनभएिो।

चाि�लल [rab] (चाि�लल, चाि�लल राईे , रोदोल। जनस��या: १२,१०० नपालमाे (२००६), घ�दो बम। मातभाषामाऽ बो�नह�िो स��या ृ ेअ�य�त िम।बो�लन �ेऽै े : पव� नपालिो सगरमाथा अ�लिा खासगर� ू ेखोटाल िज�लािो म�यभाग तथा उदयपर िज�लािो उ�र� �ऽेमा ुबो�लन। भारतमा समत चाि�लल भाषीह� रहिा।े े े अवःथा: ६ख

(स�टाप�)। आ�दवासी जनजा�तमा सचीितह�िो भाषा।ू ृ (२००२,

आजउराू ऐन, नं. २०, ख�� २ग), राई जनजा�त। भाषा प�रवार: िच�नयाँ-�त�बती, भोट-बम�ल�, पि�मी भोट-बम�ल�, �हमाल�, �िराती, पव�। ू भा�षिाह�: बल�ताल�, हलसीे , रत��ाल�। रत��ाल� र हलसी ेभा�षिाह� बीच समानता भए प�न बल�ताल� भा�षिा धर �भ� े ैरहिो। भाषाव�ा�नि ���ल बा�तावाे ेै [bap] र पमा ु [pum] भाषासग ँसबभ�दा धर समानता भएिो।ै ैे धरल चाि�लले ेै -नपाल�े [npi] �मिौत भद ेबो�न गरिा।े े भाषािो ूिार: िता� िम� �बया (पदबम); नामानगामी ुभाषा; नाम शीषा��त; नाम वग� वा �यािरिणि �ल� नभएिो;

�वषयाप�ी ू�वाचि श�दे यथाःथानमा; २ वटा स�म उपसग� र सात वटा स�म ू�यय ला�ने; िारि�य िच�हह�ल उपवा�यीय घटिह� ेिचि�हत गन�; �बया�मि ू�ययल प�ष तथा वचन िचि�हत गन�े ु ; �वभािजत तथा ू�त-ऊजा�व�व; �मिौत िाल र प� �यवःथा; िम� वा भाववा�य �यवःथा नभएिो; तान �यवःथा नभएिो; २८ वटा �य�न वण� र ५ वटा ःवर वण� भएिो। भाषािो ूयोग: घरमा र धा�म�ि

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काय�मा; �मि�त ूयोग: साथीभाइसग र कामकाजमा।सब उमर ँ ै ेसमहकाल बो�न।ू े े भाषाको �वकास: क�वता, पऽप�ऽका, र��यो काय�बम ेतथा �सनमा तथा �भ��योको �नमा�णे ; श�दकोश तथा �याकरण ूकािशत। �ल�पको ूयोग: दवनागर� े �ल�प, हालसाल �वक�सत। ै अ�य: धर जातीय उपसमह रह प�न भा�षक ���ल समान। पर�परागत धम� े े ेै ू(�करात), �ह�द र �बि�यन धम�।ू च�वाु [cuw] (च�वा �रङु , पो�हङ, पो�हङ खा)। व�ा स��या: १००

(२०११ एस.आइ.एल.), ��दो बम। ूखर व�ा ५ जना माऽ, २०११)। बो�लन �ेऽे : कोशी अ�लमा पन� भोजपर िज�लाको कलङ ु ु ुगा.�व.स., िज�मगाउ।ँ भाषाको अवःथा: ८ क (मरणास�)। आ�दवासी जनजा�तमा सचीकतह�को भाषाू ृ (२००२, आजउराू ऐन, नं. २०, ख�� २ग), राई जनजाती। भाषा प�रवार: िच�नयाँ-�त�बती, भोट-बम�ल�, पि�मी भोट बम�ल�, �हमाल�, �कराँती, पव�।ू भा�षकाह�: जानकार� नभएको। उ�र� लोहो�ङ [lbr] सग नामपदह� उ�ल�य स��यामा ँ े�म�ने (२०११ जे.ए�पील� (J. Eppele))। भाषाको ूकार: कता� कम� �बया (पदबम); नामानगामीु ; �बया�मक ू�ययल प�ष तथा वचन े ुिचि�हत गन�; काल �यवःथा भएको। तान �यवःथा नभएको। भाषाको ूयोग: नपाल�े [npi] र अ��जी े [eng] �तर अपसरण। धा�म�क काय�मा ूयोग हनेु; �मि�त ूयोग: �रमा।ब�ब�ाल ूयोग गन�। ृ ृ े �ल�पको ूयोग: लखन ूणाल� नभएको। े अ�य: भा�षक ���ल कलङे ु ु -नाछ�रङे -

सा�पाङ तथा मओहाङे -साम का बीचमा समानता रहको े (�ा�सन (Hansson) १९९१), तर प�� गन� त�या� नभएको। च�वाभाषीह� ु ुसाम [raq] सग निजकको भा�षक तथा जा�तगत सामी�य रहको दाबी ँ ेगद�छन। आ�ह�को भाषा कलङ ् ु ु ु [kle] भाषाभ�दा पण�तू : �भ� छ भ�े च�वाह�को दाबी भ�दा �वपर�त �यान ��म ु (२००१) मा कलङ उपु ु -

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वग�मा यस भाषालाई समा�व� गरका छन। े ् अ�य: पर�परागत धम� (�करात), �ह�द।ू

चमु [ttz] (च�गु े)।व�ा स��या: ४,७९० (२०००)।बो�लन �ेऽे :

ग��क� अ�ल, गोखा� �ज�लाको उ�र� भाग, चम ब�सीु , गणश े�हमालको उ�रमा पन� �स�र खोलाको बगर �ेऽ। चका�पार े (चोकोङ)

ू�त��त गाउ रहकोँ े । भाषाको अवःथा: ६क (ूवल)। भाषा प�रवार:

�च�नयाँ-�त�बती, भोट-बम�ल�, प��मी भोट-बम�ल�, बो��स, क���य बो��से ,

क���ये , चाङ (gTsang)। भा�षकाह�: जानकार� नभएको। नॄी ु [kte] सग बोधग�यता ँ ७१%–७८% स�म, �य�ङ े (��यरोङ) [kgy] सग ँ६६%; �हासा �त�बती [bod] सग ँ ६०%–६६% स�म; उ�र� घले [ghh] सग ँ २२%–२५% स�म, द��णी घले [ghe] सग ँ १४%–२२% स�म,

ककु े [ght] सग ँ २३%-२७% स�म; पव�य गोखा� तामाङ ू [tge] सग ँ ६%,

प��मी ग�ङ ु [gvr] सग ँ १४%, बसनपर तामा�सग ु ँ १५%। मा�थ�लो �ेऽ 'याबा�' र त�लो �ेऽ 'उसङु' मा �वभा�जत। भाषाको ूकार: कता� कम� �बया (पदबम)। भाषा ूयोग: ूवल। घरमा, साथीह�सगँ। सब ैउमरका �य��ह�ल बो�ने े े। भा�षक अ�भव�� �नक सकारा�मकृ ै ।

धा�म�क ूयोजनका ला�ग �त�बती [bod] ब�� �चा�ने; �श�ा र स�भा�य �वकासका ला�ग नपाल�े [npi] लाई �नक सकारा�मक �पमा ै�लन ग�रएको। े नपाल�े [npi] मा ��भा�षकता �यनू , चम नब�नह�सग ु ु े ँमाऽ नपाल� ूयोग ग�रने े। भाषाको �वकास: दोॐो भाषामा सा�रता दर:

१०% वा कम। कह� ूाथ�मक ःकलह� स�ा�लते ु । �ल�पको ूयोग:

लखन ूणाल�को �वकास नभएकोे । अ�य: का�मा���मा भएका �त�बतीह�ल मा�नसलाई े 'च�बाु ' र भाषालाई 'च�गु े' भ�े गरकाे । ब��

(लामा पर�परा)।

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चपाङे [cdm] (ूजा भाषा, चपाङे )। जनस��या: ३६,८०० (रा��य जनगणना २००१), घ�दो बम।मातभाषामाऽ बो�न नभएको।ृ े जातीय जनस��या: ५२,२००। बो�लन �ेऽे : नारायणी अ�लका मकवानपर ुतथा िचतवन िज�ला; बा�मती अ�लको धा�दङ िज�लाको दि�णी �ेऽ;

ग��क� अ�लको गोखा� िज�लाको दि�णी �ेऽ। भाषाको अवःथा: ६ख

(स�टाप�)। आ�दवासी जनजा�तमा सचीकतह�को भाषाू ृ (२००२,

आजउराू ऐन, नं. २०, ख�� २ग)। भाषा प�रवार: िच�नयाँ-�त�बती, भोट-बम�ल�, पि�मी भोट-बम�ल�, �हमाल�, क���य �हमाल�े , चपाङे -

भजल।ु े भा�षकाह�: पव� चपाङू े , पि�मी चपाङ। पि�मी चपाङ र भजल े े ेु[byh] भाषाका बीचमा ूशःत समानता रहको भए प�न �भ� �क�समको ेसाव�ना�मक �पत�वका कारण पि�मी चपाङ र भजल बीचको े ेुबोधग�यतामा क��नाइ हन।चपाङका भा�षकाह�मा �बया�पत�वका ु े े���ल �भ�ता पाइन।�पताि�वक ���ल चपाङ र �कराती भाषाह�बीच े े े ेसमानता दिखन।शाि�दक समानताे े : भजलु े [byh] सग ँ ९८% (क�ल� (Caughley, २००४, १०० वटा आधारभत श�दावल�का आधारमाू )। भाषाको ूकार: कता� कम� �बया (पदबम); नामानगामी भाषाु ; नाम शीषा��त; नाम वग� वा �याकरिणक �ल� नभएको; �वषयाप�ी ू�वाचक ेश�द यथाःथानमा रहने; उपसग� नभएको, ८ वटा स�म ू�यय ला�ने; कारक�य िच�हह�ल उपवा�यीय घटकह� िचि�हत गन�े ; �बया�मक ू�ययल प�ष तथा वचन िचि�हत गन�े ु ; उजा�व�व भएको; काल र प� �यवःथा; कम� वा भाववा�यको उपिःथ�त; ूरणाथ�क तथा तलनावाची े ु�वशषण भएकोे ; �यःव दिख �य�य�यःव�य�य�य अ�र सरचना े ं (कह� ेअवरोधस�हत);१८ वटा �य�न वण� र ६ वटा ःवर वण� भएको; तान नभएको (�व�या�मक सर भए प�न वणा��मक सर नभएकोु ु )। भाषाको ूयोग: घरमा; �मि�त ूयोग: साथीभाइसगँ, धा�म�क काय�मा र कामकाजमा।यवा तथा ब� समहकाल बो�न। बालबा�लका तथा ु ृ ू े े

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�कशोर �कशोर�ल प�न अ�लअ�ल बो�ने े; भाषाू�तको अ�भवि� ृसकारा�मक। पाँच वष� भ�दा मा�थका व�ाह�ल नपाल� े े [npi] प�न बो�न। खास गर� �व�ालयमा नपाल� �स�न। प�षह�ल जनसक े े े ेु ु ु ैसामा�य �वषयमा र राजनी�तक �वषयमा बो�न स�न। म�हलाह�ल े ेअ�भवादनसचक श�दह� र �यापा�रक ूयोजनका पदावल�ह� ब�� ूजानका।यवायवतील आपसमा कराकानी गदा� ूाये ेु ु ु : नपाल� बो�न।े े

भाषाको ूयोग: मातभाषामा सा�रताृ : १% दिख े ५% स�म; दोॐो भाषा (नपाल�े )को सा�रता: प�ष ु ४०% तथा १५% म�हला; जातीय समह ू१४% (रा��य जनगणना १९९१)। लामा श�द र �य�न सयोगका ंकारण चपाङ भाषाका साममी प�न क��ना�े ; ल�य नपाल�का तलनामा े े ुल�य चपाङ भाषा कम ू�त��त।नपाल�ू�तको आकष�ण ब�दो। े े ेपऽप�ऽका, र�डयो काय�बमे , �सनमा तथा �भ�डयो �नमा�ण भएको। ेश�दकोश तथा �याकरण ूकािशत। NT:१९९३। �ल�पको ूयोग: दवनागर� �ल�प े अ�य: �सट� भाषा रकड� ग�रएको। पर�परागत धम�े , �बिःचयन।

छ��याल [chx] (च�तले , च�तल खामे , च�तले े , छ�तले , खाम कराु )।व�ा स��या: २००० (नननू १९९७), ��दो बम। मातभाषी ृमाऽ बो�न व�ा नभएको। जातीय जनस��याे : ९,८२०(रा��य जनगणना २००१)। बो�लन �ेऽे : ध�ला�ग�र अ�ल, �या�द� िज�ला, काल� ग�डक� नद�को उप�यका।छ�तल जा�तका मा�नसह� बा�लङ े ुिज�लामा प�न रहका।े भाषाको अवःथा: ६ख (स�टाप�)। आ�दवासी जनजा�तमा सचीकतह�को भाषाू ृ (२००२, आजउराू ऐन, नं. २०, ख�ड २ग)। भाषा प�रवार: िच�नयाँ-�त�बती, भोट-बम�ल�, पि�मी भोट-बम�ल�, बो�डस, पि�मी बो�डस, ग�ङु -तामाङ, ग��ी। ु भा�षकाह�: जानकार� नभएको।ग�ङ ु [ggn], मन�वा [nmm], तामाङ [tdg] र थकाल� [ths] सग ँ�नकटता रहकोे (नननू , १९९६)।भाषाको ूयोग: �रप�रवारमा र गाउमाँ

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(ननन ू १९९६)। गीत गाउन ूयोग नग�रन।े सबल नपाल� ै े े [npi] प�न ूयोग गन�।भाषाको �वकास: श�दकोश तथा �याकरण ूकािशत। �ल�पको ूयोग: दवनागर� �ल�पे , हालसाल �वकास ग�रएको।ै अछय: क�तपयल �छ�याल भाषा चाँड लोप हन अवःथामा रहको धारणा �य� े े ेै ुगन� (ननन ू १९९५)। बा�ह�रयाह�ल �छ�याललाई मगर मा�े गरका भए े ेप�न �छ�यालह� आफलाई �कर� मलका �ाछ�नू ु ू ्( द स�स े े (de

Sales) १९९३)। धर श�दह� नपाल� भाषाबाट सापट� �लइएका। े ेैखाम भाषाह�लाई जःत �छ�याललाई प�न क�तपयल ै े 'खाम कराु ' भछ�न।्'खाम कराु ' को सामाछय अथ� 'ःथानीय गरै -नपाल� भाषाे ' भ�े हछ�ु (वाटस� (Watters) २००२)।अछय: पर�परागत धम�, ब��

��छतात [ctn] (��छता�े, िचछतात, िचनतात �त, टल�े )।व�ा स��या:३,५०० (२००८ �स.�प.�ड.�प.), ��दो बम। मातभाषामाऽ ृबो�न व�ाह� नभएका। जातीय जनस��याे : ५,०००।बो�लन �ेऽे : पव� नपालको कोशी अ�लमा पन� धनकटा िज�लाका ��छतात र ू ुेआहाल गाे .�व.स.।भाषाको अवःथा : ६ ख (स�टाप�)। आ�दवासी जनजा�तमा सचीकतह�को भाषाू ृ (२००२, आजउराू ऐन, नं. २०, ख�ड २ग)। राई जनजा�त। भाषा प�रवार: िच�नयाँ-�त�बती, भोट-बम�ल�, पि�मी भोट-बम�ल�, �हमाल�, �कराँती, पव�।ू भा�षकाह�: मलगाउु ँ, स�भगाउ। स�भवतु ँ : बाछतावा [bap] सग बोधग�यता नभएको तर ँजा�तगत समानताका कारण ��छतात भाषालाई बाछतावाको भा�षका मा�े ग�रएको। ��छतात र बाछतावा भाषाबीच कह� शाि�दक एकाइ तथा े�याकरिणक िचछहह�मा समानता दिखन।े े भाषाको ूकार: कता� कम� �बया (पदबम); नामानगामीु ; नाम शीषा�छत; नाम वग� वा �याकरिणक �ल� नभएको; �वषयाप�ी ू�वाचक श�दे यथाःथानमा रहने; ४ वटास�म ला�न उपसग�े (ःवतछऽ बम), ४ वटा ू�यय दिख े ७ वटा स�म ू�यय ला�ने; कारक�य िचछहह�ल उपवा�यीय �टकह� िचिछहत े

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गन�; �बया�मक सग�ल प�ष तथा वचन िचि�हत गन�े ु ; ऊजा�व�व; काल र प� दव �यवःथा भएकोु ै ; कम� वा भाववा�य नभएको; तान �यवःथा नभएको; २९ वटा �य�न वण� र ६ वटा ःवर वण� भएको।भाषाको ूयोग: घरमा, धा�म�क काय�मा र अ�य कामकाजमा; �मि�त ूयोग: साथीभाइसग। यवाँ ु , अधब�स र बढापाकाल बो�न। कटाकट� तथा े े े े ेु�कशोर�कशोर�ल प�न अ�लअ�ल बो�न।े े मातभाषाू�तको अ�भवि� ृ ृतटःथ। ूाय: सबल बा�तावाै े [bap] प�न बो�न।ेभाषाको �वकास:

�भ��यो �नमा�ण तथा श�दकोश र �याकरण ूकािशत। �ल�पको ूयोग: दवनागर� �ल�पे , हालसाल �वक�सत। ै अ�य: पर�परागत धम� (�करात), �ह�द र �बि�यन।ू

छलङु ु [cur] (�छि�लङ, छोलङु, �ु�यङ �ङु , िच�लङ, चलङु ु , चलङु ु )। व�ा स��या: १,३१० (रा��य जनगणना, २००१), घ�दो बम। मातभाषा बो�नह�को स��या घ�द गएकोृ े ै (�यान ��म (van Driem)

२००७) बो�लन �े�े : कोशी अ�लमा पन� धनकटा िज�लाको ुआिखस�ला गाँ .�व.स.। अवःथा: ७ (अपसरणशील)। आ�दवासी जनजा�तमा सचीकतह�को भाषाू ृ (२००२, आजउराू ऐन, नं. २०, ख�� २ग), राई जनजा�त। भाषा प�रवार: िच�नयाँ-�त�बती, भोट-बम�ल�, पि�मी भोट-बम�ल�, �हमाल�, �कराँती, पव�।ू भाषाको ूकार: कता� कम� �बया (पदबम); नामानगामी भाषाु ; �बया�मक ू�ययल प�ष तथा े ुवचन िचि�हत गन�; काल �यवःथा भएको। तानर�हत भाषा। भाषाको ूयोग: घरमा; �मि�त ूयोग: साथीभाइसगँ, धा�म�क काय�मा र कामकाजमा। वयःक तथा ब�ब�ाल ूयोग गन�ृ ृ े । कटाकट�े े , �कशोर �कशोर� तथा यवायवतील प�नु ु े समत अ�लअ�ल ूयोग गन�। नपाल� े े[npi] तथा बा�तावा [bap] भाषा प�न बो�न।े�ल�पको ूयोग: लखन ेूणाल� नभएको। अ�य: पर�परागत धम� (�करात)

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िजरले [jul] (िजर�, िजर�आल, िजराल)। व�ा स��या: ७,०७०

(२०००), घ�दो बम।बो�लन �ेऽे : जनकपर अ�लको दोलखा ुिज�लामा पन� िजर� र �सब� उप�यका र पव� पहाडी �ेऽ। म�य �ऽे ू ुिजर� उप�यका। �ाऽापामा प�न बो�लने; लि�बनी अ�लको ुनवलपराल� िज�लामा र बागमती अ�लको �स��पा�चोक िज�लाु , नारायणी अ�लको पसा� िज�लामा प�न बो�लन।े भाषाको अवःथा: ६ख

(स�टाप�)। आ�दवासी जनजा�तमा सचीकतह�को भाषाू ृ (२००२,

आजउराू ऐन, नं. २०, ख�ड २ग)। भाषा प�रवार: िच�नयाँ-�त�बती, भोट-बम�ल�, पि�मी भोट-बम�ल�, बो�डस, क���य बो�डसे , क���य चाङ े(gTsang)।भा�षकाह�: बोल�मा �भ�ता भए प�न ःप� भा�षकागत �भ�ता नपाइन।�हासा �त�बती े [bod] र �त�बतीका अ�य क�तपय भा�षकासग कह� बो�ग�यता। �याकरिणक ���ल शपा�ँ े े े [xsr] सग ँ�म�दोज�दो। शाि�दक समानताु : शपा�े [xsr] सग ँ ६७%, हल�ब शपा�े ेु

[scp] सग ँ ६५%, डो�पो [dre] र लोके [loy] सगँ ६२%, �य�ङे

(ि�यरोङ) [kgy]सगँ ६०%, नॄीु [kte], �होमी [lhm] र वाल��गु े [ola]सग ँ

५७%, �हासा �टबटने [bod] सगँ ५४%। भाषाको ूकार : कता� कम� �बया (पदबम); नामानगामीु ; स�ब�� वाचक पद, दश�क सव�नाम र �वशषण पद नाम शीष�भ�दा अिघ आउने े; स��यावाचक पद नाम शीष�भ�दा प�� आउने; स�ब��वाचक उपवा�य नामशीष�स�हत वा नाम शीष�र�हत; �वषयाप�ी ू�वाचक श�द यथाःथानमाे ; ीवीय ू� सचक ु ूू�यय वा�या�तमा आउने; पव�सग�को अ��कतम स��या ू १, परसग�को अ��कतम स��या ४; कारक�य िच�हह�ल उपवा�या�मक ेघटकह�ला� िचि�हत गन�; सग�ह�ल नाम पदावल�को कारक िचि�हत ेगन�; ऊजा�वत कारक् ; ूरणाथ�क भएकोे ; कम�वा�य वा भाववा�य नभएको; अ�र सरचनां : �यःव, �यःव�य, ःव, ःव�य; तानय� ुभाषा।भाषाको ूयोग: घरमा र साथीभाइसग। यवा तथा ब�ब�ाल ँ ु ृ ृ े

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ूयोग गन�। कटाकटल तथा �कशोर�कशोरलल प�न धरथोर ूयोग गन�। े े े ेकहलल शपा�े े े [xsr] प�न जानकाे , पव� तामाङू [taj] र सनवार ु ु [suz] बो�नह� प�न रहका े े (अ�य�त कमै )। अ�धकांशल नपालले े [npi] ूयोग गन�। यासा� र खारोक बोलल ब�ल ू�त��त र िशि�त मा�नन। ेनपाललह�को भाषालाई ू�त��त र िश�ा आज�न तथा �यवसायका ला�ग ेआवँयक मा�े। भाषाको �वकास: मातभाषामा सा�रताृ : २५%-३०% अधब�से, ६०% यवा यवती। दोॐो भाषामा सा�रताु ु : २५%–३०%

अधब�से, ६०% बालबा�लका र यवायवतीु ु (रा��य जनगणना १९९१)। नपाललमा सा�रह�ल िजरल प�न स�न। श�दकोश ूकािशत।े े े े (NT:

१९९२)। �ल�पको ूयोग: दवनागरल �ल�प। े अ�य: ब��, पर�परागत धम�, ��िः�यन।

ज�ला सा�े�तक भाषाु [jus] ूयोगकता�: ८ (२००५आइएनएफ)।१००% एकभाषी। ूयोग हन �े�ु े : कणा�लल अ�ल, ज�ला िज�लाु , ज�ला ुबजार।भाषाको अवःथा: ६क (ूवल)। भाषा प�रवार: सःतु -ौवण सा�े�तक भाषा। भा�षकाह�: जानकारल अूा�। शाि�दक समानता: ४५%–४९% नपालल सा�े�तक भाषाे [nsp] सग।ँ �ल�पको ूयोग: लखन ेूणाललको �वकास नभएको। अ�य: ज�ला बजारमा रहको नपालल ु े ेसा�े�तक भाषा �व�ालयमा प�नका ला�ग सःतु -ौवण भएका र ज�ला ुसा�े�तक भाषा नजानका बालबा�लकाह� े २ �दनस�मको बाटो �ह�र ँ ेआउन।े

ज�ललु [jml] (क��लय नपालले े , ज�लाु , ज�लललु े , खस कराु , �सजालल, �स�जा, �सजाललँ )।व�ा स��या: ४०,००० (२००१ एस.आइ.एल.)। एकभाषी जनस��या: १९,०००। बो�लन �े�े : कणा�लल अ�लका ज�लाु , ह�लाु , का�लकोट र मग िज�लाु ु ; सती अ�लको बाजरा िज�लाे ु ; बझाङ िज�लाका पव� भागह�ू ; अछाम िज�ला। भाषाको अवःथा: ६क

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(ूवल)। भाषा प�रवार: भारोपल�े , भारत-इरानल�े , भारतीय-आय�, उ�र� �े�, पव� पहाडी।ू भा�षकाह�: असी, च�ध�बस, पाँचसाइ, �स�जा। ःतर�य नपाल�े [npi] सग ँ ७३%–८९% बोधग�य। ज�टल तथा अमत� ूस�थन पया�� �पमा ब�नु नस�न।शाि�दक समानताे : ७३%–८०% ःतर�य नपाल� े [nep] सगँ (ब�ध ु१९७१)। भाषाको ूकार: कता� कम� �बया (पदबम); नामानगामीु ; नाम शीषा��त; २ वटा �याकरिणक �ल�; �वषयाप�ी ू�वाचक श�द यथाःथानमाे ; एउटास�म उपसग� र �वटास�म ू�यय �लने; कारक�य िच�हह�ल उपवा�यीय घटकह�लाई ेिचि�हत गन�; �बया�मक सग�ह�ल प�ष तथा �ल� िचि�हत गन�े ु ; उजा�व�व; प� �यवःथा; कम�वा�य वा भाववा�य भएको; तान �यवःथा नभएको; ३१ वटा �य�न वण� र ६ वटा ःवर वण� भएको; भाषाको ूयोग: घरमा, साथीभाइसगँ, धा�म�क काय�मा, कामकाजमा। सब उमर ै ेसमहकाल बो�न। भाषाू�तको अ�भवि� �मि�त।ू ृे े क�तपय व�ाह�लाई ःतर�य नपाल�े [npi] भाषीह�का अगा�ड आ�नो भाषा बो�न असिजलो ला�न। क�तपयल नपाल�े े े [npi] वा �ह�द� [hin] प�न बो�न।ेभाषाको �वकास: क�वता, प�प��का, अखबार, र�डयो काय�बममा ूयोग। ेश�दकोश तथा �याकरण ूकािशत। �ल�पको ूयोग: दवनागर� े�ल�प।अ�य : पर�परागत धम�, �ह�दू, ब�� (लामावाद�), �बिःचयन।

ज�ङे [jee] (जरोे , जरो मालाे , ज�मे , ज��ेे , ��े , जरोे , जरो मालाे , ज�मे )।व�ा स��या: २,००० (��गनोट� े (Opgenort) २००४)। बो�लन �े�े : जनकपर अ�लु , �स�धल� िज�लाु , बहादर खोलाको ुपि�मी �कनाराका गाउह�ँ , सनकोसी नद� दि�णदिख मोहनगर गाउ ु े ँस�म; सगरमाथा अ�लको �खल��ा िज�लामा पन� माउलाङ खोलाको ुव�रप�रका गाउह�दिख उ�रमा सनकोसी नद�स�म।ँ े ु भाषाको अवःथा: ६ख (स�टाप�)। आ�दवासी जनजा�तमा सचीकतह�को भाषाू ृ (२००२,

आजउराू ऐन, नं. २०, ख�ड २ग), राई जनजा�त।भाषा प�रवार:

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िच�नयाँ-�त�बती, भोट-बम�ल�, पि�मी भोट-बम�ल�, �हमाल�, �कराती, पि�मी। भा�षकाह�: बा�ख-ु�सःनर�े , माधवपरु, र� नावती (�स�धल�ु )। वा�बलेु [wme] सग धर �म�न। वकि�पक भा�षका �व�षणँ े े ेै ै : �खल��ामा बो�लन उ�र� भा�षकाु े , �स�धल�मा बो�लन दि�णी ु ेभा�षका। (२००४जे. ��नगोट� े (J. Opgenort)। भाषाको ूकार : कता� कम� �बया (पदबम); नामानगामीु ; नाम शीषा��त; २ वटा �ल� (अन�पादकु ); �वषयगत ू�वाचक श�द वा�यको जनसक ःथानमा ु ु ैआउन स�न भए प�न ूाये : ूार�भमा आउने; एउटा उपसग� र ४ वटास�म ू�यय (श�दा�तर�) र ४ वटा पदावल�गत सग�ह� �लने; कारक�य िच�हह�ल उपवा�यीय घटकह�लाई िचि�हत गन�े ; �बया�मक सग�ह�ल प�षे ु तथा वचन िचि�हत गन�; उजा�व�व भएको; प� �यवःथा भएको; कम�वा�य वा भाववा�य नभएको; तानर�हत भाषा; ३१ वटा �य�न वण� र ११ वटा ःवरवण�।भाषाको ूयोग: घरमा, साथीभाइसगँ, धा�म�क काय�मा; �मिौत ूयोग: कामकाजमा र िश�ामा। अधब�स तथा ब�ाब�ाल ूयोग गन�।नपाल�ै ृ ृ े े [npi] प�न बो�न।े भाषाको �वकास: पऽप�ऽका, श�दकोश तथा �याकरण ूकािशत।अ�य: ज�� र ेवा�बलेु [wme] लाई जो�न भा�षक एकाईलाई े 'च�र�सया' भ�नन। अ�ये : पर�परागत धम� (�करात), �ह�दू

झा�कोट सा�े�तक भाषा [jhs]। झा�कोट गाउको कल जनस��याको ँ ु१० ू�तशतल ूयोग गन�।ूयोग �ेऽे : कणा�ल� अ�लको �ो�पा िज�लामा पन� झा�कोट गाउ। भाषाको अवःथाँ : ६क (ूवल)। भाषा प�रवार: सःतु -ौवण सा�े�तक भाषा।भाषाको ूयोग : गाउभ�रका सःतँ ु -

ौवण भएका र ौवण शि� भएकाल उि�क ूयोग गन� भ�नन।े ेै भाषा ूयोगका सब �ऽेमा ूयोग हन। सब उमर समहकाल ूयोग गन�। ै ैु े े ेूभाषाू�तको अ�भवि� सकारा�मक। ृ �ल�पको ूयोग: लखन ूणाल�को े�वकास नभएको। अ�य: भाषाको अिःत�वबार एउटा ॐोतबाटमाऽ े

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ूमािणत हन सककोु े (टलर े (Taylor) १९९७)। डो�ालल [dty] (डोटालल, डोटलले )।जनस��या: २,५०,००० नपालमाे

(२०१२ �ऽभवन �व��व�ालयु )। बो�लन �ेऽे : सदर पि�म ु ु (नपाले ), भारतमा प�न बो�लन। े भाषाको अवःथा: ४ (शि�कै )। भाषा प�रवार: भारोपलले , भारत-�रानलले , भारतीय-आय�, उ�रल �ेऽ, पव� पहाडी।बहत ू ृ ्भाषा नपालल े [nep] को सदःय। भा�षकाह�: जानकारल नभ�को।नपालल े[npi] र कमाउनीु [kfy] सग �म�दो। ँ भाषाको ूयोग: ूवल। सब ूयोग ै�ेऽमा बो�लन। सब उमर समहकाल बो�न। मातभाषाू�त अ�य�त े े े ेै ैू ृसकारा�मक अ�भवि�।ृ भाषाको �वकास: क�वता लखन। पऽप�ऽका ेूकािशत। र�डयो तथा �टे .�भ. काय�बम। श�दकोश तथा �याकरण ूकािशत। �ल�पको ूयोग: दवनागरल �ल�प।े

डो�पो [dre] (डो�खा, डो�पा �त�बती, डोि�पके, फोक डो�पाे )। जनस��या: ८००० (२०१० के. कोप)( K.Kopp)। मातभाषा माऽ ृबो�नको स��या े ६००० (२०१०के. कोप)। जातीय जनस��या: ८००० (२०१०के.कोप)।बो�लन �ेऽे : कणा�लल अ�ल, डो�पा िज�लाको बाब�ङ नदलको ब�सी �ेऽु , कागभ�दा उ�र तथा पव� �ेऽका ूगाउह�ँ ; ताराप नदलको ब�सी �ेऽ, लाङ गाउ र उ�रल �ेऽ। मा�थ�लो ँकाललग�डक� नदलको ब�सी�ेऽदिख पि�म �हमाल पा�र। दि�णमा े��ला�गरल �हमाल र उ�रमा �त�बतका बीचको भभागल सीमा��त। ू ेस�लगाग नदलको ब�सीु , र�ी गाउभ�दा उ�रको सब �ेऽ े ँ ै (ताल �ेऽसमते )। कणा�लल नदलको महान �ेऽसमत। ना�ोङु े , पा�जाङ, ताराप र बाब�ङ नदलका ब�सीह�।ु अवःथा: ६क (ूवल)। आ�दवासी जनजा�तमा सचीकतह�को भाषाू ृ (२००२, आजउराू ऐन, नं. २०, ख�ड २ग)

।भाषा प�रवार: िच�नयाँ-�त�बती, भोट-बम�लल, पि�मी भोट-बम�लल, बो�डस, क��लय बो�डसे , क��लये , चाङ (gTsang)।भा�षकाह�: जानकारल

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नभएको।�ो�स��ो तालु , बाब�ङ नद�ु , र चका� �ऽेका भदह�बीच ेसामा�य �भ�ता भए प�न बोधग�यता राॆो। ना�ोङ तथा धो ताराप उप�यकाको भद ��य �ेऽका व�ाह�ल राॆर� ब�न। शाि�दक े े ेुसमानता: ७८% लोके [loy] सगँ , ६९% �होमी [lhm] सगँ , ६८% �हासा �टबटने [bod], वाल�ेु [ola], र �य�ङे (ि�यरोङ) [kgy] सगँ , ६७% न�� ु[kte] सगँ, ६६% हल�ब शपा� े ेु [scp]सगँ , ६२% िजरले [jul] र शपा�े [xsr] सगँ (K. Kopp २०१०)। भाषाको ूकार: कता� कम� �बया (पदबम); नामानगामीु ; नाम शीषा��द; नाम वग� तथा �याकरिणक �ल� नभएको।

�वषयाप�ी ू�वाचक श�द यथाःथानमाे ; एउटा उपसग� र तीनवटास�म ू�यय �लन। कारक�य िच�हह�ल उपवा�यीय घटकह�लाई िचि�हत े ेगन�।सयि� र �वयि�ं ु ु (conjunct/disjunct) �यवःथा भएको; सहायक �बयामा सा�ीसचक स�हत कता�को स��त हन। नाम पदावल�मा ःप� ू ु े�पमा �ल�सचक ू�यय ला�न। ऊजा�व�वू े ; काल र प� (�बया�मक ू�ययका �पमा प� ू�य� �पमा िचि�हत हनेु); कम� वा�य वा भाववा�य नभएको; ३६ वटा �य�न र ७ वटा ःवर वण�; तान �यवःथा भएको। भाषाको ूयोग: ूवल। घरमा, साथीभाइसगँ, धा�म�क काय�मा, कामकाजमा।सब उमरका मा�नसह�ल बो�न। ै े े ेमातभाषाू�तको ��भवि� सकारा�मक। धर प�ष तथा कह� ृ ृ ुे ेैम�हलाह�ल �त�बतीे [bod] र नपाल�े [npi] प�न बो�न।े भाषाको �वकास: मातभाषामा सा�रता दरृ : १० % भ�दा कम। सा�रता साममी �नमा�ण भई पर��ण ग�रद। �न�पचा�रक िश�ा स�ालनको ँ ैयोजना ग�रदँ ै (२०१०) क�वता लखन। श�दकोश ूकाशन।े �ल�पको ूयोग: �त�बती �ल�प। ��य: ब��, बो�पो।

तामाङ, उ�र पि�मी [tmk] (काठ-भो�टया, लामा भोटे, म�म�ु , रो�बा, साइन, तामाङ �योइ, तामाङ ल� मोे , तामाङ ताम)। व�ा स��या: ५५,००० (रा��य जनगणना १९९१), ब�दो बम।बो�लन �ेऽे :

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बागमती अ�लको नवाकोट िज�लाकाु म�य�ेऽीय पहाडका मदानी ैभाग। भाषाको अवःथा: ५ (�वकासशील)। आ�दवासी जनजा�तमा सचीकतह�को भाषाू ृ (२००२, आजउराू ऐन, नं.२०, ख�ड २ग)। भाषा प�रवार: िच�नयाँ-�त�बती, भोट-बम�ल�, पि�मी भोट-बम�ल�, बो�डस, पि�मी बो�डस, ग�ङु -तामाङ, तामाङ। भा�षकाह�: धा�दङ। सब पि�मी तामाङ ैभा�षकाह�बीच परःपर बोधग�यता उ�च रहको।े शाि�दक समानता: पि�मी �ऽशल� तामाङु [tdg] सगँ ९४%, पि�मी रसवा तामा�सगु ँ [tdg] ८२%-८३% स�म, दि�णपि�मी तामाङ [tsf] सग ँ ७६%-७८%, पव�य ूगोखा� तामाङ [tge] ७८%-७७% स�म, पव�य तामाङू [taj] सग ँ ७२%-८०% स�म। भाषाको ूकार: कता� कम� �बया (पदबम); नामानगामीु ;

नाम शीषा�� र शीषा��त; नामको �ल� वा वग� नभएको; उपसग� नभएको, ४ वटास�म परसग� �लने; कारक�य िच�हबाट उपवा�यीय घटकह� िचि�हत हनेु; ऊजा�व�व; स�ब�ध वाचक पद नाम शीष�भ�दा प�ा�ड आउने; स�ब�धवाचक उपवा�य नाम शीष�का अगा�ड आउने; ू�वाचक पद वा�यका बीचमा आउने; काल र प� �यवःथा भएको; कम�वा�य वा भाववा�य भएको; अ�र सरचनां : �यःव, �यःव�य, �य�यःव, ःव,

�य�यःव�य, �यःव�य�य�य; तानय� भाषाु ; २५ वटा �य� जन र ५वटा ःवर वण�। भाषा ूयोग: घरमा; �मि�त ूयोग: साथीह�सगँ, धा�म�क काय�मा, कामकाजमा र िश�ामा। सब उमर समहकाल बो�न। ै े े ेूसकारा�मक भा�षक अ�भवि�ृ । धा�म�क ूयोजनका ला�ग �त�बती [bod] प�न ूयोग हनेु, �पचा�रक स�दभ�मा नपाल� े [npi] को ूयोग हनेु।

भाषाको �वकास: प�हलो भाषामा सा�रता दर: १%-१०% स�म। दोॐो भाषामा सा�रता दर: २५%-७५% स�म। ूाथ�मक ःकलमा पठनपाठन ुहनेु। क�वता लखने । पऽप�ऽका तथा समाचारपऽ ूकािशत। नयाँ मा�यम: र�डयो काय�बमे । श�दकोश �नमा�ण। �ल�पको ूयोग:

दवनागर� �ल�पे । अ�य: पर�परागत धम�, ब��, �बिःचयन।

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तामाङ, दि�ण पि�मम [tsf] (काठ-भो�टया, लामा भोटे, मम�ु , रो�बा, साइन,

तामाङ �योइ, तामाङ ल� मोे , तामाङ ताम)।व�ा स��या: १,०९,०००

(रा��य जनगणना १९९१), ब�दो बम।बो�लन �ेऽे : बागमतम अ�ल,

दि�णम �ा�दङ िज�ला; नारायणम अ�ल, िचतवन, उ�रपि�म मकवानपरु,

बारा, पसा�, रौतहट िज�ला। काठमा��� िज�लाको पि�म र उ�रपि�म �ेऽ। भाषाको अवःथा: ५ (�वकासशमल)। आ�दवासम जनजा�तमा सचमकतह�को भाषाू ृ (२००२, आजउराू ऐन, नं.२०, ख�� २ग)। भाषा प�रवार: िच�नयाँ-�त�बतम, भोट-बम�ल�, पि�मम भोट-बम�ल�, बो��स, पि�म बो��स, ग�ङु -तामाङ, तामाङ। भा�षकाह�: ूारि�भक प�रणाम: पि�मम �ऽशल� तामाङ ु [tdg] सग ँ ८६% बो�ग�यता, क���ये -पव� तामाङ ू [taj] व�ाह�ल े ८७%, बा�-पव�य तामाङ ू [taj] व�ाह� ५४%-६७% स�म। तामाङ भाषाह�बमचको स�ब��को पनम��या�न आवँयकु ू ।

दि�ण पि�मम तामाङको पि�मम �ऽशल� तामाङ ु [tdg] सग ँ ८०%,

पि�मम रसवा भा�षका ु [tdg] सग ँ ७६%-७८% स�म, उ�र�पि�मम तामाङ [tmk] सग ँ ७८%, पव�य गोखा� तामाङ ू [tge] सग ँ ७०%-७३% स�म, पव�य तामाङ ू [taj] सग ँ ७७%-९३%स�म। भाषाको ूकार: कता� कम� �बया (पदबम); नामानगाममु ; नाम शमषा�� र अ��य; �ल� वा नाममा वग� नभएको।�वषयाप�म ू�वाचक श�द े वा�या�दमा; ४ वटास�म परसग� �लने; कारक�य िच�हकबाट उपवा�यमय घटकह� िचि�हत हनेु; स�ब��वाचक पद नामका प�ा�� आउने; स�ब�� उपवा�य नामका अगा��; ू�वाचक श�द म�यमा; ऊजा�व�व; काल र प�; कम�वा�य वा वा�य नभएको; �यःव, �यःव�य, �य�यःव, ःव,

�य�यःव�य, �यःव�य�य�य; तानय� भाषाु ; २४ वटा �य� जन वण� र ५ ःवर वण�। भाषाको ूयोग: घरमा; �मि�त ूयोग: साथमह�सगँ, �ा�म�क काय�मा, कामकाजमा, िश�ामा। सब उमरका मा�नसल बो�नै े े े। भा�षक अ�भवि� सकारा�मकृ । �ा�म�क स�दभ�मा �त�बतम [bod] प�न ूयोग गन�,

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�पचा�रक स�दभ�मा नपाल� े [npi] ूयोग हनेु। कसकसल भोजपर� ै ै े ु[bho] र म�थल� ै [mai] प�न �स�ने। भाषाको �वकास: प�हलो भाषामा सा�रता दर: १%-१०% स�म। दोॐो भाषामा सा�रता दर: २५%-७५% स�म। ूाथ�मक �व�ालयमा पठनपाठन हनुे। क�वता लखने , पऽप�ऽका ूकाशन। समाचारपऽ ूकािशत। नयाँ मा�यम र��यो ेकाय�बम। चलिचऽ। श�दकोश �नमा�ण। �ल�पको ूयोग: दवनागर� े�ल�प। अ�य: बौ�, पर�परागत धम�, �बिःचयन। तामाङ, पि�मम [tdg] (मम�ु , सनै )।व�ा स��या: ३,२३,००० (सन ्२०००), ब�दो बम। ःकल उमरभ�दा म�नका र ु ुे े ६० वष�भ�दा मा�थका धरजसो एकभाषमे ै । बागमतम अ�लको पि�मम नवाकोटु , रसवा र ुधा�दङ िज�ला, �स�धपा�चोक िज�लाको उ�रपव� भागु ू , भोटे, ना�लान,

भोट चौरे , �ऽशल� नद�कोु ब��ग��क�तफ� को पि�म �कनाराु ; नारायणम अ�ल, मकवानपर िज�लाको उ�रपि�मु , फाकले , चाखले , कलखानमु े ,

माख�,ु �टःटङु , पालङु; काठमा���को उ�र, झोर, ठोका, गगल, फद�े ।

भाषाको अवःथा: ५ (�वकासशमल)। आ�दवासम जनजा�तमा सचमकतह�को भाषाू ृ (२००२, आजउराू ऐन, नं.२०, ख�� २ग)। भाषा प�रवार: िच�नयाँ-�त�बतम, भोट-बम�ल�, पि�मम भोट-बम�ल�, बो��स, पि�म बो��स, ग�ङु -तामाङ, तामाङ। भा�षकाह�: पि�मम तामाङ (धा�दङ) को उ�रपि�मम, रसवाु , पि�मम तामाङको दि�णम भा�षका, �ऽशल� ु(नवाकोटु )। ूारि�भक अ�ययनल रसवा भा�षकासग े ु ँ ८६% बोधग�यता दखाएकोे , क���ये -पव�सगू ँ [taj] ८१%-८८% स�म, बा�-पव�सग ू ँ [taj] ७८%-८८% स�म, दि�णपि�मसगँ [tsf] ८६%; �ऽशल�को रसवासग ु ु ँ८०%, बा�-पव�सग ू ँ [taj] ७०% स�म। शाि�दक समानता: �ऽशल� ुभा�षका र उ�रपि�मम तामाङ [tmk] बमच ९४%, रसवासग ु ँ ८२%-८३% स�म, दि�णपि�मम तामाङ [tsf] सग ँ ८०%, पव� गोखा� तामाङ ू[tge] सग ँ ७७%-७९% स�म, रसवा र उ�रपि�मम ु [tmk] सग ँ ८२%-

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८३% स�म, दि�णपि�म [tsf] सग ँ ७८%, पव� गोखा� ू [tge] सग ँ७२%, पि�मी भा�षक भदह� र पव� तामाङ भा�षक भदह�बीच े ेू ६९%-८१% स�म। भाषाको ूकार: कता� कम� �बया (पदबम); नामानगामीु ; नाम शीषा�� र ���य; स�ब�धवाचक पद नामप�छ, स�ब�धवाचक उपवा�य नामभ�दा �गा��; �ल� वा नाममा वग� नभएको; �वषयाप�ी ेू�वाचक श�द वा�या�दमा; २वटास�म उपसग�, ११ वटास�म परसग�; उपवा�यीय घटकह� पदबमबाट �नधा�रण हन।ु े ऊजा�व�व भएको।

कम�वा�य वा भाववा�य नभएको; २४ वटा �य� जन र ५ वटा ःवर वण�; �यःव, �यःव�य, �य�यःव, ःव, �य�यःव�य, �यःव�य�य�य; तानय� भाषाु । भाषाको ूयोग: घरमा, साथीह�सगँ, धा�म�क काय�मा; �मि�त ूयोग: कामकाजमा र िश�ामा। सब उमरका मा�नसह�ल ै े ेबो�ने। रा�भाषामा िश�ाका कारणल गदा� पढलखका यवा यवतील े े े े ेु ुनपाल�े [npi] प�न ूयोग गन�। भाषाको �वकास: दोॐो भाषामा सा�रता दर: २५%-७५% स�म। ूाथ�मक �व�ालयमा पढाइने, सन ्२००७ दिख ूाथ�मक तहमा बहभाषी िश�ा स�ालने ु । क�वता लखने ।

पऽप�ऽका तथा समाचारपऽ ूकािशत। र��यो काय�बम तथाे �भ��यो �नमा�ण। श�दकोश �नमा�ण। NT: १९९०। �ल�पको ूयोग: दवनागर� े�ल�प। �त�बती �ल�प। ��य: ल�चा र �करातील ूयोग गन� जातीय नाम े ेमम� हो भन नवारल ूयोग गन� सन हो। पर�परागत धम�ु े े े ै , ब��, �बिःचयन।

तामाङ, पव�ू [taj] (“भो�ट�” �न�दाथ�क, इसाङ, म�म�ु , सइे )।व�ा स��या: नपालमा े ११,८०,००० (रा��य जनगणना २००१), ब�दो बम। कह� दग�म ठाउका समदायह�मा खासगर� म�हलाे ु ुँ , कटाकट�ह� े ेर ब� मा�नसह� एकभाषीृ । स�पण� जनस��याू : ११,९७,५००। जातीय जनस��या: १२,९०,००० (रा��य जनगणना २००१)।बो�लन �ेऽे : जनकपर ��लकाु , �स�धल�ु , रामछाप र दोलखा िज�लाे ; बागमती

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अ�लको, का�मा���, का�पला�चोक िज�लाे , पि�मी �स�धपा�चोकु , ल�लतपरु, भ�परु, नवाकोट िज�लाको पव� भागु ू ; नारायणी अ�लका

मकवानपर र िचतवन िज�लाु । भटान र भारतमा प�न बो�लनु े। भाषाको अवःथा: ५ (�वकासशील)। आ�दवासी जनजा�तमा सचीकतह�को भाषाू ृ

(२००२, आजउराू ऐन, नं.२०, ख�� २ग)। भाषा प�रवार: िच�नयाँ-�त�बती, भोट-बम�ल�, पि�मी भोट-बम�ल�, बो��स, पि�मी बो��स, ग�ङु -

तामाङ, तामाङ। भा�षकाह�: क���ये -पव� तामाङू (तमाल तामाङे ), बा�-

पव� तामाङू (सलङ तामाङै ु ), दि�ण पि�मी तामाङ। अ�हलस�म भएका ेअ�ययनका आधारमा क���ये -पव� भा�षका सबल ब�न। ��शल� र ू ु ुै े ेरसवा पि�मी तामाङु [tdg] व�ाह� ल े ८५% ब�नु े; बा�-पव�ल ू े ९३% ९८% स�म ब�नु े, दि�ण पि�मी तामाङ [tsf] ल े ८७%ब�नु े। पि�मी रसवा तामाङ ु [tdg] ल बा�े -पव� तामाङ ू ५८% ब�नु े, पि�मी ��शल� ुतामाङ[tdg] ल े ६४%-७५% स�म ब�नु े, दि�ण पि�मी तामाङ [tsf] ल े६७%-५४% स�म ब�नु े, क���ये -पव� तामाङू [taj] ल े ८८%-९३% स�म ब�नु े, र यसका आ�न भा�षक भदह�मा ै े ९०%-९८% स�म बोधग�यता रहकोे । दि�ण पि�मी तामाङ [tsf] ल पव� र पि�मी े ूतामाङका बीचमा सतको काम गन� स�ने ेु (�यारन�या�प े (Varenkamp)

१९९६)। शाि�दक समानता: बा�-पव� भा�षकाह�सग ू ँ ८८% ९९% स�म; क���ये -पव�सग ू ँ ८९%-१००% स�म; बा� पव� र क���य ू ेपव�सग ू ँ ७९%-९३% स�म, दि�ण पि�मी तामाङ [tsf] सग ँ ७७%-८२%, दि�ण पि�म र क���ये -पव�सग ू ँ ८६%-९३% स�म, पव� र ूपि�मी ��शल� तामा�सग ु ँ [tdg] ७४%-८०% स�म, पि�मी रसवा ुतामाङ [tdg] सग ँ ६९%-८१% स�म, उ�र-पि�मी धा�दङ तामाङ [tmk] सग ँ ७२%-८०% स�म, पव� गोखा� तामाङू [tge] सग ँ ६३%-७७% स�म (�यारन�या�पे १९६६)। भाषाको ूकार: कता� कम� �बया (पदबम); नामानगामीु , स�ब�धवाची पद नामका प�ा��; नाम शीषा��त;

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नाममा �ल� वा वग� नभएको; �वषयाप�� ू�वाचक श�द यथाःथानमाे ;

एउटा उपसग�, ३ वटास�म परसग�; कारक�य िच�हबाट उपवा�यो घटकह� िचि�हत हनेु; ऊजा�व�व भएको; प� र काल �यवःथा भएको; कम�वा�य वा भाववा�य नभएको; ३४ वटा �य� जन र १६वटा ःवर वण�; अ�र सरचनां : �यःव, �यःव�य, �य�यःव, ःव, �य�यःव�य; तानय� ुभाषा; ःवर वण�मा ५ वटा आधारभतू, ५ वटा द�घ�, ६वटा ��ःवरह�;

ूाण�व र द�घ�ता वणा��मक। भाषाको ूयोग: ूवल। घरमा, साथ�ह�सगँ, धा�म�क काय�मा; �मि�त ूयोग: कामकाजमा र िश�ामा।

सब उमर समहका मा�नसल बो�नै े े ेू । ःकल जान वा बा�हर घ�न ु ुेजानह�ल ूायः नपाल�े े े [npi] बो�ने; �वशष गर� क�तपय म�हलाे , अ�ल ब�ब�ा र कटाकट�ह�मा नपाल� भाषामा द�ता कम रहकोृ ृ े े े े । भाषाको �वकास: प�हलो भाषामा सा�रता दर: १%-५% स�म। दोॐो भाषामा सा�रता दर: २५%-५०% स�म। कह� अन�पचा�रक र �पचा�रक ेसा�रता साम��ह�, पा�पःतकह� ूकािशत र मातभाषा क�ाह� ु ृस�ा�लत। ूाथ�मक �व�ालयमा ३ क�ास�म मा�यमका �पमा र ५क�ास�म �वषयका �पमा पढाइ हनेु। क�वता लखने । पऽप�ऽका र

समाचारपऽह� ूकािशत। नयाँ मा�यम: र��योे काय�बम। चलिचऽ।

�ट�भ। �भ��यो। श�दकोश र �याकरण लखने ।NT:२००१। �ल�पको ूयोग: दवनागर� �ल�पे । �त�बत� �ल�प, ताि�हग शल�ै । अ�य: पर�परागत धम�, ब��, �ह�दू, �बिःचयन। तामाङ, पव� गोखा�ू [tge]।व�ा स��या: ३,९८० (सन ्२०००)।बो�लन े�ेऽ: ग��क� अ�ल, गोखा� िज�लाको उ�र� भागमा पन� जगात �ेऽको दि�ण र पव� भागू । भाषाको अवःथा: ४ (शि�कै )। भाषा प�रवार:

िच�नयाँ-�त�बत�, भोट-बम�ल�, पि�म� भोट-बम�ल�, बो��स, पि�म� बो��स,

ग�ङु -तामाङ, तामाङ। भा�षकाह�: का�सगाउँ, करोउ�जाे । शाि�दक समानता: भा�षकाह�ब�च ८९%, उ�रपि�म� (धा�दङ) तामाङ [tmk]

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सग ँ ७६%-७७% स�म, पि�मी (�ऽशल�ु ) तामाङ [tdg] सग ँ ७७%-७९% स�म, पि�मी (रसवाु ) तामाङ [tdg] सग ँ ७२%-७३% स�म,

दि�णपि�मी तामाङ [tsf] सग ँ ७०%-७३% स�म, पव� तामाङू [taj] भा�षकाह�बीच ६३%-७३% (�यारन�या�पे १९९६), पि�मी (बाँसपरु) ग�ङु [gvr] सग ँ ५०%, ��र� [ghh] र दि�णी घले [ghe] सग ँ ३१%-३७% स�म, ककु े [ght] सग ँ १८%-२३% स�म, नॄीु [kte], चम ु ् [ttz], र �य�ङ े (ि�यरोङ) [kgy] सग ँ १४%-१६% स�म, �ततबती [bod] सग ँ १२%-१४% स�म (जे. वतःटर े (J. Webster) १९९२)। भाषाको ूयोग: दोॐो भाषामा सा�रता दर: १०% भ�दा कम। �ल�पको ूयोग:

दवनागर� �ल�पे । अ�य: �फह�लाई ग�ङ भन प�न भाषालाई भन ू ु े ेफरक मा�े। पर�परागत धम�, ब��, �ह�दू। �तचरोङ ु [tcn] (�तचरोङे )। व�ा स��या: २,४२० (सन ्२०००)।

बो�लन �ेऽे : कणा�ल� अ�ल, डो�पा िज�ला, �ल� भर� नद�को ब�सीू े ।

भाषाको अवःथा: ६क (ूवल)। भाषा प�रवार: िच�नयाँ-�तततती, भोट-

बम�ल�, पि�मी भोट-बम�ल�, बो�डस, क���य बो�डसे , क���ये , चाङ (gTsang)। भा�षकाह�: जानकार� नभएको। डो�पो [dre] सग निजकँ ।

भाषाको ूकार: कता� कम� �बया (पदबम); नामानगामीु ; नाम शीषा��त।

�ल�पको ूयोग: लखन पर�परा नभएकोे । अ�य: सांःक�तक �पमा ृडो�पोभ�दा �भ�। ब��। �ततबती [bod] (भो�टया, बोड ःकाड, क���य �ततबतीे , फोके, पोके, जाङ वने )।व�ा स��या: नपालमा े ५,२८० (रा��य जनगणना २००१), ब�दो बम। स�पण� जनस��याू : ११,७३,८२०।बो�लन �ेऽे : म�य �पमा ुका�मा�ड� र पोखरा। िच�नयाँ सीमा �ेऽमा ��रएर रहका शरणाथ� ेसमदायह�ु । भटानु , चीन (क���य �ततबतीे ), ताइवान, भारत, नव�, ःवीजर�या�ड, सय� रा�य ं ु (अम�रकाे ) मा प�न बो�लने। भाषाको

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अवःथा: ४ (शि�कै )। भाषा प�रवार: िच�नयाँ-�त�बती, भोट-बम�ल�, पि�मी भोट-बम�ल�, बो�डस क���य बो�डसे , क���य �बस े ु (dBus)।

भा�षकाह�: डायःपोरा �त�बती, उ�सल। �नवा��सत �त�बतीह�को डायःपोरा समह �वकास भएकोू । भाषाको ूकार: कता� कम� �बया (पदबम); तानय�ु, ४ वटा तानह�। भाषाको ूयोग: घरमा, धा�म�क काय�मा; �मि�त ूयोग: साथीह�सगँ, कामकाजमा र िश�ामा। सब ैउमरका मा�नसह�ल बो�ने े े। भा�षक अ�भवि� सकारा�मकृ । धरल े ेैअ�लअ�ल नपाल� े [npi] �स�ने।भाषा �वकास: ल�य र क�य भाषा ेभाषा�ता�मक स�ब�धमा रहकाै े । क�य भदमा आधा�रत सा�रता ेनदिखन।े े ूाथ�मक तथा मा�य�मक �व�ालमा पढाइने। �ल�पको ूयोग:

�ा�स-पा �ल�प। �त�बती �ल�प, उचने , उमद र एउटा अक� कम ेूयोगमा रहको तर धर धम�ग�ह�ल ूयोग गन�े े ेै ु । अ�य: नपालमा ेबो�डस समहह�का मा�नसह�का बीच �यापा�रक भाषाका �पमा ूबो�लने। ब�� (लामा पर�परा), �बिःचयन। �तलल ु [tij] (�त�लल, �ति�लल, �तलल �लामाु )।व�ा स��या: ३१०

(रा��य जनगणना २००१), घ�दोबम।बो�लन �े�े : सगरमाथा अ�ल, खोटाल िज�लाको दि�णी भाग, �ािःमटार गा.�व.स., हलसी ेश� खृ लाको अि�तम भगे , सनकोशी खोलाको �कनारु । भाषाको अवःथा: ८क (मतूायृ )। आ�दवासी जनजा�तमा सचीकतह�को भाषाू ृ (२००२,

आजउराू ऐन, नं.२०, ख�ड २ग), राई जनजा�त। भाषा प�रवार: िच�नयाँ-�त�बती, भोट-बम�ल�, पि�मी भोट-बम�ल�, �हमाल�, �कराँती, पि�मी।

भा�षकाह�: चोःकलु े, दो��कचाे । चोःकल र दो��कचा स�बि�धत भाषा ु े ेहन स�नु े। भाषाको ूकार: कता� कम� �बया (पदबम); नामानगामी ुभाषा। भाषाको ूयोग: �मि�त ूयोग: धा�म�क। ब�ब�ाल ूयोग गन�ृ ृ े ।

यवा र �कशोर �कशोर�ल धरथोर ूयोग गन�ु े े । �ल�पको ूयोग: लखन े

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पर�परा नभएको। अ�य: भ�गो�लक�पमा अल�ग समदायै ु । पर�परागत धम� (�करात), �ह�दू। थकाल� [ths] (बा� हगाउलँ े, पाँचगाउलँ े, था�ःया)।व�ा स��या: ६,४४०

(रा��य जनगणना २००१), ��दो बम। जातीय जनस��या: १३,०००

(रा��य जनगणना २००१)।बो�लन �े�े : ध�ला�गर� अ�ल, मःताङ ुिज�ला, थाक खोला, म�य काल�ग��क� उप�यका, एका�तर अ�पण� ू�हमाल र अका��तर ध�ला�गर� �हमाल, दि�णमा तातोपानी गाउदिख ँ ेउ�रमा जोमसोङस�म। टकच भा�षका टकच गाउदिख था�साचाएु ु ु ुे े ेँ स�म फ�लएकोै , त॑ गाउह�मा �वभािजते ँ : टकचु ु े, खा�ती, कोबाङ, लाज�ङु, दा�प,ु न��रकोट, भज��ोटु ु , नाकङु , �टथी, क�जोु , टा�लङु, लत र े े��सा। धर व�ाह� यस �े�भ�दा बा�हर बःने ेै । भाषाको अवःथा: ७

(अपसरणशील)। आ�दवासी जनजा�तमा सचीकतह�को भाषाू ृ (२००२,

आजउराू ऐन, नं.२०, ख�� २ग )। भाषा प�रवार: िच�नयाँ-�त�बती, भोट-

बम�ल�, पि�मी भोट-बम�ल�, बो��स, पि�म बो��स, ग�ङु -तामाङ, ग��ीु ।

भा�षकाह�: माफा� (प�तान थकाल�ु ), ःयाङ (�ह�कासोमु ), टकचु ु े (ता�हाङ थकाल�, था�साचाय े (Thaksaatsaye), था�सा�साए (Thaksatsae)।

थकाल� भा�षकाह�मा ९१%-९७% स�म बोधग�यता रहकोे । टकच ु ु ेभा�षका सबल सिजल ब�नै ैे ेु । शाि�दक समानता: ग��सग ु ँ ४१%–

४६%स�म, तामा�सग ँ ४६%–५१% स�म (जे. ब�ःटर े १९९४)।

चारवटा गाउह�का थकाल� भा�षकाह�मा ँ ७५%-८६% शाि�दक समानता। भाषाको ूकार: कता� कम� �बया(पदबम); नामानगामीु ; नाम शीषा�� र शीषा��त; �ल� वा नामको वग� नभएको; �वषयाप�ी ू�वाचक ेश�द यथाःथानमा; �बया�मक सग�ल वचन िचि�हत गन�े ; काल �यवःथा भएको; कम�वा�य वा भाववा�य नभएको; तानय� भाषाु ; २७ �य� जन वण� र ६ वटा ःवर वण�। भाषाको ूयोग: टकचका यवाल थकाल�ला� ु ु ुे ेकायम राखका।े अ�य ठाउका यवाह�ल थकाल� कम ूयोग गन� तर ँ ु े

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ब�दो उमरसग भा�षक �मता �वकास गद� लजान।े ेँ ै ै (१९९४ जे. व�ःटरे )। दोॐो भाषाका व�ा १,०५६ (रा��य जनगणना १९९१)।

धा�म�क काय�मा; �मि�त ूयोग: घरमा, साथीह�सगँ, धा�म�क, काय�मा। �कशोर�कशोर� तथा ब�ब�ाल ूयोग गन�ृ ृ े । बालबा�लका, �कशोर�कशोर� तथा यवायवतील प�न धरथोर बो�नु ु े े े। टकच साँःक�तक क�� तथा ु ु ृे ेसबभ�दा स�मा�नत भा�षका रहको। ै े भाषाको �वकास: ूाथ�मक ःकलमा पढाइनु े। क�वता लखने । �भ��यो �नमा�ण। श�दकोश तथा

�याकरण ूकािशत। �ल�पको ूयोग: दवनागर� �ल�पे । अ�य: माफा� भा�षका आ�न जा�तका मा�नसह�बीच �ववाह हन गाउमा रहको।माफा�ै ु े ेँ , ःयाङ, �थनी, छाइरो र िचमाङ गाउका मा�नसह�लाई सय��पमा ँ ं ुपाँचगाउल ँ े (पाँच गाउँ) भ�नने, यो नाम जात र भाषा दबलाई बझाउन ु ुैूयोग ग�रन।े । ब��, �बिःचयन। था� मी [thf] (थामी, था� मी खाम, था� मी वाखे, थानी)।व�ा स��या: नपालमा े २४,२०० (ट�रन ु २००७), घ�दो बम। �कभाषीह�को स��या: १०० (यनःकोु े २००२)। स�पण� जनस��याू : २५,०००।

जातीय जनस��या: ३५,००० (ट�रन ु २००७)। बो�लन �े�े : जनकपर ुअ�ल, दोलखा िज�ला (पि�मी र उ�र� गाउह�ँ ), रामछाप िज�लाे

(सलङ खोला �कनारका कह� गाउह�ै ु े ँ ); बा�मती अ�ल, �स�धपा�चोक ुिज�ला (पव� गाउह�ू ँ ); का�मा���। चीन र भारतमा प�न बो�लने।

भाषाको अवःथा: ६ख (स�टाप�)। आ�दवासी जनजा�तमा सचीकतह�को ू ृभाषा (२००२, आजउराू ऐन, नं.२०, ख�� २ग)। भाषा प�रवार: िच�नयाँ-�त�बती, भोट-बम�ल�, पि�मी भोट-बम�ल�, �हमाल�, क���य �हमाल�े ,

था� मी-बराम।ु भा�षकाह�: पव� था� मीू (दोलखा), पि�मी था� मी (�स�धपा�चोकु )। बराम [brd] सग स�बि�धतँ (��यस�न-कोनो)। नवारको ेदोलखा भा�षका [new] सग कह� समान सहजात श�दँ े । दोलखा र �स�धपा�चोक भा�षकाह� आपसमा बोधग�य छननु ्ै । वण��व�ान,

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ना�मक, �बया �प�व�ान र श�दभ�डारमा �भ�ता। भाषाको ूकार:

कता� कम� �बया (पदबम) नामानगामी र नामामामी दबु ु ै; नाम शीषा�म र शीषा��त; कह� ूाणीवाचक नाममा माऽ �ल� �यवःथा रहकोे े ; �वषयाप�ी ू�वाचक श�द यथाःथानमाे , ३ वटास�म उपसग� र ४ वटास�म परसग� �लने; कारक�य िच�हबाट उपवा�यीय घटकह� िचि�हत हनेु; �बया�मक सग�ल प�ष िचि�हत गन�े ु ; ऊजा�व�व नभएको;

काल �यवःथा भएको; कम�वा�य वा भाववा�य भएको; तानर�हत भाषा; ३३वटा �य� जन र १३ वटा ःवर वण�ह�। भाषाको ूयोग: दोलखा र �स�धपा�चोकभ�दा बा�हर बःन था� मीु े ह�ल था� मीे नबो�ने। धा�म�क काय�मा; �मि�त ूयोग: घरमा, साथीह�सगँ। वयःक र ब�ब�ाह�ल ृ ृ ेबो�ने।बालबा�लका, यवा र �कशोर�कशोर�ल प�न कह� ूयोग गन�। ु े ेभा�षक अ�भवि�ृ नकारा�मक भए प�न हाल आएर धर व�ाह� तटःथ े ैवा सकारा�मक भइरहकाे । लगभग सब ��भा�षक।ै भाषाको �वकास: प�हलो भाषामा सा�रता दर: १०% भ�दा कम। ूाथ�मक �व�ालयमा पढाइ हनुे। क�वता लखने । पऽप�ऽका ूकाशन। समाचारपऽह� ूकािशत। स�ार मा�यम: र�डयो काय�बमे । चलिचऽ। �ट�भ। �भ�डयो।

श�दकोश। �याकरण। �ल�पको ूयोग: दवनागर� �ल�पे । अ�य:

पर�परागत धम�, �ह�दू, बौ�, �बिःचयन। था�, कठ�रया [tkt] (कठ�रया, कठो�रया था�)। व�ा स��या: नपालमा े१,०६,००० (सन ्२००६)।बो�लन �ेऽे : सती अ�लकोे कलाल� ैिज�ला। भारतमा प�न बो�लने। भाषाको अवःथा: ६क (ूवल)।

आ�दवासी जनजा�तमा सचीकतह�को भाषाू ृ (२००२, आजउराू ऐन,

नं.२०, ख�ड २ग)। भाषा प�रवार: भारोपल�े , आय�-इरानल�े , भारतीय-आय�, क���ये , अवग�कतृ । भा�षकाह�: नपाल र भारतमा बो�लन भदह�बीच े े े�भ�ता। शाि�दक समानता: डगौरा ँ [thl] र राना था� [thr] सग ँ ७०%–

७६% स�म, �ह�द� [hin] सग ँ ६६%, ब�साु [tkb] सग ँ ६६%–६९%

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स�म, िचतव�नया [the] सग ँ ६३%। भाषाको ूकार: कता� कम� �बया (पदबम); नामानगामीु ; नाम शीषा��त (अिचि�हत)। भाषाको ूयोग: �ह�द� [hin] �तर अपसरण। नपाल� े [npi] र �ह�द� [hin] प�न ूयोग ग�रने।

भाषाको �वकास: दोॐो भाषामा सा�रता दर: स�पण� था� जातीय ूसमदायमा ु २८% (रा��य जनगणना १९९१)। �ल�पको ूयोग:

दवनागर� �ल�पे । अ�य: �ह�दू, �बिःचयन। था�, कोिचला [thq] (स��रया था�)।व�ा स��या: नपालमा े२,५८,००० (सन ्२००३), ब�दो बम। धरजसो �नर�र ब� े ै ृम�हलाह� एकभाषी। था�का सब भदह� बो�नको जनस��याै े े : १३,३१,५०० (रा��य जनगणना २००१)। बो�लन �ेऽे : कोशी अ�ल,

मोरङ र सनसर� िज�लाह�ु ; सगरमाथा अ�ल, स�र�, उदयपरु र �सराहा िज�लाह�; जनकपर अ�लु , महो�र�, सला�ह�, धनषा िज�लाह�ु । भारतमा प�न बो�लने। भाषाको अवःथा: ५ (�वकासशील)। आ�दवासी जनजा�तमा सचीकतह�को भाषाू ृ (२००२, आजउराू ऐन, नं.२०, ��� २ग)। भाषा प�रवार: भारोपल�े , आय�-�रानल�े , भारतीय-आय�, पव� �ेऽू , अवग�कतृ ।

भा�षकाह�: धनषाु , महो�र�, मोर��या, स�र�, सला�ह�, �सराहा, सनसर�ु ,

उदयपरु। ू�यक िज�लामा �व�भ� भा�षक भदह� रहकाे े े । भा�षकाको नाम िज�लाको नामसग स�बि�धतँ । भाषाको ूकार: कता� कम� �बया (पदबम); नामानगामीु ; नाम शीषा��त; �ल�भद नभएकोे ; �वषयाप�ी ेू�वाचक श�द यथाःथानमा; एउटा उपसग�, ३ वटास�म परसग� �लने;

कारक िच�हकल उपवा�यीय घटकह�ला� िचि�हत गन�े ; �बया�मक सग�ल प�ष जनाउने ेु ; काल र प� भएको; कम�वा�य (वा�या�मक माऽ);

तानर�हत भाषा; ३२ वटा र ८ वटा ःवर वण�ह�। भाषा ूयोग:

ूवल। घरमा, साथीह�मा, धम�मा; �मि�त ूयोग: काममा, िश�ाका �ेऽमा। सब उमरका व�ाह�ल बो�नै े े े। भा�षक अ�भवि�ृ : सकारा�मक। नपाल� े [npi] वा म�थल� ै [mai] प�न बो�ने। भाषाको

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�वकास: प�हलो भाषामा सा�रता: १% भ�दा कम।एउटा ःकलमा ुबहभा�षक िश�ा लाग भएकोु ु । सा�रता बम ब�दो। ूाथ�मक ःकलमा ुपढाइने। र��यो काय�बम स�ालने । चलिचऽ, �भ��यो; श�दकोश ूकाशन। �ल�पको ूयोग: दवनागर� �ल�पे । अ�य: हरक िज�लाका ेथा�ल �वशष �पमा वा आ�नो प�हचानका �पमा िज�लाको नाम े े�लने। �सरहा, उदयपर र स�र�का अ�य था�ह�ल आफलाई ु ूे 'कोिचला' भन प�न स��रया था� बो�ने े। पर�परागत धम�, �ह�दू, �बिःचयन। था�, िचतव�नया [the] (िचतो�नया था�, िचतवन था�, िच�व�नया)। व�ा स��या: नपालमा े २,८५,००० (रा��य जनगणना २००१), ब�दो बम। ६०,१०० िचतवन, ९२,८०० नवलपरासी, ४१,००० पसा�, ६३,३०० बारा, २७,५०० रौतहट (रा��य जनगणना २००१)। बो�लन े�ेऽ: नारायणी अ�लको िचतवन, बारा, पसा�, रौतहट र मकवानपर ुिज�लाह�; लि�बनी अ�लकोु नवलपरासी िज�ला। भारतमा प�न बो�लने।

भाषाको अवःथा: ५ (�वकासशील)। आ�दवासी जनजा�तमा सचीकतह�को ू ृभाषा (२००२, आजउराू ऐन, नं.२०, ��� २ग)। भाषा प�रवार: भारोपल�े ,

आय�-इरानल�े , भारतीय-आय�, पव� �ेऽू , अवग�कत।ृ भा�षका: नवलप�रया ुथा� (लौ�प�रया था�ु )। भाषाको ूकार: कता� कम� �बया (पदबम);

नामानगामीु ; नाम शीषा��त; २ वटा �ल�; �वषयाप�ी ू�वाचक श�द ेयथाःथानमा; ३ वटा परसग�ह�; कारक िच�हकबाट उपवा�यीय घटकह� िचि�हत हनेु; �बया�मक सग�ल प�ष र वचन िचि�हत गन�े ु ;

काल र प� �यवःथा भएको; कम�वा�य वा वा�य नभएको; तानर�हत भाषा; ३४ �य� जन वण� र ६ वटा ःवर वण� (५ वटा ःवरह� ना�स�य हन स�नु े) भएको। भाषाको ूयोग: भाषा समदाय�भऽ ूवलु । घरमा, साथीह�सगँ, धा�म�क काय�मा; �मि�त ूयोग: कामकाजमा, िश�ामा। सब ैउमरकाह�ल बो�ने े ।े भा�षक अ�भवि�ृ नकारा�मक वा तटःथ। नपाल� े[npi], �ह�द� [hin] र भोजपर� ु [bho] प�न बो�ने। भाषाको �वकास:

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प�हलो भाषामा सा�रता दर: १% भ�दा कम। ःकलमा पढाइनु े (िचतवनका २ वटा ःकलमा माऽु )। क�वता। पऽप�ऽका। समाचारपऽ।

स�ार मा�यम। र�डयो काय�बमे । चलिचऽ। �भ�डयो। बाइबल अनवाद ु(आिशकं ): १९७७। �ल�पको ूयोग: दवनागर� �ल�पे । अ�य: �ह�दू, बौ�, �बिःचयन। था�, डगौराँ [thl] (डगाहाँ , डङाल�ँ , डगौल�ँ , ड�ोरा, डगराँ ु )।व�ा स��या: नपालमा े ५,००,००० (२००३), ब�दो बम। १०%-१५% एकभाषी।

सब दशह�को जनस��याै े : ६,७४,०००। बो�लन �ेऽे : रा�ी अ�लको

दाङ िज�ला; भर� अ�लकाे ब�द�या, बाँक र सख�त िज�लाह�े ु ; सती ेअ�लको कलाल� िज�लाै ; महाकाल� अ�लको क�चनपर िज�लाु ;

लि�बनी अ�लु , �प�दह�े , क�पलवःत िज�लाु । भारतमा प�न बो�लने।

भाषाको अवःथा: ५ (�लिखत)। आ�दवासी जनजा�तमा सचीकतह�को ू ृभाषा (२००२, आजउराू ऐन, नं.२०, ख�ड २ग)। भाषा प�रवार:

भारोपल�े , आय�-इरानल�े , भारतीय-आय�, क���य �ेऽे , अवग�कत।ृ

भा�षकाह� : दगाहाँ (दाङ), म�हो�रया (कलाल�ै )। �नकट स�ब�� भएका भदह�े : दउखर�े ु , दसौ�रयाे । राना था� [thr] सग बो�ग�यता ँ ६८%–

९१% स�म, क�ो�रया [tkt] सग ँ ९५% दिखे ९७% स�म। भारतका भदह�सगको बो�ग�यतामा कमीे ँ । स�भवत: पव� �ह�द� समहमा पन�ू ू ।

शाि�दक समानता: दउखर�सग े ु ँ ८५%, म�हो�रयासग ँ ८३%, सो�हा [soi] सग ँ ७२%–७८% स�म, राना था� [thr] सग ँ ६३%–७२% स�म,

दसौ�रयासग े ँ ७६%, िचतव�नया [the] सग ँ ६१%–६७% स�म, क��रया [tkt] सगँ७०%, �ह�द� [hin] सग ँ ५८%–६५% स�म। भाषाको ूकार: कता� कम� �बया (पदबम); नामानगामीु ; नाम शीषा��त; स�ब��वाचक पद नामभ�दा प�� आउने; �वशष� र े स��यावाचक पद नामभ�दा अगा�ड आउने; �वषयाप�ी ू�वाचक श�द यथाःथानमाे (ूाय); कारक िच�हल ेउपवा�यीय �टकह�ला� िचि�हत गन�; �बयाका सग�ल प�ष र वचन े ु

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िचि�हत गन�; काल-प� �यवःथा भएको; कम�वा�य र भाववा�य भएको; अ�र सरचनां : �यःव, �यःव�य, �य�यःव; तानर�हत भाषा; ३० वटा �य� जन वण� र ८ वटा ःवर वण� भएको। भाषाको ूयोग: उ�च जीव�तता भए प�न नपाल�े [npi] आग�तक श�दको स��या ब�दोु ।

घरमा, साथीह�सगँ, धम�मा। सब उमरकाह�ल बो�नै े े े। िशि�त �यि�ह�ल ब�� नपाल� े े [npi] ूयोग गन� गरको पाइने े: म�हलाभ�दा प�षल नपाल� ब�� बो�नु े े े, ूौ�भ�दा धर यवाल नपाल� ूयोग गन�े े ेै ु ।

�ह�द� [hin] र म�थल� ै [mai] प�न ूयोग ग�रने। भाषाको �वकास: दोॐो भाषामा सा�रता दर: एउट जातीय समहका �पमा सब था�ह�ला� ै ैूसम�दा े २८% (रा��य जनगणना १९९१)। क�वता लखन।े प�प��का ूकाशन। र�डयो काय�बम स�ालने । श�दकोश तथा �याकरण ूकािशत। बाइबल अनवाद ु (आिशकं ): २००९। �ल�पको ूयोग:

दवनागर� �ल�पे । अ�य: पर�परागत धम�, �ह�दू, �बिःचयन। था�, राना [thr]। व�ा स��या: नपालमा े ३,३६,००० (सन ्२००६),

ब�दो बम। जनस��या: ४,८६,०००।बो�लन �े�े महाकाल� अ�लको क�नपर िज�लाु ; सती अ�लको कलाल� िज�लाे ै । भारतमा प�न बो�लने। भाषाको अवःथा: ४ (शि�कै )। आ�दवासी जनजा�तमा सचीकतह�को भाषाू ृ (२००२, आजउराू ऐन, नं.२०, ख�ड २ग)। भाषा प�रवार: भारोपल�े , आय�-इरानल�े , भारतीय-आय� पव�य �े�ू ,

अवग�कत।ृ भा�षकाह�: भा�षकाह�बीच ९६%–९९% स�म बोधग�यता रहको।े क��रया [tkt] सग ँ ९०%, ड�ौरा [thl] सग ँ ५०%–८८% स�म रहको भ�नने े। भारतमा भएका भा�षकाह�भ�दा �भ�। अवधी [awa]सग ँनिजक। शाि�दक समानता: भा�षकाह�बीच ८३%–९७% स�म,

ब�सासग ु ँ ७३%–७९% स�म, क��रया [tkt] सग ँ ७४%–७९% स�म,

सो�हा [soi] सग ँ ७०%–७३% स�म, डगौराँ [thl] सग ँ ६३%–७१%,

िचतौ�नया [the] सग ँ ५६%–६०% स�म, �ह�द� [hin] सग ँ ६८%–७२%

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स�म। भाषाको ूकार: कता� कम� �बया (पदबम); नामानगामीु ; नाम शीषा��त; २ वटा �ल�; �वषयाप�ी ू�वाचक श�द यथाःथानमाे ; एउटा उपसग� र २ वटास�म परसग� �लन े ; कारक�य �च�हबाट उपवा�यीय घटकह� �च��हत हनेु; �बयामा सग�ल प�ष र वचन जनाउने ेु ; ऊजा�व�व

(सकम�क उपवा�यको कम� = अकम�क उपवा�यको कता�); काल �यवःथा भएको (४ वटा कालह�: भतकालू , वत�मान, �नकट भ�व�य, अवाःत�वक भ�व�य); कम�वा�य वा वा�य भएको; तानर�हत भाषा; २८ वटा �य� जनह� र ११ वटा ःवर वण�ह� भएको। भाषाको ूयोग: ूवल।

घरमा, साथीह�सगँ, धम�मा; �म��त ूयोग: काममा, �श�ामा। सब ैउमरका मा�नसल बो�ने े े। भा�षक अ�भव��ृ : सकारा�मक। नपाल� े [npi] वा �ह�द� [hin] प�न ूयोग गन�। भाषाको �वकास: क� चनपरमा तीन ुक�ास�म बहभाषी �श�ा काय�बम लाग भएकोु ु । ूाथ�मक ःकलमा ुपढाइने। क�वता लखने । प�प��का ूकाशन। र��यो काय�बम ेस� चालन। �फ�म, �भ��यो �नमा�ण। �ल�पको ूयोग: दवनागर� �ल�पे ।

अ�य: �ह�दू, �ब�ःचयन। थदाम ु [thw] (“थदाम भोटु े” �न�दाथ�क) व�ा स��या: १,८०० (सन ्२०००)।बो�लन �े�े : कोशी अ�लको स� खवुासभा �ज�ला, चपवा े ुगा.�व.स., थदाम गाउु ँ। भाषाको अवःथा: ६क (ूवल)। आ�दवासी जनजा�तमा सचीकतह�को भाषाू ृ (२००२, आजउराू ऐन, नं.२०, ख��

२ग)। भाषा प�रवार: �च�नयाँ-�त�बती, भोट-बम�ल�, प��मी भोट-बम�ल�, बो��स, क���य बो��से , अवग�कतृ । भा�षका: जानकार� नभएको।

नपालमा वाल� गे ेु [ola] तथा �त�बतका कदो र सार गाउह�मा बो�लन ु ँ ेभा�षक भदसग �म�दोज�दो े ँ ु (फरर �ाम��ोफ� ु े े १९८८ (Furer-

Haimendorf))। भाषाको ूकार: कता� कम� �बया (पदबम);

नामानगामीु ; �वषयाप�ी ू�वाचक श�द यथाःथानमाे ; कारक �च�हबाट उपवा�यीय घटकह� �च��हत हनेु; ऊजा�व�व; कम�वा�य वा भाववा�य

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नभएको; तानर�हत भाषा। भाषाको ूयोग: नपाल� े [npi] मा उ�च ��भा�षकता ; कह� बढापाका उमरका �यि�ह�ल �होमी े े ेु [lhm] भाषा प�न बो�ने। लखन प��ते : लखन ू�ाल�को �वकास नभएकोे । अ�य:

साँःक�तक�पमा वालङसग साइनो भएका।ृ ु ँ । ब��, �बिःचयन। थलङु ु [tdh] (थोलोङ लो, थल लवाु ु ु , थललोआु ु , थलङ जमु ु ुे , थलङ लाु ु ,

थल�े राईु ु , तोआक �वाु )।व�ा स��या: नपालमा े ३०,००० (सन ्२००३)। कह� ब�ब�ा एकभाषीे ृ ृ । बो�लन �े�े : भोजपर र ुस� खवुासभा िज�लाह�मा थलङ समदायका मा�नस रहका।ु ु ु े उदयपरु, मोरङ, पाँचथर र इलाम िज�लामा प�न छ�रएका रहकाे । बसाँइ सरका ेथलङह�ल प�हलो भाषाका �पमा थलङ बो�न नस�नु ु ु ुे े। सगरमाथा अ�लको दि��ी सोलख�ब िज�लाका ु ु ु दउसाे , लोिखम, मि�लु , जबु,ु

�त�ला, स�यान, प�छन र नछा गाे .�व.स.ह�; खोटाङ िज�लाका स�ले,

जलःवर� रे मह�र� गाे .�व.स.ह�; �खलढ�ा िज�लाको त�हनटार ु ुगा.�व.स.का ६ वा ७ वटा गाउँ; कोशी अ�ल, भोजपर िज�लाको एउटा ुगाउँ; दधकोशी �कनारको अ�लो पाखाभ�दा पि�मप��ु , नच डाँडा र े ेहलसी डाँडा �� खे ृ लाको उ�र, मा�थ�लो सोल खोलादिख पव�ु ूे , र इ� ख ुखोला र दधकोशीको दोभान काक खोलादिख दि��ु ु े । भारतमा प�न बो�लने। भाषाको अवःथा: ५ (�वकासशील)। आ�दवासी जनजा�तमा सचीकतह�को भाषाू ृ (२००२, आजउराू ऐन, नं.२०, ख�ड २ग), राई जनजा�त। भाषा प�रवार: िच�नयाँ-�त�बती, भोट-बम�ल�, पि�मी भोट-

बम�ल�, �हमाल�, �कराती, पि�मी। भा�षकाह�: क���य थलङ े ु ु (म�ल� ु�वा), पव�य थलङू ु ु (जब �वाु ु , लोिखम �वा), उ�र� थलङ ु ु (दउसा �वाे ),

दि��ी थलङ ु ु (नछा �वाे )। �ल��म [lii], बा�हङ [bhj], वा�बलेु [wme],

ज�ङसग े ँ [jee] स�बि�धत। खा�लङ [klr] सग धर सहजात श�दँ े ै �म�ने।

भाषाको ूकार : कता� कम� �बया (पदबम); नामनगामीु ; नाम शीषा��त; �वषयाप�ी ू�वाचक श�द यथाःथानमाे ; उपसग� नभएको, ४ वटास�म

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परसग� �लने; कारक�य िच�हल उपवा�यीय घटकह� िचि�हत गन�े ;

�बया�मक सग�ह�ल प�ष र वचन िचि�हत गन�े ु ; ऊजा�व�व; काल;

कम�वा�य वा भाववा�य �वरल पाइनै े; तानय� भाषाु ; २९ �य� जन र १६ ःवरह�। भाषा ूयोग: अ�य राईह�का तलनामा उ�चु भाषा कायम दर (�व�टर Winter १९९१)। घरमा, साथीह�सगँ , धा�म�क काय�मा। सब उमर समहका मा�नसल बो�नै े े ेू । भा�षक अ�भवि�ृ

तटःथ।आफल बो�न भ�दा �भ� ू े े अ� कन प�न भा�षक भदलाई श� ु ुै ेथलङ नमा�े।ु ु प�षल भ�दा म�हलाल नपाल� ु े े े [npi] कम बो�ने।

ूायःजसो सब प�षल राॆो नपाल� बो�न।ै ु े े े भाषाको �वकास: क�वता लखने । प�प��का तथा खबरप��का ूकािशत। स�ार मा�यम: र�डयो ेकाय�बम। �भ�डयो �नमा�ण। श�दकोश �नमा�ण। बाइबलको कह� अंश ेूकािशत: २००६। �ल�पको ूयोग: दवनागर� �ल�पे । अ�य: साँःक�तक ृसग�नह�ं (थलङ राई समाज लगायतु ु )ल �वकासमा �िच दखाउने े े।

पर�परागत धम� (�कराती), �ह�दू, बौ�, �बिःचयन। दनवारु [dhw] (दनवार राईु , द�वार, द�वारे , ध�वार, ध�वार)। व�ा स��या: ३१,८००(रा��य जनगणना २००१), घ�दो बम। एकभाषी व�ा नपाइने (तोबा, तोबा र राई २००५)। जातीय जनस��या: ५३,२००। बो�लन �े�े : �स�धल�ु , का�पला�ोके , �स�धपा�चोकु , मकवानपर र ल�लतपर िज�ला। ु ु भाषाको अवःथा: ७ (अपसरणशील)। आ�दवासी जनजा�तमा सचीकतह�को भाषाू ृ (२००२, आजउराू ऐन, नं. २०, ख�ड २ग) भाषा प�रवार: भारोपल�े , भारत-इरानल�े , भारतीय-आय�, अवग�कत।ृ भा�षकाह�: बक�टार दनवारु ु , डकछाप दनवारु ु ु , जडीगाउ ु ँदनवारु , कमला ख�च दनवारु , पाँचखाल दनवारु , �स�धल� दनवार। ु ुरौतहट र अ�य भागमा बो�लन दनवार कच�रया दनवार े ु ु [dhw] भाषा भ�दा �भ� हन स�न। बक�टारु े ु , पाँचखाल र जडीगाउ ु ँ (का�पला�ोके ) मा बो�लन भा�षकाह� परःपर बोधग�य भए प�न डकछाप े ु ु (ल�लतपरु)

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तथा �स�धल�मा बो�लन भा�षकाह� फरक रहका। ु े े भाषाको ूकार: कता� कम� �बया (पदबम); नामानगामीु ; नाम शीषा��त; २ वटा नाम वग� र �याकरिणक �ल� भएको; �वषयाप�ी ू�वाचक श�दे यथाःथानमा; एउटा उपसग� �लने, ४ वटास�म ू�यय �लने; कारक�य िच�हह�ल ेउपवा�यीय घटकह�ला� िचि�हत गन�; �बया�मक सग�ह�ल कता�को ेप�ष तथा वचन िचि�हत गन�ु ; ऊजा�वत कारक् ; काल र प� दव भएकोु ै ; कम�वा�य र भाववा�य नभएको; तान �यवःथा नभएको; २९ वटा �य�न वण� र ६ वटा ःवरवण� भएको। भाषाको ूयोग: तीो ग�तमा नपाल�करण हद गरकोे ेुँ ै (�यान ��म२००�)। घरमा, धा�म�क काय�मा; �मि�त ूयोग: साथीभाइसग र कामकाजमा। बढापाकाल ूयोग गन�ँ ु े ; ःथानीय तहमा माऽ ूयोग हन। कटाकट�ु े े े , �कशोर �कशोर�, यवायवतीु ु , अधब�स र ू�ढह�ल समत कह� ूयोग गन�।े े े े भाषाू�तको अ�भवि� ृतटःथ। काम गदा� र साथीभाइसग नपाल�ँ े [npi] र पव� तामाङू [taj] प�न बो�न े (काॅ िज�लामाे )।भाषाको �वकास: कह� मा�नसह�ल े ेदनवार� भाषा ल� गरको पाइए प�न प�हलो भाषाको सा�रताबार कन ु ुे े े े ैत�य उपल�ध छन। र��यो काय�बम तथा श�दकोश �नमा�ण भएको। ै े�ल�पको ूयोग: दवनागर� �ल�प।े अ�य: �ह�दू, ब��, �बि�यन दराइ [dry]। जनस��या: १०,२०० (रा��य जनगणना, २००१), घ�दो बम। मातभाषामाऽ बो�न ृ े (एकभाषी)ह� अ�य�त कम। जातीय ैजनस��या: १४,९००। बो�लन �ेऽे : नारायणी अ�लको िचतवन िज�लामा पन� भरतपर नगरपा�लका र म�लपरु ु , कठार, जगतपर तथा ुचनपर गाै ु .�व.स.ह�; ग��क� अ�लको तनह िज�लामा पन� �यास ुँनगरपा�लका तथा �या�मन तथा रा�जाकोट गा.�व.स.। भाषाको अवःथा: ६ख (स�टाप�)। आ�दवासी जनजा�तमा सचीकतह�को भाषाू ृ

(२००२, आजउराू ऐन, नं. २०, ख�� २ग) भाषा प�रवार: भारोपल�े , भारत-इरानल�े , भारतीय-आय�, अवग�कत।ृ भा�षकाह�: िचतवन, तनह। ुँ

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शाि�दक समानता: बोटे [bmj] सग ँ ८५-९०% स�म समानता। भाषाको ूकार: कता� कम� �बया (पदबम); नामानगामीु ; नाम शीषा��त; २ वटा नाम वग� र �याकरिणक �ल� भएको; �वषयाप�ी ू�वाचक श�द ेयथाःथानमा; एउटा उपसग� �लने, ४ वटास�म ू�यय �लने; कारक�य िच�हह�ल उपवा�यीय घटकह�लाई िचि�हत गन�े ; �बया�मक सग�ह�ल ेकता�को प�ष तथा वचन िचि�हत गन�ु ; ना�मक पदमा आ�ा�रत �वभािजत उजा�व�व; काल र प� दव भएकोु ै ; कम�वा�य वा भाववा�य भएको; तान �यवःथा नभएको; २९ वटा �य�न वण� र ६ वटा ःवरवण� भएको; स�ब��वाची सरचनामा नाम शीष� िचि�हत हन।ं ु े भाषाको ूयोग: तीो ग�तमा नपाल�मा समा�हत हद गरकोे ेुँ ै (२००७) घरमा; �मि�त ूयोग: साथीभाइसगँ, �ा�म�क काय�मा र कामकाजमा।यवायवती तथा बढापाकाल ूयोग गन�ु ु ु े ; कटाकट� र े े�कशोर �कशोर�ल अ�लअ�ल ूयोग गन�।े भाषाू�तको अ�भवि� ृसकारा�मक। अ��कांशल नपाल� े े [npi] राॆो बो�ने; नपाल� भाषामा ेज�टल �वषय प�न पया�� ब�न स�नु े; भाषाको �वकास: पऽप�ऽका, अखबार, र��यो काय�बमे , �सनमाे , �भ��यो र श�दकोश। �ल�पको ूयोग: दवनागर� �ल�प।े अ�य: नपालका अ�य क�तपय समदायमा जःतो े ुदराइ समदायमा सामािजक उपवग�य भद दिखदन। समदायलाई ु ुे े ँ ैसामािजक, �ा�म�क, आ�थ�क वा राजनी�तक सःथामा �वभाजन गन� ंगद�नन ्(�ब� १९९६)।अ�य: �ह�दू, �बि�यन द� माु ल� [raa] (आथ�रे, आथ�रे-खसाङे , द� माु ल� �यकु (Pûk), द�ाल�ु -

बा�तावा, खसाँगे े)। व�ा स��या: २२० (रा��य जनगणना, २००१),

घ�दो बम। मातभाषामाऽ बो�नह�को स��याृ े : १५०। जातीय जनस��या: १०,०००। बो�लन �ेऽ े : कोशी अ�ल, भोजपर िज�लाु ,

ठलो द�ाु ु , सानो द�ाु , बिःतम गा.�व.स. ह� (पव� �समाना अ�ण ूनद� रहकोे )।भाषाको अवःथा: ६ख (स�टाप�)। आ�दवासी जनजा�तमा

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स�ीकतह�को भाषाू ृ (२००२, आजउराू ऐन, नं. २०, ख�� २ग), राई जनजा�त।भाषा प�रवार: ि��नयाँ-�त�बती, भोट-बम�ल�, पि�मी भोट-

बम�ल�, �हमाल�, �कराती, पव�।ू भा�षकाह�: खसाङे (खसा�ेे )। बा�तावा [bap] द� माु ल�मा ८२% श�द सहजात भए प�न �पत�व र �व�नत�व असमान रहकाे (Winter १९९१)। शाि�दक समानता: ८०% बा�तावा [bap]सगँ, ६५% पमाु [pum] सग।ँ भाषाको ूकार: कता� कम� �बया (पदबम); नामानगामीु ; नाम शीषा��त; �वषयाप�ी ू�वा�क श�द ेयथाःथानमा; एउटास�म उपसग� �लने; कारक�य ि��हह�ल उपवा�यीय ेघटकह�लाई ि�ि�हत गन�; �बया�मक ू�ययह�ल प�ष तथा �ल� े ुि�ि�हत गन�; �वभािजत ऊजा�व�व; �याकरिणक काल �यवःथा भएको; कम� वा�य वा भाव वा�य नभएको; तान �यवःथा भएको; १८ वटा �य�न वण� र ६ वटा ःवर वण� भएको; भाषाको ूयोग: घरमा, धा�म�क काय�मा।�मि�त ूयोग: साथीभाइसग र कामकाजमा। यवायवती तथा ँ ु ुब�ब�ाल ूयोग गन�ृ ृ े ; बालबा�लका तथा यवायवतील प�न कह� ूयोग ु ु े ेगन�; धरल बा�तावाे ेै [bap] भाषा प�न बो�ने; भाषाको �वकास: क�वता लखने , पऽप�ऽका ूकािशत। श�दकोश ूकािशत।अ�य: ःथानीय नामह� भए प�न भा�षका नहन स�भावनाु े ; ��ना�खाङ, ���ा��ा, हा�बाङ, खा�दङु, प�वाइु , रो�टलङु ु , त��ाु , वाइ�पाङ। अ�य: पर�परागत धम� (�करात)

दमीु [dus] ( दमी बोु 'ओ (Dumi Bo’o), दमी ॄोु , होपपो ॄोु , �सी राइ

Lsi Rai, रो' दो' बो', सो�माल�)। व�ा स��या: २,५०० (इ�स�लम �यागािजन २००९) घ�दो बम। मातभाषीमाऽ बो�न कोह� नभएको। ृ ेजातीय जनस��या: १२,०००। बो�लन �ेऽे : सगरमाथा अ�ल, खोटाङ िज�लाको उ�रमा रहका मा�पाे , जालपा, बाि�सला, स��र र ेखाम� गा.�व.स.ह�। अवःथा: ७ (अपसरणशील)।आ�दवासी जनजा�तमा स�ीकतह�को भाषाू ृ (२००२, आजउराू ऐन, नं. २०, ख�� २ग), राई

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जनजा�त।भाषा प�रवार: िच�नयाँ-�त�बती, भोट-बम�ल�, पि�मी भोट-

बम�ल�, �हमाल�, �कराती, पि�मी। भा�षकाह�: खबा�र�, लाि�दजा र मा�पा। खा�लङ [klr] र कोइ [kkt] सग धर �म�न। मा�पा भा�षका ँ े ेैउ�ल�य �पमा �भ�।े भाषाको ूकार: कता� कम� �बया (पदबम), नामानगामीु ; नाम शीषा��त; नाम वग� वा �याकरिणक �ल� नभएको; �वषयाप�ी ू�वाचक श�द यथाःथानमाे ; एउटास�म उपसग� �लने, ू�यय क क�त �लन भ�े कराको �नधा�रण भइनसककोे े ेु ; �बया�मक ू�ययह�ल प�ष तथा वचन िचि�हत गन�े ु ; ऊजा�व�व भएको; तान �यवःथा नभएको; २५ वटा �य�न वण� र १४ वटा ःवर वण� भएको; भाषाको ूयोग: िश�ा तथा स�ारका ला�ग बा�ह�रयाह�सग नपाल�ँ े

[npi] भाषाको ूयोग गन� बम ब�दो; कह� दमी भाषीह�ल आ�ना े ेुनानीह�ला� मातभाषा बो�न ूो�सा�हत गन� उ�ेँयल मातभाषा �सकाउन ृ ृे ेगरकाे ; घरमा र धा�म�क काय�बममा ूयोग हनेु; �मि�त ूयोग: साथीभाइसग र कामकाजमा। यवाँ ु , अधब�स तथा ब� ब�ाह�ल ूयोग े ेृ ृगन�; बालबा�लका तथा �कशोर�कशोर�ल प�न अ�लअ�ल बो�ने े; धरल े ेैआ�नो समदाय व�रप�र बो�लन नपाल� ु े े [npi] भ�दा �भ� अ�य भाषाह�मा �भा�षक द�ता ब��।ै भाषाको �वकास: क�वता लखने , प�प��का ूकाशन।श�दकोश तथा �याकरण ूकािशत। �ल�पको ूयोग: दवनागर� �ल�पे ; अ�य: �लिखत साममी �नमा�ण गरर भाषा ेसर�ण गन� क�तपय ूयासह� भइरहकां े ; अ�य: पर�परागत धम� (�करात), �ह�द र �बिःचयन।ू

दराु [drq]। मातभाषाका व�ा नपाइन।जातीय जनस��याृ े : ३,४०० (रा��य जनगणना २००१) बो�लन �े�े : ग�डक� अ�ल, लमजङ ुिज�ला, दरा डाँडाु । भाषाको अवःथा: ९ (मतूायृ :) आ�दवासी जनजा�तमा सचीकतह�को भाषाू ृ (२००२, आजउराू ऐन, नं. २०, ख�ड २ग)। भाषा प�रवार: िच�नयाँ-�त�बती, भोट-बम�ल�, पि�मी भोट-बम�ल�,

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बो��स, पि�मी बो��स। भाषाको ूकार: कता� कम� �बया (पदबम), नामानगामीु ; नाम शीषा��त; नाम वग� वा �याकरिणक �ल� नभएको; �वषयाप�ी ू�वाचक श�द यथाःथानमाे ; एउटास�म उपसग� �लने; ३ वटास�म ू�यय �लने; कारक�य िच�हह�ल उपवा�यीय घटकह�लाई ेिचि�हत गन�; �बया�मक ू�ययह�ल प�ष तथा �ल� िचि�हत गन�े ु ; ऊजा�व�व भएको; �याकरिणक काल (२ वटा) र प� �यवःथा भएको; कम� वा�य वा भाव वा�य नभएको; तान �यवःथा नभएको; ३७ वटा �य�न वण� र ६ वटा ःवर वण� भएको; भाषाको ूयोग: नपाल� े [npi] भाषामा अपस�रत। �ल�पको ूयोग: अ�लिखत।अ�य: दराको भा�षका ुता��ा�े हन स�न। ु े अ�य: �ह�द ू (दराु ), ब�� (ता��ा�े)।

��माल [dhi] (ढमाले )। जनस��या: नपालमा े १७,३०० (रा��य जनगणना, २००१), घ�दो बम। कल जनस��याू :१७,७५०। जातीय जनस��या:१९,५००। बो�लन �े�े : मची अ�लको झापा ेिज�लाका २४ वटा गाउँ; कोशी अ�लका मोरङ र सनसर� िज�लाका ु५१ वटा गाउ। झापा िज�लामा पन� क�काई माई नद�ल पव� र ँ े ूपि�मी भा�षकालाई ��ाएको। भारतमा प�न बो�लन।ु े भाषाको अवःथा: ६क (ूवल)। आ�दवासी जनजा�तमा सचीकतह�को भाषाू ृ

(२००२, आजउराू ऐन, नं. २०, ख�� २ग)। भाषा प�रवार: िच�नयाँ-�त�बती, भोट-बम�ल�, साल, ��मा�लस।भा�षकाह�: पव� ��माल र ूपि�मी ��माल। दई भा�षकाबीच ु ७५% दिख े ८०% बो�ग�यता। शाि�दका समानता: ८०% दिख े ८२% स�म (भा�षकाह�बीच)।

भाषाको ूकार: कता� कम� �बया (पदबम); नामानगामी भाषाु ; नाम शीषा��त; नाम वग� तथा �याकरिणक �ल� नभएको। �वषयाप�ी ेू�वाचक श�द यथाःथानमा; दश�कवाचक, स�ब��वाचक नाम शीष�भ�दा अिघ आउने; १ वटा स�म उपसग� र ३ वटास�म ू�यय �लने; कारक�य िच�हह�ल उपवा�यीय घटकह� िचि�हत हने ेु ;

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�बया�मक सग�ह�ल प�ष िचि�हत गन�े ु ; उजा�व�व नभएको; काल र प� �यवःथा भएको; कम� वा�य र भाववा�य भएको; तान �यवःथा नभएको; ३१ वटा �य�न र १६वटा ःवरवण� (५ वटा आधारभतू, ५ वटा द�घ� ५ वटा ना�स�यस�हत)। ववा�हक स�ब�धका कारण भएका ैआफ�तह�सग कराकानी गदा� ूथम प�षमा प�न आदराथ�को ूयोग ँ ु ुहन। ु े भाषाको ूयोग: घरमा, साथीभाइसग र धा�म�क काय�बममा। ँ�मि�त ूयोग: कामकाजमा। यवा तथा ब�ब�ाल बो�न। कटाकट�ल ु ृ ृ े े े े ेप�न कह� बो�न। मातभाषाू�तको अ�भवि� सकारा�मक। धरजसोल े े े ेृ ृ ैनपाल� े [npi], �ह�द� [hin] र राजवशी ं [rjs] प�न बो�न।े भाषाको �वकास: दोॐो भाषामा सा�रता ३९% (रा��य जनगणना १९९१) क�वता तथा प�प��का ूकािशत। स�ारको आध�नक साधन र��यो ु ेकाय�बम। श�दकोश तथा �याकरण ूकािशत। बाइबलका भागह� ूकािशत २०००। �ल�पको ूयोग: दवनागर� �ल�प। े अ�य: पर�परागत धम�, �ह�दू, �बिःचयन।

ना:बा: [nao] (ना:पा, ना:पा:, नाबा, नावा सपा�े )। व�ा स��या: ७७०

(२००६)।बो�लन �े�े : कोशी अ�लको स�ुवासभा िज�ला, �कमाथा� का गा.�व.स.को �कमाथा� का गाउँ, हा�तया गा.�व.स.का दाङोक र फाराङ गाउह�ँ ; �पइब,ु चमसरु ु ु , �रदाक गाउह�ँ ; िच�नया सीमापा�र चाङामा प�न बो�लन।े भाषाको अवःथा: ६क (ूवल)। भाषा प�रवार: िच�नयाँ-�त�बती, भोट-बम�ल�, पि�मी भोट-बम�ल�, बो��स, क���य बो��से , अवग�कत।ृ

भाषाको ूकार: कता� कम� �बया (पदबम); नामानगामीु ; उपवा�यीय घटकह� कारक�य िच�हबाट िचि�हत हनेु; ऊजा�व�व; कम�वा�य वा भाववा�य नभएको; तानय� भाषा।ु भाषाको ूयोग: सब उमरका ै ेमा�नसल बो�ने े; फाराङ र दाङोकका बा�स�दाह�ल �होमी े [lhm] प�न ूयोग गन�; �ल�पको ूयोग: लखन ूणाल�को �वकास नभएको।े अ�य:

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�होमी [lhm] ह�ल े ना:बाह�लाई �भ� समह �ा�ेू । नाआबा मा�नसह�ल �यापक सचारको भाषाका �पमा �होमी �सककाे ें , तर सांःक�तक तथा भा�षक �पमा शपा� ृ े [xsr] र थदाम ु [thw] सगँ �होमीभ�दा निजक रहका।े ब��। नाछ�ररे [ncd] (बा�दाले, बा�दले चम ु ् (Tûm), बाि�दले, मा�सररे े ,

ना�छ�ररे , नाच�रर राे , नाच�रर चमे ु (Tûm), नािच�रर, ना��र)। व�ा स��या: ३,५५० (रा��य जनगणना २००१), घ�दो बम। बो�लन �ेऽे : सगरमाथा अ�ल, खोटार िज�लाको उ�रपव�मा पन� मा�थ�लो रावाखोला ूउप�यका निजक, �ल�द�खोला नद�को �भरालो �ेऽ, महान र शाखा ुनद�ह�दिख ऐसलखक� दिख दि�ण राखाे े े� ु , बा�दले , �द�सनु, बादले , पातले , बकाचो र ऐसलखक� गा� े ु .�व.स.ह�स�म; सोलख�ब िज�लाका वा�ु ु ु ुर सोतार गा.�व.स.ह�। भाषाको अवःथा: ७ (अपसरणशील)। आ�दवासी जनजा�तमा सचीकतह�को भाषा ू ृ (२००२, आजउराू ऐन, नं. २०, ख��

ग)। राई जनजा�त। भाषा प�रवार: िच�नयाँ-�त�बती, भोट-बम�ल�, पि�मी भोट-बम�ल�, �हमाल�, �कराँती, पव�।ू भा�षकाह�: बा�दले े (आचरोे ,

हाचरोे , हा�ुला), पाराल�, राखाल�, सोतारे। कलर ु ु [kle] र सा�पा�सग ँ[rac] स�बि�धत। उ�र� नािच�ररमा कलर र दि�णी नाच�ररमा ु ु ेसा�पारको बोधग�यता उ�च रहको।े भाषाको ूकार: कता� कम� �बया (पदबम)। भाषा �वकास: नपाल�करणको ःतर �नक धर।े ेै ै यवावग�मा ुभाषा जोगाउन करा बाकचोले ु , राखा र बा�दल गाे .�व.स.ह�मा माऽ सी�मत भएको दिखन।े े (�ा�सन १९९१:७३; जे. राई २०११)। धा�म�क काय�मा; �मि�त ूयोग: घरमा। �कशोर�कशोर�ह� र ब�ब�ाल ूयोग ृ ृ ेगन�; कटाकट�ह�े े , यवायवती र नव �कशोर�कशोर�ह�ल अ�लअ�ल ु ु ेूयोग गन�। भा�षक अ�भवि�ृ सकारा�मक। ूाय: सबल नपाल�ै े े [npi] ूयोग गन�; भाषाको �वकास: क�वता लखन।े �ल�पको ूयोग: लखन ेूणाल� �वकास नभएको। अ�य: सा�पा�भ�दा फरक भए प�न

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क�हलकाह� सा�पाङ वा सा�पाङ भ�े ग�रएको।े � पर�परागत धम� (�करात), �ह�दू, ��िःचयन।

नाफ� ु [npa] (नार-्फु)। ६०० (२०११ के. �ह�ड�ा�ड े (K.

Hildebrandt))। व�ा स��या: २०० फ व�ाह�ु , ४०० नार व�ाह�। बो�लन �े�े : ग�डक� अ�ल, मनाङ िज�ला, मनाङ उप�यकाभ�दा उ�रप��को नार ब�सी, नार (नारगाउँ, छूङु ु ) र फु

(फगाउु ँ, ना�व�) गाउह�।ँ भाषाको अवःथा: ६क (ूवल)। भाषा प�रवार:

िच�नयाँ-�त�बती, भोट-बम�ल�, पि�मी भोट-बम�ल�, बो�डस, पि�म बो�डस,

ग�ङु -तामाङ, ग��ी।ु भा�षकाह�: [नार (त�लो नार, नार-मा(Mä)], फु

[नार-तो (Tö), मा�थ�लो नार ]।छ��याल [chx], ग�ङु , मना�बा [nmm], तामाङ र थकाल� [ths] सग स�बि�धतँ ; भा�षकागत �नर�तरताका कारण मना�बा [nmm] सग बोधग�य।ँ भाषाको ूकार: कता� कम� ��या; नामानगामीु ; नाम शीषा��; नामको �ल� वा नाम वग� नभएको; �वषयाप�ीे ू�वाचक श�द यथाःथानमा; एउटा उपसग�, २ वटास�म परसग�; उपवा�यीय �टकह� कारक�य िच�हबाट िचि�हत हनेु; काल र प� �यवःथा भएको; कम�वा�य वा भाववा�य नभएको; तानय� भाषाु ;

२५ �य� जन, ८ एकःवर र ५ ��ःवर। भाषाको ूयोग: ःथानीय काय��मह� भए नार-फ रु पजाआजामा �त�बती ू [bod] भाषा ूयोग ग�रने, तर धा�म�क चाडपव�का अवसरमा भन नारे -फ प�न बोलको ु ेस�नन।ु े सब उमरका मा�नसल बो�न।ै े े े धरजसो प�षह� �त�बतीमा े ै ु[bod] पो�त रहका।े भाषा �वकास: धर प�षह� शा�ीय �त�बतीमा े ै ुसा�र रहका।े क�वता लखन।े श�दकोश ूकािशत। �ल�पको ूयोग:

लखन ूणाल�को �वकास नभएको।े अ�य: आफह�ला� मना�बा र ूग��बाट अलग �ा�े गरका।मना�े र ग�ङह�ल आ�नो करा ब�छन ु ु ु ु ्े ेभनर गो�यताका ला�ग नाफ� भाषाको ूयोग गन� गरकाे ेु (एम. ननन ू२००२)। ब��।

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नॄी ु [kte] (कटाङु , कटाङ ु भो�टआ, ला�य�)। व�ा स��या: २,०००

(रा��य जनगणना २००१)। ५०० एकभाषी। ग��क� अ�लको उ�र� गोखा� िज�ला, ब�� ग��क� नद�को उ�र� �ेऽु , नाॆङदिख सा�दो र ु ेूोकस�म। भाषाको अवःथा: ६क (ूवल)।आ�दवासी जनजा�तमा सिचकतह�को भाषाू ृ (२००२, आजउराू ऐन, नं.२०, ख�� २ग)। भाषा प�रवार: िच�नयाँ-�त�बती, भोट-बम�ल�, पि�मी भोट-बम�ल�, बो��स, क���य बो��से , क���ये , चाङ (gTsang)। भा�षकाह�: �हो, नाॆङु, ूोक्,

सामा। ि�यरोङ �त�बतीसग ँ (७४%) सामा�य बोधग�यता माऽ रहकोे ।

सा�दो गाउमा सबभ�दा ःप� भद बो�लन भ�ननँ ै े े े। सामा अ�ल �भ� रहकोे । चम ु [ttz] नॄीसग बोधग�य नरहको भ�ननु ँ े े। कटाङ �ेऽमा ुबो�लन भाषा नॄीसग बोधग�य छन भ�न�छे ु ँ ै , य��प यस �ऽेमा बःन े�यि�ह�ल नॄी बो�न र ब�न स�छन भ�े ग�रएकोे ु ु ् । शाि�दक समानता: भा�षकाह�बीच ७८%-९३% स�म। ूोक �नक �भ� रहकोै े । चम ु [ttz] सग ँ ७१%-७८% स�म, ि�यरोङ �त�बती [kgy] सग ँ ६६%-७४% स�म; �ो�पो [dre] सग ँ ६७%; लोके [loy] सग ँ ६५%; �हासा �त�बती [bod] सग ँ ५९%-६४% स�म; �ला�चङ गोला ु (वाल�ेु ) [ola] सग र �होमीँ [lhm] सग ँ ६४%; हल�ब शपा�े ेु [scp] सग ँ ६१%; िजरले

[jul] सग ँ ५७%; शपा�े [xsr] सग ँ ५५%; उ�र� घले [ghh] सग ँ २१%-२७% स�म, दि�णी घले [ghe] सग ँ २०%-२३% स�म, ककु े [ght] सग ँ १४%-३१%स�म, पव� गोखा� तामाङ ू [tge], पि�मी ग�ङ ु [gvr] र ब�सपर तामा�सग ु ँ १४%। भाषाको ूकार: कता� कम� �बया (पदबम);

नामानगामीु ; �वषयाप�ी ू�वाचक श�द यथाःथानमाे । भाषाको ूयोग:

(ूवल)। भाषा ूयोगका धरजसो �ेऽे ै । भा�षक अ�भवि� सकारा�मकृ ।

व�ाह�को नपाल� े [npi] र �त�बतीमा [bod] ��भा�षक �मता �नक ैकम रहकोे । बा�ह�रयासग नपाल� बो�नँ े े। भाषा �वकास: दोॐो भाषामा सा�रता दर: १०% भ�दा कम। �ल�पको ूयोग: लखन प��तको े

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�वकास नभएको।अ�य: नॄील आ�न समदाय�भऽ र कटाङ समदायका ु ु ु ुे ैमा�नसह�सग �ववाह गन�ँ । गोखा� िज�लामा र �त�बतमा प�न �यापार गन�। ‘भो�टया’ वा ‘भोटे’ ल �त�बती मलका भ�े बझाउने ेू ु ; क�तपय स�दभ�मा �न�दाथ�क। जातीय प�हचानका ���ल नॄी र कके ेु ु [ght] सग ँ�नक निजक।ै ब�� (लामावाद�)। नपाल� े [nep] बह� भाषाृ ; हन�े ू:प�रचय। डो�ाल� [dty] र नपाल� े [npi] लाई सम�न।े े कल जनस��याू : १,४३,८६,७००।

नपाल� े [npi] (पव� पहाडीू , गोखा�ल�, गखा�ल�ु , खस कराु , नपाल�े , पव�ते)। कल जनस��याु : नपालमा े १,११,००,००० (रा��य जनगणना २००१), ब�दो बम।स�पण� जनस��याू : १,४१,३६,७००। पव� तथा ूछउछाउको दि�णी क���य �ेऽ।े े भटानु , ॄनाइु , भारत र सय� रा�य ं ुअम�रकामा प�न बो�लन।े े भाषाको अवःथा: १ (रा��य)। सवधा�नक ं ैरा�भाषा (१९९०, अ�त�रम स�वधान ं २०६३, धारा ५(२))।आ�दवासी जनजा�तमा सचीकतह�को भाषाू ृ (२००२, आजउराू ऐन, नं. २०, ख�ड

२ग)। भाषा प�रवार: भारोपल�े , आय�-इरानल�े , भारतीय-आय�, उ�र� �ेऽ,

पव� पहाडीू । बह� नपाल� भाषाकोृ े [nep] सदःय। भा�षकाह�: अछामी, बतडल�ै े (बतडीै ), बझा�ी, बाजरल�ु े (बाजराु ), भर�े , दलखीै े , दाच�लाल�ु

(दाज�लाु ), दाच�ल�ु (दाज�लाु ), ग�डकल�े , ह�ल�ु , पव�ल�ु , सोराडी। नपाल� े [npi]

र डो�ाल� [dty] मा समानता। सचीकत भा�षकाह� मानक नपाल�भ�दा ू ृ े�नक �भ� हन स�नै ु े। बतडल�ै े , बझा�ी, बाजरल� ु े (बाजराु ), ह�ल� र ुअछामी बीच बोधग�यता कम रहकोे । भाषाको ूकार: कता� कम� �बया (पदबम); नामानगामीु ; नाम शीषा��त; ११ वटा नामवग� वा �ल�ह�; �वषयगत ू�वाची श�द यथाःथानमा; १ वटा उपसग�, ५ वटास�म परसग�; उपवा�यीय �टकह� कारक�य िच�हबाट िचि�हत हनेु; �बयामा सग�ल प�षे ु , वचन, कता�को �ल� जनाउने, �वभािजत

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ऊजा�व�व; काल र प� दब भएकोु ै ; कम�वा�य र वा�य; तानर�हत भाषा;

२९ �य� जन र ११ ःवर वण�। भाषा ूयोग: सब ूयोग �ऽे। सब ै ैउमर समहका व�ाह�ल बो�ने े ेू । सकारा�मक भा�षक अ�भवि�ृ । भाषा �वकास: िश�ाका सब तहमा पढाइ हन।ै ु े पण� �वक�सतू । बाइबल अनवादु : १९१४-२००४। �ल�पको ूयोग: ॄल �ल�पे । दवनागर� �ल�पे ,

म�य ूयोगु । अ�य: �ह�दू, ब��, मिःलमु , �बिःचयन। नपाल� सा�े�तक भाषाे [nsp] (नपाल� सा�े�तक भाषाे )।ूयोगकता�: ५,७४० (रा��य जनगणना २००१)। धरजसो एक भाषी।े ै क���य र ेपव� नपाल।ू े भाषाको अवःथा: ६क (ूबल)। भाषा प�रवार: सःत ुौवणल ूयोग गन� सा�े�तक भाषा।े भा�षकाह�: जानकार� नभएको।

ःथानीय र थप ग�रएका स�ेतह�बा� �वक�सत भएको। भारतीय [ins] र पा�कःतानी [pks] सा�े�तक भाषासग स�बि�धत।ँ भाषाको ूयोग:

सय� रा�य अम�रका �पस कोरल ूयोग गरको।ं ु े े े भाषा ूयोगका सब ै�ेऽमा ूयोग ग�रन।े सब उमर समहका ूयोग गन�।सा�रह�ल कह� ै े े ेूमाऽामा नपाल� े [npi] ब�न।ु े भाषाको �वकास : ूाथ�मक र मा�य�मक �व�ालयमा पठनपाठन हन।ु े पऽप�ऽका ूकाशन। चलिचऽ �नमा�ण।

��.�भ. तथा �भ��यो काय�बम। श�दकोश ूकाशन। अ�य: ठला ूसहरह�मा एनए���एच (NFDH) ल सःत ौवण �व�ालयह� े ुस�ालन गरको।े अ�य क�तपय ससाना स�सःथाह� प�न सःतं ं ु -ौवण भएकाह�सग काम ग�ररहका र ौवण शि� भएकाह�का ला�ग समत ँ े ेनपाल� सा�े�तक भाषाका क�ाह� स�ालन ग�ररहका।े े �ह�दू, ब��,

मिःलमु , �बिःचयन। नवार े [new] (नपाल भाषाे , नवाे : भाये, नवाल भाये े् , “नवार�े ” �न�दाथ�क)

।जनस��या: नपालमाे ८,२५,००० (रा��य जनगणना २००१), ��दो बम। धर म�हलाह� एकभाषीे ै । कल जनस��याू : ८,३९,०००।

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जातीय जनस��या: १२,६०,००० (१२,४५,००० नवार र े ११,५०० पहर� स�हत)।बो�लन �ेऽे : �वःततृ।व�ाह� का�मा��� उप�यका र नपालभ�रका सहर� �ेऽमा ��लएकाे ै । सदर पि�ममा कमु ु । भारतमा प�न बो�लने। भाषाको अवःथा: ३ (�यापक स�ार)।आ�दवासी जनजा�तमा सचीकतह�को भाषाू ृ (२००२, आजउराू ऐन, नं. २०, ख��

२ ग)। भाषा प�रवार: िच�नयाँ-�त�बती, भोट-बम�ल�, पि�मी भोट-बम�ल�, �हमाल�, क���य �हमाल�े , नवारे । भा�षकाह�: ब��खल पहर�े , बा�ल�ु,

बलामी, भ�परु, िच�ला�, दो�खाल� (दोलखा), गोपाल�, का�मा���-पाटन-

क��त�परु, �या� गाउँ, �स�धपा�चोक पहर�ु (पहर�, प��), तोताल�।

दोलखाको दोलखाल� भा�षकामा ज�टल प�षु -वचन �बया स��त रहको ेर यसको अवशष ब��खलको पहर� भा�षकामा प�न पाइन।े े े सयि�ं ु /�वयि�मा आधा�रत सामा�य स��तक कारण यी दईटा भा�षकाह� ु ुैका�मा��� उप�यकाका व�ाह�का ला�ग पण�तू : बोधग�य नभएका।

क��त�पर र ल�लतपर का�मा���सग निजक।ु ु ँ कह� शाि�दक �भ�ताे भए प�न भ�पर भा�षकाका व�ाह�ल का�मा��� भा�षका ूायःजसो ु ेब�नु े। का�मा��� उप�यकाको भा�षका र पव� नवारका दोलखा र ू ेत�थाल� जःता भा�षका समत आपसमा बोधग�य नभएकाे ।

�स�धपा�चोकको प�� र अ�य भदह�मा प�न यह� करा लाग हन।ु ु ुे ेु �ह�द ूर ब�� धमा�वल�बीह�बीच कह� श�दह�मा �भ�ता पाइन।े े भाषाको ूकार: कता� कम� �बया (पदबम); नामानगामीु ; स�ब�धवाचक, �वशषण ेर दश�क सव�नाम नाम शीषा��द र नाम शीषा��त; ४ वटा नामवग�: सजीव,

�नज�व, जा�तवाचक र आदराथ�; �वषयाप�ी ू�वाचक श�द ेयथाःथानमा; स�ब�धवाचक उपवा�य नाम शीष� स�हत वा र�हत अगा�� आउने; ीवीय ू�को वा�या�तमा �नपात आउनु े; एउटा उपसग�, ३ वटास�म परसग� �लने; उपवा�यीय �टकह� कारक�य िच�हबाट िचि�हत हनेु; �बया�मक सग�ल प�ष र वचनलाई जनाउन े ेु

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(दोलखा र ब��खल भा�षकामाे ); सग� वा �ला�त पदल नामपदको ेकारक जनाउने; ऊजा�व�व भएको ; ूरणाथ�के ; तलनावाचीु ; काल र प� �यवःथा भएको; कम�वा�य वा वा�य नभएको; अ�र सरचनां : ःव,

ःव�य, �यःव, �यःव�य, �य�यःव, �य�यःव�य; तान �यवःथा नभएको; २८ �य� जन र ६ ःवर वण�। भाषाको ूयोग: भाषाको अपसरण �ह�द ूर ब�� धमा�वल�बीह�मा अ�य�धक रहको।े घरमा, धा�म�क काय�मा;

�मि�त ूयोग: साथीह�सगँ, कामकाजमा, िश�ामा। बालबा�लका, यवायवती तथा ब�ब�ाह�ल ूयोग गन�।ु ु ृ ृ े �कशोर�कशोर�ह�ल प�न ेधरथोर ूयोग गन�े । ूायःजसो सब नपाल� ै े [npi], अ��जी े [eng], �ह�द� [hin] वा �त�बती [bod] मा बहभा�षकु । भाषाको �वकास: प�हलो भाषामा सा�रता दर: ६०% (रा��य जनगणना १९९१)। दोॐो भाषामा सा�रता दर: ६०% (रा��य जनगणना १९९१)। यवाह� ू�ढभ�दा ुबढ� सा�र रहकाे ; म�हलाभ�दा प�ष धर सा�रु े ै । ूाथ�मक र मा�य�मक �व�ालयह�मा पढाइने। क�वता लखने । पऽप�ऽका तथा समाचारपऽ ूकाशन। नयाँ मा�यम। र��यो काय�बम स�ालने , चलिचऽ �नमा�ण। �ट�भ तथा �भ��यो काय�बम। श�दकोश तथा �याकरण ूकािशत। NT: १९८६। �ल�पको ूयोग: दवनागर� �ल�पे , ूाथ�मक ूयोग। नवार े (ूच�लत नपाले ) �ल�प, म�लकाल र सोभ�दा प�हल नवार े े�ल�प ूयोग रहकोे ; हालसाल यसलाई �य�याउन ूयास भइरहकोै ुँ े े ।

र�जना (ला�च, वात�)ु �ल�प (हाल ूयोग नहनेु)। अ�य: नपालको एउटा ेूमख भाषाु ; ��तहा�सक �पमा का�मा��� उप�यकाका तीन सहरका ैनवार राजाह�को �पचा�रक भाषाे ।ूकािशत सब साम�ीह�मा ैका�मा��� भा�षका ू�त��त मा�नने। अ��जी े [eng] लाई उ�च मा�यता �दइने; �ह�द� [hin] ू�त �मि�त भावना रहकोे ; �त�बती [bod] भाषाको ू�त�ा उ�च नभएको। जन भाषाल ��थ�क�पमा म�त गछ� मा�नसल ु े े�यह� भाषा �स�छ: नपाल�े [npi], अ��जीे [eng], �ह�द� [hin], र अ�य।

ब��, �ह�दू, �बिःचयन, मिःलमु ।

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पा�पा [plp] (पाहाडी-पा�पा)। मातभाषीबार जानकार� नभएकोृ े । लि�बनी ुअ�लको पा�पा बजार। भाषाको अवःथा: ९ (सष�ु ु )। भाषा प�रवार:

भारोपल�े , आय�-इरानल�े , भारतीय-आय�, उ�र� �ेऽ, पव� पहाडीू ।

भा�षकाह�: पा�पा नपाल� े [npi] (पव� पहाडीू ) र कमाउनी ु [kfy] (क���य पहार�े ) का बीचमा पन�।स�भवत: कमाउनी वा नपाल�को ु ेभा�षका मा� स�कन।े भाषाको �वकास: NT: १८२७। �ल�पको ूयोग:

दवनागर� �ल�पे । अ�य: पहाडी �ेऽको पहर� भ�ाल नवार े े [new] को भा�षका प�न बिझन।ु े पा�पा भाषाको �� अिःत�व श�ाःपद रहको।ु ै े

पमा ु [pum] (पमा कालाु , पमा लाु , पमा �पमाु )।व�ा स��या: ५,०००

(२००८ �स�प�ड�प), घ�दो बम।बो�लन �ेऽे : सगरमाथा अ�लको, दि��ी खोटाङ िज�ला, �द�लङु, िचसापानी, दवीःथाने , माउवाबोट रे

पउवासरा गाे .�व.स.ह�; उदयपर िज�लाकाु , ब�टार रे साउनचौर ेगा.�व.स.ह�; �वा खोलाको ब�सीदिख दधकोशीको दि��प��को े ुबवाखोलास�मु । भाषाको अवःथा: ६ख (स�टाप�)। आ�दवास जनजा�तमा सचीकतह�को भाषाू ृ (२००२, आजउराू ऐन, नं.२०, ख�ड २ग), राई जनजा�त। भाषा प�रवार: िच�नयाँ-�त�बती, भोट-बम�ल�, पि�मी भोट-

बम�ल�, �हमाल�, �कराँती, पव�ू । भाषाको ूकार: कता� कम� �बया;

नामानगामीु ; नाम शीषा��त; �वषयवाचक ू�वाची श�द यथा ःथानमा; उपवा�यीय घटकह� कारक�य िच�ह र पदबमबाट िचि�हत हनुे; �बया�मक सग�ल प�ष र वचन जनाउने ेु ; ऊजा�व�व; काल र प� �यवःथा भएको; कम�वा�य वा वा�य नभएको, तर ू�तकम�वा�य उ�ल�य �वशषता भएकोे े ; तानर�हत भाषा। भाषाको ूयोग: वयःकह� प�हलो भाषासरह दोॐो भाषा बो��न ्(तोबा, तोबा र राई २००५)। घरमा, धा�म�क काय�मा, कामकाजमा। �मि�त ूयोग: साथीभाइसगँ।

अधब�स र बढापाकाल बो�ने े ेु । कटाकट�े े , यवायवती र वयःकह�ल प�न ु ु ेधरथोर ूयोग गन�े । भा�षक अ�भवि� सकारा�मकृ , �वशष गर� नयाँ े

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पःतामाु । ूायः सबल नपाललै े े [npi], बा�तवा [bap] वा चाि�लङ [rab] ूयोग गन�। भाषाको �वकास: क�वता लखने । पऽप�ऽका ूकाशन।

चलिचऽ �नमा�ण। �भ�डयो �नमा�ण। श�दकोश ूकािशत। �ल�पको ूयोग:

दवनागरल �ल�पे । अ�य: पर�परागत धम� (�करात), �ह�दू, �बिःचयन। फा�दवाललु [phw] (फा�दवाललु , फा�दवालल पोटलु )।बो�लन �ेऽे : कोशी अ�लको धनकटा िज�लाु , पािभबास गा.�व.स., मगाखोलाको महानभ�दा ु ु�सध मा�थै । भाषाको अवःथा: ७ (अपसरणशील)। आ�दवासी जनजा�तमा सचीकतह�को भाषाू ृ (२००२, आजउराू ऐन, नं.२०, ख�ड २ग), राई जनजा�त। भाषा प�रवार: िच�नयाँ-�त�बती, भोट-बम�लल, पि�मी भोट-

बम�लल, �हमालल, �कराती, पव�ू । भा�षकाह�: जानकारल नभएको।

भा�षक�पमा या�खा [ybh] र बलह�रयाे [byw] का बीचमा पन�।

फा�दवाललका कहल श�दह� र बोलल बाहक मगालल ु ुे े [lmh] व�ाह�ल रा�रल ब�न।े ेु भाषाको ूकार: कता� कम� �बया (पदबम);

नामानगामीु ; २३ वटा �य� जन र ५ ःवर वण�। �ल�पको ूयोग: लखन ेूणाललको �वकास नभएको। अ�य: �यान ��म (२००१) ले

फा�दवाललह� वाःतवमा या�खाु [ybh] हन भनर दाबी गर प�नु ् े े आई.पी. राई (ूकाशो�मखु) का अनसारु दब भाषा �भ� रहको बताउन।ु ै े े दबका ु ैभनाइमा फा�दवालल र मगालल ु ु [lmh] एउट भाषा भएकाै । पर�परागत धम� (�करात)। बघलले [bfy] (बगलख�डीे , भगलखडु ुे , ग�गाइ, कावाथी, कनटे , कवट ेबोलल, कवटले , कवानीे , कवटे , कवतीे , कवोटे , म�डल, म�ाडी, �रवाइ)। कल जनस��याु : २८,६०,०००।जा�तगत जनस��या: १,३७,००० कवट े (रा��य जनगणना २००१)। बो�लन �ेऽे : कोशी अ�लको मोरङ िज�ला (म�यु ); भारतमा प�न बो�लन। े भाषाको अवःथा: ६क (ूबल)।आ�दवासी जनजा�तमा सचीकतह�को भाषा ू ृ

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(२००२, आजउराू ऐन, नं. २०)। भाषा प�रवार: भारोपलले , भारत-

इरानलले , भारतीय-आय�, पव� क��लय �ेऽ। ू े भा�षकाह�: गोडवानी (ब�लले -भाषी गो��ह�ला� बझाउनु े), क�हारल ु (ब�लले -भाषी क�हारला� ुबझाउनु े)। ब�ललमा भ�गो�लक तथा जाते -भद पाइए प�न कन े ु ैभा�षकाको वच�ःव नदिखने े; रवा �ेऽको भा�षक भद ःतरलय मा�नन। े े ेशाि�दक समानता: �व�भ� भदह�बीच े ७९% दिख े ९९% स�म समानता पाइने; ब�ललका �व�भ� भद तथा �ह�दल े े [hin] का बीचमा ७२%-९१% स�म समानता पाइन। े �ल�पको ूयोग: दवनागरल। े अ�य: भारतमा बो�लन ब�लल र अवधी े े [awa] बीच स�ब�ध भएझ� नपालमा ेबो�लन ब�लल भाषा र नपालक अक� भाषा ग�गाइ े े े ै (र राजवशी ं [rjs]

सग स�बि�धत छ �क छन भ�े कराको �नधा�रणका ला�ग थप ँ ै ुअनस�धान आवँयक दिखन। धम� ु े े : �ह�द।ू ब�ालल [ben] (बा�ाला, बा�ला, बा�ला भाषा)। व�ा स��या: २३,६००(नपालमाे ) (रा��य जनगणना २००१), ब�दो बम।स�पण� ूजनस��या:१९,३१,७२,९००। बो�लन ःथाने : मची अ�लको झापा ेिज�ला; कोशी अ�लका मोरङ र सनसरल िज�लाु ; सगरमाथा अ�लको स�रल िज�ला। कहल व�ाह� का�माड�े , भ�परु, पाटन, �बरग�ज, भरहवाै , नपालग�ज र जनकपरमा समत रहका।नपाल बा�हर े े े ेुब�लादशे , �यानाडा, भारत, मलावी, साउदल अरब, �स�ापरु, यनाइटड ु ेअरब इ�मर�से , बलायत र अम�रकामा समत बो�लन।े े े े भाषाको अवःथा: ४ (शि�कै )। भाषा प�रवार: भारोपलले , भारत-इरानलले , भारतीय-आय�, पव� ू�ेऽीय, ब�ालल-आसामी।भा�षकाह�: बा�रक, भ�तयारल, िचरमार, कछाडी-ब�ालल, लोहरल-मालपहा�रया, मसलमानीु , राजशाहल, सम�रया, साराक�, �स�रप�रया।आसामी ु [asm] सग निजक।शाि�दक समानताँ : नपालल े [nep] सग ँ ४०%। भाषाको ूकार: कता� कम� �बया (पदबम);

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नामानगामीु ; नाम शीषा��त र नाम शीषा��द दव।�ऽ�ल�ी ु ै (प�ल�ु , �ी�ल� र नपसक �ल�ुं ; �वषयाप�ी ू�वाचक श�द वा�या�द र वा�या�तमाे ; कारक�य िच�ह तथा पदबमल उपवा�या�मक घटकह� िचि�हत हने ेु ; काल �यवःथा भएको; कम�वा�य र वा�य भएको; तानय� भाषाु ; ३५ वटा �य�न र ५ वटा ःवरवण� भएको। भाषाको ूयोग: बाब आमा दब ब�ाल� भाषी भएका प�रवारमा ु ु ैूचर माऽामा ूयोग हन।ु ु े घरमा, साथीभाइसग। �मि�त ूयोगँ : �ा�म�क काय�मा, कामकाजमा।सब उमर समहका मा�नसह�ल बो�न। भाषाू�तको अ�भवि� ै े े ेू ृसकारा�मक। �ल�पको ूयोग: ब�ाल� �ल�प, सामा�य ूयोग। ॄल �ल�प।े नवारे

(ूच�लत नपाले ) �ल�प (ूयोग हन छाडकोु े )। अ�य: सांःक�तक समहका �पमा ृ ूवग�कतृ (रा��य जनगणना २००१)। �ह�दू, मिःलमु , �बि�यन।

बराम [brd] (बरा:म,ु बराम)ु। व�ा स��या: ५० (एलइ�ड�बएल २०१०), घ�दो बम। जातीय जनस��या: ७३८०(रा��य जनगणना २००१)। बो�लन �ेऽे : ग�डक� अ�लको गोखा� िज�लाको म�य र दि�णी �ेऽका डाँडागाउ र मइलङ ँ ुगा.�व.स., दर�द� खोलाभ�दा मा�थको ताक गाउु ँ, चोग�तभ�दा मा�थको पव� भागे ू ,

क�हाल� �नकटका ु ७ वटा ज�त गाउ। बागमती अ�लको �ा�दङ िज�लामा प�न ँबरामह� हन स�न।ु े भाषाको अवःथा: ८ ख (ल�ूायु )। आ�दवासी जनजा�तमा सिचकतह�को भाषा ू ृ (२००२ आजउराू ऐन, नं. २०, ख�ड २ग )। भाषा प�रवार:

िच�नया-ँ�त�बती, भोट-बम�ल�, पि�मी भोट-बम�ल�, �हमाल�, क���य �हमाल�े , था�ी-बरा:म।ु भा�षकाह�: डाँडागाउँ, मइलङ।ु था�ी[thf] सग स�ब�� भएको ँ

(��यस�न-कोनो)। भाषाको ूकार: कता� कम� �बया (पदबम); परसग� भएको; नाम शीषा��त; २ वटा नाम वग� (सजीव तथा �नज�व); स�ब��वाचक, �वशषण र ेस��यावाचक श�द नाम शीष�भ�दा अिघ आउने; �वषयाप�ी ू�वाचक पद ेयथाःथानमा; उपसग� ३ वटास�म, ू�यय एउटास�म; कारक�य ू�ययह�ल ेउपवा�यका घटकह�ला� िचि�हत गन�; अ��सग�ह�ल नाम पदावल�को कारक ेिचि�हत गन�; �बया�मक सग�ह�ल प�ष तथा वचन स�ेत नगन�े ु -अ�नवाय�; ऊजा�व�व भएको; काल र प�जःता �याकरिणक को�ट भएको; कम�वा�य तथा भाववा�य नभएको; ूरणाथ�क �बया तथा तलनावाचक �वशषण भएकोे ेु ; सरल

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194घटकह�लाई �च��हत गन�; अ�धसग�ह�ल नाम पदावल�को कारक े�च��हत गन�; �बया�मक सग�ह�ल प�ष तथा वचन स�ेत नगन�े ु -

अ�नवाय�; ऊजा�व�व भएको; काल र प�जःता �याकर�णक को�ट भएको; कम�वा�य तथा भाववा�य नभएको; ूरणाथ�क �बया तथा ेतलनावाचक �वशषण भएकोु े ; सरल अ�र ढाँचा: ःव, �यःव, ःव�य,

�यःव�य; तानर�हत भाषा; २१ वटा �य�न र ६ वटा ःवर वण� भएको।

भाषाको ूयोग: नपाल� े [npi] भाषा�तरको अपसरण। घरमा र धा�म�क काय�मा ूयोग हनेु; �म��त ूयोग: साथीभाइ र कामकाजमा। ब�ब�ाह�ल ूयोग गन�। भाषाू�तको अ�भव�� सकारा�मक।सबल ृ ृ ृे ेैनपाल� े [npi] प�न ूयोग गन�। भाषाको �वकास: मातभाषामा सा�रता ृदर: थोर। दोॐो भाषा ै (नपाल� े [npi]) मा सा�रता दर: ४९%। पऽप�ऽका, र�डयो काय�बमे , श�दकोश र �याकरण। �ल�पको ूयोग: दवनागर�े , हालसाल �वकास ग�रएको।ै अ�य: पर�परागत धम�, �ह�द तथा ू�ब��यन। बा�तवा [bap] (बा�ताबा, बा�तावा, दमु, बा�तावा राई, बा�तावा योङ,

बा�तावा यङू , बो�तावा)। नपालमा जनस��याे : ३७१,००० (रा��य जनगणना,२००१)। मातभाषामाऽ बो�न व�ाह�को स��या ृ े ५% भ�दा कम। कल जनस��याू : ४,०४,६००। बो�लन �ेऽे : कोशी अ�लका मोरङ, धनकटाु , भोजपर र सनसर� �ज�लाु ु ; सगरमाथा अ�लका खोटाङ, �खलढ�ा र उदयपर �ज�लाु ु ; मची अ�लका इलामे , पाँचथर, झापा र ता�लजङ �ज�ला।े ु �ल�ब भा�षक �ेऽ ु (खासगर� इलाम �ज�ला) मा समत आ�चोक भा�षका बो�लन।मलथलो पव� पहाडी �ेऽ भए प�न धर े े े ेू ू ैबा�तवाभाषीह� तराई�तर बसाइ सरका। भटान तथा भारतमा समत ँ े ेुबो�लन।ेअवःथा: ६ख (स�टाप�)।आ�दवासी जनजा�तमा सचीकतह�को ू ृभाषा (२००२, आजउराू ऐन, नं. २०, ख�ड २ग), राई जनजा�त। भाषा प�रवार: �च�नयाँ-�त�बती, भोट-बम�ल�, प��मी भोट-बम�ल�, �हमाल�,

अ�र ढाँचा: ःव, �यःव, ःव�य, �यःव�य; तानर�हत भाषा; २१ वटा �य�न र ६ वटा ःवर वण� भएको। भाषाको ूयोग: नपाल� े [npi] भाषा�तरको अपसरण।

घरमा र धा�म�क काय�मा ूयोग हनुे; �म��त ूयोग: साथीभाइ र कामकाजमा। ब�ब�ाह�ल ूयोग गन�। भाषाू�तको अ�भव�� सकारा�मक।सबल नपाल� ृ ृ ृे े ेै[npi] प�न ूयोग गन�। भाषाको �वकास: मातभाषामा सा�रता दरृ : थोर। दोॐो ैभाषा (नपाल� े [npi]) मा सा�रता दर: ४९%। पऽप�ऽका, र�डयो काय�बमे , श�दकोश र �याकरण। �ल�पको ूयोग: दवनागर�े , हालसाल �वकास ग�रएको।ै

अ�य: पर�परागत धम�, �ह�द तथा �ब��यन।ू

बा�तवा [bap] (बा�ताबा, बा�तावा, दमु, बा�तावा राई, बा�तावा योङ, बा�तावा यङू ,

बो�तावा)। नपालमा जनस��याे : ३७१,००० (रा��य जनगणना,२००१)।

मातभाषामाऽ बो�न व�ाह�को स��या ृ े ५% भ�दा कम। कल जनस��याू :

४,०४,६००। बो�लन �ेऽे : कोशी अ�लका मोरङ, धनकटाु , भोजपर र सनसर� ु ु�ज�ला; सगरमाथा अ�लका खोटाङ, �खलढ�ा र उदयपर �ज�लाु ु ; मची ेअ�लका इलाम, पाँचथर, झापा र ता�लजङ �ज�ला।े ु �ल�ब भा�षक �ेऽ ु(खासगर� इलाम �ज�ला) मा समत आ�चोक भा�षका बो�लन।मलथलो पव� े े े ू ूपहाडी �ेऽ भए प�न धर बा�तवाभाषीह� तराई�तर बसाइ सरका। भटान तथा े ेै ँ ुभारतमा समत बो�लन।े े अवःथा: ६ख (स�टाप�)।आ�दवासी जनजा�तमा सचीकतह�को भाषा ू ृ (२००२, आजउराू ऐन, नं. २०, ख�ड २ग), राई जनजा�त।

भाषा प�रवार: �च�नया-ँ�त�बती, भोट-बम�ल�, प��मी भोट-बम�ल�, �हमाल�, �कराती, पव�।ू भा�षकाह�:आ�चोके (प��मी बा�तावा), धनकटाु (पव� बा�तावाू ), �द�पाल� (उ�र� बा�तावा), हतवाल�ु (द��णी बा�तावा)। भा�षकाह�बीच अ�त�न��हत बोधग�यता रहको भ�नन। ��च�बङ र या� माे े े ु �द�पाल�का उप भद। पव� े ूभा�षका सबभ�दा �भ�।ै शा��दक समानता: बा�तावाका भा�षकाह� र यससग ँ�नकट स�ब�ध रहका भाषाह�ल भा�षक �नर�तरता �नमा�ण गरका।अथ� प�रवत�न े े ेर ूयोगमा �भ�ता पाइन।े भाषाको ूकार: कता� कम� �बया (पदबम); नामानगामीु ; नाम शीषा��द; नाम वग� र �याकर�णक �ल�को अभाव; �वषयाप�ी ेू�वाची श�द यथाःथानमा; स�ब�धवाचक पद, �वशषण तथा स��यावाचक श�द े

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नाम शीष�भ�दा अिघ आउने; आरोह� अनतानल माऽु े 'हो' वा 'होइन' उ�र आउन ू� �नमा�ण गन�े ; लामो उ�र आउन ू� र सामा�याथ�क ू�को पदबम ेएउट हन अथवा ू�वाचक सव�नाम समा�पका �बयाभ�दा �ठक अिघ आउनै ु े े;उपसग� २ वटास�म र ू�यय दशवटास�म जो��न स�न;े पदबमल ेउपवा�य�भऽका घटकह�लाई स�ेत गन�; सग�ह�ल नाम पदावल�को ेकारकलाई िचि�हत गन�; �बया�मक सग�ह�ल प�षे ु , वचन तथा कम� (अ�नवाय�) िचि�हत गन�; काल र प�जःता �याकरिणक को�ट भएको; कम� वा भाववा�य नभएको; �वभािजत उजा�व�व; तलना गदा� नपाल� ु े 'भ�दा' श�दको ूयोग हनुे; २५ वटा �य�न वण� र ६ वटा ःवर वण� भएको; ३ भ�दा मा�थका स��यावाचक श�दह� नपाल� े [npi] बाट �लइएका; अ�र सरचनां : �यःव, �यःव�य, �यःव�य�य; तानह�न भाषा। भाषाको ूयोग: कह� व�ाह� नपाल�े े [npi] भाषा माऽ बो�न थालकाे , खासगर� उ�र� भा�षकाका व�ाह�मा यसको ूमाण पाइन े(एस.आइ.एल. २००३)। कह� भदह� पव� नपाले े ेू , �स��म, भारत र भटानमा बसोबास गन� अ�पस��यक राईह�का बीचमा पर�परागत स�पक� ुभाषाका �पमा ूयोग हन गरको र अ�य राईह�ल प�हलो भाषाका �पमा ूयोग ु े े ेगन� (��ल� े (Bradley) १९९६)। घरमा, धा�म�क काय�मा ूयोग हनुे; �मि�त ूयोग: साथीभाइसग तथा कामकाजमा।ँ सब उमर समहका मा�नसह�ल बो�न। ै े े ेूभाषाू�तको अ�भवि� सकारा�मक। धरजसोल नपाल� ृ े े ेै [npi] को समत ूयोग ेगन�। भा�षक द�तामा �यापकता। क�तपय �ेऽमा खासगर� यवा पःताका ु ु�यि�ह�ल नपाल�लाई ूाथ�मकता �दन गरका।े े े े भतपव� �सपाह�ह�का बीचमा ू ू�ह�द� [hin] को सामा�य ूयोग हन।ु े भाषाको �वकास: तीो �पमा नपाल� ेभाषामा सा�रता ब�दो। कह� �व�ालयह�मा ूाथ�मक तहको पठनपाठन ेहन।क�वताु े , प�ऽका तथा अखबारह� ूकािशत। र��यो काय�बमे , �सनमा तथा े�भ��यो जःता स�ारका आध�नक साधनह�मा ूयोग हन।ु ु े श�दकोश �नमा�ण तथा �याकरण लखन भएको। े �ल�पको ूयोग: दवनागर� �ल�प।े अ�य: पर�परागत धम� (�करात), �बि�यन

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बा�हह [bhj] (बा�यह, बायहु, �कराती बायहु)।जनस��या: १२,६०० (ल� र अ�य (Lee et al.) २००५)। बो�लन �ेऽे : सगरमाथा अ�ल, �खल��ा ुिज�लाको उ�रपव� भागका हक� परू ु , राग�दप, �बगटारु , व�ण� वे र, �खल��ाु , ��जाटार, बना�ल,ु मा�खा, रातमाटे, सना�े , �दयाले, भदौर गाे .�व.स.ह�मा (��दाल� भा�षका) बो�लने; �खल��ा िज�लाक म�यु ै - उ�रपव� भागका ूकतके ेु , मोल�, वा�सा र उब गाु .�व.स.मा (तोलोचा भा�षका) बो�लने; सोलख�ब ु ु ुिज�लाको दि�णी भगका नचाे े , बतास र स�यान गाे .�व.स.मा र खोटाह िज�लाका कह� �ेऽमा र का�मा��मा समत बो�लन। भाषाको अवःथाे े े : ६क (ूबल)। भाषा प�रवार: िच�नयाँ-�त�बती, भोट-बम�ल�, पि�मी भोट-बम�ल�, �हमाल�, �कराती, पि�मी। भा�षकाह�: हा�ु, मोबलोचा, नचाल�े , ��दाल�, तोलाचा। सब भा�षकाह�बीच ै ८५% वा सो भ�दामा�थ बोधग�यता। �व�भ� भा�षकाका व�ाह�ल सबभ�दा ब�� ��दाल� भा�षका ब�ने ेै ु (ल� र अ�य (Lee

et al.) २००५); अ�धकांश �कराती भाषाह�म�य बा�हहमा सबभ�दा ब�� े ैएक�पता (homogeneous)। सनवार ु ु [suz] सग �नकट दिखन ँ े े (Lee et al. २००५)। शाि�दक समानता: बा�हहका भा�षकाह�बीच ८३% दिख े ९५% समानता, सनवार ु ु [suz] र बा�हह बीच ४८% समानता ((ल� र अ�य (Lee et

al.)२००५)। भाषाको ूकार: कता� कम� �बया (पदबम )। भाषाको ूयोग: यवा पःताका मा�नसह�ल अझस�म ूयोग ग�ररहका भ�नन। नपाल� भाषा�तर ु ु े े े ेअपसरण तलना�मक �पमा थोर ु ै (�व�टर(Winter) १९९१)। उ�च जीव�तता ((ल� र अ�य(Lee et al.)२००५)। घरमा, साथीभाइसगँ , धा�म�क काय�बममा र कामकाजमा। सब उमर समहका मा�नसह�ल बो�नै े े ेू ; भा�षक अ�भवि� ृसकारा�मक।४०% बा�ह�ह�मा नपाल� भाषाका ज�टल तथा अमत� धारणा बोध े ूगन� र अ�भ�य� गन� द�ता पया�� नरहको े (Lee at al. २००५)।भाषाको �वकास : समदायमा �धा�रत �ल�प �वकासको ूय� ःव�प बा�हह �ल�पको ु�नमा�ण गर� ूयोग गन� था�लएको। यस �ल�पमा सन ै ् २००९ ��स�बरमा ेदईवटा पःतक ूकािशत भएका छन। बा�हह �ल�पलाई अझ �वकास गन�ु ु ् , ूचार गन� र स�पण� बा�हह भाषाभाषीह�बीच ःथा�पत गन� ूयास भइरहको। क�वताू े ,

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पऽप�ऽका र श�दकोश ूकािशत। र�डयो काय�बमह� ूसा�रत हन। े ेु �ल�पको ूयोग: दवनागर�े , �या�टन (रोमन)। अ�य: पर�परागत धम� (�करात), �ह�द र �बिःचयन।ू

बलह�रया े [byw] (आठपगर�, आठपह�रया, आठपरे, आठप�रया, ब�हारे े)। व�ा स��या: ३५,०० (यनःकोु े , २००२), घ�दो बम। बो�लन �ेऽे : कोशी अ�लको धनकटा िज�लाु , बलहर गाउ तथा धनकटा बजारबाट े े ँ ुपि�म�तरको पहाडी �ेऽ।भाषाको अवःथा: ६ख (स�टाप�)। आ�दवासी जनजा�तमा सचीकतह�को भाषाू ृ (२००२, आजउराू ऐन, नं. २०, भाग २ग),

राई जनजा�त।भाषा प�रवार: िच�नया-ँ�त�बती, भोट-बम�ल�, पि�मी भोट-बम�ल�, �हमाल�, �कराती, पव�।ू भा�षकाह�: अ�ात।आठप�रया [aph] भ�दा �भ� भए प�न आठप�रयासग �नकट रहको भ�ननँ े े(�व�टर (Winter)

१९९१)।आठप�रयासग बोधग�य भए प�न आठप�रया भाषीह�ल पण�तँ े ू : बोधग�य भएको दाबी गन� गरका।े (�बकल े (Bickel) १९९६:२१)। भाषाको ूकार: कता� कम� �बया (पदबम); नामानगामीु ; नाम शीषा��त; �याकरिणक �ल� नभएको; �वषयगत ू�वाची श�द यथाःथानमा; ३ वटा स�म उपसग�, १०वटा स�म परसग�, थू �ला�तु ै (clitics) �पह�; कारक�य िच�हह��ारा उपवा�या�मक घटक िचि�हत हनुे; �बयापद�य सग�ल प�ष तथा वचन िचि�हत े ुगन�; ऊजा�व�व; कम� तथा भाववा�य भएको; तानह�न भाषा; २२वटा �य�न र ८ वटा ःवर भएको। भाषाको ूयोग: धर अ�भभावकल आ�ना छोराछोर�सग नपाल� े े ेै ँ[npi] माऽ बो�ने , आ�थ�क तथा सामािजक उ��तका ला�ग सहायक हन भ�े ु ेग�रएको। धम�; �मि�त ूयोग: घरमा, साथीभाइसग र कामकाजमा।ँ क�तपय बढापाकाल बढ� ूयोग गन�। कह� बालबा�लका र यवायवतील प�न ूयोग ु ु ुे े ेगन�।मातभाषाू�तको धारणा नकारा�मक।सबल नपाल� ृ ै े े [npi] प�न ूयोग गन� (�बकल े (Bickel) १९९६)। भाषाको �वकास: लगभग ५ जना व�ाह� आ�न ैभाषामा सा�र। श�दकोश तथा �याकरण ूकािशत। �ल�पको ूयोग: दवनागर� े�ल�प, भख�र �वकास ग�रएको।ै अ�य: आठपर श�दल साःंक�तक �पमा �नकट े े ृबलहर र आठप�रया राई जा�तलाईे े सय� �पमा बझाउछ तर भा�षक ं ु ु ँ

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�भ�ताबार दब भाषा समदायका मा�नसह� सचत छन। े ेु ु ्ै धनकटा भदका ु ेूयो�ाह�लाई नौ पगर� र बलहर भाषीह�लाई आठ पगर� भनर �भ�ता ःप� े े ेपान� ूयास ग�रन।े (�बकल े (Bickel) १९९६) अ�य: पर�परागत धम� (�करात), �ह�द।ू

बोटे [bmj] (बोटे-माझी, पाखे-बोटे, पानी-बोटे)। व�ा स��या: २,८२० (रा��य जनगणना, २००१), घ�दो बम।मातभाषामाऽ बो�न कोह� नभएकोृ े (यनःको ु ेसव�, २००२)। जातीय जनस��या: ७९,७००। बो�लन �ेऽे : खासगर� ग��क� नद�का �कनारामा अविःथत तनहुँ, नवलपरासी र िचतवन िज�लाका गाउह�मा ँबसोबास रहको।े अवःथा: ६ख (स�टाप�)। आ�दवासी जनजा�तमा सचीकतह�को भाषा।ू ृ (२००२, आजउराू ऐन, नं. २०,ख�� २ग)। भाषा प�रवार: भारोपल�े , भारत-इरानल�े , भारतीय-आय�, पव� �ेऽीयू , अवग�कत।ृ भाषाको ूकार: कता� कम� �बया (पदबम); नामानगामीु ; नाम शीषा��त; नाम वग� र �याकरिणक �ल� नभएको; �वषयाप�ी ू�वाचक श�दे यथाःथानमा; एउटा उपसग� र २ वटास�म ू�यय �लन;े कारक�य िच�हह�ल उपवा�यीय घटकह�लाई िचि�हत ेगन�; �बया�मक सग�ह�ल प�ष तथा वचन िचि�हत गन�े ु ; ऊजा�व�व भएको; काल र प� दव भएकोु ै ; कम�वा�य र भाववा�य भएको; तान नभएको; २९ वटा �य�न वण� र ६ वटा ःवरवण� भएको। भाषाको ूयोग: ःथानीय तहमा माऽ ूयोग हन। नपाल� ु े े [npi] भाषा�तर तीो अपसरण (�यान ��म (van Driem)

२००७)। �मि�त ूयोग: घरमा, साथीभाइसगँ , धा�म�क काय�मा र कामकाजमा।बढापाकाल ूयोग गन�।क�तपय कटाकट�ु े े े , यवायवतीु ु , अधब�स र ेूौढह�ल समत ूयोग गन�।े े भाषाू�तको अ�भवि� सकारा�मक।भा�षक ृउ�थानमा स�बयता ब�दो।नपाल� े [npi] वा भोजपर� था�ु [bho] भाषा प�न बो�न। े भाषाको �वकास: मातभाषामा सा�रताृ : श�य। सा�रता काय�बमह� ूसामा�यतया नपाल�े [npi] मा स�ालन ग�रन।े कह� पऽप�ऽका ूकािशते ।

�ल�पको ूयोग: दवनागर� �ल�पे , हालसाल �वकास ग�रएकोै , अ�य: बोटका ेदईवटा समहु ू : पानी बोट र पाख े े (भ�मू ) बोट। धम�े : �ह�द।ू

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�ययासी [bee] (�यय�ो �वो, �ययँशी, �ययँसी, �ययसी, सयउकय, शयउकय)।

जनसा�यय: १,७३० नपयलमये (रय��य जनगणनय २००१), घ�दो बम। एकल मयतभयषी ूययृ : नपयइन।े (यनःको सव��ण ु े २००२)।

स�पण� जनसा�ययू : ४,५६०। जयतीय जनसा�यय: २,१००।बो�लन े�े�: महयकयल� अ�लको दयच�लय िज�लयमय पन� �ययस उप�यकयकय ु ९ वटय गयउ। भयरतमय समत बो�लन।ँ े े भयषयको अवःथय: ६क (ूवल)। आ�दवयसी जनजय�तमय सचीकतह�को भयषयू ृ (२००२,आजउरयू ऐन, नं.

२०, ख�ड २ग)। भयषय प�रवयर: िच�नययँ-�त�बती, भोट-बम�ल�, पि�मी भोट-बम�ल�, बो�डस, पि�मी �हमयल�, अ�मोडय। भय�षकयह�: �ययँसी, पयङ स�ु बोल�ु , रयङ, सयउकय, यज��ु बोल�। �ययँसीकय भय�षकयह�े ु , चयउडयास र डयमय� उप�यकयकय भदह�बीच परःपर बोधग�यतयको ् ेअभयव ( शमय� १९९४)। भयरतको कती र नपयलको �ट�रमय बो�लन ु े ेभदह� आपसमय �नकट रहकय तर �ययँसी उप�यकयकय अ�य गयउह�मय े े ँबो�लन भदह�भ�दय �नक �भ�। �ययासीे े ै , चउदासी [cdn], र डय�म�यय [drd] भदह�भ�दय स��त जनयउन सग�ह� र आधयरभत श�दयवल�कय े े ूकयरण �ट�र भद �भ� रहको।सयमय�य भय�षकयगत �भ�तय र भ�गो�लक े े�वभयजनकय बीच समयनतय पयइने (शमय� २००१)।भयषयको ूयोग: १६१ जनय दोॐो भयषयकय व�य नपयलमये (रय��य जनगणनय १९९१ �ययासी अ�तग�त)। घरमय र सयथीभयइकय बीचमय ूयोग गन�। नपयल�े [npi], �ह�द� [hin], वय कमयउनीु [kfy] को समत ूयोग गन�।े भयषयको �वकयस: दोॐो भयषय (नपयल� े [npi]) मय सय�रतय दर: २६%। श�दकोश तथय �ययकरण ूकयिशत। �ल�पको ूयोग: दवनयगर�े , भख�र �वकयस ैग�रएको।

भजलु े [byh] (बजयलु , बझलु े , बझल�ु े , ब�ययलु ,"घत�" (�न�दयथ�क), प��ययल ङरु ु , पि�मी चपयङे )। व�य सा�यय: ३,९०० (र�मीे , २००७), घ�दो बम। एकभयषीह� नभएकय। जयतीय जनसा�यय: ७,२०० (डी.

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र�मी े २००७)।बो�लन �ेऽे : ग�डक� अ�लको तनह िज�लाका ुँकलमनु ु , आथ��काु , आ�दमल र बा�नयाटार गाउँ ँु ; गोखा� िज�लाको बलटार गाउे ँ; लि�बनी अ�लको नवलपरासी िज�लाको ढोडनी गाउु े ँ; नारायणी अ�लको िचतवन िज�लाको चनौट गाउ। �ऽशल� े ँ ु (नारायणी) नद�ल चपाङ भा�षक �ेऽबाट ��ाएको।े े ु भाषाको अवःथा: ७

(अपसरणशील)। आ�दवासी जनजा�तमा सचीकतह�को भाषा ू ृ (२००२, आजउराू ऐन, नं. २०, ख�ड २ग)। भाषा प�रवार: िच�नयाँ-�त�बती, भोट-

बम�ल�, पि�मी भोट-बम�ल�, �हमाल�, क���य �हमाल�े , चपाङे -भजल।ु े

भा�षकाह�: आधीमलँ ु , आथ��कसु , बा�नयाटार, ब�टारे , चनौटे, ढोडनीे , क�मन।सब भा�षकाह�बीच ु ु ै ८०% ू�तशत भ�दा बढ� पारःप�रक बोधग�यता। साव�ना�मक सग�ह�को �भ�ताल चपाङे े [cdm] सगको ँबोधग�यतामा अवरोध हन।शाि�दक समानताु े : चपाङे [cdm] सग ँ ३४%

( र�मीे , २०११) र ९८ % (कौल� (Caughley) २००४)। भाषाको ूकार: कता� कम� �बया (पदबम); नामानगामीु ; स�ब�धवाचक, �वशषण ेर स��यावाचक श�द नाम शीष�भ�दा अिघ आउन। स�ब�ध वाचक ेउपवा�य नामशीष� भ�दा अिघ वा नाम शीष� �वह�न अवःथामा समत ेआउन।नाम शीषा��ते ; �वषयाप�ी ू�वाचक श�द यथाःथानमाे ;

ू�वाचक सव�नाम वा�या�तमा आउने; नाम वग� र �याकरिणक �ल� नभएको; एउटा उपसग�, ५ वटास�म ू�यय; कारक�य िच�हह�ल ेउपवा�या�मक घटकह� िचि�हत हनेु; ऊजा�वत कारकमा एक�पता् ; ू�त-स�ूदान िचि�हत हनुे; सग�ह�ल नाम पदावल�को कारक िचि�हत ेगन�; �बयापदमा जो�डएका सग�ह�ल प�षे ु , वचन र ू�य� स�ब�ध िचि�हत गन�; कम�वा�य वा भाववा�य नभएको; ूरणाथ�क तथा ेतलनावाची सरचना भएकोु ं ; अ�र सरचनां : कह� अवरोधे /अपवादस�हत �यःव दिखे �य�य�यःव�य�य�य स�मको अ�र सरचना पाइनं े; तान �यवःथा नभएको; ३१ वटा �य�न र १६ वटा ःवरवण� (६ वटा

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��ःवरस�हत) भएको। भाषाको ूयोग: नपाल� भाषा�तर अपसरण े [npi]

(२००७)। घरमा ूयोग ग�रन। �मि�त ूयोगे : कामकाज तथा िश�ा।मा�थ�लो उमर समहका र ब�ब�ाल ब�� ूयोग गन�े ेू ृ ृ ; भा�षक अ�भवि� सकारा�मक।यवायवतील ब�� नपाल� ृ ु ु े े [npi] ूयोग गन�।

भाषाको �वकास: दोॐो भाषा (नपाल�े ) मा सा�रता दर १५%। �याकरण ूकािशत। �ल�पको ूयोग: दवनागर� �ल�पे , भख�र �वकास ैग�रएको। अ�य: भजल बःतीका �नकटमा बसोबास गन� मगर तथा ु ेग��सग सांःक�तक �नकटता पाइन। प�हल ूच�लत दास ूथासग ु ृँ ँे ेजो��एको 'घत�' उपजा�त।भजलह�ल आ�ह�लाई घत� भ� नचाह ु ूे े ेप�न अ�ल उ� श�द ूयोग गन� गरका। े े अ�य: �ह�दू, बौ� र �बि�यन। भोजपर�ु [bho] (बजपर�ु , भोजापर�ु , भोजपर�ु )। व�ा स��या: नपालमा े१७,१०,००० (रा��य जनगणना २००१), ब�दो बम। स�पण� ूजनस��या: ३,९८,४६,०००। बो�लन �े�े : (नपालमाे ) नारायणी अ�लका रौतहट, बारा, पसा�, िचतवन िज�ला; लि�बनी अ�लका ुनवलपरासी र �प�दह� े िज�ला तथा जनकपर अ�लको सला�ह� ुिज�ला। नपाल बाहक भारत तथा मौर�ससमा समत बो�लन।े े े े भाषाको अवःथा: ४ (शि�कै )। भाषा प�रवार: भारोपल�े , भारत-इरानल�े , भारतीय-आय�, पव� �े�ू , �बहार�।भा�षकाह�: बनारसी बोल�, ब�ार बोल�, भोजपर� था�ु , कािशका, मि�लका, पव� बोल�ू , शख ेबोल�।एकभ�दा ब�� भाषा हन स�न।ु े नपाल र भारतमा रहको े ेभा�षकागत �भ�ताको सीमा �न�ा�रण भइनसकको।े सब भदलाई बझाउन ै े ु‘�बहार�’ छाता श�दको ूयोग हन गरकोु े े (भोजपर�लाई �न�दा गरर ु ेूयोग ग�रन वकि�पक श�दे ै ) म�थल� ै [mai] का ला�ग र मगह� [mag] का ला�ग प�न '�बहार�' श�द ूयोग हन।ु े भारत र नपालका था� ेजा�तका मा�नसह�ल भोजपर� था� भा�षका बो�न।अ�य था� े ेु

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भाषाह�भ�दा �भ�।भाषाको ूकार: कता� कम� �बया (पदबम); नामानगामीु ; नाम शीषा��त; २ वटा नाम वग� र २ वटा �याकरिणक �ल� भएको। �वषयाप�ी ू�वाची श�द यथाःथानमाे ; एउटा उपसग�, ५वटास�म ू�यय; कारक�य िच�ह र पदबम दवल उपवा�या�मक ु ै ेघटकह� िचि�हत हनेु; �बयापदमा जो��न सग�ह�ल कता� र कम�पदको े ेप�षु , वचन र �ल� स�ेत गन�।ऊजा�व�व नभएको; काल र प�जःता �याकरिणक को�ट भएको। तान �यवःथा नभएको। ३४ वटा �य�न वण�, ६ वटा एकःवर वण� र ४ वटा ज�त ��ःवर भएको।भाषाको ूयोग: दोॐो भाषा बो�नह�को स��या े ७४,१४८ (रा��य जनगणना १९९१), घरमा, साथीभाइसग र कामकाजमा ूयोग हनँ ु े; �मि�त ूयोग: धा�म�क काय�मा र िश�ा। सब उमर समहका मा�नसह�ल ै े ेूबो�न।भाषाू�त सकारा�मक अ�भवि�।े ृ �ह�द� [hin], म�थल� ै [mai], नपाल� े [npi], वा अवधी [awa] समत बो�न। े े भाषाको ूयोग: दोॐो भाषामा सा�रता दर: ५०% दिख े ७५% स�म।नपाल� े [npi] र �ह�द� [hin] मा सा�र। मा�य�मक तहमा �वषयका �पमा पढाइन।े �ल�पको ूयोग: दवनागर� �ल�प।कथी �ल�प।े ै अ�य: �ह�दू, मिःलम र �बि�यन। ु

मगर, पि�मी [mrd] (मगर, मगर�, मङर, म�र�)। व�ा स��या ३,०८,००० (रा��य जनगणना २००१), घ�दो बम। रा��य जनगणना त�या�ल मगर इतर र मगर भाषा नबो�न मगरलाई प�न समावश े े ेगरको।े जातीय जनस��या: १६,२०,००० (रा��य जनगणना २००१) मा पव� र पि�मी मगरह�लाई समावश गरको।ू े े लि�बनी अ�लकोु

पा�पा िज�ला; ग��क� अ�लका ःया�जा र तनह िज�लाुँ ; भर� ेअ�लका सख�तु , जाजरकोट र दलख िज�लाह�मा ��रएर ै ेरहका।े भाषाको अवःथा: ६ख (स�टाप�)। आ�दवासी जनजा�तमा सचीकतह�को भाषाू ृ (२००२, आजउराू ऐन, नं. २०, भाग २ग)। भाषा प�रवार: िच�नयाँ-�त�बती, भोट-बम�ल�, पि�मी भोट-बम�ल�, �हमाल�,

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क���य �हमाल�े , खाम-मगर, मगर। भा�षकाह�: पा�पा, ःया�जा।

भा�षकाह�बीच कह� �भ�ता भए प�न बोधग�यता उ�च रहको भ�नन।े े े

भाषाको ूकार: कता� कम� �बया (पदबम); नामानगामीु , तर धरजसो े ै�ला�त पदह� ूयोग हनेु; नाम शीषा��त; ःवा�म�वय� ु (inalienable)

ःवा�म�वम�ु (alienable) नाम वग�; �वषयाप�ी ू�वाचक श�द यथा ेःथानमा; ३ वटास�म उपसग�, ७ वटास�म परसग�; उपवा�यीय घटकह� कारक�य िच�हकबाट िचि�हत हनुे; �बया�मक सग�ह�ल प�ष े ुर वचन िचि�हत गन�; ऊजा�व�व; काल र प� �यवःथा भएको;

वा�य�यवःथा भएको; तानर�हत भाषा; ३३ दिख े ३७ वटा �य� जन वण� र ६ वटा ःवर वण�। भाषा ूयोग: प�हल भ�दा थोर मा�नसह�ल े ेैधाराूवाह नपाल� े [npi] बो�न अथा�त पराना पःताका मा�नसल नपाल� े े े् ु ुराॆो बो�ने; भाषाको अवःथा सीदो।ु ँ �मि�त ूयोग: घरमा, साथीह�सगँ,

कामकाजमा। बढापाकाु , कटाकट�े े , यवायवती र �कशोर�कशोर�ल कह� ु ु े ेूयोग गन�। भा�षक अ�भवि�ृ �मि�त।भाषाको सर�ण गन� पन� करामा ं ु ुसाधारणतया सकारा�मक भए प�न काया��वयन नभएको। ूायः सबल ै ेधरथोर नपाल�े े [npi] ूयोग गन�। भाषाको �वकास: क�वता लखने ; पऽप�ऽका तथा समाचारपऽ ूकाशन।नयाँ मा�यम : र��यो काय�बमे , चलिचऽ तथा �भ��यो �नमा�ण। श�दकोश तथा �याकरण ूकािशत।

�ल�पको ूयोग: दवनागर� �ल�प।े अ�य: पर�परागत धम�, लोक ूच�लत ब� धम�ु , लोक ूच�लत �ह�द धम�ू , �बिःचयन। मगर, पव�ू [mgp] ( मगर�, म�र)।व�ा स��या: नपालमा े ४,६२,०००

(२००१), घ�दो बम।नवलपरासी तथा तनह िज�लाका दि�णी भगमा ुँ ेएि�लएर रहका एकभाषीह� पाइन। अ� थू जातजा�त े े ु ै (���याल, खाम, काइके, कस��ाु ु , राउट र राजीे ) का मा�नसह�ल ेबा�ह�रयाह�सग ��ह�ला� ँ ू 'मगर' भ�े गरकाल वाःत�वक े ेमगरह�को प�हचानमा क��नाइ भएको। स�पण� जनस��याू :

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५,३३,७००। जातीय जनस��या: १६,२०,००० मगर जा�त, (रा��य जनगणना २००१)। बो�लन �ेऽे : ग��क� अ�लको तनहुँ, दि�णी गोखा�, उ�र� नवलपरासी िज�लाह�, बा�मती नद� पव�ू , ूमख �हमाल� ु�ेऽ। कोशी अ�लका भोजपरु, त� हे थम र धनकटा िज�लामा ��रएर ु ुरहकाे ; सगरमाथा अ�लको �खलढ�ा िज�लाु ; मची अ�लका ेता�लजङ र इलाम िज�ला। भटान र भारतमा प�न बो�लन।े ेु ु भाषाको अवःथा: ६ख (स�टाप�)। आ�दवासी जनजा�तमा सचीकतह�को भाषाू ृ

(२००२, आजउराू ऐन, नं. २०, ख�� २ग)।भाषा प�रवार: िच�नयाँ-�त�बती, भोट-बम�ल�, पि�मी भोट-बम�ल�, �हमाल�, क���य �हमाल�े , खाम-मगर, मगर। भा�षकाह�: गोखा�, नवलपरासी, तनह। धर अिघ ुँ े ैबसाइ सरर पवा��ल �वकास �ेऽका �व�भ� भागमा ��रएर रहका मगर ँ े ेूभाषा समदायकाु मा�नसह�ल का�मा�� उप�यकाभ�दा पि�म�तर बो�लन े ेभ�दा �भ� भद बो�न गरका।यी दई भदको बोधग�यताबार अ�ययन े े े े ेुू�तवदनह�को �न�कष�मा एक�पता नभएकोे ; भाषाको �वकास: दोॐो भाषामा सा�रता दर: २५%-५०% स�म। क�वता लखन। श�दकोश ेूकािशत। NT: १९९१। �ल�पको ूयोग: अ�खा �ल�प, दवनागर� े�ल�प। अ�य: पर�परागत धम�, लोक ूच�लत ब� धम�। लोक ूच�लत ु�ह�द धम�ू , �बिःचयन।

मना�बा [nmm] (मनाङ, मनाङ के, “मनाङभोट” (�न�दाथ�क), मना�े, मना�ी, �यसाङे , �यसा�ते े, ि�यसाङ)। व�ा स��या: ३,७४० (पोअ ले (Pohle) १९८८), घ�दो बम। बो�लन �ेऽे : ग��क� अ�लको मनाङ िज�ला, मा�थ�लो मनाङ; गाउह�ँ : �पसाङ, ढकरु ु पोखर�, ह�दु े, �या�,

ङावल,् ॄाका, मनाङ, त�ीे , खा�सार; का�मा��।ु भाषाको अवःथा: ६ख (स� कटाप�)। भाषा प�रवार: िच�नयाँ-�त�बती, भोट-बम�ल�, पि�मी भोट-

बम�ल�, बो��स, पि�मी बो��स, ग�ङु -तामाङ, ग��ी।ु भा�षकाह�: मनाङ,

�पसाङ। मनाङ भा�षका �पसाङका व�ाह�मा उ�च बोधग�यता रहको।े

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यो पव� ग��भ�दाू ु [ggn] �नक �भ� रहको।ै े शाि�दक समानता: मना�बाका सब भदह�सग ै े ँ ९४% वा सो भ�दा ब�� समानता।भाषाको ूकार: कता� कम� �बया (पदबम); नामानगामीु ; नामशीषा�म र शीषा��त दबैु; नामको �ल� वा वग� नभएको; �वषयाप�ी ू�वाचक श�द ेअमःथानमा; एउटा उपसग�, २ वटास�म परसग�; उपवा�यीय घटकह� कारक�य िच�हबाट िचि�हत हनेु; �बयामा सग�ल प�ष े ु (प�ष त होइनु ै , तर ूमाणवाचक (evidentiality) सग �म�नँ े) जनाउछँ ; ऊजा�व�व भएको; प� �यवःथा भएको; कम�वा�य वा भाववा�य नभएको; तानय�ु;

३० �य� जन र ६ (ना�स�यस�हत) ःवर वण�। भाषाको ूयोग: भाषाको जीव�तता �नक सबल।ै कह� समह भाषा र सःक�तको सर�ण गन� े ू ृं ंग�त�व�धमा ःथानीय तहमा र का�मा��मा सल�न रहका।ु ं े �मि�त ूयोग: घरमा, साथीह�सगँ, कामकाजमा। वयःक र ब�ब�ाह�ल ृ ृ ेबो�न।े कटाकट�े े , यवायवती र वयःकह�मा कह� ूयोग।ु ु े भा�षक अ�भवि�ृ सकारा�मक। �यापारमा नपाल�े [npi] ूयोग हनुे; धा�म�क �ेऽमा �त�बती [bod] प�न ूयोग हनेु, ःथानीय सरकार� �व�ालयमा नपाल� र अ�मजी े े [eng] ूयोग हन।ु े भाषाको �वकास: क�वता लखन।े

नयाँ मा�यम: �ट�भ काय�बम। श�दकोश र �याकरण ूकािशत।

�ल�पको ूयोग: लखन ूणाल� �वकास नभएको।े अ�य: भाषामा �त�बतीको ूभाव रहको।े धरजसो व�ाह�को थर ग�� वा घल रहको े े ेै ु

तर उनीह�ल फरक जा�तभा�षक समह भएको दाबी नगन�े ू ; ब��। माझी [mjz] (माँझी), व�ा स��या नपालमा े २१,८०० (रा��य जनगणना २००१), घ�दो बम।कल जनस��याू : ४२,२००। जातीय जनस��या: ७२,६००। बो�लन ःथाने : जनकपर अ�लकोु रामछाप िज�लाकाे

िचसापानी, भट�ल�, पगबा�स, भालवाजोर रु राकथम गाु .�व.स. ह�।

भारतमा प�न बो�लने।भाषाको अवःथा: ६ख (स�टाप�)। भाषा प�रवार:

भारोपल�े , आय�-इरानल�े , भारतीय-आय�, पव� �ेऽू , �बहार�। भा�षकाह�:

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म�थाल�, राजगाउँ, �स�का। भाषाको ूकार: कता� कम� �बया (पदबम); नामानगामीु ; नाम शीषा��त; नामको �ल� वा नाम वग� नभएको; �वषयाप�ी ू�वाचक श�द यथाःथानमाे ; १ वटा उपसग� र २ वटास�म परसग� �लने; उपवा�यीय �टकह� कारक�य �च�हबाट �च��हत हनेु;

�बयामा�मक सग�ल प�ष र वचन �च��हत गन�े ु ; ना�मक सोपानमा आ�ा�रत �वभा�जत ऊजा�व�व (ूथम र ��तीय प�षह�मा ऊजा�व�व ुहदन तर ततीय प�षमा ह��ु ुँ ै ृ ु ); कम�वा�य वा भाववा�य भएको; तान �यवःथा नभएको; २९ �य� जन र ६ वटा ःवर वण� भएको। भाषाको ूयोग: नपाल�े [npi] ल ू�तःथापन ग�ररहकोे े (यनःकोु े )। �ा�म�क काय�मा। सब व�ाह� नपाल�माै े [npi] ��भा�षक (यनःकोु े )।भाषा �वकास: र�डयो काय�बम।े �ल�पको ूयोग: दवनागर� �ल�पे , भारतमा प�न ूयोग हन।ु े अ�य: प�ाबी समहको माझी वा बोट ू े [bmj] भ�दा �भ�, पहाडी मलका मा�नसह�ल माझीू े , बोट र कसहर ूयोग गन�।े ु अ�य: �ह�दू, �ब�ःचयन। मारवाडी [rwr] (मारवार�), व�ा स��या: नपालमा े २२,६०० (रा��य जनगणना २००१)। कल जनस��याू : ५६,२२,६००। जातीय जनस��या: ४४,०००। बो�लन �ेऽे : मची अ�लकोे झापा �ज�ला; कोशी अ�लका मोरङ र सनसर� �ज�लाु ; नारायणी अ�लको पसा� �ज�ला; का�मा�ड र अ�य सहर� �ेऽमा कह� व�ाह� रहका।ु े े भारतमा प�न बो�लने। भाषाको अवःथा: ५ (�वकासशील)। भाषा प�रवार: भारोपल�े ,

आय�-�रानल�े , भारतीय-आय�, क���य �ेऽे , राजःथानी, मारवाडी।

भा�षकाह�: मारवाडीको मानक �प। पा�कःतानका मारवाडीभ�दा [mve] �भ� हन प�न र नहन प�न स�न।ु ु े सखावतीे [swv] सग ँ ६७% बो�ग�यता, गोदावर� [gdx] सग ँ ६१%, मवाडीे [mtr] सग ँ ५४%, ��दाडीु

[dhd] सग ँ ५४%, हारोती [hoj] सग ँ ४५%, मवातीे [wtm] सग ँ ४५%।

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सकावती र मारवाडीको बोधग�यता े ५३%। शाि�दक समानता: �ह�द� [hin] सग ँ ५०%-६५%, मरवाडीे [wry] सग ँ ६९%-७६%,

भा�षकह�बीच ७२%-८७%, गोदावडी [gdx] सग ँ ६२%-७४%, सकावतीे

[swv] सग ँ ६१%-७७%। भाषाको ूकार: कता� कम� �बया (पदबम);

नामानगामीु ; नाम शीषा��त; �वषयगत ू�वाचक श�द यथाःथानमा; उपवा�यीय घटकह�ल कारक�य िच�हबाट िचि�हत हने ेु ; काल र प� दब भएकोु ै ; ३८ वटा �य� जन र १० वटा ःवर वण� ; तान �यवःथा नभएको। भाषाको ूयोग: घरमा, साथीह�सगँ ; �मि�त ूयोग: धा�म�क काय�, कामकाज। सब उमर समहकाल बो�न।ै े े ेू सकारा�मक भा�षक अ�भवि�ृ । ूायः सबल �ह�द�ै े [hin], नपाल� े [npi] र अ�य ःथानीय भाषाह� बो�न।े भाषाको �वकास: दोॐो भाषामा सा�रता: ८८%।

�ल�पको ूयोग: दवनागर� �ल�प।े अ�य: �ह�द।ू मगाल�ु [lmh] (लाि�ब�चोङ, लाि�बछोङ, लाि�बचोङ, लाि�ब�ोङ,

फा�दवाल�ु , मगाल�ु )। व�ा स��या: १,५०० (आइ. राई २०१०),

घ�दो बम। एकभाषी व�ा �नक कम।ै बो�लन �े�े : कोशी अ�लको धनकटा िज�लामा पन�ु अ�ण खोलाको पव� �कनाराू , मगाखोला र ु�सनवाखोलाको बीच भागु ; मगाु , पािभबास र फलाँट गाे .�व.स.ह�।

भाषाको अवःथा: ७ (अपसरणशील)। भाषा प�रवार: िच�नयाँ-�त�बती, भोट-

बम�ल�, पि�मी भोट-बम�ल�, �हमाल�, �कराती, पव�।ू भा�षकाह�:

फा�दवाल�।ु छलङ ु ु [cur] ब�हा�रया े [byw], र �छ�ता�सग ँ [ctn] निजक रहको।े भाषाको ूकार: कता� कम� �बया; नामानगामीु ; �ल� �यवःथा नभएको; �बया�मक सग�ह�ल प�ष र वचन िचि�हत गन�े ु ; �वभािजत ऊजा�व�व; काल �यवःथा भएको; कम�वा�य वा भाववा�य नभएको; तानर�हत भाषा; २३ �य� जन र ५ ःवर वण� भएको। भाषा ूयोग: �कशोर�कशोर� र ब�ब�ाल ूयोग गन�।ृ ृ े �ल�पको ूयोग: लखन ेूणाल�को �वकास नभएको। अ�य: पर�परागत धम� (�करात)।

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मगोमु [muk] (मगाल�ु , मगु,ु मगमु ु )।व�ा स��या: नपालमा े ६,५००

(एस.आइ.एल. २००६)। २५% एकभाषी (यनःकोु े २००२)। सब ैदशको जनस��याे : ७,०००। जातीय जनस��या: ६,५००। बो�लन े�े�: कणा�ल� अ�लको मग िज�लाु ु , मगु,ु मा��, पलु,ु �क�ी, �ो�� ुगा.�व.स.ह�; ज�ला िज�लाु , ज�लाु ; का�ामा��मा कह�।े भारतमा प�न बो�लन।े भाषाको अवःथा: ६क (ूबल)। सचीकत जनजा�तको भाषाू ृ

(२००२, आजउराू ऐन, नं. २०, भाग: २ग)। भाषा प�रवार: िच�नयाँ-�त�बती, भोट-बम�ल�, पि�मी भोट-बम�ल�, बो��स, क���य बो��से , क���ये ,

चाङ (gTsang)। भा�षकाह�: कामा�रोङ (कारानी, कार-कटे , कामा�इ-कात),

मगोम ु (मोए-कते , मगाल�ु , मगो�बाु , म�बाइु -कात)। भा�षकाका व�ाह�बीच बोधग�यता ८९%-९३% (स�भवत: ब��)। ज�टल र अमत� सवाद ब�न स�भवतू ुं : पया�� हन।ु े ह�ला ु [hut], �ो�पो [dre] र लोकसग े ँ [loy] निजक। शाि�दक समानता: भा�षकाह� बीच ८५% भ�दा ब��, �त�बती [bod] सग ँ ७५%। भाषाको ूकार: कता� कम� �बया (पदबम); नामानगामीु ; �वषयाप�ी ू�वाची श�द यथाःथानमाे ;

उपवा�यीय घटकह� कारक�य िच�हह�बाट िचि�हत हनेु; ऊजा�व�व;

कम�वा�य वा भाववा�य नभएको; तानय� भाषा।ु भाषाको ूयोग:

ूबल। घरमा, साथीह�सगँ; �मि�त ूयोग: धम�, कामकाज, िश�ा। सब ैउमर समहका व�ाह�ल बो�ने े ेू ; भा�षक अ�भवि�ृ सकारा�मक। धरल े ेैनपाल�े [npi] र �त�बती [bod] प�न ूयोग गन�; ब�� �भ�ुह� �त�बतीमा ��भा�षक; म�हलाह� नपाल� र �त�बतीमा कम ��भा�षके ; कह� ेबालब�चाह�ला� अ��जी े [eng] प�न �सकाउन था�लएको; कह� ेप�षह�ल �ह�द� ु े [hin] प�न ूयोग गन�। भाषा ूयोग: दोॐो भाषामा सा�रता दर: नपाल�े [npi] मा २२% स�म; ३०% प�षु , ५% म�हला।

मग िज�लाको सा�रता ःतर अ�य िज�लाह�भ�दा कम रहकोु ु े , �वशष ेगर� बालबा�लका र म�हलाह�को। �त�बती [bod] सग शाि�दक ँ

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समानता र साझा �ल�पका कारण �नक�ताको भावना ब�लयो रहको।े

क�वता लखने ; समाचारपऽ ूकाशन। �ल�पको ूयोग: �त�बती �ल�प।

अ�य: कारानीह� अलग जातीय समहको प�हचान चाह��न।ू ्

मगालरह�ल कारानीमा लिखएका साम�ीह� ःवीकार नगन� स��न र ु ्े ेकारानील प�न मगालरला� अःवीकार गन� स��न।े ु ् मगोमह�ल नपालर ु े ेर अ��जीला� उ�च िश�ा ूा� गन� मा�यमका �पमा म�या�न गन�।े ू

मगालरह�ल आ�ह�ला� कारानीह�भ�दा अ�ल उ�च �ा�ेु ूे , उनीह� धर ूभावशालर हनका साथ याऽा र �यापारमा अगा�ड रहका।े ेै ैु ु ब�� (लामावादर)। म�डाररु [unr] (होरो, म�डारर, मो�डारर, मनाररु , म�डाु , स�थालर, सतार)।

व�ा स��या: नपालमा े ७,७८० (२००६)। कल जनस��याु :

११,२०,२८०।बो�लन �ेऽे : मची अ�ले , झापा िज�लाको दि�णी भाग; कोशी अ�लको मोरङ िज�ला। ब�लादश र भारतमा प�न ेबो�लन।े भाषाको अवःथा: ४ (शि�कै )। आ�दवासी जनजातीमा सचीकतह�को भाषाू ृ (२००२, आजउराू ऐन, नं. २०, भाग २ग)। भाषा प�रवार: अःशो-ए�सयालर, म�डाु , उ�रर म�डाु , खवा�ररे , म�डारर।ु

भा�षकाह�: हासडा, कराे , लतार, नागररु , स�था� र सतार। हो [hoc] र स�थालरसगँ [sat] स�बि�धत। हो [hoc] सग बोधग�यता ँ ७५%।

शाि�दक समानता: भ�मज भा�षकासग ु ँ ७०%-८४%। भाषाको ूयोग:

घरमा; �मि�त ूयोग: साथीह�सगँ, धा�म�क काय�मा, कामकाजमा, िश�ामा। सब उमर समहका मा�नसल बो�न। ै े े ेू भा�षक अ�भवि�ृ

सकारा�मक। भाषा �वकास: आधारभत िश�ाको मा�यमका �पमा ूूयोग ग�रन।े �ल�पको ूयोग: ब�ालर �ल�प, दवनागरर �ल�पे , �या��न �ल�प, उ�डया �ल�प। अ�य: �ह�दू, ��िःचयन।

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मसासा ु [smm] (मसहरु , ��षदेव)।व�ा स��या: ५०,००० (२००३)।

२०,००० मसासा र ु ३०,००० मसासा बाँतर।ु जातीय जनस��या: नपालमा े १,७२,०००। बो�लन �ेऽे : जनकपर अ�लकाु �स�धल�ु ,

दोलखा, महो�र� र धनषा िज�लाह�ु ; कोशी अ�लका मोरङ र सनसर� ुिज�ला; सगरमाथा अ�लका �सरहा र स�र� िज�ला। भाषाको अवःथा: ६ख (स�टाप�)। भाषा प�रवार: भारोपल�े , आय�-�रानल�े , भारतीय-आय�, पव�ू , �बहार�। भा�षका: बाँतर। कोिचला (स�र�) था� [thq] सग ँनिजक। भाषा ूयोग: मसासा व�ाह�को नपाल�ु े [npi] मा उ�च द�ता रहको।े �ल�पको ूयोग: लखन ूणाल� �वकास नभएको।े अ�य:

द�लत। मसासाह�को बसोबास �ेऽमा रहको ठलो समदायल �यस ु ु ुे े ै�ेऽको कन ठलो भाषाको सामािजक भद बो�न भ�े ग�रए प�न ु ुै े ेअनस�धान नभएको।मसासाह�ु ु म�थल� ै [mai], भोजपर�ु [bho], अवधी [awa], र कोिचला था� [thq] भाषाभाषीह�का बीचमा बसोबास गन�।

नपालको रा��य जनगणना े २००१ मा उ�लख नभएको। े अ�य:

�ह�द।ू मच े े [brx] (बारा, बोडी, बोडो, बोरो, बोरोनी, मचे े, मचे , मची।व�ा स��याे

नपालमा े ३,३०० (रा��य जनगणना २००१)। एकभाषी व�ाह� नभएका। कल जनस��याू : १३,३३,३००। जातीय जनस��या: ३,७६० (रा��य जनगणना २००१)।बो�लन �ेऽे : मची अ�लको े

झापा िज�ला। भारतमा प�न बो�लन े (बोडो भ�नने)। भाषाको अवःथा: ६ख

(स�टाप�)। आ�दवासी जनजा�तमा सचीकतह�को भाषाू ृ (२००२,

आजउराू ऐन, नं. २०, भाग २ग)। भाषा प�रवार: िच�नयाँ-�त�बती, भोट-

बम�ल�, साल, बोडो-गारो-उ�र� नागा, बोडो-कोच,्बोडो-गारो, बोडो।

भा�षकाह�: �डमासा [dis], �ऽपर� ु [trp], लालङासग स�बि�धत।ु ँ पि�म ब�ालको भा�षका असामको भ�दा �भ� भ�नएको। भाषाको ूयोग: धरजसोल नपाल� े े ेै [npi] वा ब�ाल� [ben] ूयोग गन�। �ल�पको ूयोग:

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ब�ाल� �ल�प; दवनागर� �ल�पे ; �या�टन �ल�प। अ�य: पर�परागत धम�, �बिःचयन। मवाहाङे , पि�मम [raf] (मवाहाङे , नवाहाङे , नवाहाङ िज�मे , नवाङे , नवाङ े ेराई, पि�मम मओहाङे )। एकभाषम व�ा कह�।े जातमय जनस��या: ३,०००। कोशम अ�लको स�ुवासभा िज�ला, अ�ण नद� पि�मको मा�थ�लो अ�ण उप�यका, बाला, या�दाङ, ता�कु, �ससवा। बाला ुगाउमा बाला भा�षकाँ , स�ुवासभा गा.�व.स.; �ससवाखोला गाु .�व.स.मा ब�द�बा भा�षका।ु े भाषाको अवःथा: ६ख (स�टाप�)। सचमकत ू ृजनजा�तको भाषा (२००२, आजउराू ऐन, नं. २०, भाग २ ग), राई जनजा�त। भाषा प�रवार: िच�नयाँ-�त�बतम, भोट-बम�ल�, पि�मम भोट-

बम�ल�, �हमाल�, �कराँतम, पव�।ू भा�षकाह�: बाला (बालाल�), ब�द�बा।ु े

सरचना�मक �पमा पव� मवाहाङं ू े [emg] भ�दा �भ�। भाषाको ूकार:

कता� कम� �बया (पदबम); नामानगाममु ; २४ �य� जन र १४ ःवर वण�। भाषाको ूयोग: भतपव� गोखा� स�नकह�को सबभ�दा ठलो बसोबास ू ू ूै ै�े� ता�क गाउमा भाषा ��� लोप भएको िःथ�त।�रमाु ँ ै ; �मि�त ूयोग: साथमह�सगँ, धा�म�क काय�मा, कामकाजमा। यवायवतम र ु ुब�ब�ाल बो�न।ृ ृ े े कटाकट� र �कशोर�कशोर�ल कह� ूयोग गन�। े े े ेभा�षक अ�भवि�ृ सकारा�मक। नपाल� े [npi], कलङ ु ु [kle] वा लोहो�� [lbr] को प�न ूयोग गन�। भाषाको �वकास: क�वता लखने ; श�दकोश ूकािशत। �ल�पको ूयोग: दवनागर� �ल�पे । अ�य: पर�परागत (�करात),

�ह�द।ू मवाहाङे , पव�ू [emg] (पव� मओहाङू े , मवाहाङे , नवाहाङे , नवाहाङ िजममे ,

नवाङे , नवाङ राईे े )। ूायः एकभाषम व�ा नभएका। जातमय जनस��या: ३,०००।बो�लन �े�े : कोशम अ�ल, स�ुवासभा िज�ला, मा�तवाे , याफ ुर चोयाङ गा.�व.स.; अ�ण नद�को पव�प��को उप�यका।ू सनसर� ु

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�ज�लामा सनसरल भा�षकाु , भाल��ाु ु , �ब�ण पादका गाु ु .�व.स.; मा�तवा ेगा.�व.स.मा �दबम ु (�दबङु) भा�षका; याफ गाु .�व.स.मा मलगाउु ँ-वा�ताङ भा�षका।भाषाको अवःथा: ६ख (स�टाप�)। सचीकत जनजा�तको भाषाू ृ

(२००२, आजउराू ऐन, नं. २०, भाग २ग), राई जनजा�त। भाषा प�रवार:

�च�नयाँ-�त�बती, भोट-बम�लल, प��मी भोट-बम�लल, �हमालल, �कराँती, पव�।ू

भा�षकाह�: �दबमु, म�गाउु ँ-वा�ताङ, सनसरल।ु सरचना�मक �पमा ंप��मी मवाहा�भ�दा े [raf] �भ�। भाषाको ूकार: कता� कम� �बया (पदबम); नामानगामीु ; नाम शीषा��त; �बया�मक सग�ल प�ष र वचन े ु�च��हत गन�; काल र प� �यवःथा भएको।भाषा ूयोग: नपालले [npi] �तर अपसरण।घरमा, धा�म�क काय�मा; �म��त ूयोग: साथीह�सगँ,

कामकाजमा। �कशोर तथा ब�ब�ा।ृ ृ कटाकटलह�े े , �कशोर�कशोरलह� र यवायवतीह�ल प�न धरथोर ूयोग गन�।ु ु े े नपालले [npi], कलङ ु ु [kle] वा लोहो�ङ [lbr] प�न ूयोग गन�। भाषाको ूयोग: क�वता लखने ; श�दकोश ूकाशन। �ल�पको ूयोग: दवनागरल �ल�प।े अ�य: यो भाषालाई प��मी मवाहा� कोे [raf] भा�षका �ा�नन।े पर�परागत (�करात), �ह�द।ू

म�थललै [mai] (अपॅशं, �बहारल, दहातीे , म�तललै , म�ललै , म�लले , �तरह�तयाु ,

�तह�तीु , �थह��तयाु )।व�ा स��या: नपालमा े २८,००,००० (रा��य जनगणना २००१), ब�दो बम। स�पण� जनस��याू :

३,२८,००,०००। बो�लन �े�े : नारायणी अ�लको रौतहट �ज�ला; जनकपर अ�लकाु सला�हल, महो�रल र धनषा �ज�लाु ; सगरमाथा अ�लका �सरहा र स�रल �ज�ला; कोशी अ�लका सनसरल रु मोरङ �ज�ला।

भारतमा प�न बो�लन।े भाषाको अवःथा: ५ (�वकासशील)। यथाथ�त: रा��य प�हचानको भाषा। भाषा प�रवार: भारोपलले , आय�-इरानलले ,

भारतीय-आय�, पव� �े�ू , �बहारल। भा�षकाह�: ब��जका, बाँतर, बरइ,

बम�लल, दहातीे , कवार, �या�त, मबना, मसरु , ताती, �� ��। भा�षकामा

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भौगो�लक भदभ�दा जात भद धर।े े े ै भा�षकाह�बीच (नपालमा ेभएकास�हत) ूकाया��मक बोधग�यता रहकोे ।मगह�सगँ [mag] धर े ैसमानता रहको।े शाि�दक समानता: �ा�ण र गरै -�ा�ण बीच ९१%।

भाषाको ूकार: कता� कम� �बया (पदबम); नामानगामीु ; नाम शीषा��त;

नामका ११ वटा वग� वा �ल�; �वषयाप�ी ू�वाचक श�द ेयथाःथानमा; स�ब�धवाचक, �नधा�रक र स��यावाचक पद नामका �गा�� आउने, �वशषण नामका �गा�� वा प�ा�� आउने े; एउटा उपसग�, ५ वटास�म परसग�; उपवा�यीय घटकह� आिशक �पमा ंकारक िच�हक र नामानगामीबाट िचि�हत हनु ु े; �बया�मक सग�ह�ल ेप�षु , वचन, �ल� र कता�को आदराथ� िचि�हत गन�; �वभािजत ऊजा�व�व; ःथानबाट कम� िचि�हत हनेु; कता�को प�षु , �ल� र सजीवता ��नवाय��पमा ��याइनु े; सकम�क�व; काल र प� दब भएकोु ै ; कम� वा�य व भाव वा�य भएको; ूरणाथ�के ; तलना�मक �यवःथा भएकोु ; ��र सरचनां : ःव, ःव�य, ःव�य�य, �यःव, �यःव�य, �यःवःव, �य�यःव,

�यःव�य�य, �य�यःव�य�य; तानर�हत भाषा; २९ �य� जन र ११ वटा ःवर वण� भएको। भाषा ूयोग: धर जातजा�तह�ल बो�न।े े ेै लामो सा�हि�यक पर�परा भएको। पटनामा म�थल� ू�ा ू�त�ान रहकोै े ;

�बहार� म�थल� एलै .एन. �म�थला �व��व�ालय (दभ��ा) मा पढाइने, पटना र ��भवन �व��व�ालयको जनकपर �या�पसमा प�न पढाइन।ु ु े

घरमा, साथीह�सग।ँ सब उमरका मा�नसल बो�न।ै े े े कह�ल घरमा वा े े�� म�थल� भाषीह�सग �ह�द� ै ँ [hin], नपाल� े [npi] वा ���जी े [eng] ूयोग गन�। भोजपर� ु [bho] वा ब�ाल� [ben] स�बि�धत समदायका ुसाथीह�सग ूयोग ग�रन।ँ े भाषा �वकास: प�हलो भाषामा सा�रता दर:

२०%; दोॐो भाषामा सा�रता दर: २५%-५०% स�म। िशि�तह�ल े�ह�द� [hin], नपाल� े [npi] वा ���जी े [eng] प��न।् िशि�तह�ल े�ह�द�, नपाल� वा म�थल� प�न स�न।े ेै बहभा�षक िश�ा र ूौढ ु

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सा�रता काय�बम राजवशी �ेऽभ�र म�थल� समदायमा स�ालन ं ै ुग�रएको। �ल�पको ूयोग: दवनागर� �ल�पे , ूाथ�मक ूयोग। २० औ �शता�द�को स�वातस�म कथी �ल�प ूयोग ग�र��यो।ु ै नवार े (ूच�लत नपाले ) �ल�प (हाल ूयोगमा छनै ) ऐ�तहा�सक ूयोग। �तरहता �ल�पु ,

२०औ शता�द�को स�वातस�म ूयोग ग�र��यो।ु अ�य: ल�य भदलाई े ेमानक मा�े ग�रएको। �ह�द� [hin] र म�थल�का व�ाह�लाई ैसांःक�तक �पमा निजक �ा�ननृ े; नपाल� े [npi] भाषा ःवीकाय� रहको। ेअ�य: �ह�दू, मसलमानु , �बिःचयन। या�खा [ybh] (दवा�सालाे , याखा, या�खाबा, या�खाबा िचआ (Cea),

या�खाबा साला, या�थ�बाु )।बो�लन �ेऽे : नपालमा े १४,६०० (रा��य जनगणना २००१), ��दो बम। एकभाषीको स��या �नक ैकम।स�पण� जनस��याू : १५,४१०। जातीय जनस��या: १७,७००।बो�लन �ेऽे : कोशी अ�ल अ�तग�त स� खवुासभा िज�लाको दि�णी भाग; धनकटा िज�लाको पव� �ेऽु ू , अ�ण नद� पव� �हनवाँखोला ू ुउ�र र लगवाखोला दि�णको म�य भागे ु । स� खवुासभा िज�ला र धनकटा िज�लाको सदर उ�रसग जो��एको �ेऽमा उ�र� या�खाु ु ु ँ ;

धनकटा िज�लामा दि�णी या�खाु ; मची अ�लकाे इलाम र पाँचथर िज�लाह�मा पव� या�खाू । भारतमा प�न बो�लने। भाषाको अवःथा: ६ख

(स� कटाप�)। आ�दवासी जनजा�तमा सचीकतह�को भाषाू ृ (२००२,

आजउराू ऐन, नं.२०, ख�� २ग)। भाषा प�रवार: िच�नया-�त�बती, भोट-

बम�ल�, पि�मी भोट-बम�ल�, �हमाल�, �कराती, पव�यू । भा�षकाह�: पव� ूया�खा (इलाम, पाँचथर), उ�र� या�खा (स� खवुासभा), दि�णी या�खा (धनकटाु )। भा�षकाह� बीच �यनतमू �भ�ता। ल�बाु -या�खा [luu],

�ा�दवाल�ु [phw], �छ�ताङ [ctn], छलङ ु ु [cur], ब�ह�रयाे [byw], लोहो�ङ

[lbr], �ल�ब ु[lif], र आ�पह�रया [aph] सगँ स�बि�धत। शाि�दक

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समानता: आ�प�रया [aph], �ल�ब ु[lif], या��ु [ybi] सगँ । पदबम: कता� कम� �बया; नामानगामीु ; नाम शीषा��त; �ल� वा नाम वग� नभएको।�वषयाप�ीे ू�वाची श�द यथाःथानमा; एउटा उपसग�, १० वटास�म ू�ययह� (�व�षणमा आधा�रते ); उपवा�यीय घटकह�लाई कारक�य िच�हह�ल िचि�हत गन�े ; �बया�मक सग�ह�ल प�ष र े ुवचनलाई िचि�हत गन�; ऊजा�व�व; काल र प� �यवःथा भएको; कम�वा�य वा भाववा�य भएको; तानर�हत भाषा; २२ वटा �य� जन र

५वटा ःवर वण� भएको। भाषा ूयोग: घरमा, साथीह�सगँ, धा�म�क काय�मा; �मि�त ूयोग: कामकाजमा, िश�ामा। कटाकट� र बढाबढ�ल े े ेु ुबो�ने। यवायवतीु ु , �कशोर �कशोर� र अधब�सह�ल प�न धरथोर ूयोग े े ेगन� (तोबा, तोबा र राई २००५)। नपाल�े [npi] मा ��भा�षकता उ�च।

भाषा �वकास: दोॐो भाषामा सा�रता दर: नपाल�े [npi] मा १०%।

ःकलमा या�खा पढाउन ूयासःव�प तीन क�ास�मका ू ेपा�पःतकह� ूकािशत भए प�न �यापक ूयोग भन नभएकोु े । क�वता लखने । श�दकोश ूकाशन। �ल�पको ूयोग: लखन ूणाल� �वकास ेनभएको। अ�य: धर �व�ान े ै ह्�ल या�खा भाषालाई राई वा �ल�बसग े ु ँन�म�ल �करातीह�को एउटा �� समह मानका े ेु ूै (�ब� १९९६:३९);

ूच�लत �मथक र मा�नसह�को म�या� कू न अनसार या�खाह� राई ुसमहभ�दा �ल�बसग बढ� निजक जःता दिखनू ु ँ े े। पर�परागत धम� (�करात),�बिःचयन। या��ु [ybi] (या��े, या�� खाु , या�� राईु )।व�ा स��या: १,७२०

(रा��य जनगणना २००१), घ�दो बम।बो�लन �े�े : कोशी अ�लको स� खवुासभा िज�लाका हदा�नाे , नमु, सदवाे ु , प�पवाे ु , माि�स�मा, कामा�राङ,

त�ा�लङु , उवा, आला, उ�लङ र वालङ गाउह�ु ँ । पव� पहाडह�ू , मा�थ�लो अ�ण उप�यका, म�ःयपोखर� गा.�व.स., सदर उ�र� लो�ङ �े�ु ु ,

जलजल पहाडको �सध दि�णे ै -पि�म; कोशी अ�लको भोजपर िज�लाु ।

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भाषाको अवःथा: ६ख (स� कटाप�)। आ�दवासी जनजा�तमा सचीकतह�को भाषाू ृ (२००२, आजउराू ऐन, नं.२०, ख�ड २ग), राई जनजा�त। भाषा प�रवार: िच�नयाँ-�त�बती, भोट-बम�ल�, पि�मी भोट-

बम�ल�, �हमाल�, �कराँती, पव�ू । भा�षकाह�: या�� राई लोहो�ङ राई ुर मवाहाङ राईसग निजके ँ । लोहो�ङ [lbr] सग बोधग�यता ँ ६१%।

शाि�दक समानता: आ�नै भा�षकाह� बीच ८४%–९०%स�म, दि�ण या�� ु [lrr] सग ँ ७४%–८४% स�म, लोहो�ङ [lbr] सग ँ ६४%–६७%स�म। भाषा ूयोग: भाषा नयाँ पःतामा हःता�तरण भएको भए प�न तर ुबमश: नपाल�ल �वःथापन ग�ररहकोे े े (तोबा, तोबा र राई २००५)।

धा�म�क काय�मा। लगभग सबजसो व�ाह� नपाल�माै े [npi] ��भा�षक भएका (यनःकोु े २००२)। भाषा �वकास: क�वता लखने । श�दकोश तथा

�याकरण ूकािशत। �ल�पको ूयोग: लखन ूणाल�को �वकास ेनभएको। अ�य: पर�परागत धम� (�करात), �ह�दू, �बिःचयन। या��ु, दि�णी [lrr] (लोहोरोङ, लो॑ङु , लो॑ङ खापु , लो॑ङ खातु े, दि�णी लोहो�ङ, दि�णी लो�ङ, या�खाबा लो�ङ, या��ु)। व�ा स��या: २,५०० (२०११ एस.आइ.एल.)। ��दो बम। बो�लन े�े�: कोशी अ�लको धनकटा िज�लाअ�तग�तु , बोढे, मौनाबधकु ु , भडटार र राजारानी गाउे े ँ; उ�र� स� खवुासभा िज�लाका दवीटार र ेम�ःयपोखर�। तमोरखोलाको दि�ण, पव�मा ज�वाखोला र पि�ममा ूर��खोलाको बीच भाग। ु भाषाको अवःथा: ६ख (स�टाप�)। आ�दवासी जनजा�तमा सचीकतह�को भाषा ू ृ (२००२, आजउराू ऐन, नं.२०, भाग २ ग), राई जनजा�त। भाषा प�रवार: िच�नया-�त�बती, भोट-बम�ल�, पि�मी भोट-बम�ल�, �हमाल�, �कराती, पव�ू । भा�षकाह�: गःसाे , या��े (नवाहाङ ेया��े, या�खाबा, या�खाबा खाप, या�� खाे )। लोहो�ङ [lbr] सग ँ६१% बोधग�यता, या�� ु [ybi] सग ँ ४४–५८% स�म (ठाउ अनसारँ ु )।

या��सग ु ँ [ybi] �नक निजक भए प�न �याकरण र वण� �यवःथा �भ� ै

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रहको एउटा राई समहे ू (�ा�सन १९९१)। लोहो�ङ [lbr], पव� ूमवाहाङ े [emg] र पि�मी मवाहाङ े [raf] सग प�न स�बि�धत।ँ �ाि�दक समानता: दि�णी या��का आ�न भदह�का बीचमा ु ै े ८४%-८९%, या�� ु[ybi] सग ँ ७४%–८३%स�म, लोहो�ङ [lbr] सग ँ ६५%–६८%स�म।

पदबम: कता� कम� �बया; नामानगामीु ; �बया�मक सग�ह�ल प�ष र े ुवचन िचि�हत गन�; काल �यवःथा भएको; तान �यवःथा नभएको।

भाषा ूयोग: घरमा, धा�म�क काय�मा, कामकाजमा; �मि�त ूयोग:

साथीह�सगँ। यवायवतीु ु , वयःक र बढापाकाल बो�नु े े। कटाकट� र े े�क�ोर�क�ोर�ह�ल प�न धरथोर ूयोग गन�े े । भा�षक अ�भवि�ृ सकारा�मक। भाषाको �वकास: ��दको� �नमा�ण। �ल�पको ूयोग:

दवनागर� �ल�पे । अ�य: या�� व�ाह�ल जातीय �पमा प�न ू े 'या��ु' भनर िचनाउन। �ा�सने ेै (१९९१) ल यस समहलाई दई अलग े ू ुभाषाह� 'या��ु' र 'दि�णी लो�ङ' का �पमा �लएका (हन�े ू: इ�नोलग, १६औ र अिघ�ला सःकरणह�� ं )। पर�परागत धम� (�करात), �ह�दू,

�बिःचयन।

राउटे [rau] (बोटो बोल�, खा�ची, राजी, रा�वार, राउ�ा, राउ�े)।व�ा स��या: ८३० ( जे. �ो�ट�यर २००६( J. Fortier)), घ�दो बम। सब ैघम�त राउटह� एकभाषी रहकाु े े े । क�रब २५ जना घम�त राउटह� ु े ेम�य-पि�मा�ल तथा सदरपि�मा�लका घना ज�लह�मा पाइनु ु े।

क�रब ८०० ज�त राउटह� महाकाल� अ�लको डडलधरा िज�लाका े े ुजोगबढा र �ससा� गाु .�व.स.ह�मा तथा कणा�ल� र महाकाल� (काल�) नद�को जलो�सरण �ेऽमा ःथायी बसोबास गन�। भर� अ�लकोे , सख�त ुिज�लामा घम�त राउटह�ल �या�प �नमा�ण गरका।ु े े े े भाषाको अवःथा: ६क (ूवल)। आ�दवासी जनजा�तमा सचीकतह�को भाषाू ृ (२००२,

आजउराू ऐन, नं.२०, ख�ड २ग)। भाषा प�रवार: िच�नयाँ-�त�बती, भोट-

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बम�ल�, पि�मी भोट-बम�ल�, �हमाल�, क���य �हमाल�े , राउटे-राजी।

भा�षका: जानकार� नभएको। राजी भाषासग धर समानताह� भए प�न ँ े ैतर राउट भाषाको स�ब�ध र रावत े [jnl] र राजी [rji] बीचको बोधग�यता बार थप अनस�धानको आवँयकताे ु । शाि�दक समानता: रावट [jnl] सग ँ ८०%, चपाङे [cdm] सग ँ ६०%, खामसग ँ २५%।

भाषाको ूकार: कता� कम� ��या; नामानगामीु ; नाम शीषा��त; नामको �ल� वा वग� नभएको; �वषयाप�ी ू�वाचक श�द यथाःथानमाे ;

उपवा�यीय घटकह� कारक�य िच�हह�बाट िचि�हत हनेु; ��या�मक सग�ह�ल प�ष र वचन िचि�हत गन�े ु ; ऊजा�व�व; काल र प� �यवःथा भएको; तानर�हत भाषा; ३५ �य� जन र ७ ःवर वण�। भाषाको ूयोग:

ूवल। घरमा, साथीह�सगँ, धा�म�क काय�मा, कामकाजमा। कटाकट�े े , वयःक तथा ब�ब�ाह�ल ूयोग गन�ृ ृ े । �कशोर�कशोर� तथा यवायवतील ु ु ेप�न धरथोर ूयोग गन�े ; घम�त राउटह� आ�नो भाषालाई गो�य रा� ु े ेचाह�छन।् कह� यवायवतीह� बा�ह�रयाह�का अगा�� आपसमा प�न े ु ुनपाल�े [npi] वा �ह�द� [hin] मा कराकानी गन�।ु ःथायी बसोबास भएका राउटह�ल आग�तकह�सग नपाल�े े ेु ँ [npi] बो�ने। घम�त राउटह�को ु े ेमिखयाल माऽ आग�तकह�सग कराकानी गन� गरको पा��छ।ु ु ुे ेँ भाषाको �वकास: प�हलो भाषामा सा�रता दर: ०%। श�दकोश �नमा�ण। �ल�पको ूयोग: लखन ूणाल�को नभएकोे । अ�य: जातीय नाम (आफ� ल भ�ेे )

रा'टे। यो नाम भोट-बम�ल� ॐोतको हनस�नु े, 'रा' को अथ� 'मानव' र '-टो/-टे' प�षवाची।क�तपय �व�ा� हु � यो सःकत आय� श�द ं ृ 'राउत' सःकतक ं ैृ 'राजपऽु' बाट आएको हन स�न बताउछन।ु े ँ ् राउटह�ल े ेआ�नो भाषालाई प�वऽ मा�े र अ�य भाषाका श�दह� र �याकरणा�मक �वशषताह� �म�ण गन� नचाहन हदा भा�षक �पमा े े ुँराउट भाषा पर�परा अनयायी े ु (conservative) दिखने े। पर�परागत धम�।

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राजबशीं [rjs] (ग�गा�, कोच, कोचे, राजब�सी, राजब�सी, ताजप�रयाु )।व�ा स��या: १,३०,००० (रा��य जनगणना २००१), ब�दो बम। बो�लन े�ेऽ: मची अ�लको े झापा िज�ला; कोशी अ�लका मोरङ र सनसर� ुिज�लाह�। भाषाको अवःथा: ५ (�वकासशील)। आ�दवास जनजा�तमा सचीकतह�को भाषा ू ृ (२००२, आजउराू ऐन, नं.२०, ख�� २ग)। भाषा प�रवार: भारोपल�े , आय�-�रानल�े , भारतीय-आय�, पव� �ेऽू , ब�ाल�-आसामी। भा�षकाह�: क���य राजबसीे ं , पव�य राजबसीू ं , पि�मी राजबसीं । सब �ेऽमा बो�ग�यता �नक उ�च रहकोै ै े (ए�पल र �ा��स े े ्(Eppele and Grimes) २००१)। शाि�दक समानता: नपालका सब े ैभा�षकभदह�सग े ँ ७७%-९५% स�म (��पल र �ा��स े े ् (Eppele and

Grimes) २००१)। भाषाको ूकार: कता� कम� �बया; नामानगामीु ; नाम शीषा��त; नाममा २ वटा �ल� वा वग�; �वषयाप�ी ू�वाचक श�द ेयथाःथानमा; एउटा उपसग�, ४ वटास�म परसग� �लने; उपवा�यीय घटकह� कारक िच�हक र पदबमल िचि�हत गन�े ; �बया�मक सग�ल ेप�ष र वचन जनाउनु े; ऊजा�व�वको अभाव; काल र प� �यवःथा भएको; कम�वा�य वा भाववा�य भएको(�पताि�वक कम�वा�य छन तर ै २ वटा वा�या�मक वा�यह� रहकाे ); तानर�हत भाषा; ३२ वटा �य� जन र ६-७ वटा ःवर वण�। भाषा ूयोग: ूवल। घरमा, साथीह�सगँ,

�ा�म�क काय�मा, कामकाजमा; �मि�त ूयोग: िश�ामा। सब उमर ै ेसमहका मा�नसह�ल बो�नू े े। भा�षक अ�भवि� सकारा�मकृ ।

बहस��यक जनस��याल स�पक� भाषाका �पमा नपाल�ु े े [npi] वा �ह�द� [hin] को ूयोग गन�। कह�ल म�थल� े े ै [mai] र ब�ाल� [ben] प�न ूयोग गन�। भाषाको �वकास: दोॐो भाषामा सा�रता दर: ३८% (रा��य जनगणना १९९१)। बहभा�षक िश�ा र ूौढ िश�ा काय�बमह� ुराजबशी समदायमा ूायं ु :सब�तर स�ालन ग�रएका छनै ।् ूाथ�मक तहमा पठनपाठन हनेु। क�वता लखने । समाचारपऽ ूकाशन। र��यो काय�बम ेस�ालन। चलिचऽ तथा �भ��यो �नमा�ण। श�दकोश तथा �याकरण

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ूकािशत। NT: २००९। �ल�पको ूयोग: दवनागर� �ल�पे । अ�य: �ह�दू, �बिःचयन। राजी [rji] (बन राजी, ज�ल�, रािजबार, रावती, र�या (Rjya)। व�ा स��या: २,४१० (रा��य जनगणना २००१), घ�दो बम। जातीय जनस��या: ४,००० भ�दा मा�थ।बो�लन �े�े : भर� अ�लका े सख�तु ,

बाँक र ब�द�या िज�लाह�े ; सती अ�लको कलाल� िज�लाे ै ; महाकाल� अ�लको क�चनपर िज�लाु । भाषाको अवःथा: ६ख (स�टाप�)। आ�दवासी जनजा�तमा सचीकतह�को भाषाू ृ (२००२, आजउराू ऐन,

नं.२०, ख�ड २ग)। भाषा प�रवार: िच�नयाँ-�त�बती, भोट-बम�ल�, पि�मी भोट-बम�ल�, �हमाल�, क���य �हमाल�े , राउटे-राजी। भा�षकाह�:

बारब�डाले, नौकलु े, प�ब�याु । रावत [jnl] र राउटे [rau] सग निजकँ ।

बारब�डाल र प�व�याका व�ाह�लाई नौकल भद ब�न क�ठना� हने े े ेु ु ु ु ।

शाि�दक समानता: तीन भा�षकभदह� बीच े ८४% दिख े ८६% स�म;

राउटे [rau] सग ँ ५५%। भाषाको ूयोग: कलाल� िज�लाको खलाड ै ैगा.�व.स.मा ६ वष�भ�दा म�नका र ु ६० वष�भ�दा मा�थका व�ाह� एकभाषी रहकाे ; धा�म�क काय�मा; �मि�त ूयोग: घरमा, साथीह�सगँ,

कामकाजमा। सब उमरसमहका व�ाह�ल धरथोर ूयोग गन�ै े े ेू ।

भा�षक अ�भवि�ृ नकारा�मक। ूायः सबल नपाल� ै े े [npi], था� वा �ह�द� [hin] बो�ने। भाषाको �वकास: दोॐो भाषामा सा�रता दर: २२%

(रा��य जनगणना १९९१)। अ�भभावकह�ल आ�ना नानीह�लाई ेःकल पठाउन थालकाल नपाल� ु े े े [npi] मा सा�रताको दर ब�दो।

क�वता लखने । श�दकोश �नमा�ण। �ल�पको ूयोग: दवनागर� �ल�पे ।

अ�य: राजीह� घम�त ूवि�का �थए तर अ�हल भन ःथायी बसोबास ु ृे े ेगछ�न।् शमा� (१९९०) ल भारतका राजी े (स�भवत: बोडो गादाबा [gbj]) लाई भोट-बम�ल� र आय�भाषाका श�दह� सापट �लएको म�डा ुभाषा मानका छन।े ् बारब�डाल भा�षका सबभ�दा ू�त��त भा�षका े ै

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मा�नने। भारतमा बो�लन रावत े [jnl] भाषा प�न यह� भाषा हन स�नु े।

पर�परागत धम�, लह�दू, बौ�, लब�ःचयन। ला�चा [lep] (“ला�चे” �न�दाथ�क, ल�चाे , �यपाु (Nünpa), रोङ, रो�े, रो�पा)। व�ा स��या: नपालमा े २,८३० (राल�य जनगणना २००१), ��दो बम। एकभाषी व�ा नभएका। कल जनस��याू : ५५,४३०। जातीय जनस��या: ३,६६०। बो�लन �ेऽ े : मची अ�लको इलाम े�ज�ला। भटानु (ल�चाे ) र भारत (ल�चाे ) मा प�न बो�लन। े भाषाको अवःथा: ७ (अपसरणशील)। आ�दवासी जनजा�तमा सचीकतह�को ू ृभाषा (२००२, आजउराू ऐन, नं. २०, ख�� २ग)। भाषा प�रवार: �च�नयाँ-�त�बती, भोट-बम�ल�, क���य भोटे -बम�ल�, ल�चा।े भालषकाह�: इला�म,ु र�जो� मे ,ु ता�सा� म।ुवग�करण अ�न��त; लहमाल� तथा नागा गर� दव समहमा वग�कत। ु ू ृै भाषाको ूयोग: धर यवाह�ल पलहलो े ेै ुभाषाका �पमा ल�चा नबोलर नपाल�े े े [npi] बो�ने; ूौढूौढा तथा ब�ब�ाल ल�चा बो�न। ृ ृ े े े �ललपको ूयोग: ल�चा े (रोङ) �ललप, �त�बती �ललप। अ�य: भोट बम�ल� प�रवारमा ल�चाको ःथान �नधा�रणबार अझ े े ैछलफल च�लरहको। े अ�य: बौ�, लब�ःचयन �लल�म [lii] (�ल��खम, �लल�म कलङु ु , �लल�म राई, �ल��खम, साम) व�ा स��या: ९७ (राल�य जनगणना २००१) बो�लन �ेऽे : मची ेअ�ल, इलाम �ज�लाको लफ�ल गा.लव.स.। भाषाको अवःथा: ८ख

(मतृ:ूाय)। आ�दवासी जनजा�तमा सचीकतह�को भाषाू ृ (२००२,

आजउराू ऐन, नं. २०, ख�� २ग)। भाषा प�रवार: �च�नयाँ-�त�बती, भोट-बम�ल�, प��मी भोट-बम�ल�, लहमाल�, लकराँती, पव�। राई ूजनजा�त। भाषाको ूयोग: धरजसोल बा�तवाे ेै [bap] भाषा बो�न थालकाे

(�ा�सन (Hansson) १९९१)। �ललपको ूयोग: लखन ूणाल� लवकास ेनभएको। अ�य: छ� भाषाका �पमा �ल�� खु ै मको अ�ःत�वबार थोरमाऽ े ै

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सचना उपल�ध रहकोू े ; साम [raq] भाषाको भद प�न हन स�ने ेु (Hansson

१९८८:२०-२१; �ा�सन १९९१:६१, ८५)। २००१ को रा��य जनगणनामा �ल��मका व�ाह�को स��या ९७ उ�लख भएको। �यान े��म (२००१ : ७०४) ल उ�र� भोजपर िज�लामा �ल��म भ�े गाउ े ु ँरहको भ�द �ल��म सामक वकि�पक नाम रहको बताएका छन।े ेै ै ै ्  

�ललबू [lif] व�ा स��या: नपालमा े ३,३४,००० (रा��य जनगणना २००१), ब�दो बम।सापि�त �पमा एकभाषीह� थोर। सलपण� े ै ूजनस��या: ३,७१,३००। बो�लन �े�े : पव� पहा�ह�ू , अ�ण नद�भ�दा पव�ू ; कोशी अ�लका धनकटाु , स�ुवासभा, त� हे थम र मोरङ र ुसनसर� िज�लाु ; मची अ�लका ता�लजङे े ु , पाँचथर, इलाम र झापा िज�ला; कामको खोजीमा सलभवत: लया�मारसलम पगकाु े ; सलभवत: भटान तथा भारतमा प�न बसोबास गन�।ु भाषाको अवःथा: ६ख (स�टाप�)। आ�दवासी जनजा�तमा सचीकतह�को भाषाू ृ (२००२,

आजउराू ऐन, नं. २०, ख�� २ग)। भाषा प�रवार: िच�नयाँ-�त�बती, भोट-बम�ल�, पि�मी भोट-बम�ल�, �हमाल�, �कराँती, पव�।ू भा�षकाह�: च��बस े (चारखोले), छ�थर े (च�थरे, छथर), पा�थरे, �दा�पे े, तमोरखोल े(ता�लजगे ेुँ ), या��ो�ख े (या���पे)। लोहो�ङ [lbr] र या�खा [ybh] सग ँनिजक। या��ो�खे, च��बस र चारखोल पाँचथर भा�षकाका सामा�य े े ेभदह�े ; �दा�प र तमोरखोल उःतउःत। अ�य भा�षकाका व�ाह�ल े े े ेै ैच�र अ�ल कम ब�न। �स��म तथा भारतका अ�य ूा�तह�मा बो�लन े े ेुभदह� पाँचथर जःत। सब भदह�मा बोधगलयता े े ेै ै ८४% वा मा�थ। भाषाको ूकार: कता� कम� �बया (पदबम); नामानगामीु ; सलब�धवाचक पद, �नधा�रक, �वशषण र स��यावाचक पद नाम शीष�भ�दा अिघ ेआउने; नाम शीषा��त; �वषयाप�ी ू�वाचक श�द यथाःथानमाे ; ���वीय ुू� वा�या�तमा; तीनवटासलम ू�यय, ६ वटासलम उपसग�; सग�ह�ल ेनाम पदावल�को कारक िचि�हत गन�; �बया�मक सग�ह�ल कता� कम� े

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र अू�य� कम� िचि�हत गन� (अ�नवाय�); �बया�मक सग�ह�ल प�ष े ुतथा वचन िचि�हत गन�; �वभािजत ऊजा�व�व; अकम�वत आ�मवाचीको ्ूयोग वा�यको ूकारका �पमा हनेु; कम� वा�य वा भाव वा�य, ू�त-

कम�वा�य, ूरणाथ�क र तलनावाची �यवःथा भएकोे ु ; १६ वटा �य�न र १३ वटा ःवर वण� भएको; अ�र सरचनां : ःव, �यःव, �यःव�य, �य�यःव, �य�यःव�य। तानर�हत भाषा। भाषाको ूयोग: ूवल। पव� ूनपालको एउटा ूमख वग�। घरमा र धा�म�क काय�मा। �मि�त ूयोगे ु : साथीभाइसगँ, कामकाजमा र िश�ामा। ूौढ तथा ब�ब�ाल ूयोग ृ ृ ेगन�। कटाकट�े े , �कशोर �कशोर� तथा यवायवतील प�न धरथोर ूयोग ु ु े ेगन�। भा�षक अ�भवि� सकारा�मक। आकारृ , ू�त�ा र भाषा �वकासमा पा�थर भा�षकाको वच�ःव रहको। आ�न भा�षकालाई ूाथ�मकता �दए े े ैप�न व�ाह� अ�य भा�षकाू�त नकारा�मक नरहका। बहस��यक े ुअधब�स व�ाह�ल क�तीमा े े ५ बस� �व�ालयीय िश�ा परा गरकाू े ; नपाल�े [npi] भाषामा सामा�य द�ता रहको।खासगर� कम उमर े ेसमहमा नपाल�को बढ� ूयोग गन� बम ब�दोू े भएको तर भाषाको कन ु ैप�न ूयोग �ेऽमा �ल�ब भाषा �वःथा�पत नभएको। यनःकोु ु े (२००२) अनसार ससाना कटाकट�ह�ल सब उमरका मा�नसह�सग �ल�बभ�दा ु ुे े े ेै ँनपाल� बढ� बो�न गरका। े े े भाषाको �वकास : सब व�ाह�मा भाषा ै�वकासू�तको उ�ूरणा उ�च रहको।�स�रजो�ा �ल�प �सकाउनका ला�ग े ेसा�रता काय�बम च�लरहकाे (साि�मनन े (Salminen) २००७)। क�वता लखन। पऽप�ऽका तथा समाचारपऽ ूकािशत। नयाँ मा�यममा र��यो े ेकाय�बम, �सनमा �नमा�णे , ट�ल�भजन काय�बम तथा �भ��यो रक���ङ। े ेश�दकोश तथा �याकरण ूकािशत।NT: २००९।�ल�पको ूयोग: दवनागर� �ल�पको ूारि�भक ूयोग। �ल�ब े ु (�कराँती, �स�रजो�ा) �ल�प, १८औ शता�द�को ूार�भसग �वक�सत।� ँ ै अ�य: बढापाका तथा धा�म�क ुअगवाह�ल जानको उ�च भा�षक भदलाई म�द�बान भ�नन। ु ु ुे े े ेपर�परागत धम� (�करात), �बिःचयन।

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ल�बबु -यब�खब [luu] (यब�खबबब िचआ (Yakkhaba Cea))।व�ब स��यब: १,२०० (सन ्२०००)। बो�लन �े� े : कोशी अ�ल अ�तग�त धनकटब ुिज�लबको उ�रमब पन� अख�ल िजतपर र मबरक कबथर गबे ेु .�व.स.ह�। भबषबको अवःथब: ६ख (स�टबप�)। भबषब प�रवबर: िच�नयबँ-�त�बती, भोट-बम�ल�, पि�मी भोट-बम�ल�, �हमबल�, �करबँती, पव�। ू भब�षकबह�: जबनकबर� नभएको। यब�खब [ybh], छलङु ु [cur], �छ�तबङ [ctn] र मगबल�ु

[lmh] सग निजक ँ (�ब�सन१९९१)। भबषबको ूकबर: कतब� कम� �बयब (पदबम); नबमबनगबमीु ; नबम शीषब��त; �बयब�मक ू�ययह�ल प�ष े ुतथब वचन िचि�हत गन�; कबल र प� दव भएकोु ै ; तबनर�हत भबषब। भबषबको ूयोग: क�तपय यवबह�लु े भबषब बो�न गरकबे े (�ब�सन

१९९१)। घरमब।�ल�पको ूयोग: लखन ूणबल�को �वकबस ेनभएको।अ�य: पर�परबगत धम� (�करबत), �ह�दू, �बिःचयन।

लोके [loy] (�लो ःकबड, �होपब, लो मो�टबङ, लोबब, लोपब, लोवब, लोय,ु मःतब�ीु )। व�ब स��यब: ७,५०० (रब��य जनगणनब: २००१)

।५,००० मब�थ�लो मःतबङ र ु २५,००० बबरगबउल। बो�लन �े�ँ े े : ध�लब�गर� अ�लको मःतबङ िज�लबमब पन� उ�र� क���य मब�थ�लो ु ेकब�लग�डक� नद� �े�; उ�च उप�यकब अ�तग�त म�य-��लबकब ृथकबल�, ग�ङ र मगर �े�ु ; कबगबनीको बब� हे गबउँ, मि�नबथ र जोङ ु(Dzong) गब.�व.स.ह�; मब�थ�लो मःतबङकब िघमीु , सबरबङ (Tsarang), लो मो�थबङ, सखब�ङु , छोसरे , च�ुप गबु .�व.स., र च�सबङ गबु .�व.स.को समर गबउँ; कणब�ल� अ�लको डो�पब िज�लबमब प�न बो�लन।े भबषबको अवःथब: ६क (ूवल)। आ�दवबसी जनजब�तमब सचीकतह�को भबषबू ृ

(२००२, आजउरबू ऐन, नं. २०, ख�ड २ग)। भबषब प�रवबर: िच�नयबँ-�त�बती, भोट-बम�ल�, पि�मी भोट-बम�ल�, बो�डस, क���य बो�डसे , चबङ (gTsang)।भब�षकबह�: बबरगबउल ँ े (बबरगबउँ, बबरबगबउँ, भोट� ग�ङु ), मब�थ�लो मःतबङु (लोके)। डो�पो [dre] सग �नकट। उ�लिखत ँ े

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भा�षकाह�बीच उ�च बोधग�यता।शा��दक समानता: भा�षकाह�का बीचमा ७९%–८८% स�म, डो�पो [dre] सगँ ५९%–७१% स�म; �हासा �त�बती [bod] सग ँ ५४%–५७% स�म; मगमु ु [muk] सग ँ ५८%–६७%

स�म। भाषाको ूकार: कता� कम� �बया (पदबम); नामानगामीु ; नाम शीषा��द; ५ वटा नाम वग� र ३ वटा �याकर�णक �ल�। �वषयाप�ी ेू�वाचक श�द यथाःथानमा; २ वटास�म ू�यय ला�ने; कम� वा�य वा भाव वा�य नभएको; तानर�हत भाषा; ४४ वटा �य�न र ८ वटा ःवर वण� भएको।भाषाको ूयोग: भाषा समदायभ�दा बा�हर पढका ु ेयवायवतीह�ल लोक भाषा बो�न नस�न स�भावना रहको। धा�म�क ु ु े े े ेकाय�मा �त�बती [bod] ूयोग ग�रने; घरमा, साथीभाइसग। सब उमर ँ ै ेसमहकाल बो�न। भाषाू�तको अ�भव�� सकारा�मक।ू ृे े सके े [skj] र डो�पो [dre] ह�सग प�न लोक बो�लन। नपाल�ँ े े े [npi] वा �त�बती [bod] प�न बो�न। े भाषाको �वकास: दोॐो भाषामा सा�रता: �ज�लाभ�रमा ४१% (थकाल� तथा नपाल�े )।(प�ष ु ५७%, म�हला २८%)

।अन�पचा�रक �श�ा। �याकरण।�ल�पको ूयोग: दवनागर� े�ल�प।�त�बती �ल�प। अ�य: चीन तथा भारतमा बो�लन �म�रस ेप�रवारको �होबाभ�दा �भ�। लो �ेऽका बा�स�दाह�ला� लोपा वा लोवा भ�नन।उनीह�को राजधानी मा�था� होे तर बा�ह�रयाह�ल मःताङ े ुभ�े। मा�थाङमा २०० घर धर� र धर ग�बाह� छन।ु ु ्े ै अ�य: पर�परागत धम�सग ब� धम�को �म�ण भएको।ँ ु

लोहो�ङ [lbr] (लोहोरोङ, लोहो�ङ, लो॑ङु , लो॑ङ खानावाु , लो�ङ, उ�र� लो�ङ) व�ा स��या: ४,९७० (२००२ स�ुवासभा �ज�ला �वकास स�म�त)। बो�लन �ेऽे : कोशी अ�ल, क���य स�ुवासभा े�ज�ला, म�य अ�ण उप�यका र सभाखोलाका बीचका पा� मा, ��ला, �हगवाु , खोर�डे, बद�उ, गर��लाै , मा�टा, �सतलपाट� र धप गाउह�।ु ु ँ भाषाको अवःथा: ६ख (स�टाप�)। ��दवासी जनजा�तमा सचीकतह�को ू ृ

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भाषा (२००२, आजउराू ऐन, नं. २०, ��� २ग)। राई जनजा�त। भाषा प�रवार: िच�नयाँ-�त�बती, भोट-बम�ल�, पि�मी भोट-बम�ल�, �हमाल�, �कराँती, पव�। ू भा�षकाह�: �बि�सत (�ब�सी)।या�फ ु [ybi] सगँ ४४% बोधग�यता। �करात राई समह।ू या�फु [ybi], दि��ी या�फु

[lrr], पव� मवाहाङू े [emg], पि�मी मवाहाङे [raf] र या��ा [ybh] सग ँस�बि�धत। शाि�दक समानता: भा�षकाह�का बीचमा ८८%–९९% समानता, या�फु [ybi] सगँ ६४%–६७%, दि��ी या�फु [lrr] सगँ ६५%–

६८%। भाषाको ूकार: कता� कम� �बया (पदबम); नामानगामीु ; �बया�मक सग�ह�ल प�ष तथा वचन िचि�हत गन�े ु ; काल �यवःथा भएको। तानर�हत भाषा। भाषाको ूयोग: लोहो�ङ स� कटमःत भाषा, नपाल�को ूभाव ब�द गएको।े ै (�ट.�प. �य�पान े २००२)। घरमा, धा�म�क काय�मा। �मि�त ूयोग: साथीभाइसगँ, कामकाजमा। सब उमर ै ेसमहकाल बो�नू े े; भाषाू�तको ��भवि� सकारा�मक।ूायृ : सबल ै ेधरथोर नपाल�े े [npi] बो�न। े भाषाको �वकास: र��यो काय�बम। ेश�दकोश ूकाशन।�ल�पको ूयोग: दवनागर� �ल�प।े ��य: �बि�सट भा�षका धप गाु ु .�व.स.मा बो�लन भ�े �ा�सनल दाबी गरका। े े े (�ा�सन

१९९१)।पर�परागत धम� (�करात), �ह�दू, �बिःचयन। �होमी [lhm] (“भो ट भाषाे ”�न�दाथ�क, “कार भोटे” �न�दाथ�क, “काठ भोटे”

�न�दाथ�क, �होकटे ) व�ा स��या: नपालमाे ५,६६० (२००२ एस.आइ.एल.), ब�दो बम। स�प�� जनस��याू : ७,९८०।जातीय जनस��या: १५,०००। बो�लन �े�े : कोशी ��लको उ�र� स�ुवासभा िज�लादि� िचने -नपाल �समानाको चपवा गाे े ु .�व.स.का चपवाे ु , �ा�ताङ, ग�बाु , छमसरु ु ु , �कमा ु (वा �रदाक) गाउह�ँ ; हा�टया गा.�व.स.का हा�टया, ह�ुङु , फाराङ, ःयाि�सला, �स�बङ ु (वा श�बङे ु ), नामास े (वा नामछेु) र िशूङ गाउह�ु ँ ; ��� उप�यकामा पन� स�सम े ुगाउ सबभ�दा दि��मा पन�ँ ै ; कह� काठमा��मा प�न बसोबास गन�। े

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चीन तथा भारतमा प�न बो�लन। े भाषाको अवःथा: ५ (�वकासशील)। आ�दवासी जनजा�तमा सचीकतह�को भाषाू ृ (२००२, आजउराू ऐन, नं. २०, ख�� २ग)। भाषा प�रवार: िच�नयाँ-�त�बती, भोट-बम�ल�, पि�मी भोट-बम�ल�, बो��स, क���य बो��से , क���ये , चाङ (gTsang) भा�षकाह�: जानकार� नभएको। शाि�दक समानता: �ो�पो [dre] सग ँ६९%, लोके [loy] सग ँ ६८% , वाल�ेु [ola] सग ँ ६६%, �हासा �त�बती [bod] र �य�ङे (ि�यरोङ) [kgy] सग ँ ६५% , नॄी ु [kte] ६४% ,

हल�ब शपा�े ेु [scp] सग ँ ६०%, शपा�े [xsr] सग ँ ५८%, र िजरले [jul] सग ँ५७%। भाषाको ूकार: कता� कम� �बया (पदबम); नामानगामीु ; नाम शीषा��द; प�ल� र �ी�ल� ु (सी�मत वग�); �वषयाप�ी ू�वाचक श�द ेम�य �बया भ�दा अिघ आउनु े; एउटा उपसग�, ३ वटास�म ू�यय; कारक�य िच�हह�ल उपवा�यीय घटकह� िचि�हत गन�े ; �वभािजत ऊजा�व�व; प� �यवःथा भएको; कम� वा�य वा भाव वा�य नभएको; तानय� ु (�ढ-िश�थल); २३ वटा �य�न वण� र ८ वटा ःवर वण�। सा�ीवाचकता �होमी वा�य�व�ानको मह�वपण� �वशषता भएको। ू ेभाषाको ूयोग: ूवल। घरमा, साथीभाइसगँ, धा�म�क काय�मा; �मि�त ूयोग: कामकाजमा। सब उमर समहकाल बो�न। भाषाू�तको ै े े ेूअ�भवि� सकारा�मक। ृ ९०% प�षह�ल �यापा�रक ूयोजनका ला�ग ु ेकाम च�न खालको नपाल� े े [npi] बो�ने; म�हलाह�ल प�न नपाल� बो�न े े ेबम ब�दो। पढलखका �होमीह� नपाल� भाषा बो�न पो�त रहकाे े े े े ; क�तपयल �त�बती े [bod]प�न रा�र� बो�न। े भाषाको ूयोग: प�हलो भाषामा सा�रता: २५%, दोॐो भाषामा सा�रता: ३०%। �होमी र नपाल�को ��भा�षक सा�रता काय�बमल ूौढ र े े (म�हला) ह�मा सा�रता ब�न स�न। क�वता तथा समाचारपऽ ूकािशत। स�ारका ेनयाँ मा�यम : �भ��यो। NT: १९९५।�ल�पको ूयोग: दवनागर� �ल�पे

अ�य: पर�परागत धम�, बौ� (लामावाद�), �बिःचयन।

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वा�बब ु े [wme] (आ�बबेु, चौर�सया, छौर�सया, छौरःया, छौउरासे,

छोउरा�सआ, ��बबेु, छाउरःया, उ�बबेु, भा�बचाउरस रादयोरु ु , भा�बबेु)।व�ा स��या: ४,४७० (रा��य जनगणना २००१)।

बढापःताका कह� एकभाषीह� बाँक� रहकाु ु े े । बो�बन �े�े : सगरमाथा अ�ब, �खबढ�ा िज�बाको सदर दि�णु ु ु (वा��ाब भा�षका): �र�दमु,

बकभापानीु ु , वा��ाब (उब)ु, हकुु, �सकाप,ु तारको�डाँडा, सा�बे, ध�ीे ,

धरचौरै , खयाप,ु बोफ� , ठबाचौरु , मो�ब, भा�सा, बभाे , �स�ज,ु ग�रगाउै ँ,

ध�दाबे ,ु को�सपे ु, फाःकु, सरा�खे ;ु (�हबपान भा�षकाे े ): �पपबे, भदारे,

�हबपानीे , था�बे, म�धारे, सो�मा टार, द�द�माु ु , ज�मा, ज�ने , �रचभाु ,

बा�बोबे; (उदयपर भा�षकाु ): उदयपर ु ,फ�दगाउे , बरासी, फ�दगाउे ँ, बरा�स,

िघराि�द, �स�काकु, पके ु ; खोटाङ िज�बाको सदर पि�म ु ु (झा�पा�ब भा�षका): कब�घाटु , माझखानी, �याि�दटार, �पाटार, खक� , चभाबोटु , झापा, बख�डाँडाु ु , भइटार, बाबइु, थ�काु , पाकौिच, गो�भआर, गद�मु ु , जायाराम घा, बाह�न डाँडाु , टो�के , �ब�बनु, दाि�ब, भटागाउे ँ, ट�टके ु ु ; सगरमाथा अ�ब, उदयपर िज�बाको सदर उ�र र जनकपर अ� चु ु ु ु ब, �स�धब� ुिज�बाको सदर उ�रपव� ु ु ू (�हबपान भा�षकाे े ): बखा�ने , घ�म�ु , स�बे, सो�न,

स�ब�ने , प�बो स�ब�न े , �स�दर ु े , मा�खा�न, �भपा��न, कस�टारु ु , जो�त�घाट।

भाषाको अवःथा: ५ (�वकासशीब)। आ�दवासी जनजा�तमा सचीकतह�को भाषाू ृ (२००२, आजउराू ऐन, नं.२०, ख�ड २ग), राई जनजा�त। भाषा प�रवार: िच�नयाँ-�त�बती, भोट-बम�ब�, पि�मी भोट-

बम�ब�, �हमाब�, �कराँती, पि�मी। भा�षकाह�: बोन,ु �हबपाने े, झा�पाब�, उदइपरेु, वा��ाब। भा�षकाह�बीच पया�� अ�त�न��हत बोधग�यता रहकोे । ज�ङ े [jee] र वा�बब आपसमा बोधग�यु े (��गनोट� े Opgenort

२००४)। शाि�दक समानता: ज�ङ े [jee] सग ँ ९३% (��गनोट� े Opge-

nort २००५)। पदबम: कता� कम� �बया; नामानगामीु ; नाम शीषा��त;

नाममा �ब� र वग� नभएको; �वषयाप�ी ू�वाचक श�द यथाःथानमाे ;

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एउटा उपसग�, ४ वटास�म (श�दा�तर�) परसग�ह� र ४ वटा पदावल�गत सग�ह�; उपवा�यीय घटकह� कारक�य िच�हबाट िचि�हत हन ु े (र अ�भकता� र उदासीन कम� �बयामा िचि�हत हनेु); �बयाको सग�ल ेप�ष र वचन िचि�हत गन�ु ; ऊजा�व�व, तर सकि� पं त अ�भ�यि�का कारणल अकम�क �बयाको कता�मा प�न ऊजा�व�व कारक दखा पन�े े ; काल र प� �यवःथा भएको; कम�वा�य वा भाववा�य नभएको; तानह�न भाषा; ३३ �य� जन र ९ वटा ःवर वण�; अ�तग�मना�मक kflZj{s।

भाषा ूयोग: ूवल।घरमा, साथीह�सगँ, धा�म�क काय�मा; �मि�त ूयोग: कामकाजमा, िश�ामा। सब उमरका मा�नसह�ल बो�नै े े े।

नपाल� े [npi] प�न ूयोग ग�रने। अ�तजा�तीय �ववाहल गदा� बा�ह� े [bhj]

र ज�� माे [jee] कह� े ��भा�षकता पाइने। भाषा �वकास: ूाथ�मक �व�ालमा पढाइने। क�वता लखने । प�प��का ूकािशत। स�ार मा�यम: �भ��यो �नमा�ण। श�दकोश तथा �याकरण ूकािशत। �ल�पको ूयोग: दवनागर� �ल�पे । अ�य: पर�परागत धम� (�करात), �ह�दू, �बिःचयन। वाय ु[vay] (बाय,ु हाय,ु वाय ु,वायो)।व�ा स��या: १,७४० (रा��य जनगणना २००१), घ�दो बम। एकभाषी व�ा नभएका। जातीय जनस��या: १,८०० (रा��य जनगणना २००१) दिख े २,८०० (सन ्२०००)। बो�लन �े�े : जनकपर अ�लकोु रामछाप िज�लाकाे मदाजोर ुर सकाजोर गाउह�ु ँ ; �स�धल� िज�लाु , मान�दह� गाउे ँ। सनकोशी ुउप�यका र �यहाँबाट महाभारत �� खृ लाको दि�णत�� । भाषाको अवःथा: ७ (अपसरणशील)। आ�दवासी जनजा�तमा सचीकतह�को भाषाू ृ

(२००२, आजउराू ऐन, नं.२०, ख�� २ग)। भाषा प�रवार: िच�नया-�त�बती, भोट-बम�ल�, पि�मी भोट-बम�ल�, �हमाल�, �कराती, पि�मी।

भा�षकाह�: म�रन खोला, �स�धल�ु । पदबम: कता� कम� �बया; नामानगामीु ; नाम शीषा��त; नाममा कन वग� वा �ल� ु ै

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नभएको।�वषयाप�ी ू�वाचक श�द यथाःथानमाे ; उपवा�यीय घटकह�लाई कारक�य िच�हह�ल िचि�हत गन�े ; �बया�मक ू�ययल ेप�ष र वचनलाई िचि�हत गन�ु ; ऊजा�व�व; काल �यवःथा भएको; कम�वा�य वा भाववा�य नभएको; तानर�हत भाषा; २७ वटा �य� जन र ८ वटा ःवर वण�ह�। भाषा ूयोग: वाय जा�तका मा�नसह� सनकोशी ु ुनद�को दबप��का पहाडमा बसोबास गन� तर भाषाचा�ह मा�थ उ�लिखत ु ै ँ ेगाउह�मा माऽ बो�लनँ े। १९९५ मा मदाजोरका बालब�चाह�ल वाय ु ुेभाषा �स�करहका �थएनन तर मान�दह�मा भाषा जी�वत र ूवल �थयोे े्

(यनःकोु े २००२)। भाषा सर�ण गन� �िच ब�दो।धम�मां ; �मि�त ूयोग: घरमा, साथीह�सगँ। वयःकह� र बढापःताकाह�ल बो�नु ु े े।

कह� यवाे ु /�कशोरह�ल प�न धरथोर ूयोग गन�े े । वाय भाषालाई ुूग�तको बाधक �ा�ेह�मा भा�षक अ�भवि�ृ नकारा�मक रहकोे ; तर कह� अ�पस��यकह�ल यो भाषा बो�लरहन मन पराउने े े। सबल नपाल� ै े े[npi] प�न ूयोग गन�। �ल�पको ूयोग: दवनागर� �ल�पे । अ�य: वण� �यवःथा, श�दभ�डार र �याकरणमा नपाल�को ूशःत ूभाव दिखन े े े(�या�टसो� १९९१)। पर�परागत धम� (�करात), �ह�दू। वा�लल [wly] (वाललु, बा�लल)। मातभाषाका व�ाह� बाँक� ृनरहकाे ।बो�लन �ेऽे : कोशी अ�ल, भोजपर िज�लाु , खराल गाै .�ब.स.।

भाषाको अवःथा: १० (लोप भइसककोे )। भाषा प�रवार: िच�नया-�त�बती, भोट-बम�ल�, पि�मी भोट-बम�ल�, �हमाल�, �कराँती, पव�ू । भाषा ूयोग: सन ्१८००को अ��यदिख बा�तवा�तर अपसरण भइसककोे े । �ल�पको ूयोग:

अ�लिखत। वाल� गु े[ola] (हाललु, हाल�ेु , वालो�चल गोलाु , वाललु, वाल�चल गोलाु ु ,

वाल� गीु क��याे )।व�ा स��या: नपालमा े १,५०० (रा��य जनगणना २००१), घ�दो बम। भा�षक मलथलोमा ू १,२००। मलथलो ू

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छो�नह�ल भाषा गमाउन दर उ�च रहकोे े े ेु ।बो�लन �ेऽे : मची अ�ले ,

ता�लजङ िज�लामा पन�े ु मा�थ�लो तमर र ग�सा उप�यकाु । चीन र भारतमा प�न बो�लने। भाषाको अवःथा: ६ख (स�टाप�)। आ�दवासी जनजा�तमा सचीकतह�को भाषाू ृ (२००२, आजउराू ऐन, नं.२०, ख��

२ग)। भाषा प�रवार: िच�नया-�त�बती, भोट-बम�ल�, पि�मी भोट-बम�ल�,

बो��स, क���य बो��से , अवग�कतृ । भा�षकाह�: ��सा नद�ु , ओलाङचङ ुगोला (मा�थ�लो तमर नद�), तो�क गोला े (मवा नद�े )। थदाम ु [thw] सग ँउ�च बो�ग�यता। �त�बतको �त� गे िज�लामा बो�लन �त�बती ेभा�षकासग �म�दोज�दोँ ु । शाि�दक समानता: लासा �त�बती [bod] सग ँ७१%, �ो�पो [dre], लोक े [loy] र �य�ङ े [kgy] सग ँ ६८%; �होमी [lhm] र हल�ब शपा� े ेु [scp] सग ँ ६६%; नॄी ु [kte] सग ँ ६४%, िजरले

[jul] सग ँ ५७%, शपा�े [xsr] सग ँ ५५%। भाषा ूयोग: भा�षक अ�भवि� ृसकारा�मक। �ल�पको ूयोग: �त�बती �ल�प। अ�य: �होमीबाट टा��एको, �त�बतसग �नकटता रहको।क�तपय �होमी र �त�बतीसग ँ ँेअ�तजा�तीय �ववाह हनेु। वाल� गु ेह�ल आफलाई शपा� भ�े े ेूगरकाे ।भाषाको कन खास नाम नभएकोु ै , सब भदह�लाई एकठाउमा ै ैे ँराखर अ�य �त�बती भाषाह�बाट अल�याउन गरकाे े ेँ । 'वाल� गु े' भ�े श�द भा�षक �ेऽको म�य गाउह�म�यबाट आएको।ु ँ े ब��। शपा�े [xsr] [(सवा�े , शपा�े , “शपा� भो�टआे ” �न�दाथ�क, �सआबा� (Xiaerba)]

।व�ा स��या: नपालमा े १२२,००० (२००१), ��दो बम। दग�म ुगाउह�का क�तपय ब�ब�ाह� एकभाषी ँ ृ ृ (यनःकोु े )। कल जनस��याु :

१,४५,८००। जातीय जनस��या: १,५५,००० (रा��य जनगणना २००१)। बो�लन �ेऽे : सगरमाथा अ�लको सोलख�ब िज�लाु ु ु ;

जनकपरकाु , दोलखा र रामछाप िज�लाे । भटानु , चीन, भारत र सय� ं ुरा�य अम�रकामा प�न बो�लने े। भाषाको अवःथा: ५ (�वकासशील)।

आ�दवासी जनजा�तमा सचीकतह�को भाषाू ृ (२००२, आजउराू ऐन,

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नं.२०, ख�� २ग)। भाषा प�रवार: िच�नयाँ-�त�बती, भोट-बम�ल�, पि�मी भोट-बम�ल�, बो��स, क���य बो��से , क���ये , चाङ (gTsang)।

भा�षकाह�: क���य शपा� े े (सोल,ु दि�णी शपा�े ), पव� शपा� ू े (दोलखा, रामछापे ), उ�र� शपा� े (ख�बु )ु, पि�म शपा�े । पि�मी र ख�ब भा�षकाका ु ुव�ाह�ल सोल भा�षका े ु ९५% ब�न।ु े शाि�दक समानता: सोल र ुख�ब भा�षका बीच ु ु ९०%; िजरले [jul] सगँ ६७%; हल�ब शपा�े ेु [scp] सग ँ ६५%; लोक े [loy] र �ो�पो [dre] सगँ ६२%; �होमी [lhm] र �हासा �त�बती [bod] सग ँ ५८%; �य�ङ े (ि�यरोङ) [kgy] सग ँ ५७%;

न�� ु [kte] र वाल��गु े [ola] सगँ ५५%। भाषाको ूकार: कता� कम� �बया (पदबम); नामानगामीु ; नाम शीषा��त; नामको �ल� वा वग� नभएको; �वषयवाची ू�वाचक श�द यथाःथानमा।एउटा उपसग� र ३ वटास�म परसग� �लने; उपवा�यीय घटकह� कारक िच�हकबाट िचि�हत हनेु; �बया�मक सग�ल प�ष िचि�हत गन�े ु ; �वभािजत ऊजा�व�व; काल र प� �यवःथा भएको; कम�वा�यीय सरचना नभएकों ; तानय� भाषाु ;

३१वटा �य� जन र ६वटा ःवर वण�ह� (६ वटा ��ःवरह� प�न) भएको। भाषाको ूयोग: मामीण �ेऽमा ूवल तर सहर� �ेऽह�मा नपाल� े [npi] �तर अपसरण भइरहको।े �मि�त ूयोग: घरमा, साथीह�सगँ, �ा�म�क काय�मा, काममा, िश�ामा। वयःकह� र ब�ब�ाह�ल बो�नृ ृ े े। कटाकट�े े , वयःक र यवायवतीह�ल कह� ूयोग ु ु े ेगन�। भा�षक अ�भवि� सकारा�मकृ । शपा� भाषा ूयोग गदा� ःकलमा े ुअ�य भाषीह�ल िजःकाउने े। का�मा���मा बसोबास गन� अ�भभावकह�ल ःकल कटाकट�सग नपाल�े े े े ेु ँ [npi] ूयोग गन�। कह�ल े ेनपाल�े [npi], �त�बती [bod] वा अ�मजी े [eng] प�न ूयोग गन�, पदूदश�क(प�षु ) ह�ल जम�नी े [deu], को�रयाल� [kor], �ा�सल�े [fra] पदयाऽीह�को भाषा �स�न गरकाे े (१९९८ एस.आइ.एल.)। क�तीमा ९०% ल नपाल�े े बो�न े (यनःकोु े )। भाषाको ूयोग: प�हलो भाषामा

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सा�रता दर: ८%-९%स�म। माउ�टन इ��ःट�यट र पा�बम �वकास े ुक��ल ूाथ�मक �श�ाका ला�ग कह� साममीह� ूकाशन गरका।े े े े

भाषाको �वकासमा नभएकामा क�तपय व�ाह�ल सकोच मा�े।े ं क�वता लखने । प�प��का ूकाशन। र��यो काय�बमे । श�दकोश �नमा�ण।

बाइबलका कह� ख��े १९७५-२००८। �ल�पको ूयोग: दवनागर� े�ल�प। �त�बती �ल�प। अ�य: पय�टन �यवसायमा सल�नता र ब�दो ंआ�थ�क स�प�ताल गदा� शपा�ह�ल उनीह�का बालबा�लकालाई े े ेकाठमा��� वा �वदशमा प�न पठाउन थालकाल भा�षक अपसरणलाई े े ेूौय गरको।ब��े (लामावाद�), �ब�ःचयन। सःकतं ृ [san] (दव भाषाे , दव वाणीे , सःकत भाषां ृ )। प�हलो भाषाका व�ाबार जानकार� नभएको।े कल जनस��याू : १४,१००। �र�तर े ै��रएका। भारतमा प�न बो�लने। भाषाको अवःथा: ९ [सष� तु ु (Dormant)]। भाषा प�रवार: भारोपल�े , आय�-इरानल�े , भारतीय-आय�।

भाषाको ूकार: कता� कम� �बया (पदबम); नामामगामी र नामानगामी ुदवैु; नाम शीषा��त; ३ वटा �ल�; �वषयवाची ू�वाचक श�द यथाःथानमा; ३ वटास�म उपसग� �लने, ५ वटास�म परसग� �लने; कारक �च�हकबाट उपवा�यीय घटकह� �च��हत हनेु; �बया�मक सग�ल प�षे ु , वचन र �ल� �च��हत गन�; ऊजा�व�व नभएको; काल र प� �यवःथा भएको; कम�वा�य वा भाववा�य भएको; तानर�हत भाषा; ३२ वटा �य� जन १५ वटा ःवर वण�। भाषाको ूयोग: दोॐो भाषाका �पमा बो�न ेव�ाह�को घ�दो बम। �ा�म�क काय�मा, �श�ामा; �म�ौत ूयोग:

घरमा, साथीह�सगँ, कामकाजमा। भा�षक अ�भव�� सकारा�मकृ । भाषा �वकास: महायानी ब�� स�ूदायमा सःकतको ूयोग गन�ं ृ । ूाथ�मक तथा मा�य�मक �व�ालयह�मा पढाइने। �ल�पको ूयोग: दवनागर� �ल�पे ।

�या�मार (बम�ल�) �ल�प। नवार े (ूच�लत) �ल�प। शारदा �ल�प। �सहला ं�ल�प। अ�य: �ह�दू, ब��।

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स�थथाल [sat] (हथर, होर, स�तीै , स�दथा, स�तथा, स�तथा, स�तथाल, स�थथा, सतथर, स�तथाले , सो�थथा)।व�थ स��यथ: नपथामथ े ४०,३००

(रथ��य जनगणनथ २००१), ब�दो बम। एकभथषी �नक कमै ।का ुजनस��यथ: ६२,१८,९००। जथतीय जनस��यथ: ४२,�००।बो�ान े�े�: कोशी अ�ाकथ मोरङ र सनसरल िज�ाथु ; मची अ�ाकोे झथपथ िज�ाथ। ब�ाथदशे , भटथन र भथरतमथ प�नु । भथषथको अवःथथ: ६क

(ूवा)। आ�दवथसी जनजथ�तमथ सचीकतह�को भथषथू ृ (२००२, आजउरथू

ऐन, नं.२०, ख�� २ग)। भथषथ प�रवथर: अःशो,-ए�सयथाल, म��थु , उ�रल म��थु , खवथ�रले , स�तथाल। भथ�षकथह�: जथनकथरल नभएको। हो [hoc],

म��थरल ु [unr] र म��थु [unx] सग निजकँ । भथषथको ूकथर: कतथ� कम� �बयथ; नथमथनगथमीु ; नथम शीषथ��त; नथमको �ा� वथ वग� नभएको;

ू�वथचक श�द यथथःथथनमथ; एउटथ उपसग� र ३ वटथस�म परसग� �ाने; उपवथ�यीय घटकह� कथरक िच�हकबथट िचि�हत हनेु; �बयथ�मक सग�ह�ा प�ष र वचन जनथउने ेु ; ऊजथ�व�व नभएको; कथा र प� दब ु ै�यवःथथ भएको; कम�वथ�य वथ भथववथ�य भएको; तथनर�हत भथषथ;

३३वटथ �य� जन र ६वटथ ःवर वण� भएको। भथषथको ूयोग: दोॐो भथषी सतथर व�थह�को स��यथ १,३३९; दोॐो भथषी स�थथा व�थह�को स��यथ ५५९ (रथ��य जनगणनथ १९९१)। बसथइ सरथइँ ,

मौसमी कथमदथरल, �नर�रतथ र िश�थ आज�नमथ क��नथइ आ�द भथषथको जीव�ततथकथ ाथ�ग स�टसचकू (यनःकोु े )। घरमथ, सथथीह�सग रँ �थ�म�क कथय�मथ, कथमकथजमथ; �मि�त ूयोग: िश�थमथ। सब उमरकथ मथ�नसा ै े ेबो�ने। भथ�षक अ�भवि� सकथरथ�मकृ । नपथाल े [npi] र म�थाल ै [mai] प�न ूयोग गन�। क�तीमथ २५,४२० स�थथाल व�थह�ा दोॐो भथषथकथ े�पमथ नपथाल बो�न त�य ू�तवदनमथ उ�ाख भएकोे े े े (रथ��य जनगणनथ २००१)। भथषथ �वकथस: प�हाो भथषथमथ सथ�रतथ दर: कहले । ूथथ�मक ःकामथ पढथइनु े (बहभथ�षक िश�थ �व�थायमथु )। �ा�पको ूयोग: ब�थाल

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�ल�प। दवनागर� �ल�प े (नपालमा ूयोग हने ेु )। �या�टन �ल�प (ब�लादशमा ूयोग हने ेु )। ओल �च�क (Ol Chiki), (ओल चमत् े े ' (Ol

Cemet’), ओल स�ताल� ् (Ol, Santali) �ल�प। उ��या �ल�प। अ�य:

पर�परागत धम�, �ह�दू, �ब�ःचयन। सा:म [raq] (सा:म राई, सा:मा खा, सामाखा)। व�ा स��या: २३ (रा��य जनगणना २००१)।बो�लन �ेऽे : कोशी अ�लको उ�र� भोजपर ु�ज�लाका दोभान र खाता�मा े (खारता�ा) गा.�व.स.ह�, इख�वा नद�को ुदोभान �ेऽ, दा� माया, ओखरबोटे, खारता� मा, र �द� तथा इख�वा े ुनद�ह�क दोभान बःतीह�े । भाषाको अवःथा: ८ ख (ल�ूायु )।

आ�दवासी जनजा�तमा सचीकतह�को भाषाू ृ (२००२, आजउराू ऐन,

नं.२०, ख�� २ग), राई जनजा�त। भाषा प�रवार: �च�नयाँ-�त�बती, भोट-

बम�ल�, प��मी भोट-बम�ल�, �हमाल�, �कराँती, पव�ू । भा�षकाह�:

ब�लाु , सा��या। भाषाको ूयोग: नपाल� े [npi] �तर अपसरणशील।

ब�ब�ाल धरथोर ूयोग गन�।ृ ृ े े �ल�पको ूयोग: लखन ूणाल� �वकास ेनभएको। अ�य: उ�र� भोजपर �ज�लामा बो�लन ूायु े : कन प�न ु ैभाषाह�को अ�ययन वा अ�भलखीकरण नभएको। े 'साम' भ�नन अ�य ेसमदाय कलङ ु ु ु [kle] वा �ल��म [lii] हन स�नु े। पर�परागत धम� (�करात)। सा�पाङ [rac] (सा�पाङ गनु, सा�पाङ गङु, सा�पाङ खा, सा�पाङ राईे ,

सा�पाङ, सा�पाङ �गन,् सा�पाङ गनु, सा�पाङ खा)।व�ा स��या: ६,००० (आर. हः�यान ु १९९९ (R. Huysmans)), ��दो बम।

एकभाषी व�ा नपाइने। �ाल� भा�षका कह� बढापाकाल माऽ े ेुबो�ने।बो�लन �ेऽे : खोटाङ भा�षका: सगरमाथा अ�लको, खोटाङ �ज�लामा पन� थापखोला नद�को मा�थ�लो भागका बाःपानी, खारता�चा,

�द� रे पाथका गाउह�े ँ ; कोशी �ेऽमा प�रव�� टे त तीनवटा �ेऽ,

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भोजपर �ज�लाकोु लाहरखोला नद�को महानमा पन� ु े ु (�खब�ट गाउे ँ), ःया�खोला �ेऽका (�कमालङु, �नगाले, तालखक� र सक� गाउह�ु ँ ) तथा �द�ला बजारको व�रप�र। कोशी अ�ल, भोजपर �ज�लाका कह� ु ेब�ापाकाह�ल �ाल� भा�षका बो�नु े े, सा�पाङ। भाषाको अवःथा: ६ख

(स�टाप�)। आ�दवासी जनजा�तमा सचीकतह�को भाषाू ृ (२००२,

आजउराू ऐन, नं.२०, ख�� २ग), राई जनजा�त। भाषा प�रवार: �च�नयाँ-�त�बती, भोट-बम�ल�, प��मी भोट-बम�ल�, �हमाल�, �कराँती, पव�ू ।

भा�षकाह�: खोटाङ, �ाल�। खाता��चा भद र खोटाङ भा�षकाको पाथका े ेभदका बीचमा परःपर बोधग�यता उ�च रहकोे े । खोटाङ र �ाल� सा�पाङ भा�षकाका बीचको परःपर बोधग�यता अनमान गन� गा॑ो भए ुप�न कम भए �� ला�न।े भाषाको ूकार: कता� कम� �बया;

नामानगामीु ; नाम शीषा��त; नाममा �ल� वा वग� नभएको; �वषयवाची

ू�वाचक श�द यथाःथानमा; एउटा उपसग� र ६ वटास�म परसग� �लने; पदबमल उपवा�यीय घटकह�लाई �च��हत गन�े ; �बया�मक सग�ल प�ष र वचन �च��हत गन�े ु ; �वभा�जत ऊजा�व�व; काल र प� �यवःथा भएको; कम�वा�य वा भाववा�य भएको; तानर�हत भाषा; २८ �य� जन २० ःवर वण�ह�; सर �य�तरक�ु े , ना�स�य ःवर वण� र आ��रक ना�स�य; अपणा�थ�क नामीकरण परसग�ल �याकरणमा म�य ू ुेभ�मका ख�नू े े; ना�मक �प�व�ानमा नपाल�को �तय�क कारक �च�हकको े ्ूवशल गदा� ऊजा�वत सरचनामा असर पद� गएको।े े ् ं भाषाको ूयोग: नपाल� े [npi] �तर अपसरणशील। �म��त ूयोग: घरमा, साथीह�सगँ,

धा�म�क काय�मा, कामकाजमा। यवायवती र ब�ाब��ह�ल ूयोग गन�ु ु ु ु े ।

कटाकट� र �कशोर�कशोर�ल प�न धरथोर ूयोग गन�े े े े । भा�षक अ�भव�� ृसकारा�मक। धर जसोल अ�लअ�ल नपाल� े े ेै [npi] प�न बो�ने तर �श��त �य��ह� र वयःकह�मा उ�च द�ता रहकोे । �श�ाको मा�यम भाषाका �पमा नपाल�लाई �ल�ने े। भाषाको �वकास: दोॐो भाषामा

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सा�रता दर: ८०%। श�दकोश। NT: २००८। �ल�पको ूयोग:

दवनागर� �ल�पे । अ�य: पर�परागत धम� (�करात), �ह�दू, �बिःचयन। सनवारु [suz] (भजवारु ु , �कराती-कोइच (Koits), कोइच लो, मिखयाु ,

�पथ�वार, सनवारु ु , स�वार�ु )।व�ा स��या २६,६११ (२००१ रा��य जनगणना)। एकभाषीह� अ�य�त कमै । जातीय जनस��या: ९५,३००

(रा��य जनगणना २००१)।बो�लन �ेऽे : जनकपर अ�लका रामछाप ु ेर दोलखा िज�लाह�, पव� पहा�ह�ू ; सगरमाथा अ�ल, उ�रपि�मी �खलढ�ा िज�लाु । भाषाको अवःथा: ६ख (स�टाप�)। आ�दवासी जनजा�तमा सचीकतह�को भाषाू ृ (२००२, आजउराू ऐन, नं.२०, ख��

२ग)। भाषा प�रवार: िच�नयाँ-�त�बती, भोट-बम�ल�, पि�मी भोट-बम�ल�, �हमाल�, �कराँती, पि�मी। भा�षकाह�: सरलु े । बा�हङ [bhj] सग ँस�बि�धत; थलङु ु [tdh], वा�बलेु [wme], ज�ङ े [jee] सग अ�ल टाढाको ँस�ब�ध। शाि�दक समानता: सरलसग ु े ँ ८०% भ�दा बढ�। भाषाको ूकार: कता� कम� �बया (पदबम); नामानगामीु ; स�ब�ध नामशीषा��त;

स�ब�धवाचक उपवा�य नामशीषा��द; नाम शीषा�म वा शीषा��त; ५वटा नाम वग�ह�; �वषयाप�ीे ू�वाचक श�द वा�या�दमा वा यथाःथानमा; २ वटा स�म उपसग� र ३ वटास�म परसग� �लने; उपवा�यीय घटकह� �वभािजत िच�हकबाट िचि�हत हनेु; �बया�मक सग�ल प�ष र वचन े ुिचि�हत गन�; ूरणाथ�क सरचनाे ं ; तलनावाची सरचनाु ं ; कम�वा�य वा भाववा�य भएको; �यःव, �यःव�य �यःवःव, �य�यःव, �य�यःव�य, ःव,

ःव�य; तानय� भाषाु ; २४ वटा �य� जन र ६वटा ःवर वण�; �य�तरक� ेना�स�य य�मु । भाषा ूयोग: �मि�त ूयोग: घरमा, साथीह�सगँ, धा�म�क काय�मा, कामकाजमा। यवायवती र बढापाकाल बो�नु ु ु े े। कटाकट�ल प�न े े ेधरथोर ूयोग गन�े । मामीण �ेऽमा माऽ बालबा�लकामा भाषा�तरण भएको (यनःकोु े )। भा�षक अ�भवि� सकारा�मकृ । यवाह�ल �यापारमा ु ेनपाल� े [npi] ूयोग गन�, �पचा�रक ूयोगमा कम द�ता रहकोे

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(एस.आइ.एल. १९९८)। धरल बायङे ेै ु [byh] बो�न े (रापचा २०१०), तामाङ [taj] वा नपाल� प�न ूयोग गन�े (यनःकोु े २००२)। भाषाको ूयोग: प�हलो भाषामा सा�रता दर: २०% (रापचा २०१०)। दोॐो भाषामा सा�रता दर: प�ष ु १५% गाउघरमाँ , का�मा���मा २०%।

क�वता लखने । पऽप�ऽका तथा समाचारपऽ ूकािशत। नयाँ मा�यम: र��यो काय�बमे । �भ��यो। श�दकोश तथा �याकरण लखने । बाइबल: २०१२। �ल�पको ूयोग: दवनागर� �ल�पे । अ�य: पर�परागत धम� (�कराती), �ह�दू, �बिःचयन, ताओवाद। सक े े [skj]। व�ा स��या: ७०० (२००२ एस.आइ.एल.)।बो�लन �ेऽे :

ध�ला�गर� अ�लको मःताङ िज�लाकाु च�साङु , चाइले, ता�बे, तताङ रे

�याकार गाउह�ँ ; जोमसोम र पोखरा। भाषाको अवःथा: ६क (ूवल)।

आ�दवासी जनजा�तमा सचीकतह�को भाषाू ृ (२००२, आजउराू ऐन,

नं.२०, ख�� २ग)। भाषा प�रवार: िच�नयाँ-�त�बती, भोट-बम�ल�, पि�मी भोट-बम�ल�, बो��स, पि�मी बो��स , ग�ङु -तामाङ, ग��ीु । भा�षकाह�:

च�साङु , ता�बे, तताङे । थकाल� [ths] र मना�बा [nmm] सग समानताँ ।

लोक े [loy] भ�दा �नक �भ�ै । ता�ब भा�षकाका व�ाह� च�साङ े ुभा�षका �य�त ब�दनन तर च�साङ भा�षकाका व�ाह� ता�ब भा�षका ु ् ुै ेब�छनु ।् सक भाषीह�ल ग�ङ ब�छन तर ग��ह�ल सक ब�दनने े े े े ेु ु ् ु ु ्ै ।

भाषाको ूयोग: सब उमर समहका मा�नसह�ल बो�नै े े ेू । ग�ङ भाषीसग ु ँनपाल� े [npi] ूयोग गछ�न।् क�तपयल लोके े [loy] प�न बो�ने। �ल�पको ूयोग: लखन ूणाल� �वकास नभएकोे । अ�य: सक गाउह� बारगाउले े ेँ ँ

[loy] भाषा समदायबाटु घ�रएकाे । ब��। सो�हा [soi] (सोनाहा, सनाहु , स�हाु )।व�ा स��या: १४,७०० (२०००),

घ�दो बम। एकभाषी व�ा नपाइने।बो�लन �ेऽे : सती अ�लकोे

कलाल� िज�लाै , कणा�ल� नद� �कनारका बःतीह�; भर� अ�लकोे सख�त ु

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िज�ला, भर� नद� �कनारका वःतीह�े ; ब�द�या िज�ला, दौलतपर ुगा.�व.स., मगा�वागाउु ँ; महाकाल� अ�ल, महाकाल� नद� �कनार;

कहचनपर िज�लाु , �भमद� गा.�व.स., �दाल�गाउँ, महह�नगर ेताह�सल। भाषाको अवःथा: ७ (अपसरणशील)। भाषा प�रवार: भारोपल�े ,

आय�-इरानल�े , भारतीय-आय�, कह��य �े�े , अवग�कतृ । भा�षकाह�:

जानकार� नभएको। ८०% बोधग�यता स�हत दगौरा था� ँ [thl] सग ँनिजक; अवधी [awa] सग प�न निजकँ । शाि�दक समानता: राना था�

[thr] सग ँ ६९%, क��रया था� [tkt] सग ँ ७३%, दगौरा था�सग ँ ँ ७२%। सोहहा र क�ो�रया [tkt] ले था�का भा�षक भदह� राना र डगौरा ेबीच श�द-सतको काम गन�े ु । भाषाको ूकार: कता� कम� �बया (पदबम); नामानगामीु ; नाम शीषा�हत; �वषयाप�ी ू�वाचक श�द ेयथाःथानमा; उपवा�यीय घटकह� कारक िचहहकबाट िचिहहत हनेु;

�बया�मक सग�ल वचन िचिहहत गन�े ; �वभािजत ऊजा�व�व; कम�वा�य वा भाववा�य �यवःथा भएको; तानर�हत भाषा। भाषाको ूयोग: घरमा;

�मि�त ूयोग: साथीह�सगँ , धा�म�क काय�मा, काममा। यवायवती तथा ु ुूौढूौढाल प�न बो�ने े। कटाकट� र �कशोर�कशोर�ह�ल प�न कह� े े े ेूयोग गन�। �ल�प: लखन ूणाल�को �वकास भइनसककोे े । अहय: 'सोहहा’ पशागत थरे (सन �ा�ेु )। �हहदू, �बिःचयन। �हहद� [hin] (दिखनी, �हहद�-उद�ू, �हहदःतानीु , खर�बोल�)। व�ा स��या: नपालमा े १,०६,००० (रा��य जनगणना २००१), ब�दो बम। कल ूजनस��या: २६,०२,०९,८२०। बो�लन �े�े : खासगर� नपालको ेदि�णी तराई र का�माड� उप�यका। अ��लयाे , ब�लादशे , ब�लज े(Belize), भटानु , बो�ःवाना, �यानाडा, िजबोट� (Djibouti), भम�यरखीय ू ेिज�नया, जम�नी, गयानाु , भारत, कहयाे , हयिज�याहडु , ���ल�पहस, �स�ापरु, �सहट मात�न, दि�ण अ��का, यनाइटड अरब इ�मर�सु ्े े , सय� अ�धरा�य ं ु (बलायते ), अम�रकाे , यमन र जाि�बया।भाषाको

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अवःथा: ३ (�यापक स�ार)।भाषा प�रवार: भारोपल�े , भारत-इरानल�े , भारतीय-आय�, क���य �े�े , पि�मी �ह�द�, �ह�दःतानी। भा�षकाह�ु : जानकार� नभएको। �पचा�रक श�दह� सःकतबाट आयातीतं ृ , अफारसीकतृ , अनरबीकत। सा�हि�यक �ह�द�ृ , वा �ह�द�-उद�का ू ४ वटा भद रहकाे े : �ह�द� (उ�च �ह�द�, नागर� �ह�द�, सा�हि�यक �ह�द�, ःतर�य �ह�द�); उद�ू; दिखनी; र�ता। भारतमा �� उ�लख नग�रएको े ेु ैभए प�न �ह�दःतानी भ�ाल यहाँ उ�र पि�मी भारतमा ूच�लत ु ेआ��का�रक मा�यता नपाएको स�पक� भाषालाई ब�नपन�। �ह�द� ु ु(सःकतबाट श�द भ��ार �लइएकों ृ ) र उद� ू (अरबी र फारसीबाट श�द सापट� �लइएको) मा �व�भ� अनपातमा श�दह�ु �मि�त।भाषाको ूकार: कता� कम� �बया (पदबम), नामानगामीु ; नाम शीषा��त; ११ वटा नाम वग� वा �ल�; �वषयाप�ी ू�वाचक श�द यथाःथानमाे ; ३ वटास�म ू�यय �लन। कारक�य िच�हे , नामानगामी र पदबमल अंशतु े : उपवा�यीय घटकह�लाई िचि�हत गन�। �बया�मक सग�ह�ल कता�को ेप�षु , वचन, �ल� र आदरको स�ेत गन�; �वभािजत उजा�व�व; काल र प� �यवःथा भएको; कम� वा�य र भाव वा�य �यवःथा भएको; तान �यवःथा नभएको; २८ वटा �य�न वण� र १० वटा ःवर वण� भएको। भाषाको ूयोग: घरमा, साथीभाइसगँ, �ा�म�क काय�मा, िश�ामा; �मि�त ूयोग: कामकाजमा। सब उमरका मा�नसल बो�न।ै े े े भाषाको �वकास: िश�ाको मा�थ�ला तहस�म पठनपाठन हन। ूाथ�मक तथा मा�य�मक ु ेतहमा पढाइन। े �ल�पको ूयोग: ॄल �ल�प। दवनागर� �ल�प। े ेूारि�भक ूयोग: नवार े (ूच�लत नपाले ) �ल�प, वत�मानमा ूयोग नभए प�न ��तहा�सक ूयोग। अ�य: �ह�दू, मिःलमु , �बि�यन, बौ�।

ह�लाु [hut] ( द�ाल�, "ह�ला भो�टयाु " (�न�दाथ�क), ह�ल� �या�पाु , फोके)। जनस��या: ४०००(शमा� र गौतम १९९९)। बो�लन �े�े : सती अ�लको बाजरा िज�लाे ु ; कणा�ल� अ�लको ह�ला िज�लाका उ�र ु

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प��मी �समीकोटद�ख चीनको �समाना�तर र �समीकोटबाट कह� े ेउ�रपव�मा पन� गाउह�। कह� व�ाह� का�मा��मा प�न पाइन।ू ँ े े भाषाको अवःथा: ६क (ूवल)। भाषा प�रवार: �च�नयाँ-�त�बती, भोट-

बम�ल�, प��मी भोट-बम�ल�, बो��स, क���य बो��से , क���ये , चाङ (gTsang)। भा�षकाह�: ह�ल� �या�पाु , ला या�बा, �ल�म, ��य�बा, मा�थ�लो ह�ला। अ�य ह�ला �त�बतीभाषीह�ला� ��य�बा ूायः ु ुअबो�ग�य। (ल�वन े (Levine) १९८८:२६९, वाइ��(Wilde) २००१ मा उ�ृत ग�रए अनसारु ) तर व�ाह�ल भन सब भा�षकाह� ब�न भ�े े े ेै ुगरकाे (वाइ�� (Wilde) २००१)। भाषाको ूकार : कता� कम� �बया (पदबम); नामानगामीु ; नाम शीषा��त; नाम वग� र �ल�; �वषयाप�ी ेू�वाचक श�द यथाःथानमा; एउटा उपसग� र तीनवटास�म ू�यय �लने; कारक�य �च�ह तथा पदबम; �बया�मक सग�ह�ल प�षे ु

(सय��ं ु /�वय��ु ) भद �च��हत गन�े ; काल र प� �यवःथा भएको; कम�वा�य वा भाववा�य नभएको; ३५ वटा �य�न वण� (�लमी भदे ) र ७ वटा ःवरवण�; तान �यवःथा भएको।भाषाको ूयोग: घरमा, साथीभाइसगँ, �ा�म�क काय�मा र कामकाजमा।सब उमर समहकाल ै े ेूबो�न। भा�षक अ�भव�� सकारा�मक।े ृ भाषाको ूयोग: दोॐो भाषा �त�बती [bod] मा सा�रता दर: १०%–१५%। कह� �व�ालयल े ेअ��जीे [eng] मा�यमको ूयोग गन�, कह�ल मा�यमका �पमाे े �त�बती [bod] ूयोग गन�। �ल�पको ूयोग: लखन ूणाल� �वकास नभएकोे

अ�य: ब��

हल�ब शपा�े ेु [scp] (�ो�मो, �हो�मो, यो��म तामु , यो�मो)। व�ा स��या: ३,९९० ( रा��य जनगणना, २००१)। मातभाषामाऽ बो�नको ृ ेस��या अ�य�त कम। बो�लन �ेऽै े : बा�मती अ�ल, उ�र� नवाकोटु , उ�रप��मी �स��पा�चोक �ज�ला।ु भाषाको अवःथा: ६क (ूवल)। आ�दवासी जनजा�तमा सचीकतह�को भाषाू ृ (२००२, आजउराू ऐन, नं.

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२०, ख�� २ग)। भाषा प�रवार: िच�नयाँ-�त�बती, भोट-बम�ल�, पि�मी भोट-बम�ल�, बो��स, क���य बो��से , क���ये , चाङ (gTsang)। भा�षकाह�: पव� हल�ब शपा�ू ुे े , लमजङ यो��मोु , ला�दाङ यो��मो, पि�मी हल�ब शपा�। मल�ची नद�ल भा�षकालाई ��ाउन। अ�य े े े े ेु ुभा�षका (स�भवत: ताक� �याङ, का��ग-खाका�, पा��दाङ) मा �य� अमत� तथा ज�टल �वषयसमत ब�न तर कागत ू ुे े े [syw] नब�न।शाि�दक ु ेसमानता: �ो�पो [dre] र वाल��गु े [ola] सगँ ६६% ; �हासा �त�वती [bod], िजरले [jul], र �य�ङे (ि�यरोङ) [kgy] सगँ ६५%; लोके [loy] र शपा�े [xsr] सगँ, ६३%, न��ु [kte] सग ँ ६१%, �होमी [lhm] सगँ ६०%। भाषाको ूकार: कता� कम� �बया (पदबम), नामानगामीु ; नाम शीषा��द; स�ब�धवाचक पद, �वशषण पद र स�ब�ध वाचक उपवा�य शीष� नाम ेभ�दा अिघ आउने; �नधा�रक पद, �वशषणे , स��यावाचक श�द ूाय: नाम शीष�भ�दा प�� आउने; नाम वग� वा �याकरिणक �ल� नभएको; �वषयगत ू�वाचक श�द सामा�यतया उपवा�यको दोॐो पद हन। ु ेउपसग�को अ�धकतम स��या १; ू�ययको अ�धकतम स��या ४; म�यतया कारक�य िच�हह�ल उपवा�यीय घटकह�लाई िचि�हत गर ु े ेप�न पदबमल क�तपय कता�े , कम�, अू�य� कम�लाई ��ाउन तर ु ेसामा�यतया नामानगामील िचि�हत गन�।नाम पदावल�को कारक ु ेनामानगामी ु (नामयोगी) ल िचि�हत गन�े ; �वभािजत उजा�व�व; काल र प�को �यवःथामा स�प�; कम�वा�य वा भाववा�य नभएको; ूरणाथ�क ेतथा तलनावाची �यवःथाु ; अ�र सरचनां : �यःव, �यःव�य, �यःवःव, �य�यःव, �य�यःवःव, �यःवःव�य; तान �यवःथा भएको (४ तहको तान); ३६ वटा �य�न वण� र १० वटा ःवर वण� भएको। भाषाको ूयोग: घरमा; �मि�त ूयोग: साथीभाइसगँ, धा�म�क काय�मा, कामकाजमा; ूौढ ूौढा र ब�ब�ाल ूयोग गन�।बालबा�लकाृ ृ े , �कशोर�कशोर� र यवायवतील प�न धरथोर ूयोग गन�ु ु े े । नपाल� े [npi],

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�त�बती [bod], र �ह�द� [hin] प�न बो�न। कागते े [syw] भ�दा ब�� ू�त��त र म��लक सःक�त सर�ण गरको।शमा�थाङं ंृ े े -��मी �ेऽ र पव��तरको भद ू�त��त।�यस �ेऽमा लामाह�को ूशःत बसोबास ू ेरहको। कागत भाषीसग धर स�पक� नहने े े ेँ ै ु ; मातभाषाू�तको अवधारणा ृतटःथ। नपाल�े [npi] लाई उपयोगी मा�े। भाषाको �वकास: मातभाषामा सा�रताृ : १% भ�दा कम। दोॐो भाषामा सा�रता:१५%–

२५% स�म। अ��जी े [eng] बाहकमा सा�रताू�तको उ�ूरणा कम। े ेर��यो काय�बम स�ा�लते , श�दकोश तथा �याकरण ूकािशत। NT:

२०००। �ल�पको ूयोग: दवनागर� �ल�प।े अ�य: ��मकको काम गन�का ला�ग उ�र� भारत जान अथवा का�मा�� वा भारतमा बसोबास ेगन�। अ�य: ब�� (लामावाद�), पर�परागत धम�, �बिः�यन।

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