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![Page 1: Ethical arguments against genetically modified foods Dr. Gary Comstock Philosophy and Religious Studies Coordinator, Bioethics Program Iowa State University.](https://reader035.fdocuments.us/reader035/viewer/2022081504/56649d245503460f949fae3f/html5/thumbnails/1.jpg)
Ethical arguments against genetically modified foods
Dr. Gary Comstock
Philosophy and Religious Studies
Coordinator, Bioethics Program
Iowa State University
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Two kinds of ethical arguments against GM foods
1. Extrinsic objections
GMOs are wrong because risks outweigh benefits.
2. Intrinsic objections
GMOs are wrong , no matter how great the benefits.
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1. Extrinsic objections
A. Unsafe for consumers
“Frankenfoods”
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2. Extrinsic objections
B. Unsafe for environments
“superweeds”
– Herbicide resistance - canola gene flows into weedy relatives
– Bt toxin kills monarch butterfly larvae
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Extrinsic objections
C. Unfair to small farmers
“Rich get richer,
poor get poorer”
Vandana Shiva
Monocultures of the Mind
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Ethical arguments against GM foods
1. Extrinsic objections
2. Intrinsic objections
GM foods are wrong no matter how great the benefits may be.
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Intrinsic objections
GM foods are wrong because it’s wrong to:
1. Play God2. Invent world changing
technology3. Cross species boundaries4. Reproduce by nonsexual
means5. Disrupt integrity, beauty,
balance of nature6. Harm sentient beings
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Genetic engineering
“ takes mankind into
realms that belong
to God and God
alone ”
- Prince Charles
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Intrinsic objections
1. We should not play God
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Intrinsic objections
1. Don’t play God
Counter-examples:
– High tech medicine
– God wants us to genetically engineer food
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Intrinsic objections
2. We should not change the world through new technology
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Intrinsic objections
2. No world-changing technology
Counter-example:Agriculture
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Intrinsic objections
3. We should not cross natural species boundaries
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Intrinsic objections
3. Don’t cross species
Counter-examples:
• Mules
• Hybrid wheat
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Intrinsic objections
4. We should not use nonsexual means to reproduce
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Intrinsic objections
4. Don’t reproduce nonsexually
Counter-examples:• GIFT and in vitro• Plant cuttings
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Intrinsic objections to ag biotech
5. We should not disrupt the integrity, beauty and balance of creation
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Intrinsic objections to ag biotech
5. Don’t disrupt nature
Problems:
• An extrinsic objection
• Is / ought problem
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Intrinsic objections
6. We should not harm sentient beings
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Intrinsic objections
6. Don’t harm sentient beings
Problems:• An extrinsic objection
• Meat-eaters accept harm to animals
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Conclusion: Intrinsic objections are not sound
1. Playing God2. Invent world changing technology3. Cross species boundaries4. Reproduce nonsexually5. Disrupt integrity and beauty of nature6. Harm sentient beings
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Extrinsic objections
• Unsafe for consumers? Food allergens, toxins
• Unsafe for environment?
– Unintended effects on nontarget organisms– Gene flow, development of resistant weeds
• Unfair to small farmers? Rich get richer, poor get poorer
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Extrinsic objections
•Are valid concerns
•Demand scientific and political attention
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Extrinsic objections
• Support: Regulatory oversight on case-by-case basis• Do not support: a ban on all GM crops
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Ethical arguments FOR GM foods
Potential to improve:
– Diets in developing countries
– Efficiency of food production
– Safety and purity of food
– Agricultural sustainability
– Diversity of agro-ecosystems
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Enhanced nutrition
Vitamin A Rice
Iron Enhanced Rice
Amino Acid Balance
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Insect resistance
• Bt corn– Insect resistance from
Bacillus thuringiensis– Non-toxic to humans– Target insect: corn borer– 40% U.S. Corn crop Bt– Potential to reduce
insecticide use
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Disease resistance
• Potatoes• Squash• Tomatoes• Corn• Rice• Canola• Soybeans• Grapes• Cantaloupes• Cucumbers
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Genetic engineering in microbes: enzymes
• Recombinant Chymosin
– Enzyme used for cheese making
– Originally from calf stomach– Bovine gene expressed in
GRAS microbes– FDA approved 1990– Now used in 70% of U.S.
cheese
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Recombinant amino acids
• Aspartame– Artificial sweetener– Made from aspartic acid
and phenylalanine– Used in 5,000 products
• Monosodium glutamate
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Recombinant alpha amylase
• Used to make HFCS
• Gras status in 1995
• 10% U.S. corn crop processed into syrups
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Ethical Issuesin Risk Communication:
Why ConsumersNeed Not Worry AboutGenetically Modified Crops
Steven R. ShaferMichael D. McElvaine
Alwynelle S. AhlOffice of Risk Assessment
& Cost-Benefit Analysis
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RiskAssessment
HazardRisk
-Likelihood-Magnitude
Uncertainty
RiskManagement
Cost-BenefitAnalysis
RiskMitigation
Risk Communication
RISK ANALYSISRisk Analysis
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Ethical questions for risk assessment involving agriculture should be asked in the context of the risk assessment paradigm itself…
• What can go wrong?
• How likely is it to occur?
• How bad will it be if the undesirable event does occur?
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Variability and Uncertainty• Variability
– heterogeneity among measurements– estimate may be refined by increasing the number
of measurements
• Uncertainty– inaccuracy, incomplete knowledge– may be reduced by different types of observations– may indicate gaps to be addressed by research
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Ethics in Risk Assessments and Risk Communication Involving Agriculture: Some
Principles
• Make sure all stakeholder voices are heard
• Ensure transparency of ideological positions in determination of resources at risk and endpoints
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Ethics in Risk Assessments and Risk Communication Involving Agriculture: Some
Principles
Need to
– maintain a safe, nutritious, and plentiful food supply
– preserve ecosystems
– balance agricultural production and wise stewardship of the earth.
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The Act of Congress establishing a US Department of Agriculture was signed by President Lincoln in 1862………….
“….to acquire and diffuse among the people of the United States useful information on subjects
connected with agriculture…….”
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USDA Mission:
• ensuring a safe, affordable, nutritious, and accessible food supply
• caring for agricultural, forest, and range lands
• supporting sound development of rural communities
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USDA Mission:
• providing economic opportunities for farm and rural residents
• expanding global markets for agricultural and forest products and services
• and working to reduce hunger in America and throughout the world.
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Risk assessments in USDA
• Mandated by law and Executive Order for economically significant rules ($100 million)
• Risk assessments, cost-benefit analyses, and Environmental Impact Statements are part of the public record
• Open to public comment before proposed rules are implemented
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Coordinated Framework for Regulation of Biotechnology
• Federal Register 51:23302-23350 (1986)
• Uses existing statutes to regulate products of biotechnology
• Reviews of products are risk-based, not based on the technology itself
• Can impose civil or criminal penalties for non-compliance
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Regulatory Oversight in Biotechnologyhttp://www.aphis.usda.gov/biotechnology/index.html
• US Dept. of Agriculture
– Plant pests
– Plants
– Veterinary biologics
• US Food and Drug Administration
– food, feed
– food additives
– veterinary drugs, human drugs and medical devices
• US Environmental Protection Agency
– microbial/plant pesticides
– new uses of existing pesticides
– novel microorganisms
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Regulation of Biotechnology:US Environmental Protection Agency
• Regulatory authority under three statutes– Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA)
– Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA)
– Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (FFDCA), Section 408
• Ensures the safe use of microbes and pesticides in the environment
• Includes regulation of GM plants that produce pesticidal substances not produced by the non-GM plant
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Regulation of Biotechnology:US Food and Drug Administration
• Regulatory authority under Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (FFDCA)
• Ensures the safety and labeling of the nation’s food supply (excluding meat and poultry), and of drugs
• Includes monitoring foods to enforce pesticide residue tolerances set by EPA
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Regulation of Biotechnology:USDA Animal and Plant Health
Inspection Service
• Regulatory authority under two statutes– Federal Plant Pest Act (FPPA)
– Plant Quarantine Act
• Ensures protection of American agriculture against pests and diseases
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Risk:Characteristic vs. Source
• The maximum exposure to many acetyl cholinesterase (AC) inhibiting insecticides (organophosphates, carbamates) considered acceptable under the FQPA is approximately 0.01 mg per kg body weight per day
• Solanaceous crops contain glycoalkaloids• Glycoalkaloids are AC inhibitors, and for crops like
potato and pepper, the aRfD is also 0.01 mg per kg per day
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20-kg childaRfD = 0.01 mg/kg/d
Consumption
(g)
Residue
(mg/kg)
Exposure
(mg/kg)%aRfD
Small fry 70 38 0.1330 1330
Large fry 125 38 0.2375 2375
Super fry 170 38 0.3230 3230
Pepper 74 77 0.2849 2849
Eggplant 96 60 0.2880 2880
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70-kg adultaRfD = 0.01 mg/kg/d
Consumption
(g)
Residue
(mg/kg)
Exposure
(mg/kg)
%aRfD
Small fry 70 38 0.0380 380
Large fry 125 38 0.0679 679
Super fry 170 38 0.0923 923
Pepper 74 77 0.0814 814
Eggplant 96 60 0.0823 823
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Assume that a new variety of apple has been developed.
It has the ability to produce AC-inhibiting glycoalkaloids.It is resistant to many insect pests.
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Which is the more risky?The gene for glycoalkaloid production was inserted from a crabapple by traditional methods.
The gene for glycoalkaloid
production was inserted
from a potato by genetic
modification.
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Secretary Glickman’s principles to guide USDA biotech policies
• Arm’s length regulatory process
• Consumer acceptance
• Fairness to farmers
• Corporate citizenship
• Free and open trade
http://www.usda.gov/news/releases/1999/07/0285
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Arm’s length regulatory process
• Separation of regulators from the regulated
• Regulatory agencies (APHIS, FSIS) separate from marketing assistance agency (AMS)
• Separate experts serve different functions
• Maximize transparency in regulations
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Arm’s length regulatory process
• Establish regional pest management centers with EPA– investigate crop production, pest biology, pest
management, biotechnology– long-term studies– information resource
• Gather the best scientific information to support policy and regulation
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Expertise on the USDA’sAdvisory Committee
on Agricultural Biotechnology• Recombinant DNA
- plants• Recombinant DNA
- animals• Recombinant DNA
- microbes• Ecology• Biodiversity
• Agricultural practices
• Silviculture &
Forest science
• Fisheries
• Food science
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Expertise on the USDA’sAdvisory Committee
on Agricultural Biotechnology
• Human medicine
• Public health and epidemiology
• Occupational health
• Veterinary medicine• Weed science• Entomology• Nematology• Plant pathology
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Expertise Advisory on the Committee onUSDA’s Ag Biotechnology
• Small farm advocacy
• Consumer advocacy and public attitudes
• Ethics / bioethics• Risk assessment
• Laws and regulations• Biotechnology
industry• Intellectual property• International trade
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Why US consumers may feel protected by the US GMO regulatory structure
Political structure is inherently competitive
Basic separation of powers• Creation of laws by Congress
• Enforcement of laws by Executive Branch agencies
• Challenge of laws and regulations through the Judiciary
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Why US consumers may feel protected by the US GMO regulatory structure
Political structure is inherently competitive– Separation of regulatory authority from
agencies that promote agriculture
– Administrative Procedures Act authorizes courts to review agency decisions for decisions that are arbitrary and capricious
– Freedom of Information Act demands public disclosure
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Why US consumers may feel protected by the US GMO regulatory structure
• Political structure is inherently competitive - some implications– Regulatory agencies can be sued
for procedural deficiencies
– Regulatory agencies can be sued if they do not acquire, or if they fail to consider, relevant scientific information
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Why US consumers may feel protected by the US regulatory approach for biotechnology
• Political structure is inherently competitive - some implications– Encourages transparency and
extensive scientific investigation (e.g., risk analysis) by the government
– Encourages private citizens to challenge the government
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Why US consumers may feel protected by the USGMO regulatory structure
• Preference for experts in scientific analytic techniques helps define who participates in some aspects of regulatory decision-
making, but policy decisions are not limited to experts
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Why US consumers may feel protected by the US GMO regulatory structure
–Scientific experts selected based on what they know, not who they are, or are affiliated with
–Non-experts provide input through public comment, elections, administrative hearings, initiation of laws, regulations, lawsuits
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Conclusion
Intrinsic arguments against GMOs are not sound.
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ConclusionsExtrinsic arguments against GMOs raise two valid concerns:
•Food safety•Environmental effects
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Conclusions
In the U. S., regulatory agencies have years of experience testing GM foods for safety to the consumer.
Continued vigilance is necessary.
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Conclusions
In the U.S., regulatory agencies have
responsibility to test GMOs for safety to the environment.
Continued vigilance is necessary.
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Conclusions
Extrinsic objections
•Representvalid concerns
•Demand scientific and political vigilance
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Conclusions
Extrinsic objections
• Necessary: Regulatory oversight on case-by-case basis
• Not necessary: A ban of GM foods
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Acknowledgments
This presentation is based on:
Gary Comstock, “Is it unnatural to genetically engineer plants?” Weed Science 46 (1998): 647-651, at:
www.biotech.iastate.edu/Bioethics/gmosethics/weedscienceart.htm
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Acknowledgments
Dr. Clark Ford (Food Science and Human Nutrition, Iowa State University) generously assisted with ideas, design, and web-based pictures, and allowed me to use slides from his presentation, Ethics and GMOs, at:
www.biotech.iastate.edu/Bioethics/gmosethics/
ford.pdf
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Acknowledgments
Dr. Steven Shafer, U. S. Department of Agriculture, kindly allowed me to use slides from his presentation, “Why Consumers Need Not Worry About Genetically Modified Foods,” at:
www.biotech.iastate.edu/Bioethics/gmosethics/
USDA.pdf
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Photo credits
Vandava Shiva: courtesy of Mt. Holyoke College
ens.lycos.com/ens/feb99/1999L-02-23-03.html
Creation of Adam: www.artprintcollection.com/html/michelangelo_
buonarroti-crea.html
Frankenfoods tomato: www.the-scientist.library.upenn.edu/yr1999/oct/palevitzp10_991011.html
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Prince Charles:www.princeofwales.gov.uk/
Mule: www.sky.net/~nodell/
Plant cuttings:www.familyplay.com/activities/plantcut.html
Monarch larva: www.the-scientist.library.upenn.edu/yr1999/oct/lewis_p1_991011.html
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Monarch butterfly: http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/english/sci/tech/
newsid_681000/681208.stmFermenter:
www.nbsc.com/ferm_eq/custferm.htmNew Leaf:
www.monsanto.com/monsanto/investor/current/default.htm
Bt corn field:ens.lycos.com/ens/sep99/1999L-09-16-01.html
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Ethical arguments against genetically modified foods
Dr. Gary Comstock
Philosophy and Religious Studies
Coordinator, Bioethics Program
Iowa State University