Estelar - INFLIBNETshodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/26884/4...Proximate composition is...

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PROXIMATE COMPOSITION OF EXPERIMENTAL FISHES

Proximate composition is quantitative analysis of a mixture (as food) to

determine the percentage of components. The chief components of fish tissue

include water, protein, ash and crude fat. The amount or percentage of each

within a fish's body is termed as proximate composition. The biochemical

composition of the fish muscle generally indicates the nutritional quality of the

fish. In recent years, research into increase production of fish as a cheap and

available source of animal protein has been on with the assistant of government

and non-government organizations in many disciplines. The measurement of

some proximate profiles such as protein content, ash content, carbohydrate and

crude fibre is often necessary to ensure that they meet the dietary requirements

and commercial specifications (Watchman, 2000; Anon, 2000). Research

findings have also rated fish nutrients quality very high thus making it an ideal

source of vital nutrients both for nourishment and medicinal purposes (Effiong

and Mohammed, 2008; Kromhout et al., 1995; Zenebe et al., 1998a; Arts et al.,

2001; Fawole et al., 2007). There are considerable evidences in the use of fish

and fish products for solving health problems (Mumba and Jose, 2005;

Onasanya, 2002; Hetzel, 1994), the need therefore arise for investigation into

the nutritional composition of freshwater fishes in respect to seasonal

variations. It does appear that seasonal changes with its resultant effect on the

activities of fishes may cause variations in their nutrient quality. The chemical

composition of fish varies greatly from one species and one individual to

another depending on age, sex, environment and season. Proximate

composition is often determined in studies of fish physiology, growth, and

nutrition. The variation in the chemical composition of fish is closely related to

feed intake, migratory swimming and sexual maturity in connection with

spawning. Therefore, biochemical composition of a species helps to assess its

nutritional and edible value. It is known that it is the cheapest source of animal

protein and other essential nutrients required in human diet (Sadiku and

Oladimeji, 1991). Fish may be the sole accessible and/or affordable source of

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animal protein for poor households in urban or semi-urban areas (Bene and

Heck, 2005). The nature and quality of nutrients in most animals depend

largely on their food type. More so, the feeding habit of an individual fish

species greatly affects its body nutrient composition (Lagler et al., 1977). There

are many reports on biochemical and nutritional aspects of fishes (Lilabati et

al., 1993; Effiong and Mohammed 2008; Ghosh et al., 2004; Luczynska et al.,

2009; Pirestani et al., 2009). Fish received increased attention as a potential

source of animal protein and essential nutrients for human diets (Kromhout et

al., 1995; Zenebe et al., 1998a; Arts et al., 2001; Fawole et al., 2007). Fish

meat contains significantly low lipids and higher water than beef or chicken

and is favoured over other white or red meats (Neil, 1996; Nestel, 2000). The

nutritional value of fish meat comprises the contents of moisture, protein, fat

value of the fish (Evangelos et al., 1989; Chandrashekar and Deosthale, 1993;

Steffens, 2006). Besides being used as food, fish is also increasingly demanded

for use as feed. The nutritional component of the freshwater fish was found to

differ between species, sexes, sizes, seasons, and geographical localities

(Zenebe et al., 1998b). The nutritional characteristics of fish and fishery

products are of vital interest to consumers. Fisheries reduce vulnerability to

hunger by providing a complementary food source as part of diversified

livelihood strategies. Fisheries especially provide food when other food sources

such as agriculture are at a seasonal low. Foran et al., (2005) submitted that,

fish is a highly proteinous food consumed by a larger percentage of populace

because of its availability and palatability. Dietary responses to short term diets

of fish and the positive effects on protein calorie malnutrition, asthma, arthritis,

auto-immunity, coronary heart diseases and arteriosclerosis have been

independently and unanimously reported (Gerhard et al., 1991; Cobiac et al.,

1991).

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OBSERVATIONS

4.1 SEASONAL VARIATION OF PROXIMATE COMPOSITION

ANALYSIS

4.1.1 Proximate composition of Tor putitora from Kameng river,

Arunachal Pradesh

The analysis of the sample regarding seasonal variation of proximate

composition (moisture, crude protein, crude fat, ash, crude fiber and

carbohydrate) of Tor putitora from Kameng river, Arunachal Pradesh was

evaluated and found statistically significant (P

104

September, October-January). However, no significant variation was observed

in ash content. In case of crude protein significant difference (P

105

Carbohydrate results showed that there was variation between June-September

and October-January.

4.1.3 Proximate composition of Neolissocheilus hexagonolepis from

Kameng river, Arunachal Pradesh

Proximate composition of chocolate mahseer collected from Kameng

river, Arunachal Pradesh was illustrated in Table 4.3. Moisture, crude Protein,

crude fat, ash, crude fiber and carbohydrate contents ranged from 74.585-

77.255 gm/100 gm; 16.579-19.418 gm/100 gm; 1.434 -4.409 gm/100 gm;

1.209 -1.547 gm/100 gm; 0.7-1.236 gm/100 gm; 1.311 -2.878 gm/100 gm

respectively. However, moisture content (77.255gm/100 gm) was significantly

highest (P

106

4.1.4 Proximate composition of Oncorhynchus mykiss from Shergaon trout

farm, Arunachal Pradesh

The analysis of proximate composition of Oncorhynchus mykiss from

Shergaon trout farm, Arunachal Pradesh was presented in Table 4.4. The

above values ranged from 72.048 -77.420 gm/100 gm; 16.879- 19.581 gm/100

gm; 1.367-4.513 gm/100 gm; 1.496-2.576 gm/100 gm; 0.744-2.124 gm/100 gm

and 1.756 - 3.634 gm/100 gm in case of moisture, crude protein, crude fat, ash,

crude fiber and carbohydrate respectively. Significantly higher (P

107

4.1.5 Proximate composition of Oncorhynchus mykiss from Champawat

experimental fish farm, Uttarakhand

The value of proximate composition of Oncorhynchus mykiss from

Champawat experimental fish farm, Uttarakhand was found statistically

significant (P

108

4.1.6 Proximate composition of Schizothorax richardsonii from Tenga

river, Arunachal Pradesh

The variation of proximate composition among different seasons for

snow trout collected from Tenga river, Arunachal Pradesh was recorded in

Table 4.6 and also found to be significant. The results of the present study

indicated that the values are ranging from moisture, 74.574 - 76.051 gm/100

gm; crude protein, 15.746 - 16.126 gm/100 gm; crude fat, 1.637 - 3.596

gm/100 gm; ash, 1.483 - 2.544 gm/100 gm; crude fiber, 2.158 - 2.513 gm/100

gm and carbohydrate 3.607 - 4.701 gm/100 gm. From the results it was

observed that moisture (76.051 gm/100gm) and crude protein (16.126 gm/100

gm) were significantly highest (P

109

4.1.7 Proximate composition of Schizothorax richardsonii from Alaknanda

river, Nandprayag, Uttarakhand

Mean value of proximate composition of Schizothorax richardsonii

from Alaknanda river, Nandprayag, Uttarakhand was found statistically

significant (P

110

The values of proximate composition (moisture, crude protein, crude fat,

ash, crude fiber and carbohydrate) of golden mahseer between Kameng river,

Arunachal Pradesh and Kosi river, Uttarakhand was illustrated in Fig. 4.1. It

was observed that highest moisture (74.265 gm/100 gm) value was noted from

Kameng river, Arunachal Pradesh and lowest value (72.245 gm/100 gm) from

Kosi river, Uttarakhand. On the other hand, crude protein (20.846 gm/100 gm),

crude fat (3.517 gm/100 gm), ash (1.507 gm/100 gm), crude fiber (1.495

gm/100 gm) and carbohydrate (1.882 gm/100 gm) values were higher in the

sample collected from Kosi river, Uttarakhand and lower value from Kameng

river, Arunachal Pradesh.

4.2.2 Kameng river, Arunachal Pradesh Vs Kosi river, Uttarakhand: Tor

putitora (June-September)

The proximate composition of golden mahseer between Kameng river,

Arunachal Pradesh and Kosi river, Uttarakhand were presented in Fig. 4.2. The

values showed that moisture (72.851 gm/100 gm), crude fiber (2.246 gm/100

gm) and carbohydrate (4.360 gm/100 gm) compositions were higher from the

sample collected from Kameng river, Arunachal Pradesh. Similarly, higher

crude protein (22.092 gm/100 gm), crude fat (5.134 gm/100 gm) and ash (1.342

gm/100 gm) levels were observed from the sample of Kosi river, Uttarakhand.

However, lower values (17.659, 4.553, 0.575 gm/100 gm) were recorded from

the sample collected from Kameng river, Arunachal Pradesh.

4.2.3 Kameng River, Arunachal Pradesh Vs Kosi river, Uttarakhand: Tor

putitora (October- January)

The proximate composition of golden mahseer between Kameng river,

Arunachal Pradesh and Kosi river, Uttarakhand in the month of October-

January was recorded (Fig. 4.3) which indicated that higher moisture (75.412

gm/100 gm), crude fat (2.350 gm/100 gm) and crude fiber (0.910 gm/100 gm)

values were observed from the samples of Kameng river, Arunachal Pradesh.

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However, lower values (74.973, 1.154 and 0.559 gm/100 gm) were in the

sample from Kosi river, Uttarakhand. In the present study, crude protein

(19.052 gm/100 gm), ash (1.384 gm/100 gm) and carbohydrate (2.569 gm/100

gm) levels were higher from Kosi river, Uttarakhand. On the other hand lower

values (18.532, 1.323 and 2.381 gm/100 gm) were recorded from Kameng

river, Arunachal Pradesh.

4.2.4 Kameng river, Arunachal Pradesh Vs Bhimtal hatchery,

Uttarakhand: Neolissocheilus hexagonolepis

The results of the analysis were recorded in Fig. 4.4. It was noted that

chemical composition of chocolate mahseer between Kameng river, Arunachal

Pradesh and Bhimtal hatchery, Uttarakhand. Moisture, (77.255 gm/100 gm);

crude protein, (18.734 gm/100 gm); ash, (1.209 gm/100 gm); crude fiber

(0.7gm/100 gm) and carbohydrate (1.366 gm/100 gm) were seen higher from

the sample of Kameng river, Arunachal Pradesh in contrast to the low values

recorded from Kosi river, Uttarakhand. Crude fat value was highest (3.496

gm/100 gm) from Kosi river, Uttarakhand. Conversely lowest value (1.434

gm/100 gm) was recorded from Kameng river, Arunachal Pradesh.

4.2.5 Shergaon trout farm, Arunachal Pradesh Vs Champawat

experimental fish farm, Uttarakhand: Oncorhynchus mykiss (February-

May)

The proximate composition of rainbow trout between Shergaon trout

farm, Arunachal Pradesh and Champawat experimental fish farm, Uttarakhand,

in the month of February-May was recorded in Fig. 4.5. Moisture (74.675

gm/100 gm) and carbohydrate (3.637 gm/100 gm) levels were higher in

Champawat experimental fish farm. Conversely the values were lower in the

case of moisture (72.048 gm/100 gm) and carbohydrate (2.361 gm/100 gm)

from the sample of Shergaon trout farm. From the result, it was revealed that

higher values of crude protein (19.581gm/100 gm), crude fat (4.513 gm/100

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gm), ash (1.496 gm/100 gm) and crude fiber (1.314 gm/100 gm) were observed

from Shergaon trout farm in comparison to Champawat experimental fish farm,

Uttarakhand (17.492, 1.461, 1.325 and 1.228 gm/100 gm).


experimental fish farm, Uttarakhand: Oncorhynchus mykiss (June –

September)

The biochemical composition of rainbow trout between Shergaon trout

farm, Arunachal Pradesh and Champawat experimental fish farm, Uttarakhand

in the month of June – September were presented in Fig. 4.6. Higher levels of

moisture (77.42gm/100 gm); ash (2.576gm/100 gm); crude fiber (0.744gm/100

gm) and carbohydrate (1.756 gm/100 gm) were observed in Shergaon trout

farm, Arunachal Pradesh. On the other hand, lower (75.047, 1.577, 0.418 and

0.905 gm/100 gm) from Champawat experimental fish farm, Uttarakhand

composition were observed. However, crude protein (19.792 gm/100 gm) and

crude fat (2.678 gm/100 gm) values were higher in Champawat experimental

fish farm conversely lower values (16.879 and 1.367 gm/100 gm) were

recorded from Shergaon trout farm, Arunachal Pradesh.


experimental fish farm, Uttarakhand: Oncorhynchus mykiss (October-

January)

The estimates of proximate composition of rainbow trout collected from

Shergaon trout farm, Arunachal Pradesh and Champawat experimental fish

farm, Uttarakhand in the month of October-January, were presented in Fig. 4.7.

From the data, it was seen that higher moisture (74.675 gm/100 gm); crude fat

(3.827 gm/100 gm); crude fiber (2.629 gm/100 gm) and carbohydrate (3.637

gm/100 gm) were recorded from Champawat experimental fish farm,

Uttarakhand. Conversely lower values of moisture (74.613 gm/100 gm); crude

fat (2.679 gm/100 gm); crude fiber (2.124 gm/100 gm) and carbohydrate (3.634

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gm/100 gm) were recorded from Shergaon trout farm, Arunachal Pradesh. On

the other hand, crude protein (17.536 gm/100 gm) and ash (1.536 gm/100 gm)

values were higher in Shergaon trout farm and lower (16.505, 1.355 gm/100

gm) in Champawat experimental fish farm.

4.2.8 Tenga river, Arunachal Pradesh Vs Alaknanda river, Nandprayag,

Uttarakhand: Schizothorax richardsonii (February-May)

The results of carcass composition of snow trout between Tenga river

and Alaknanda river, Nandprayag, Uttarakhand in the month of February-May

presented in Fig. 4.8. The higher moisture (76.514 gm/100 gm) and crude fat

(3.488 gm/100 gm) values were noted from Alaknanda river, Nandprayag and

lower (76.051 and 1.637 gm/100 gm) values from Tenga river. Similarly, crude

protein (16.126 gm/100 gm), ash (1.483gm/100 gm), crude fiber (2.513 gm/100

gm) and carbohydrate (4.701gm/100 gm) values were higher from the fish

muscle of Tenga river, Arunachal Pradesh and lower values (16.122, 0.73,

1.749 and 3.144 gm/100 gm) were noted from Alaknanda river, Nandprayag,

Uttarakhand.


Uttarakhand: Schizothorax richardsonii (June-September)

The mean value of proximate composition of snow trout between Tenga

river, Arunachal Pradesh and Alaknanda river, Nandprayag, Uttarakhand in the

month of June-September was illustrated in Fig. 4.9. Hence, the data showed

that higher moisture (74.574 gm/100 gm) and ash (1.878 gm/100 gm) values

were observed from Tenga river and lower values (72.088, 1.532gm/100 gm)

were from Alaknanda river, Nandprayag. On the other hand, crude protein

(16.572gm/100 gm), crude fat (5.474gm/100 gm), crude fiber (2.361gm/100

gm) and carbohydrate (4.333gm/100 gm) values were found maximum in

Alaknanda river, Nandprayag and minimum (15.746, 3.596, 2.336 and 4.21

gm/100 gm) from Tenga river.

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Uttarakhand: Schizothorax richardsonii (October-January)

Figure 4.10 explained the proximate composition of snow trout in Tenga

river, Arunachal Pradesh and Alaknanda river, Nandprayag, Uttarakhand in the

month of October-January. Higher moisture (75.381gm/100 gm); ash (2.544

gm/100 gm); crude fiber (2.158gm/100 gm) and carbohydrate (3.607gm/100

gm) levels were observed from the fishes of Tenga river, Arunachal Pradesh

and lower values (74.474, 1.505, 1.598 and 2.753 gm/100 gm) were from

Alaknanda river, Nandprayag, Uttarakhand. Also, crude protein (16.502

gm/100 gm) and crude fat (4.764 gm/100 gm) value were found maximum

from Alaknanda river, Nandprayag and lower values (15.829 and 2.638 gm/100

gm) were observed from Tenga river.

4.3 PROXIMATE COMPOSITION OF EXPERIMENTAL FISHES

BASED ON PRODUCTION SYSTEM

4.3.1 Tor putitora from Bhimtal hatchery and Kosi river, Uttarakhand

The comparative results showed that the proximate composition of

golden mahseer from Bhimtal hatchery and Kosi river, Uttarakhand was found

statistically significant (P

115

The results showed that there was significant variation in case of

moisture, crude protein, crude fat, crude fiber and carbohydrate between

Bhimtal hatchery and Kosi river. But there was no variation in ash level.

4.3.2 Schizothorax richardsonii from Champawat experimental fish farm

and Alaknanda river, Nandprayag, Uttarakhand

The mean value of biochemical composition of snow trout of

Champawat experimental fish farm and Alaknanda river, Nandprayag,

Uttarakhand was recorded in Table 4.9. The results indicated significantly

higher concentration of moisture (72.088 gm/100 gm); crude fat (5.474 gm/100

gm); crude fiber (2.361 gm/100 gm) and carbohydrate (4.333 gm/100 gm) in

Alaknanda river. Similarly, crude protein (17.120 gm/100 gm) and ash (2.758

gm/100 gm) levels were higher (P

116

4.4.1.1 Moisture

The Fig no 4.11 explained moisture content of golden mahseer based on

three seasons and two different habitats i.e. Kameng river, Arunachal Pradesh

and Kosi river, Uttarakhand. Moisture forms the major component and its

seasonal variation was ranging from 70.551- 75.412%. The analysis indicated

that highest moisture content was observed (74.973 gm /100 gm) in the month

of October-January in Kosi river. Similarly, moisture content was highest

(75.412 gm /100 gm) in the month of October-January from the sample

collected from Kameng river. While comparision the results it was also noted

that moisture level was maximum (75.412 gm /100 gm) from Kameng river,

Arunachal Pradesh in the month of October-January. On the other hand, lowest

moisture level (70.551 gm /100 gm) was noted during June-September from

Kosi river, Uttarakhand.

4.4.1.2 Crude protein

Crude protein content of golden mahseer (Fig no. 4.12) varied from 17.659-

22.092%. It was observed that Kameng river contained highest crude protein

content (20.244gm/100 gm) in the month of February-May. Kosi river sample

showed maximum crude protein content (22.092gm/100 gm) in the month of

June-September. From the comparative studies based on two habitats and

seasons, lowest (17.659gm/100 gm) level was recorded from the sample of

Kameng river in the month of June-September.

4.4.1.3 Crude fat

Crude fat content of golden mahseer presented in Fig no. 4.13. Crude fat

varied between 1.154- 5.134%. It was seen that Kameng river content

maximum crude fat (4.553 gm/100 gm) during June-September. On the other

hand, comparision between two habitats and three seasons recorded highest

crude fat (5.134gm/100 gm) in the month of June-September from Kosi river.

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Similarly, lowest crude fat (1.154gm/100 gm) level was observed from Kosi

river, Uttarakhand during October-January.

4.4.1.4 Ash

The Fig 4.14 elucidates the ash content of Tor Putitora based on three

seasons and two different habitats. In the present study the ash content of fishes

varied from 0.575- 1.507 %. However, the highest ash content was found

(1.323gm/100 gm) from Kameng river, Arunachal Pradesh in the month of

October-January. Similarly, highest ash contents 1.507gm/100 gm from Kosi

river, Uttarakhand in the month of February-May was recorded. When

comparing the results highest ash content (1.507 gm/100 gm) was recorded

during February-May from Kosi river. Conversely lowest ash content

0.575gm/100 gm was noted from Kameng river in the month of June-

September.

4.4.1.5 Crude fiber

The crude fiber of golden mahseer presented in Fig 4.15. Crude fiber

contents of the fishes were within the range of 0.397- 2.246 %. Based on this

observation, it was noted that the highest crude fiber (2.246 gm/100 gm) was

observed from Kameng river in the month of June-September. While

comparing the data among three seasons and two habitats the lowest value

(0.397gm/100gm) of crude fiber was observed from Kosi river in the month of

June-September.

4.4.1.6 Carbohydrate

Carbohydrate content of Tor putitora from was illustrated in Fig 4.16. In

the present study, the value ranged from 0.879- 4.36%. From the graph, that

highest carbohydrate content (4.36 gm/100gm) was found from the sample of

Kameng river in June-September. Similarly, the highest carbohydrate content

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(2.569 gm) from Kosi river in the month of October-January was recorded.

Comparision of two habitats and seasons of the experimental fishes it was

recorded that lowest carbohydrate content (0.879gm/100 gm) was observed

from Kosi river, Uttarakhand.

4. 4. 2 Rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss)

4. 4. 2.1 Moisture

The variation of moisture content also has been recorded from two

different habitats i.e. Shergaon trout farm, Arunachal Pradesh and Champawat

experimental fish farm, Uttarakhand (Fig. 4.17). Moisture varied from 72.048-

77.42 %. The results showed the highest moisture level from Shergaon trout

farm 77.42 gm/100 gm in the month of June-September. Similarly, the highest

moisture content (77.241gm/100 gm) from Champawat experimental fish farm

was observed in the month of February-May. The lowest value was

72.048gm/100 gm in the month of February-May from Shergaon trout farm.

4. 4. 2.2 Crude protein

The seasonal variation of crude protein was in the range of 16.505-

19.792 (Fig. 4.18). The highest crude protein content (19.581gm) was noted in

the month of February-May from Shergaon trout farm, Arunachal Pradesh. In

the Champawat experimental fish farm, Uttarakhand highest crude protein

content was 19.792 gm in the month of June-September. The minimum level

crude protein (16.505 gm/100gm) was observed during October-January from

Champawat experimental fish farm, Uttarakhand.

4. 4. 2.3 Crude fat

The Fig. 4.19 clarified the seasonal variation of crude fat of rainbow

trout based on three seasons. The variation of crude fat content also had been

recorded. Protein content of rainbow trout varied from 1.367- 4.513%. Highest

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crude fat content was noted 4.513 gm in the month of February-May from

Shergaon trout farm. However, maximum (3.827 gm/100 gm) value of crude

fat was noticed in the month of October-January from Champawat

experimental fish farm. On the other hand, the lowest value (1.367gm/100 gm)

was in the month of June-September from Shergaon trout farm, Arunachal

Pradesh.

4. 4. 2.4 Ash

The ash content of rainbow trout of the three seasonal fish samples from

two different habitats were presented in Fig. 4.20. It was observed that the ash

content varied from 1.325- 2.576%. The Fig showed that the amount of ash in

fish attained maximum (2.576 gm/100 gm) in the months of June-September

from Shergaon trout farm. The lowest value (1.325 gm/100 gm) was noticed

from Champawat experimental fish farm, Uttarakhand in the seasons of

February-May.

4. 4. 2.5 Crude fiber

Average value of crude fiber content in rainbow trout throughout the

seasons and two different places were presented in Fig 4.21. It was found that

crude fiber contents in different seasons varied from 0.418- 2.629%. In

comparision between both the places the maximum value (2.629 gm/100 gm)

was obtained in October-January whereas the minimum (0.418gm/100 gm) in

June-September.

4. 4. 2.6 Carbohydrate

The Fig 4.22 showed the seasonal variation of carbohydrate of rainbow

trout. Carbohydrate content was ranging from 0.905 to 3.637%. It was

observed that the minimum carbohydrate content from Champawat

experimental fish farm (0.905 gm/100 gm) in the month of June-September and

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maximum (3.637 gm/100 gm) from Champawat experimental fish farm in the

season of October-January.

4.4.3. Snow trout (Schizothorax richardsonii)

4.4.3.1 Moisture

As shown in Fig 4.23, the highest moisture content was from Tenga

River, Arunachal Pradesh (76.051gm/100 gm) during the month of February-

May. Moisture content varied from 72.088 to 76.514%. The highest moisture

content was recorded from Alaknanda river, Nandprayag 76.514 gm/100gm in

the month of February-May and lowest moisture content from Alaknanda river,

Nandprayag (72.088 gm/100 gm) in the month of June-September.

4.4.3.2 Crude protein

Crude protein (Fig 4.24) ranged from 15.746 to 16.572% from the

experimental fish muscle. The results showed that crude protein content was

highest (16.126 gm/100 gm) in the month of February- May from the sample of

Tenga River, Arunachal Pradesh and 16.572 gm/100gm from Alaknanda river,

Nandprayag, Uttarakhand in the month of June-September. From the Fig. no

4.24 it has been noted that lowest data (15.746gm/100 gm) was recorded from

Tenga River, Arunachal Pradesh (June-September).

4.4.3.3 Crude fat

The Figure 4.25 depicted the details the all three seasonal proximate

data of crude fat of snow trout. The value ranged from 1.637 -5.474%. From

the results it was evaluated that the highest level of crude fat 5.474 gm/100 gm

was recorded in the month of June-September from the sample of Alaknanda

river, Nandprayag, Uttarakhand. However, the lowest level (1.637 gm/100 gm)

was found in from February-May from the experimental fishes of Alaknanda

river, Nandprayag, Uttarakhand upon comparing the two habitats.

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4.4.3.4 Ash

Figure 4.26 showed the highest ash content (2.544gm/100 gm) obtained

from Tenga River, Arunachal Pradesh (October-January). The value ranged

from 0.73-2.544%. On the other hand, the highest content of ash (1.532gm/100

gm) was experienced from Alaknanda river, Nandprayag, Uttarakhand in June-

September and lowest ash content was (0.73gm/100 gm) noted in the month of

February-May.

4.4.3.5 Crude fiber

Both seasonal and habitat wise variation of crude fiber of snow trout

was illustrated in Figure 4.27. Crude fiber content varied from 1.598 to

2.513%. Seasonal variation in the crude fiber content of the body muscles of

snow trout showed the highest content of crude fiber (2.513gm/100 gm) in the

month of February-May from Tenga River. The results of the present study

revealed that lowest content of crude fiber recorded as 1.598 gm/100 gm in the

month of February-May.

4.4.3.6 Carbohydrate

Fig. 4.28 provided the carbohydrate content of snow trout from two

different habitats and seasons. It was found that the carbohydrate content of

different seasons varied from 2.753 to 4.701%. Fish samples collected from

Tenga River, Arunachal Pradesh was having maximum carbohydrate (4.701

gm/100 gm) content in the month of February-May. Similarly, samples from

Alaknanda river, Nandprayag, Uttarakhand got highest content of carbohydrate

(4.333 gm/100 gm) in the month of June-September. Upon comparing the

values between two different places, samples from Alaknanda river,

Nandprayag, Uttarakhand contained lowest carbohydrate (2.753gm/100 gm)

during October-January.

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DISCUSSION

Fish is known to be one of the cheapest sources of animal protein and

other essential nutrients required in human diets (Sadiku and Oladimeji, 1991).

The nature and quality of nutrients in most animals is dependent upon their

food type. In developing countries, fish is one of the potential sources of

animal protein and essential nutrients for the maintenance of a healthy body

(Fawole et al., 2007). The percentage of proteins in fishes is drastically higher

than that of milk and cheese which is carried out by Omotosho et al., (2011)

and as well as higher than poultry feed with protein content of 11.34%

(Prabakaran and Dhanapal, 2009). In recent years, fish has become favorite

foodstuff for the majority of societies because of several health reasons (Ali

and Kiumars, 2010). The knowledge of fish composition is essential for its

maximum utilization. Processors have direct interest in the proximate

composition of fish in order to know the nature of the raw material before

chilling, freezing, smoking or canning can be correctly applied (FAO, 2004).

Various studies have been carried out on the proximate chemical composition

(Exler 1987; Chandrashekar and Deosthale, 1993; Eun et al., 1994). The

principal constituents are water (66 – 84 %), protein (15 – 24 %), lipids (0.1 –

22 %), minerals (0.8 – 2 %) and sugar in very minute quantity (0.3%) at

maximum value in fishes (Jacquot, 1961).

The moisture results of experimental fishes exhibited significant

variation (P

123

that the proximate composition of the fish depends on season but also to a great

extent in relation to reproductive cycle (Islam and Joadder, 2005). In our

studies it was observed that golden mahseer had moisture contain 70.551-

75.412 gm/100gm, chocolate mahseer 74.585 - 77.255 gm/100gm. Average

value of moisture content was 72.048 - 77.420 % in rainbow trout and snow

trout 72.088 - 76.514 %. The similar finding also agreed with observation of

Marais and Erasmus 1977; Abdullahi, 1999, 2001; Effiong and Mohammed

2008; Gallagher et al., 1991; Babalola et al., 2011; Abii et al., 2007; Islam and

Joadder, 2005; US-RDA, 1994; Ozogul et al., 2011; Oyebamiji et al., 2008. A

slightly higher range of moisture was found by Farhat Jabeen and Shakoor

Chaudhry (2011) in Labeo rohita from two different places. The high moisture

contents recorded for all the fish are comparable to our study those reported in

other fresh water fish species such as Mormyrus rume, Oreochromis niloticus

and Clarias lazera (Otitologbon et al., 1997), Citharinus citharus and C. latus

(Abdullahi, 1999), Alestes nurse, A. macrolepidotus, Hydrocynus brevis and

Hepsetus odoe (Abdullahi, 2000a), Labeo coubi, L. senegalensis and Barbus

occidentalis (Abdullahi, 2000b), three Channa spp (Zuraini et al., 2006). The

moisture values were lower comparable to our study than those reported in

freshwater fishes were carried out by Adeniyi et al., (2012); Oyebamiji et al.,

(2008); Abdullahi et al., (2001); Mazumder (2008). The proximate composition

of the hill stream fishes N. stracheyis, Labeo pangusia, Semiplotus

manipurensis, Schizothorax richardsonii, and Ompok bimaculatus were

analyzed by Hei and Sarojnalini (2012). High moisture value was observed in

Neolissocheilus stracheyi 15.77%DW and lowest value in Schizothorax

richardsonii 9.36%DW.

In our investigation muscle of rainbow trout from Shergaon trout Farm,

Arunachal Pradesh showed higher moisture contents in the month of June-

September. Similar result was also found by Effiong and Mohammed (2008).

Oncorhynchus mykiss from Shergaon trout Farm, Arunachal Pradesh showed

lower moisture in the season of February-May. The higher range of moisture

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was found in the season of October-January in the muscles of Tor putitora

from Arunachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand which is same agreement by Boran

and Karaçam (2011); Huss (1988; 1995); Shamsan and Ansari (2010) and

Majumdar and Basu (2009) when feeding activity was low. At spawning time,

the fillets contained more moisture than any other time of the year. The finding

is more or less similar to other related fishes as well as in other vertebrates due

to maturation of gonads. This corroborates the findings by Das (1978), in

which low values of moisture content were noticed during the spawning

season, which could be due to the decline in food intake. Proximate

composition of hill stream fishes viz., Neolissocheilus hexagonolepis, Raiamas

guttatus, Schizothorax richardsonii, Semiplotus manipurensis, Tor putitora and

Tor tor has been studied by Laishram et al., (2001) during December-January.

Moisture content of N. hexagonolepis (29.90% DW) and S. manipurensis

(21.30%DW) was found. Moisture ranged from 70.8% in C. cultriventris

caspia to 77.8% in C. carpio (Pirestani et al., 2009).

It is noteworthy that the lowest concentration of moisture in winter and

higher in summer were found in the muscle of Neolissocheilus hexagonolepis

from Arunachal Pradesh, Oncorhynchus mykiss from Uttarakhand,

Schizothorax richardsonii from Arunachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand. The

results are in agreement with those reported by Nargis, 2006; Nabi and

Hossain, 1989; Islam and Joadder (2005) for other fishes. It was observed that

the proportions of the components of muscle tissues varied with the change of

season and attributed to maturation of gonads (Nabi and Hossain, 1989). In our

study it was found that an increment trend of moisture from July in

experimental fishes with the advancement in maturation and spawning activity

which is similar as observed by Shamsan and Ansari (2010). Chandra Shekhar

et al., (2004) reported that moisture content was low when other constituents

(lipid, protein and carbohydrate) were high in Labeo rohita. The biochemical

components fluctuated widely irrespective of size and growth of the fish

without showing any distinct pattern. The change in flesh composition of fishes

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due to spawning affects its consumer acceptability both for direct consumption

and also for further processing and storage. Poor nutritional status occurs

during the period after spawning since both the major components are utilized

for metabolism in the new cells of gonads and the rest becomes inadequately

available for body maintenance, which drops down the overall concentration of

nutrients in spent fish (Majumdar and Basu, 2009) as also evidenced recorded

the present our study. The results suggest that the proximate composition of

fish species greatly varies based on the season. This might be due to

physiological reasons and changes in environmental conditions, i.e., spawning,

migration, and starvation or heavy feeding. It is also suggested by other authors

that species-specific physiological characteristics might greatly affect the

proximate composition (Boran and Karaçam, 2011). In general fish

populations change from one area to another because of the following factors;

water temperature, water velocity and transparency, alkalinity and available

habitat. However, the result of the present investigation stated that the

proximate compositions of the experimental fishes are having the values in

adequate quantities which will be helpful to provide nutrition to the people in

upland areas. This will help to maintain the status of health and general

wellbeing irrespective of different age groups.

It was revealed from the study that the moisture was inversely related to

crude fat content. The similar relationship had also been reported in marine

fishes such as Mugil cephalus (Das, 1978); Sarda sarda (Zaboukas et al., 2006)

and freshwater fishes like Wallago attu (Bloch) (Jafri, 1969); Ophicephalus

punctatus (Jafri and Khawaja, 1968) and T. trachurus, S. aurita, M. furnieri, S.

scombrus and C. gariepinus (Babalola et al., 2011). Inverse relationship

between crude fat and moisture content is evident from the negative correlation

between the two constituents (Shamsan and Ansari, 2010; Katikou et al., 2001;

Fjellanger et al., 2001 and Ozogul et al., 2011) which is also felt in our study.

It is thought that the variation observed in crude fat content in the present study

not only because of food abundance, but also related to reproduction activities

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of fish species. Since nutrients are more abundant in spring and summer, an

increase in the dry matter and a decrease in the moisture contents are usually

observed in the same seasons which is also reported by Ozogul et al., (2011).

Changes in water and fat indicated that while there was a decline in water

content, fat content evidently increased due to heavy feeding during this period,

which is in good agreement with previously reported results by Huss (1988;

1995). The percentage of water is good indicator of its relative contents of

proteins (Dempson et al., 2004).

The dietary protein act as replacement of endogenous loss of body

proteins due to wear and tear, formation of new tissues during growth period

and synthesis of enzymes, blood, hormones etc., which are proteins in nature.

Compared to other sources of protein, fish are well known to be excellent

sources of protein, which can be seen from amino acid composition and protein

digestibility (Louka et al., 2004). The results of the present study indicated that

the crude protein showed a significant difference (P

127

The concentration of the protein content in the present study were within

the range as previously reported in Tilapia zillii (Zelibe, 1989); freshwater fish

from both temperate (Henderson and Tocher, 1987) and tropical regions

(Andrade et al., 1995). However, few authors have reported lower average

protein content in comparison to the present study Celik 2008; Bandarra et al.,

2001; Osako et al., 2002; Boran and Karaçam 2011; Munshi et al., 2005; Islam

and Joadder 2005 and Osibona et al., 2006. Low protein levels were recorded

for C. carpio, L. rohita and O. mossambicus (10.6–11.3%) wet weight (Farhat

Jabeen and Shakoor Chaudhry, 2011); Tilapia (50–55%) dry muscle tissue

(Onyeike et al., 2000); Cichlidae family (30 –54%) dry muscle tissue (Ukoha

and Olatunde, 1988); P. chola (14.08%) wet weight (Mazumder et al., 2008).

Protein levels for carp (16%), (FAO, 2008) which is in good agreement with

the present findings. Also slightly high range of crude protein was reported by

Zuraini et al., (2006) in C. striatus. Hei and Sarojnalini (2012) observed that

highest protein level (71.08%) (dry weight) was found in Schizothorax

richardsonii, which was followed by Labeo pangusia (70.08%). In our

experiment the values were higher than those reported in several fishes (Eyo,

2001; 1998; Zenebe et al., 1998b). Eyo (1992) also reported similar results

from clupeids as shown in this present experiment. Abdullahi (2001) and Islam

and Joadder, (2005) stated that the protein content in fish might vary with

species due to certain factors such as the season of the year, effect of spawning

and migration, food available etc. In this present experiment also the variation

was observed in case protein content of the fish muscle. Laishram et al., (2001)

recorded higher crude protein value in hill stream fishes. Protein value was

highest in Schizothorax richardsonii (79.25% dry weight) and lowest in Tor tor

(74.75% dry weight). The finding of the a high concentrations of protein in the

muscles of Neolissocheilus hexagonolepis from Arunachal Pradesh in the

month of October-January in respect to the seasons confirmed the validity of

the results of earlier research by Effiong and Mohammed (2008) for freshwater

fish species. The sample of Tor putitora, Oncorhynchus mykiss, Schizothorax

richardsonii and Neolissocheilus hexagonolepis from Arunachal Pradesh

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showed protein increment in the month of October-January which might be

associated with egg development. The similar result was also reported by

Boran and Karaçam (2011) and Nargis (2006). Plankton concentration is at the

highest level during November and December, which could explain the

increment in both fat and protein contents. Variations in nutrient composition

have been reported in other fish species, Sardinops sagax (Gamez-meza et al.,

1999); Pike perch, Rainbow trout and Eel (Mustafa et al., 2001). Knowing that

the protein value varied seasonally, low value in February-May and highest in

June-September were noted in the muscles of Tor putitora, Oncorhynchus

mykiss, Schizothorax richardsonii from Uttarakhand in the present study. It was

revealed from the analysis that the value of protein were found to be high may

be due to the ecological condition of hill streams. This is because high velocity

of water, high dissolved oxygen and abundant food availability may enhance

the internal metabolism of these fishes. This tends to agree with the work done

by Laishram et al., (2001).

Osako et al., (2002) was in the opinion that the difference might be

because of species-specific characteristics. The difference in protein content

might be because of different catching locations as environmental conditions

might cause dramatic variations among the same species living in different

locations (Boran and Karaçam, 2011). Parulekar (1964) reported maximum

protein content in the ripe fishes and the minimum in spent and early

maturation phases. Protein content can be correlated with the phases of

maturity and spawning, with high values when the gonads are ripe which

decline during post-spawning period (Parulekar and Bal, 1969; Das, 1978).

Bhuyan et al., (2003) reported higher protein content in ripe and gravid fish,

whereas a low level of protein was recorded in spent and young fish. The

feeding intensity does not appear to have any effect on the protein content.

Bumb (1992) reported that low rate of feeding intensity was observed during

summer and heavy feeding during monsoon and that there was no direct

relationship between feeding intensity, maturation, spawning and protein

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content. Islam and Joadder (2005); Love (1974) reported that protein depletion

occurs at the end of spawning time to show the selection of materials for

building up the gonads for further reproduction. The variation of protein might

be influenced by their feeding and breeding capabilities (Borgstrom, 1961 and

Chakraborty et al., 1985). The protein cycle appears to be having a strong

correlation with feeding and spawning reported in a number of fish species.

This intense feeding perhaps is more in the months, i.e., immediately after

spawning, as the fish during spawning incurs energy expenditure along with the

loss of gonadal elements and recoups to compensate the expenditure through

vigorous feeding activity. Stansby (1954) made similar observations in the

trout. The present finding revealed the high value of muscle protein content

immediately after spawning which is similar as reported by earlier authors

Islam and Joadder (2005). This is because while maturing and at the mature

stage; most of the proteins might have been accumulated in the gonads and at

the time of spawning. The gonadal elements get released either as eggs or

sperm carrying the protein along with them. But immediately after spawning,

as the gonad is in recovery stage and without any gonadal elements, the food

that is consumed by the fish might have been used in the building up of the

muscle. This observation made in this study was also confirmed by the earlier

findings of Greene (1921); Bruce (1924) and Majumdar and Basu (2009).

However, in the case of marine fishes the protein content showed much

fluctuation. This behaviour could be explained taking into account that, during

the depletion period, once the lipid reserves are spent in severe depletion

situations, the fish could survive at the expense of muscle protein (Yeannes and

Almandos, 2003).

In case of other fresh water fishes it was reported that in spring, summer

and autumn, S. aurata gave the highest protein level while S. sihoma gave the

highest level in winter Ozogul et al., (2011). In the present investigation, the

protein contents of the fish samples showed that the fishes are having high

protein concentration within the range of 15-22 %. It is known that protein in

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fish is influenced by the fat and water content Munshi et al., (2005). The high

tissue protein content may result from the equally high protein content of their

diets (fish items, crustaceans, molluscs, algae and diatoms).

In general it is known that the variation in the proximate composition

specially protein (Ssali, 1998; Zenebe et al., 1998a), among individuals of the

same species is a common phenomenon in fish. These variations were

attributed to factors such as the geographical area in which the fish was caught,

age, sex and size (Osibona et al., 2006). The nutritional elements showed

variable values in all the fishes analyzed; with crude protein recording the

highest values and lipid recording the lowest. This makes the fishes important

living resources of dietary protein as other sea and freshwater fish (Zuraini et

al., 2006). High lipid with had less water and more protein than low-lipid

fishes. This is in-line with the report of Steffens (2006), that protein forms the

largest quantity of dry matter in fish. The relatively high to moderate

percentage of crude protein could be attributed to the fact that fishes are good

sources of pure protein, but the differences observed in the obtained values

may also be attributed to fisher’s consumption or absorption capability and

conversion potentials of nutrients from their diet or local environment into such

biochemical attribute needed by the organism’s body (Burgress, 1975; Adewoye

and Omotosho, 1997). It is widely accepted that the protein composition of

tissues of fishes are related to many factors such as feeding, growth maturation

and spawning (Jafri, 1968) such as and metabolism, mobility of the fishes and

geographical area (Stansby, 1962). The amount of protein in fish is influenced

by the fat and water content. González-Fandos et al., (2004) reported protein

content (16.04%) in rainbow trout (O. mykiss), similar results found in our

result in rainbow trout from Arunachal Pradesh (June-September) and

Uttarakhand (October –January).

In the present study it was observed that significant seasonal variation in

ash content were observed (p

131

content of ash were also found for several experimental fishes (Ozogul et al.,

2011; Munshi et al., 2005). However, no different was seen in Tor putitora and

Oncorhynchus mykiss collected from Uttarakhand. Similar observation in the

nutrient composition of the fish samples was also noted by Effiong and

Mohammed, 2008 and Osibona et al., 2006. It was explained that the

proportions of the components of muscle tissues varied with the change of

season. However, the fluctuation of ash content made difficult to show any

relationship with the spawning season. Ash content were ranging from 0.575-

2.576 gm/ 100gm in the present study. Similar results were also observed by

Babalola et al., (2011). A slightly higher range of ash level was observed by

Osibona et al., 2006 in Clarias gariepinus; Malapterurus electricus and Tilapia

guineensis (Adeniyi et al., 2012) and in several fish species (Oyebamiji et al.,

2008). The ash content was in higher range in Labeo panguisa (5.65 % dry

weight) and low value in Neolissocheilus stracheyi (4.43% dry weight) as

recorded by Hei and Sarojnalini (2012). Besides, crude ash ranged from 1.15%

- 3.33% (Pirestani et al., 2009) in fresh water fish species. However, low values

of ash content was reported by Nargis (2006); Islam and Joadder, (2005);

Effiong and Mohammed (2008); Ozogul et al., (2011). Ash contents in the

samples of hill stream fishes were ranging from 5.20 to 7.00% (% Dry Weight

Basis) (Laishram et al., 2001). In our study highest content of ash was observed

in Neolissocheilus hexagonolepis from Arunachal Pradesh; Oncorhynchus

mykiss both from Arunachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand; Schizothorax

richardsonii from Uttarakhand during June-September season. The low level of

ash was noted in October-January. These results are in agreement with the

study made by Effiong and Mohammed, (2008); Nargis, (2006); Islam and

Joadder, (2005). In general, body composition of fishes seems to depend on

age, sex, season and diet (Phillips et al., 1966; Graves, 1970; Love, 1970). The

ash content gives a measure of the total mineral content in the tissue (Nair and

Mathew, 2001). According to Stansby (1954); Salam et al., (1995) and Jacquot

(1961), variation in ash composition of fish flesh also may vary with species

variation, season, age and the feeding habit of fish.

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It is known that crude fat of the muscle of the fishes has got tremendous

impacts for the human health benefits (FAO, 1998; Land, 1986). Analyses of

the crude fat in the muscle of Tor putitora, Oncorhynchus mykiss, Schizothorax

richardsonii from Arunachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand, Neolissocheilus

hexagonolepis from Uttarakhand showed statistically significant variation

(p

133

difference in fat and protein content may be due to different sampling

locations. This is due to environmental conditions cause dramatic variations

among the same species living in different locations. The content of fat

depends on feeding habits. With respect to the fat content of the present

experiment of Tor putitora from Arunachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand,

Oncorhynchus mykiss from Arunachal Pradesh, a gradual decrease in October -

January and then an increase from February -May was observed, which might

be due to maturation and spawning as fishes normally spawns from July until

November. Same results were obtained by these authors Boran and Karaçam,

2011; Nargis, 2006. The percentage of fat depends on the reproduction and

food. Similar results were obtained on Macrognathus aculeatus (Nabi and

Hossain, 1989). The differences in season, depending on the availability of

food at different time of the year, have a considerable effect on the tissue

components particularly the fat. Changes in the reproductive cycle also have a

marked effect on the body composition. Fish like other animals, store fat to

supply energy needed during food scarcity and reproductive phases (Ahmed et

al., 1984). Reduction of the fat content during the spawning season has been

recorded for mirror-carp and three spined stickle back (Habashy, 1972).

Bhuyan et al., (2003) reported higher fat content in ripe and gravid fish,

whereas a low level of fat was recorded in spent and young fish. The major

contributing causes that effect the raw fat level in the reproduction period. The

low levels of raw fat in the present study may be sampling time being after the

reproduction period. The ether extract level in the fish tissues could have been

due to the influence of food (Reinitz, 1983) as experienced in the present

investigation on.

There is inverse relationship between the fat and protein contents of the

fish, (Munshi et al., 2005). Similar results were also obtained in this study for

Tor putitora, Schizothorax richardsonii, Neolissocheilus hexagonolepis from

Arunachal Pradesh, Oncorhynchus mykiss collected from Uttarakhand. Less

content of crude fat were occurred from the muscle of Oncorhynchus mykiss

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from Arunachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand in the month of June-September in

our study. Similar finding of crude fat were obtained by Islam and Joadder,

(2005) who carried out research on freshwater fish gobi, G. giuris. It may be

inferred that during mature stage, gonad studded with the lipid hence, muscles

contain less fat. Thus, it was observed that fat content of muscle is less during

spawning season. These four fish species might be very good sources of fish

oil, which is required for food therapy in humans. It is reported that low-fat fish

have higher water content and also fat content is influenced by species,

geographical regions, age, and diet (Piggott and Tucker, 1990).

Crude protein, crude fat, crude ash and moisture content in pomfret

muscle are closer to the result of the present study (Feng Zhao et al., 2010).

Moisture, protein and ash contents of the rainbow trout meat studied in other

places were ranging from 71.65, 19.60 and 1.36%, respectively (Celik et al.,

2008). These values are similar to those for rainbow trout (Salmo gairdneri),

reported as 76.23, 18.57, 3.71 and 1.47%, for moisture, protein, fat and ash,

respectively (Özden 2005). However, the values of the present study are

comparable with the published reports in different salmonid species (Kinsella

et al., 1977; Ünlüsayin et al., 2001; USDA 2005; Testi et al., 2006). Slightly

higher or lower range of moisture, ash, protein, carbohydrate from different

marine fish and shellfish samples were found by Nurnadia et al., (2011) and

Ravichandran et al., (2011). Overall the moisture, protein, fat and ash contents

in the experimental fishes of this study were within the range or more or less

similar with other studies (Kalay et al., 2008; Azam et al., 2004;

Chandrashekar and Deosthale 1993; Mustafa et al., 2012; Nabi and Hossain

1989; Gopalan et al., 1978; CSIR, 1962; Ali et al., 2005; Salam et al., 1995;

Mazumder et al., 2008). A little variation of fat was also found which might be

a function of age, sex, season, feeding habit etc (Islam and Joadder, 2005).

These environmental changes primarily affect metabolic processes (Sheridan,

1989), causing accumulations, which may vary in the different organs of

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aquatic organisms (Farkas et al., 1980; Sheridan, 1989; Borlongan and Benitez,

1992).

In the present experiment crude fiber results showed significant

(P

136

and Tafa, 2005). During the breeding season, the percentage of carbohydrate of

A. testudineus was lower which was gradually increased from March to June

and then in the winter season (Nargis, 2006). The same results were found in

the sample of Tor putitora from Uttarakhand, Oncorhynchus mykiss from

Arunachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand. Increased value of carbohydrate was

noted in the season of June-September from the sample of Tor putitora from

Arunachal Pradesh and Schizothorax richardsonii from Arunachal Pradesh and

Uttarakhand. Similarly, low value of carbohydrate was recorded in the season

of February–May from the sample of Tor putitora, Neolissocheilus

hexagonolepis from Arunachal Pradesh, Schizothorax richardsonii from

Uttarakhand. Similar findings were also reported by Shamsan and Ansari

(2010). The results of the present study was also supported by Vijayakumaran

(1979) who stated that carbohydrate plays a minor role in energy reserves of

Ambassis gymnocephalus and its depletion during the spawning season is

insignificant. Phillips et al., (1967) observed that carbohydrates were utilized

for energy by trout and spared protein for body building. Also, feeding habit of

an individual fish species has great effect on its body nutrients composition

(Lagler et al., 1977). Carbohydrates and non-protein compounds are present in

negligible amount and are usually ignored for routine analysis (Cui and

Wootton, 1988). Carbohydrates formed a minor percentage of the total

composition of the muscle (Babalola et al., 2011). The low values of

carbohydrates recorded because, glycogen in many marine animals does not

contribute much to the reserves in the body (Jayasree et al., 1994; Babalola et

al., 2011; Ramaiyan et al., 1976). Oyster contained fairly high amount of

carbohydrate, with mean percentage of 6.45%, which was higher than our

study. On the other hand, cockles and cuttlefish contained only 1.51% and 0.87

% carbohydrate.

The data showed that moisture, crude protein, crude fat, crude fiber and

carbohydrate of golden mahseer were significant (P

137

between Bhimtal hatchery and Kosi river, Uttarakhand. The present study

indicated that crude fat and ash values had significant difference (P

138

can be suggested that taste, size, freshness and other related external

appearances should not be the only factors to be considered in making choice

for marketing and consumption of the coldwater fishes but nutritional choice is

also very important. Likewise, the interest in commercial culture of fish has

increased to fill the gaps between supply and demand; therefore, this

information is useful in developing nutrient-balanced, cost-effective diets and

practical feeds for cultured fish. However, these values vary considerably

within and between species, size, sexual condition, feeding season and physical

activity. Fish is also widely accepted because of its high palatability, low

cholesterol and tender flesh (Eyo, 2001). It is therefore necessary to make

information available to consumers and fishery workers on the nutritional

contribution of some fish species in their daily diets as one of the important

objective and findings of the present study (Adewoye et. al., 2003; Barminas et

al., 1998). It was also observed that protein and lipid value of the endemic

fishes of hill stream fishes was found to be higher than that of other freshwater

fishes of India (Vishwanath and Sarojnalini, 1988) as observed in our findings

also.

While, seasonal changes in water temperature and nutrients are the

major factors affecting composition of fish muscle (Gruger, 1967). Stansby

(1954) has established that information on the chemical composition of fish in

respect to the nutritive value is important to compare with other source of

animal protein, foods such as meat and poultry products. Since fish are

poikilothermic and live permanently immersed in water, they are directly

affected by changes in their ambient medium. The variable undergoing change

may be the length or other physical dimensions, including volume, weight, or

mass either of an organism’s whole body or its various tissues or it may relate

to lipids, protein content, or other chemical constituent of the body (Weatherly

and Gill, 1987).

Fishing is a popular pastime in many places in the world (Toth and

Brown, 1997; Burger et al., 1992, 1993; Burger, 2002; Andrew, 2001)

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including in some urban areas (Burger et al., 1999a, 2001; Ramos and Crain,

2001). Most state agencies distribute fish consumption guidance with fishing

licenses (Reinert et al., 1991; Burger and Gochfeld, 1991; Burger et al., 1992,

1993, 1999a, b; Velicer and Knuth, 1994; Knuth, 1995 and Burger, 2000a).

Changes in consumption behaviour are possible only if people are aware of the

warnings and benefits. These have significant role in nutrition, income,

employment and foreign exchange earning of the country. However,

information concerning the chemical composition of freshwater fishes in

general is valuable to nutritionists concerned with readily available sources of

low-fat, high-protein foods such as most freshwater fishes (Sadiku and

Oladimeji, 1991; Mozaffarian et al., 2003; Effiong and Fakunle, 2012 and

Foran et al., 2005) and to the food scientist who is interested in developing

them into high-protein foods, while ensuring the finest quality flavor, color,

odor, texture, and safety obtainable with maximum nutritive value. It is also

useful to the ecologists and environmentalists who are interested in determining

the effects of changing biological/environmental conditions on the

composition, survival, and population changes within fish species.

The findings of the present study will also provide some information in

this direction and will give some information regarding nutritive value of

certain coldwater fishes as a dietary guideline. The proximate composition of

the species helps to assess its nutritional and edible value compared to other

species. The proximate data assist the nutritionist, dieticians and consumers to

estimate the intake of the principal nutrient in the human diet, to calculate

energy values of diet and to have the knowledge of the content of the diet. The

results of the present findings suggested that the proximate composition of fish

species greatly varies during the season. This might be due to physiological

changes related to the environmental conditions, i.e., spawning, migration, and

starvation or heavy feeding. Species-specific physiological characteristics

might greatly affect the proximate composition. This study provides valuable

information on variations in proximate composition of fish species in order to

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distinguish their nutritional value and make a choice based on the information

from a consumer point of view. The study of the proximate composition of

golden mahseer, chocolate mahseer, snow trout and rainbow trout revealed that

they are rich in protein and fat that may contribute to health, growth and

development of human beings and a safe food from environment concern.

Thus, the present study will provide valuable information of the nutritive value

in terms of proximate composition of the important selected edible coldwater

fishes especially of trout and mahseer from the state of Arunachal Pradesh and

Uttarakhand.

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Table 4.1: Seasonal variation of proximate composition (gm/100gm) of Tor putitora from Kameng river, Arunachal Pradesh

Data is expressed as mean ± standard deviation. Values with different superscript letters are significantly different (P

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Table 4.2: Seasonal variation of proximate composition (gm/100gm) of Tor putitora from Kosi river, Uttarakhand


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Table 4.3: Seasonal variation of proximate composition (gm/100gm) of Neolissocheilus hexagonolepis from Kameng river,

Arunachal Pradesh


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Table 4.4: Seasonal variation of proximate composition (gm/100gm) of Oncorhynchus mykiss from Shergaon trout farm,

Arunachal Pradesh


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Table 4.5: Seasonal variation of proximate composition (gm/100gm) of Oncorhynchus mykiss from Champawat experimental

fish farm, Uttarakhand


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Table 4.6: Seasonal variation of proximate composition (gm/100gm) of Schizothorax richardsonii from Tenga river,

Arunachal Pradesh


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Table 4.7: Seasonal variation of proximate composition (gm/100gm) of Schizothorax richardsonii from Alaknanda river,

Nandprayag, Uttarakhand


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Table 4.8: Proximate composition (gm/100gm) of Tor putitora from Bhimtal hatchery and Kosi river, Uttarakhand based on

production system


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Table 4.9: Proximate composition (gm/100gm) of Schizothorax richardsonii from Champawat experimental fish farm and

Alaknanda river, Nandprayag, Uttarakhand based on production system


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Figure 4.1: Proximate composition (gm/100gm) of Tor putitora from Kameng river and Kosi river in the month of February-May. Values are mean ± SD Figure 4.2: Proximate composition (gm/100gm) of Tor putitora from Kameng river and Kosi river in the month of June-September. Values are mean ± SD

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Figure 4.3: Proximate composition (gm/100gm) of Tor putitora from Kameng river and Kosi river in the month of October-January. Values are mean ± SD Figure 4.4: Proximate composition (gm/100gm) of Neolissocheilus hexagonolepis from Kameng river, Arunachal Pradesh and Bhimtal hatchery, Uttarakhand. Values are mean ± SD

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Figure 4.5: Proximate composition (gm/100gm) of Oncorhynchus mykiss from Shergaon trout farm, Arunachal Pradesh and Champawat experimental fish farm, Uttarakhand in the month of February-May. Values are mean ± SD Figure 4.6: Proximate composition (gm/100gm) of Oncorhynchus mykiss from Shergaon trout farm, Arunachal Pradesh and Champawat experimental field centre, Uttarakhand in the month June – September. Values are mean ± SD

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Figure 4.7: Proximate composition (gm/100gm) of Oncorhynchus mykiss from Shergaon trout farm, Arunachal Pradesh and Champawat experimental fish farm, Uttarakhand in the month of October-January. Values are mean ± SD Figure 4.8: Proximate composition (gm/100gm) of Schizothorax richardsonii from Tenga river, Arunachal Pradesh and Alaknanda river, Nandprayag, Uttarakhand in the month of February-may. Values are mean ± SD

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Figure 4.9: Proximate composition (gm/100gm) of Schizothorax richardsonii from Tenga river, Arunachal Pradesh and Alaknanda river, Nandprayag, Uttarakhand in the month of June-September. Values are mean ± SD Figure 4.10: Proximate composition (gm/100gm) of Schizothorax richardsonii from Tenga river, Arunachal Pradesh and Alaknanda river, Nandprayag, Uttarakhand in the month of October-January. Values are mean ± SD

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Figure 4.11: Seasonal variation of moisture content (gm/100gm) of Tor putitora from Kameng river, Arunachal Pradesh and Kosi river, Uttarakhand Figure 4.12: Seasonal variation of crude protein content (gm/100gm) of Tor putitora from Kameng river, Arunachal Pradesh and Kosi river, Uttarakhand

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Figure 4.13: Seasonal variation of crude fat content (gm/100gm) of Tor putitora from Kameng river, Arunachal Pradesh and Kosi river, Uttarakhand Figure 4.14: Seasonal variation of ash content (gm/100gm) of Tor putitora from Kameng river, Arunachal Pradesh and Kosi river, Uttarakhand

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Figure 4.15: Seasonal variation of crude fiber content (gm/100gm) of Tor putitora from Kameng river, Arunachal Pradesh and Kosi river, Uttarakhand Figure 4.16: Seasonal variation of carbohydrate content (gm/100gm) of Tor putitora from Kameng river, Arunachal Pradesh and Kosi river, Uttarakhand

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Figure 4.17: Seasonal variation of moisture content (gm/100gm) of Oncorhynchus mykiss from Shergaon trout farm, Arunachal Pradesh and Champawat experimental fish farm, Uttarakhand Figure 4.18: Seasonal variation of crude protein content (gm/100gm) of Oncorhynchus mykiss from Shergaon trout farm, Arunachal Pradesh and Champawat experimental field centre, Uttarakhand

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Figure 4.19: Seasonal variation of crude fat content (gm/100gm) of Oncorhynchus mykiss from Shergaon trout farm, Arunachal Pradesh and Champawat experimental fish farm, Uttarakhand Figure 4.20: Seasonal variation of ash content (gm/100gm) of Oncorhynchus mykiss from Shergaon trout farm, Arunachal Pradesh and Champawat experimental field centre, Uttarakhand

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Figure 4.21: Seasonal variation of crude fiber content (gm/100gm) of Oncorhynchus mykiss from Shergaon trout farm, Arunachal Pradesh and Champawat experimental fish farm, Uttarakhand Figure 4.22: Seasonal variation of carbohydrate content (gm/100gm) of Oncorhynchus mykiss from Shergaon trout farm, Arunachal Pradesh and Champawat experimental field centre, Uttarakhand

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Figure 4.23: Seasonal variation of moisture content (gm/100gm) of Schizothorax richardsonii from Tenga river, Arunachal Pradesh and Alaknanda river, Nandprayag, Uttarakhand Figure 4.24: Seasonal variation of crude protein content (gm/100gm) of Schizothorax richardsonii from Tenga river, Arunachal Pradesh and Alaknanda river, Nandprayag, Uttarakhand

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Figure 4.25: Seasonal variation of crude fat content (gm/100gm) of Schizothorax richardsonii from Tenga river, Arunachal Pradesh and Alaknanda river, Nandprayag, Uttarakhand Figure 4.26: Seasonal variation of ash content (gm/100gm) of Schizothorax richardsonii from Tenga river, Arunachal Pradesh and Alaknanda river, Nandprayag, Uttarakhand

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Figure 4.27: Seasonal variation of crude fiber content (gm/100gm) of Schizothorax richardsonii from Tenga river, Arunachal Pradesh and Alaknanda river, Nandprayag, Uttarakhand Figure 4.28: Seasonal variation of carbohydrate content (gm/100gm) of Schizothorax richardsonii from Tenga river, Arunachal Pradesh and Alaknanda river, Nandprayag, Uttarakhand.

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