Ethics

Why talk about ethics? -Graduate students are faced with

conducting independent research, and with decisions about that research.

-You need to have thought about your personal standards so that you are prepared for challenges

Ethical issues -animal rights/welfare -human/animal subjects in research -biotechnology applications (cloned animals) -research funding/conflicts of interest -pork barrel science -salami scienc -fraud in science -plagiarism

Consider animal rights

Pro -All life has inherent value which is not less for

animals than for humans. If this were not true, then humans that are no more mentally or physically capable (or less so) than animals, would be considered to be of lesser value.

-Animals experience pain which is morally equivalent to human pain

-It is fundamentally wrong to view animals as if we “own” them. Improved care does not correct this.

-Human are not an elite species (speciesism).

-Doing what is best for the majority (humans) may be unjust to the individual (animal). Kindness is wrong if it is not fair.

-Animal rights is the same moral concept as human rights.

Con -A “right” is a claim from one party to another

that may be legal, moral, religious, etc., and exists only between parties who can make such claims. Animals lack the capacity to make moral judgements, thus cannot have moral “rights”.

-Mentally or phyically disabled humans have rights because they once did, or would have, whereas animals never did.

-Communal behavior by animals is not the same as moral behavior by humans. Animals cannot commit crimes because there is no moral decision involved on their part. Many animals kill other animals for food.

-Speciesism is correct; animals are not capable of making moral claims. Speciesism is not the same as racism because all humans can claim moral rights.

-Animal research benefits animals, not just humans. Human subjects are also used in research (with appropriate oversight; also true of animals).

-It is morally wrong not to do research using animals (or humans) that would cure disease and achieve other similar benefits because the benefits far outweigh the risk/discomfort/sacrifice.

Ethics

What is it? -a branch of philosophy…that is the study of

theories and arguments…about whether an action is morally right or wrong/good or bad…to help decide the best (correct?) course of action

-application of moral theories to the analysis of practical problems of human behavior.

Ethics is not…

-religion

-laws

-regulations

-a product …but rather is a process…

Morality

…conforming to the rules of correct conduct. However, the “rules” can be different in

different societies, and thus some “rules” can even be immoral when considered in a different context or environment. For example, segregation in the South was once considered the norm there, but viewed as immoral by the rest of the U.S.

Theories in ethics…

In science, a theory is used to explain factual observations

In ethics, a theory is used to justify (explain) whether a course of action is right or wrong

Selected fundamental theories in ethics (those with greatest application to AnS 571-IMHO)

Utilitarian theory -actions should result in the greatest overall

beneficial effect and the least harm, all things considered (weighs consequences).

Rights theory -all individuals have the right not to be harmed…

regardless of benefits to others (emphasizes respect for individuals, regardless of consequencies).

Ethical reasoning

Claims that actions are right or wrong have premises (reasons) that together comprise an argument favoring or opposing the action. An argument is a collection of statements (reasons/premises) that lead to a conclusion.

So…appropriate evaluation of a ethically-justified argument necessarily consists of evaluation of the premises for truthfulness and logics

Testing moral conclusions or moral judgements

1. Test the premises (facts)- using science.

2. Is the conclusion logical based on the premises?

3. Assess the principle moral theory being applied to determine if it is correct…

…this is the hard part!

Assessing application of moral theories

Consider: Utilitarianism Medical research should be conducted using

prisoners, mentally incapacitated or other “useless” people at test subjects.

-Tuskegee experiment

Or, consider: Rights theory No living being, including animals should be

subjected to the discomfort associated with medical research

Ethical arguments are seldom final because…

1. …of disagreement on truthfulness of facts and understanding of terms…

2. …of disagreement on the relative importance of different ethical theories

3. …it takes much time and effort to truly understand, theorize, test facts and justify conclusions. Many people simply do not want to take the time to do this.

“The correct answer to a moral question is simply the answer that has the weight of reason on it’s side.”

James Rachels, The Elements of Moral Philosophy. McGraw-Hill, 1993.

Ethics-Subject areas to consider relative to AnS 571

1. Research -decisions on conduct -initial decision on appropriateness -funding sources, conflicts of interest -intellectual honesty -key to public confidence in science -publication -credit/co-authorship - “salami” science

Ethics-subject areas

2. Peer review -bias -for known individuals or institutions -against competitors, gender, race, etc. -confidentiality of information and ideas

(includes grant applications also) -ownership of new information

Ethics-subject areas

3. Animal rights/welfare -be prepared to defend your position on the

argument of rights vs. welfare…using the principles of ethics theory and logic.

-be familiar with humane treatment/handling expectations/requirements.

-maintain constructive interactive environment with activists

Ethics-subject areas

4. Food safety and security -safety…not whether but how? -risk vs. benefit -objective consideration of both -unbiased information for consumers -security -not bioterrorism, but “freedom from want”. -obligation to assure food availability

Consider the following scenarios.What are the potential ethical issues?

1. Tuskegee experiment -human subjects continued in disease study

after a cure was discovered -Google “Tuskegee experiment” and read the

Wikipedia account -resulted in 1979 Belmont Report and

subsequent regulation for protection of human subjects in research

2. Carbon monoxide packaging of fresh meat -0.4% CO retains fresh meat color much

longer than any other means and reduces retail store losses, even after microbial counts become relatively high.

3. The 4-H Grand Champion steer at the Iowa State Fair this year was cloned from the Grand Champion of two years ago.

4. The meat industry and many other agricultural production systems utilize a very large proportion of the labor force as immigrant workers.

Workers are most often paid minimum wage with few benefits, and frequent problems of illegal immigrants occur.

5. Labeling of naturally cured meat products as “Uncured” and “No nitrite or nitrate added…”.

These products are produced with natural sources of nitrate (vegetables), contain measureable amounts of nitrite and nitrate, and demonstrate all the typical properties of conventionally cured meat products.

Please read:

Poultry Science 87: 387-391 (2008) and 87:392-394 (2008) for discussion.