Ethical Theories, Science and

ChemistryDr. Christine A. James

Philosophychjames@valdosta.edu

http://teach.valdosta.edu/chjames/chemethics2009.htm

First, some background to the sub-disciplines in Philosophy that relate to

you as scientists:Philosophy of Science – asks how knowledge is

gained, how experiments should be constructed, what the history of science tells us, whether governments, corporations, and funding influence research

Philosophy of Technology – asks how the scientist relates to other scientists, instruments, technology, and the material culture of the laboratory

Ethics (subfields like Medical, Environmental) – asks how research impacts biodiverse populations; discusses whether the implications of research are fair, equitable; whether the research can be justified if biological or environmental harm occurs

Ethical Issues faced by scientists

Standards Ideals

Honesty Biases

Duties Funding Pressures

Professional Codes Pedagogy

Plagiarism

Priority Disputes

Where ethics codes originate:

Philosophers recommend general ethical principles.

Ethical claims should be:

Prescriptive

Universal

Overriding

Public

Practical

Some of the major ethical theories:

• Immanuel Kant and “duty-based” or “intentions-based” deontological ethics

• Bentham, Mill, Rachels and utilitarian “consequence-based” teleological ethics

• Paul Ricoeur and the hermeneutic theory of interpretation

• Jürgen Habermas, critical theory, communicative action, and emancipation

• Aristotle and virtue ethics

Aristotle:

Moral education: seek examples of good moral behavior and following them

Virtue is acting in the right way at the right time in the right situation

Practice the moral virtues, like courage, compassion, altruism, and temperance

The Golden Mean TestAristotle says that to be morally educated, one must

practice what the virtuous person would do. The way to do this is to seek The Golden Mean. Imagine a horizontal line, with each end an extreme “vice”, and the middle a “virtue.” In the case of the virtue “courage”, the vices are “cowardice” (too little courage) and “foolhardiness” (too much courage.) The right amount of courage is in the middle, depending on circumstances (for example, different amounts of courage are needed for fighting in battle, or for surviving a convenience store hold up.)

How might this relate to honesty?

Immanuel Kant

1724-1804

Königsberg, Prussia (now Germany)

Actions are moral if done purely from duty.

Maxim test – statement of intended action should be universal, commanded of everyone in similar situations

Three Formulations of the Categorical Imperative

Always act so that the maxim of your action is a universal law; and a universal law of nature.

Always treat humanity, in the form of yourself or another person, as an end in itself, never merely as a means.

Kantian Duties

Examples:-tell the truth-develop talents-preserve life-be impartial-act in beneficence-act in non-

maleficienceProblems arise when

duties conflict!

Utilitarianism

The Principle of Utility:

The moral worth of an action resides in its consequences. Right moral actions bring about the best consequences for the greatest number of people.

Utility, or “the best consequences,” can be defined in many ways:

- Economic good

- Pleasure, rather than pain

- Happiness

- Security

Jeremy Bentham• 1748-1832• London, England• Acts are morally

right if they maximize pleasure for the greatest number, which can be measured in “hedons”

• “Hedonic calculus” should be used for every act

• Necessitates some self-sacrifice

John Stuart Mill• 1806-1873• London, England• Refines Bentham • Moral worth of acts still

lies in their consequences• Uses general rules that

bring about utility, rather than choosing by each action

• Quality of pleasures matters as much as quantity of pleasures

James Rachels

• University of Alabama at Birmingham

• Refines utilitarianism• Self-sacrifice issue shows

limits of “lifeboat ethics”• Need for specific concepts

that will aid utility in the long-term: Justice, and Rights

Quick Review

• Aristotle, virtue or aretaic ethics, based on finding the right amount of a virtue in the right circumstance is the mark of ethical behavior

• Kant, duty or deontological ethics, intention of acting from universal duty is the mark of ethical behavior

• Utilitarianism (Mill), results, ends, goals of actions are the mark of ethical behavior, usually the good for the greatest number of people affected, known as teleological ethics

Paul Ricoeur• 1913-• Valence, France• Understanding

between people comes from listening to narratives, descriptions, stories

• Hermeneutics, named the Greek god Hermes

Jürgen Habermas• 1929-• Frankfurt, Germany• Communicative Ethics• People can be

empowered through communicative interaction

• Critical Theory – political interest in acknowledging and exposing individual biases through communication

American Chemical Society Chemist’s Code of Conduct

http://portal.acs.org/portal/acs/corg/content?_nfpb=true&_pageLabel=PP_ARTICLEMAIN&node_id=1095&content_id=CTP_004007&use_sec=true&sec_url_var=region1&__uuid=a943cfd9-1ae3-4a56-b34c-109c10fb4f4b

CHEMISTS ACKNOWLEDGE RESPONSIBILITIES TO:The PublicThe Science of ChemistryThe ProfessionThe EmployerTheir EmployeesTheir StudentsTheir AssociatesTheir ClientsThe Environment

Other ethical guidelines and documents are available at:http://portal.acs.org/portal/acs/corg/content?

_nfpb=true&_pageLabel=PP_TRANSITIONMAIN&node_id=1095&use_sec=false&sec_url_var=region1&__uuid=8a1c36fc-cdb4-403a-92ab-36ee694f2d6b

… scientists have developed synthetic molecules that promote neuron growth and could potentially lead to the reversal of paralysis due to spinal cord injury. Following spinal cord injury, neural progenitor cells in the body can produce cells called astrocytes that lead to scarring. Scarring prohibits nerve regeneration, which causes paralysis. Researchers, led by Samuel L. Stupp, Professor of Materials Science, Engineering, Chemistry and Medicine, grew nerve cells using an artificial three-dimensional network of nanofibers formed from peptide amphiphile molecules…

But, this same type of paralysis may one day be treated using cloned cells.

Nanotechnology has implications for medicine and communications

The way that scientists choose experiments, conduct experiments, and receive funding interacts with our

social and moral context. Here are some potential examples of scientists who

balance these aspects of their work.

Ethical DilemmaWilliam, a chemical engineer with over 10 years of experience,

takes a new job as environmental health and safety (EHS) manager of a plant. As he familiarizes himself with the operation, he notices that the facility's air permit does not mention a major pollutant "X," a byproduct of manufacture. However, it does mention a chemically related pollutant "Y," which he is relatively sure could not be emitted by the process. Years of stack test results indicated that testing found only traces of "Y," accompanied by certifications that the plant was in compliance. Reading the back-up documentation, William sees why: The person holding the job before the previous incumbent had written the permit incorrectly. What should William do?

How to write about a dilemma• Describe the case briefly.

• Discuss the major individuals and their responsibilities.

• Argue for which ethical concepts should govern their behavior:– Kant, duties, motivations, intentions

– Mill, good for the greatest number

– Aristotle, character, virtue

– Ricoeur, Habermas, communication and empowerment

Ethical DilemmaWilliam, a chemical engineer with over 10 years of experience,

takes a new job as environmental health and safety (EHS) manager of a plant. As he familiarizes himself with the operation, he notices that the facility's air permit does not mention a major pollutant "X," a byproduct of manufacture. However, it does mention a chemically related pollutant "Y," which he is relatively sure could not be emitted by the process. Years of stack test results indicated that testing found only traces of "Y," accompanied by certifications that the plant was in compliance. Reading the back-up documentation, William sees why: The person holding the job before the previous incumbent had written the permit incorrectly. What should William do?

Tobin Marks, Professor of Catalytic Chemistry

Designed a co-catalyst that led to what is now a standard process for producing better polyolefins, including polyethylene and polypropylene. These plastics are lighter in weight and more recyclable than previous plastics

Positive interactions with the Dow Chemical Company, supporting environmental issues and funding for students

OLEDs – organic light emitting diodes featuring self-assembling structures (“smart molecules”)

Transparent conductors, with application for solar energy

(Both are energy efficient technologies)

Another example: Mercedes CarnethonIs funding given to women’s health issues in the same

proportion as men’s health issues?How about health care and third world countries?

Do female scientists bring a special perspective to their research?

Statiscally, female scientists are more involved in research related to health issues.

Cloninghttp://www.learner.org/channel/courses/essential/life/session3/

closer3.html

Christopher Reeve, embryonic stem cells, and Copycat http://www.sciencecases.org/stem_cells/stem_cells.asp

Cloning: advantages and disadvantages

Chromosomal abnormalities may be passed on

May help to cure a variety of diseases, from paralysis to Parkinson’s

Negative implications of “playing God”

May provide information and access to needed treatments, quality of life

Motivations: Research status, other countries, money

Devaluing life, especially human

http://www.bioscinet.bbsrc.ac.uk/revo.html

…not only about cloning whole organisms…http://cmgm.stanford.edu/biochem118/Stem%20Cell.html

http://www.globalchange.com/clonlink.htm

Also about cloning of specific cell types, that are relevant to the treatment of particular diseases…

http://whyfiles.org/148clone_clash/

We should also ask who gains from embryonic stem cell research…

http://www.sciencecases.org/stem_cells/stem_cells.asp

BIO 2005 Annual International Convention, June 19-22, 2005

WASHINGTON, D.C. (April 27, 2005) -- A series of thought-provoking, educational panel sessions on varying aspects of stem cell research will be showcased at the BIO 2005 Annual International Convention, June 19-22, 2005, at the Pennsylvania Convention Center in Philadelphia.

Indeed, stem cell research and its potential therapeutic applications are no longer limited to discussions among scientists, researchers and ethicists. During the last few years, debates concerning embryonic and adult stem cell research have found their way into the halls of Congress and other regulatory agencies.

Jim Greenwood, president of BIO, said, “The issues surrounding stem cell research continue to dominate the agenda in Congress, state legislatures, and around the world. This has intensified as research advances and governments compete to attract the best scientists.

BIO represents more than 1,100 biotechnology companies, academic institutions, state biotechnology centers and related organizations across the United States and 31 other nations. BIO members are involved in the research and development of healthcare, agricultural, industrial and environmental biotechnology products.

“Although stem cell research is still at a very early stage, someday this technology may provide treatments for diabetes, heart disease, spinal cord injuries and a host of other disabling and deadly conditions. We should do everything we can to accelerate the research and ensure that the myriad therapeutic possibilities are explored to their fullest. We can do nothing less for the patients and families who are waiting and hoping,” Greenwood concluded.

The following sessions on stem cell technology will take place over the course of the conference:

Tuesday, June 21, 2005

· Patenting Stem Cell Technology 9:30 - 10:45 AM

This session includes speakers from the United States, Canada, Australia, Japan and Europe who will explore the patentability issues relating to stem cells in their respective jurisdictions, and whether adequate intellectual property protection is available for this technology. Recent case law in the area will be discussed. The session will be chaired by Claire Baldock, partner, Boult Wade Tennant.

For more information, visit http://www.bio.org/events/2005/speaker/sessionlist.asp?id=16

Discussion points:

Do you agree with the approach taken by the BIO organizers?

What do you believe we should use as criteria for decisions on cloning and stem cell research – utility, common good, intentions of the researchers, the quest for knowledge, financial benefits, keeping up with other countries…

Let’s test your ideas with case studies!

How do these ethical theories connect with what scientists do in the lab? How should ethics affect scientific

decisions and work?

Anyone know what this is?

Hint:

Using knowledge of chemistry to benefit medical treatments

Proteins, aggregated into amyloid derived diffusable ligands (ADDLs) that affect synapses and may be related to Alzheimer’s disease.

Are there ethical implications that affect research on diseases like Alzheimer’s?

How does this research relate to the political and social context we live in?

Hmm?

Calcium scanning to predict heart disease

Science happens in an ethical, social and political context –

a context that matters!

Become a catalyst for ethical behavior in your research and in the lab!

NanoCenter at the University of South Carolina:http://www.usatoday.com/tech/news/techpolicy/2003-

09-04-ethics-nano_x.htmU. of South Carolina receives $1.3M to study ethics of nanotech COLUMBIA,

S.C. (AP) — The National Science Foundation has awarded the University of South Carolina a $1.3 million grant to research the ethics of nanoscience, which is the study of atoms and molecules. The four-year grant is a major step forward for the university's nanoscience research, USC said. In June 2001, the university created its NanoCenter, which brings together faculty from science, math and engineering to conduct research. The university sees the efforts as gaining a better foothold in emerging technology.

"Our aim is to work with scientists and engineers who are developing this new science in order to understand this new technology and the social changes it will bring about," said Davis Baird, head of the university's research team. "Together we want to address the societal implication of this emerging science so we can accurately convey to the public how nanotechnology may change society."

The grant will address the societal implications and ethics surrounding nanoscience technology, which seeks to control and manipulate matter on a molecular scale. The grant is among the largest ever awarded by the National Science Foundation to explore the consequences of an emerging science.

Nanotechnology has already yielded familiar products, including clear sunscreen that blocks UV rays and stain-resistant pants.

Conference on Nanotech and EthicsNANOTECHNOLOGY: ETHICAL AND

LEGAL ISSUESA Conference Sponsored by NSTS at

the University of South Carolina2-6 MARCH 2005Developments in nanotechnology

provide the basis for a convergence of the physical and life sciences, including biomedicine, information technology, and cognitive science. Emerging technologies include highly functional molecular systems, alternative manufacturing processes, molecular computing, brain/machine interfaces, tissue engineering, and recombinant genetic alterations of viral, plant, and animal systems.

Virtually all areas of human life may be transformed, and these transformations will likely involve both great benefit and great risk.

This conference explores the ethical and legal issues raised by nanotechnology, including reflections on:

toxicity of nanoparticles, environmental sustainability & remediation, human/machine interfaces, human enhancements, privacy and security, legal and ethical theories for nano, government regulation, scientific integrity and liberty, tech transfer, patenting and insurance liability, military use of nanotechnology, nanomedicine, the nano-divide, international and developing world needs

Confirmed speakers include: Mihail Roco, Senior Advisor of the National Science Foundation; Vicki Colvin, Director of CBEN at Rice University

The conference is supported in part by a NIRT grant from

the National Science Foundation.

“Three Systems of Ethics for Diverse Applications” and “Ethical Administration of Nanotechnology”

by Chris Phoenix:http://www.nanotech-now.com/Chris-Phoenix/ethical-

nano.htmhttp://nanotech-now.com/Chris-Phoenix/diverse-ethics.htm

• …nanotechnology will present a large range of new problems and new opportunities. Commercial and Information groups cannot be trusted to take appropriate precautions in every case, so a Guardian approach is sometimes necessary. Likewise, Guardian and Information ethics do not create money, so Commercial organizations must be involved to pay for large parts of the development and deployment of the technology. Finally, although Guardian ethics include "Dispense largesse," neither Guardian nor Commercial organizations can be expected to create and distribute the almost limitless benefits that will become possible from vastly improved materials and manufacturing…

• Ideally, each organization involved in nanotechnology would be aware of its own ethics and the ethics of the organizations it interacts with, and make good decisions about which problems to tackle and which problems to leave for someone else. In practice, of course, organizations are usually not so self-aware, and even when they are, short-sighted self interest may tempt them to expand into areas where they have no competence. In the end, an organization that overreaches itself will find that its plans don't work; it will make ineffective and antisocial decisions, and it will be out-competed by its fellow organizations and attacked by those it has encroached on. However, such a process may take much time and cause much destruction; consider the long-delayed fall of the Soviet Union, due in large part to its application of Guardian ethics to commerce and information. Nanotechnology will develop too quickly for such slow adjustments. If an organization manages to usurp power in an area where it does not belong, and hold that power for even a few years, it may create an imbalance that tempts a radical and destructive solution.

For further reading:The journal Foundations of Chemistry, “Philosophical,

Historical, Educational and Interdisciplinary Studies of Chemistry”:

http://www.kluweronline.com/issn/1386-4238

The Scientist, with sections covering the latest issues in DNA sequencing, technology, Gene therapy, and stem-cell research:

http://www.the-scientist.com/

Nanotalk email list, with most major researchers in nano and ethics:

http://listserv.sc.edu/cgi-bin/wa?A0=nanotalk&D=1&F=&H=0&O=D&S=&T=1

Dr. Christine A. James

Philosophychjames@valdosta.edu

http://teach.valdosta.edu/chjames/chemethics2008.htm