NURTURE EISSN 1994-1633

Volume 5 Number 1 CONTENTS January -December 2011

Review Articles: “Building social capital in micro environment: the family, attachment theory and socialization” Emine Ozmete

“Peace through consumer education: A Discussion Paper” Sue L. T. McGregor PhD Professor

Original Research Cultural Context and Children’s Perceptions of Conflict and Peace Chris Coughlin, Gloysis Mayers, Jesse Dizard, Judy Bordin

The effect of snacks on periodontal health and dental caries among school going adolescents in western Omutimba D.S,. Joseph K. Rotich, Sang C.K.,

Consumers’ consideration of functional utility when choosing major household appliances Suné donoghue, Alet c erasmus

Comparitive study of energy and water conservation in domestic gas geysers Imran Shami, Nomana Anjum, Nazia Iftikhar, Shaista Babar, Saima Manzar,

Characterization of household waste in islamabad and exploring possible reuse and recycling options Muhammad Qasim, Nomana Anjum, Nazia Iftikhar, Saima Manzar, Shaista Baber

Guidelines for Authors

BUILDING SOCIAL CAPITAL IN MICRO ENVIRONMENT: THE FAMILY, ATTACHMENT THEORY AND SOCIALIZATION

Emine Ozmete Department of Social Work, Ankara University Faculty of Health Sciences, Ankara

eozmete@yahoo.com

ABSTRACT Social capital is an instantiated informal norm that promotes cooperation between two or more individuals. The understanding of social capital can provide valuable insights into the social network and links that individuals and communities have, and importantly how these networks and links can be utilized to contribute to positive outcomes for the individual and the community life. In this way the explaining of social capital may enlarge our understanding of how individuals can work cooperatively to achieve shared goals and to deal with difficulties within environment productively. In this period, families as micro environment create norms and social ties for their members. Bowlby’s “Attachment Theory” strongly suggests a positive domino effect of trusting relationships spreading out from the family and into wider circles of life. Individuals who see from their parents volunteering and supportive behaviors in childhood period, they are in more likely engage those behaviors for communities in adulthood-it has called as socialization of an individual-. Also this socialization process contributes to wider social networks. The study is a literature review deeply. It aims to investigate about building social capital in family as micro environment and, effect of attachment styles and socialization process for members in family life on their social capital.

Keywords: Social capital, Family, Attachment theory, Socialization

INTRODUCTION: Definition of the concepts At the beginning of this review of what conversations to be shown about the relations among social capital, attachment styles and socialization process in family environment. I shall start with definitions of each of the three concepts under review. And then will consider ways in which these may be linked. Firstly, what is social capital? As the main concept of the review. The working definition of social capital that is emerging in an increasingly interdisciplinary literature refers to the networks, norms and understandings that facilitate cooperative activities within and among groups of individuals (Helliwell, 2001: 43). The commonalities of most definitions of social capital are that they focus on social relations that have productive benefits. The variety of definitions identified in the literature stem from the highly context specific nature of social capital and the complexity of its conceptualization and operationalization (Claridge, 2011). This has been exacerbated by the different words used to refer to the term. These range from social energy, community spirit, social bonds, civic virtue, community networks, social ozone, extended friendships, community life, and social resources to informal and formal networks, good

neighbourliness and social glue. Within these there are different conceptualisations depending on the theoretical background which contribute to conceptual confusion (Halpern, 2005:13). The notion of social capital is said to have first appeared in Lyda Judson Hanifan's discussions of rural school community centres. He used the term to describe 'those tangible substances [that] count for most in the daily lives of people' (1916: 130). Hanifan was particularly concerned with the cultivation of good will, fellowship, sympathy and social intercourse among those that 'make up a social unit' (Hanifan 1916: 130).. Pierre Bourdieu’s (1983:5) contribution to social capital is related to social theory, and then James S. Coleman (1994:97) in his discussions of the social context of education moved the idea into academic debates. However, it was the work of Robert D. Putnam (1995:68) that launched social capital as a popular focus for research and policy discussion. 'Social capital' has also been picked up by the World Bank as a useful organizing idea. They argue that 'increasing evidence shows that social cohesion is critical for societies to prosper economically and for development to be sustainable' (The World Bank 1999). According to these different approaches; definitions of the social capital are as following: According to Bourdieu, Social Capital is the 'the

aggregate of the actual or potential resources which are linked to possession of a durable network of more or less institutionalized relationships of mutual acquaintance and recognition' (Bourdieu 1983: 249). In the view of Coleman 'Social capital is defined by its function. It is not a single entity, but a variety of different entities, having two characteristics in common: they all consist of some aspect of a social structure, and they facilitate certain actions of individuals who are within the structure' (Coleman 1994: 302). Putnam stated that 'whereas physical capital refers to physical objects and human capital refers to the properties of individuals, social capital refers to connections among individuals – social networks and the norms of reciprocity and trustworthiness that arise from them. In that sense, social capital is closely related to what some have called “civic virtue” (Putnam 2000: 19). Also according to The World Bank 'social capital refers to the institutions, relationships, and norms that shape the quality and quantity of a society's social interactions... Social capital is not just the sum of the institutions which underpin a society – it is the glue that holds them together' (The World Bank 1999). Those definitions show that social capital is seen as a social asset by virtue of actors’ connections and access to resources in the network or group of which they are members. Woolcock (Woolcock 2001:2) suggests that the concept of social capital "…risks trying to explain too much with too little [and] is being adopted indiscriminately, adapted uncritically, and applied imprecisely…" For John Field (2003:1-2) the central thesis of social capital theory is that 'relationships matter'. The central idea is that 'social networks are a valuable asset'. Interaction enables people to build communities, to commit themselves to each other, and to knit the social fabric. A sense of belonging and the concrete experience of social networks (and the relationships of trust and tolerance that can be involved) can, it is argued, bring great benefits to people. Lin (2001:24-25) has stated that social capital may be defined operationally as resources embedded in social networks and accessed and used by actors for actions. Thus, the concept has two important components: (1) it represents resources embedded in social relations rather than individuals, and (2) access and use of such resources reside with actors. Also Lin (Also Lin 2001:21) argued that there are

two types of resources an individual can gain access to and use: personal resources and social resources. Personal resources are resources possessed by an individual and may include ownership of material as well as symbolic goods (e.g., diplomas and degrees). Social resources are resources accessed through and individual’s social connections. Depending on the extensity and diversity of their social connections, individuals have differential social resources. For Flap (Flap 1991:6180), social capital also includes mobilized social resources. Flap specifies three elements of social capital: The number of persons within one’s social network who “are prepared or obliged to help you when called upon to do so,” The strength of the relationship indicating readiness to help, The resources of these persons. From these definitions, three main underlying ideas can be distinguished: 1) Social capital generates positive externalities for members of a group; 2) These externalities are achieved through shared trust, norms, and values and their consequent effects on expectations and behaviours; 3) Shared trust, norms, and values arise from informal forms of organizations based on social networks and associations. The study of social capital is that of network-based processes that generates beneficial outcomes through norms and trust (Durlauf & Fafchamps, 2004:5). The definitions show that social capital can be understood quite simply as networks of social relations characterised by norms of trust and reciprocity. The essence of social capital is quality social relations. It is the quality of relationships, understood through the use of the concept ‘social capital’, which affects the capacity of people to come together to collectively resolve problems they face in common. Defined in this way, it is clear that social capital can exist in family and community life, and is an important feature of both. It is well known that good quality family relationships are important to a whole range of outcomes for family members, including the development of children. What (James Coleman, 1994) aimed to demonstrate — one of the key social capital theorists — was that social capital within the family - norms of trust and reciprocity within the family — is essential for the

transmission of parents’ human capital to their children (Stone & Hughes, 2001). Secondly, what about attachment theory? Attachment is an emotional bond to another person. Bowlby’s attachment theory posits that meeting the physical and psychological needs of the child through the first two years of life provides the template for all future relationships through the development of a secure attachment. This attachment is characterized by parents who are able to meet the physical and psychological needs of the child resulting in the development of the child’s capacity for empathy. If the child’s needs are not met, the result is an insecure attachment and an inability to exhibit empathy linked to the capacity for later criminal behaviour, particularly violent behaviour (Katz 2002). Psychologist John Bowlby was the first attachment theorist, describing attachment as a "lasting psychological connectedness between human beings" (Bowlby 1969: 194). Bowlby believed that the earliest bonds formed by children with their caregivers have a tremendous impact that continues throughout life. According to Bowlby, attachment also serves to keep the infant close to the mother, thus improving the child's chances of survival. The central theme of attachment theory is that mothers who are available and responsive to their infant's needs establish a sense of security. The infant knows that the caregiver is dependable, which creates a secure base for the child to then explore the world. Children who are securely attached generally become visibly upset when their caregivers leave, and are happy when their parents return. When frightened, these children will seek comfort from the parent or caregiver. Contact initiated by a parent is readily accepted by securely attached children and they greet the return of a parent with positive behaviour. While these children can be comforted to some extent by other people in the absence of a parent or caregiver, they clearly prefer parents to strangers. Parents of securely attached children tend to play more with their children. Additionally, these parents react more quickly to their children's needs and are generally more responsive to their children than the parents of insecurely attached children. Studies have shown that securely attached children are more empathetic during later stages of childhood. These children are also

described as less disruptive, less aggressive, and more mature than children with ambivalent or avoidant attachment styles. As adults, those who are securely attached tend to have trusting, long-term relationships. Other key characteristics of securely attached individuals include having high self-esteem, enjoying intimate relationships, seeking out social support, and an ability to share feelings with other people. For example a study show that women with a secure attachment style had more positive feelings about their adult romantic relationships than other women with insecure attachment styles (Mccarthy 1999:307). In the past several years, interest in attachment theory has grown substantially. Not only has a large empirical base of knowledge on attachment been developed but researchers have also begun to examine its utility for conceptualizing various types of problematic relationship patterns. The attachment theory defined as a biologically based system of behaviour that exists between the attachment figure and the child to ensure the child’s proximity to the attachment figure. Thus, the primary function of attachment behaviours is to protect the young and to maintain their survival. If children develop secure and healthy attachments to their attachment figures, they develop expectations of the self and others as trustworthy and expect to have their needs met. In relationships that are not secure, however, children internalize the negative aspects of the relationships and develop congruent expectations (Bolen 2000:129). In this point, it can be said that attachment styles in childhood effect on structure of social communication network and social capital in adulthood. Thirdly, socialization as a concept of the review, it has defined the process by which people learn to adapt to norms, values, attitudes and, behaviours accepted and practiced by the ongoing system. The actors in the socialization process are (i) parents, (ii) formal education, (iii) religion, (iv) social networks, (v) media. Sociologists may distinguish six kinds of socialization: (i) primary socialization, (ii) secondary socialization, (iii) developmental socialization, (iv) anticipatory socialization, (v) re-socialization, (vi) reverse socialization. The amazing power of the family as an agent of socialization comes from a combination of two factors:

1. The family has almost exclusive control of the person during the first years of life and preeminent control during the childhood and adolescent years. 2. Parent-child emotional bond motivates the child to be socialized and the parents to do the difficult, messy job of socialization. Socialization in family begins a process through which humans learn and develop to be the adult persons they become. The effects of family socialization are very evident and long lasting, especially about relationships with others and social relations. For some adults, their interactions with other individuals have continued in such a close relationship that they learned in their family life in childhood or youth period (Rusconi &Tummons, 1975:50). Social Capital In Micro Environment: The Family, Attachment Theory And Socialization: In the light of studies to be reviewed here, linkages between social capital and attachment styles and socialization process in family life as micro environment. The micro environment includes the surrounding elements of the living environment common to all family systems and family members as individual. The micro environment is made up of physical habitats, including homes and yards and social aspects relating to kin, friends, and neighbours in terms of social connections and social capital. While the physical residence and members of any one family are integral to their own system and with each other as socially (Deacon & Firebaugh 1988:30-31). The family household, as a place in which social relations are characterised by trust and where reciprocity operates, has received relatively little attention in social capital research. Those studies which do focus on social capital within a family household typically investigate the impact of social capital on a given family socialization outcome – often child development or wellbeing. Coleman's development of social capital indicators for children's educational attainment included personal, family and community dimensions. Measures of personal and family resources include the following: socio-economic status, ethnicity, number of siblings, number of residential moves, whether or not mother worked before children started school,

the mother's expectation of children's level of educational attainment, the level of communication between children and parents about personal matters, and whether or not both parents were present in household both in micro environment and in macro environment (Coleman, 1994:47). Families create norms and social ties. They are also the context within which the vast majority of people first learn to trust others. In review of socialization studies, it might be more plausible that primary socialization experiences, that is, those experiences in one’s childhood and adolescence, are more formative. It is stressed that individual values (y) which can only be explained effectively by socialization processes within the family and in early adulthood experiences, play a more important role in creating social capital than does face-to-face interaction within organizations’. Also because of their social experiences adolescents in youth associations, peer groups and other social interactions, as well as their school experiences, might have more impact on their civic attitudes than experiences later on in their lives. This view suggests that core values of social capital, such as norms of reciprocity and generalized trust, can be considered as traits that are acquired early in life and that they remain rather stable throughout one’s lifetime (Stolle &Hooghe, 2004). How does attachment styles relate to social capital in adulthood? In the family, the young child becomes ‘securely bonded’ to the primary caregiver, and this bond becomes the secure emotional base from which the child can safely explore the world. Hence the young toddler holds onto the parent’s coat-tails for comfort as he, or she, sits on the bench in the park. It is the existence of the strong, secure bond that eventually gives the child the confidence for the life-long period. There is now ample evidence that the character and strength of this early relationship have repercussions throughout later life. Though this is not deterministic, the securely bonded infant tends to grow into the secure and confident child and teenager. This in turn is predictive of the formation of stable and successful adult relationship, and of being a parent more likely to form a secure bond with their own children (Figure-2).

Table-1: Definitions of socialization kinds

Kinds of Socialization Definitions Primary socialization It occurs when a child learns the attitudes, values, and actions appropriate to

individuals as members of a particular culture. For example if a child saw his/her mother expressing a discriminatory opinion about a minority group, then that child may think this behaviour is acceptable and could continue to have this opinion about minority groups

Secondary socialization It refers to the process of learning. What is appropriate behaviour as a member of a smaller group within the larger society? It is usually associated with teenagers and adults, and involves smaller changes than those occurring in primary socialization

Developmental socialization

It is the process of learning behaviour in a social institution or developing your social skills

Anticipatory socialization It refers to the processes of socialization in which a person "rehearses" for future positions, occupations, and social relationships

Re-socialization It refers to the process of discarding former behaviour patterns and accepting new ones as part of a transition in one's life. This occurs throughout the human life cycle The family is the earliest and without question the most influential agent of socialization.

Reverse socialization It refers to situations in which a younger person teaches an older person.

Reverse socialization is deviation from the desired behaviours or enculturation, especially of the younger generation. It involves both adult and children.

Table-2: Characteristics Of Attachment Styles (Source: Cherry, 2009Attachment styles) Characteristics As children: As adults:

Secure attachment Able to separate from parent Have trusting, lasting relationships Seek comfort from parents when

frightened Tend to have good self-esteem

Return of parents is met with positive emotions

Comfortable sharing feelings with friends and partners

Prefers parents to strangers Seek out social support Ambivalent attachment May be wary of strangers Reluctant to become close to others Become greatly distressed when

the parent leaves Worry that their partner does not love them

Do not appear to be comforted by the return of the parent

Become very distraught when a relationship ends

Avoidant attachment May avoid parents May have problems with intimacy Does not seek much comfort or

contact from parents Invest little emotion in social and romantic relationships

Shows little or no preference between parent and stranger

Unable or unwilling to hear thoughts and feelings with others

Disorganized attachment Show a mixture of avoidant and resistant behaviours

May take on a parental role

May seem dazed, confused, or apprehensive

Some children act as a caregiver toward the parent

Bowlby has argued that mother-child attachment has an evolutionary basis, encompassing a wide range of mother-child interaction behaviours that together demonstrate attachment. He believed that predisposition toy become attached was inherited and necessary for survival. Also he believed that attachment between infant and adult was immediate, necessary and a key element of human behaviour. He further asserted that children’s attachment relationships will to their parents in many ways predict the types of relationships they will enjoy throughout their entire life. Another important tenet of the Bowlby’s theory is that physical disconnection from one’s parents is directly related to delinquent or even criminal behaviour later in life (Sowers, Thyer & Dulmus, 2008: 208). Consideration of an individual’s interrelationships with various dimensions of its environment involves an expanded view of systems in terms of social capital.According to attachment theory; there is a positive domino effect of trusting relationships spreading out from the family and into wider circles of life. In contrast, disrupted, abusive or absent early relations in life- from the family context to teenage peer groups through to adult isolation and deviancy. Children who see their parents volunteering, engaged in the community and so on are in turn more likely to engage in such behaviours themselves. Indeed,the influence and community engagement of parents appear to be one of the most robust routes through which social capital is formed or transmitted (Halpern, 2005:249). There is evidence that social capital tends to be lower for children in single-parent families. Single parents tend to have smaller social Networks, partly as a result of residential mobility and family break- down, and the child tends to have less exposure to adult attention. Much the same is true of teenage mothers, whose partners tend to be less reliable, less supportive and more abusive, and who tend to have smaller and more impoverished social Networks. Divorce also seems to be associated with lower levels of generalized trust, while the loss or withdrawal of one of the parents-typically the father-deprives the child of Access to that parent’s social network as well as their emotional presence (Jonsson & Gahler, 1997:279). Family social capital affects the child both directly through the ‘inheritance’ of a smaller social network and indirectly through the individual psychological resources and traits that

the child acquires, or does not acquire-feelings of security, the ability to trust, and the social skills to build relationships. Ironically, while people tend to think of the family as the prime source of bonding social capital (because it is the most powerful form of such affiliation), they neglect the fact that it is also likely to be important influence on bridging social capital. Feeling secure and confident in oneself is almost certainly a necessary prerequisite for interacting with others who seem different and unfamiliar. Children who see their parents and family interacting freely and respectfully with diverse other adults will tend to model their own behaviour on these interactions (Halpern, 2005:250).

CONCLUSION: This paper considered how attachment theory and socialization process relate to social capital? In the other words how norms of trust and reciprocity within family life relate to norms of trust and reciprocity in other aspects of social life, including informal ties and generalised social capital. The paper explains that family life relates to norms within informal networks, which in turn are related to generalise social capital, which are related to trust in institutions in adulthood. It is the quality of informal relations with other family members, parents, friends in childhood and the like that may be one of the keys to quality community ties. Some studies show that good quality family relationships appear related to the levels of community participation among adult family members and the practices of family life do have a role to play in enhancing community life, as a conduit for community participation from one generation to the next. At the individual level, personality differences map onto variations in the propensity to engage in and stimulate social capital along a dimension labelled “agreeableness” vs. “antagonism”. The causes of these individual variations appear to lie in socialization and environmental factors rather than in our genes; hence they appear to mark rather than explain micro-variations social capital. Socialization experiences in the family appear to have a major impact, as does the individual’s social capital ‘inheritance’ from their parents and relatives. These early influences have domino effects through the child’s peer groups and later relationships. Educational attainment, itself partly determined by family and social class origins, has powerful additional effects. Going to

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university appears to have a particularly strong effect on boosting the scale and diversity of an individual’s social network and their propensity to trust others. Recognising that the dynamic between family socialization process, attachment theory and social capital may vary over time or circumstance is consistent with a life course approach to social capital as well as a resources approach — which focuses on the links between social, economic, human and environmental capitals. In addition to understanding how social capital varies over time and circumstance, it points to the further critical academic and policy issue to address which is whether and how social capital within community life may compensate for poor quality family relationships, and vice versa.

REFERENCES Bolen, R. M. (2009). Validity of attachment theory, Trauma, Violence, and Abuse, 1(2), 128-153. Bourdieu, P. (1983). Forms of capital, (in J. C. Richards -Ed., Handbook of Theory and Research for the Sociology of Education) New York: Greenwood Press, 5-249. Bowlby, J.(1982). Attachment and Loss, Vol. 1: Attachment. New York: Basic Books. Cherry, K.(2009). An Overwiev on Attachment Theory. Retrieved from: http://www.about.com.psychology, accessed date: 14.10.2009. Claridge,T. (2011).Social Capital Definition. http://www.socialcapitalresearch.com, accessed date: 5.10.2011. Coleman, J. (1994). Foundations of Social Theory, Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press. Deacon, R. & Firebaugh, F. (1988). Family resource management: Principles and applications, Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon. Durlauf, S. & Fatchamps, M. (2004). Social Capital, NBER Working Paper Series No: 10485, Cambridge MA: National Bureau of Economic Research. Field, J. (2003). Social Capital, London: Routledge. Flap, H. (1991). Social Capital in the Reproduction of Inequality, Comparative Sociology of Family, Health and Education, Vol:20, 6179-6202. Halpern, D. (2005). Social Capital, Cambridge UK: Polity Press. Hanifan, L. (1916). The rural school community center, Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Sciences, Vol:67, 130-138. Helliwell, (2001). Social Capital, The Economy and Well-Being. In The Review of Economic Performance and Social Progress. http://www.csls.ca/repsp/1/03-helliwell.pdf, accessed date: 8.12.2007.

Jonsson, J. & Gahler, M. (1997). Family dissolution, family reconstitution, and children’s educational careers: recent evidence for Sweeden. Demography, 34(2), 277-293. Katz, R.S. (2002). Re-Examining the Integrative Social Capital Theory of Crime. Western Criminology Review, 4(1), 30-54. Lin, N. (2001). Social Capital: a theory of social structure and action, New York: Cambridge University Press. Mccarthy, G. (1999). Attachment style and adult love relationships and friendships: A study of a group of women at risk of experiencing relationship difficulties. British Journal of Medical Psychology, 72(3), 305-321. Putnam, R. (1995). Bowling Alone: America's Declining Social Capital, Journal of Democracy, 6(1), 65-78. Putnam, R. (2000). Bowling Alone: The Collapse and Revival of American Community, New York: Simon and Schuster. Rusconi, E. & Tummons, P. (1975). Introduction to “What Is Socialization”, New German Critique, No:6, 48-59. S tone, W.& Hughes, J. (2001). Social capital: linking family and community? Family Strengths Everybody’s Business Everybody’s Gain, Family Strengths Conference, 2-5 December 2001, Newcastle. http://www.aifs.gov.au/institute/pubs/papers/stone5.html, accessed date: 14.10.2009. Sowers, K.M., Thyer, B.A. & Dulmus, C.N. (2008). Comprehensive Handbook of Social Work and Social Welfare: Human Behaviour in the Social Environment, USA: John Wiley and Sons. Stolle, D. & Hooghe, M.(2004). ‘The Roots of Social Capital: Attitudinal and Network Mechanisms in the Relation between Youth and Adult Indicators of Social Capital’. Acta Politica, Vol: 39, 422–441. The World Bank (1999). 'What is Social Capital?', PovertyNet http://www.worldbank.org/poverty/scapital/whatsc.htm, accessed date: 8.12.2007. Woolcock, M. (2001). The place of social capital in understanding social and economic outcomes, Isuma: Canadian Journal of Policy Research, 2 (1), 1-17.

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PEACE THROUGH CONSUMER EDUCATION: A DISCUSSION PAPER Sue L. T. McGregor

Faculty of Education, Mount Saint Vincent University Halifax Canada sue.mcgregor@msvu.ca

ABSTRACT After distinguishing a culture of peace from a consumer culture, elucidating the challenges of finding peace in a consumer society and comparing consumer education to peace education, the paper proposes potential synergy to be gained from merging aligned concepts from peace education and consumer education so we can view consumer education in and of itself as a vehicle for peace. It presents, for the first time, a novel approach to consumer education, framing it as a way to strive for peace. Education about consuming (fact-based) and education for consuming (value- and ideologically-based) are juxtaposed against peace through consumer education, drawing insights from well-established approaches in peace education and sustainability education. Peace through the consumer education process would lead people from being focused on their own self-interest to being concerned for the welfare of others, other species and the planet - peace through consumption. Keywords: consumer education, peace education, culture of peace, consumer culture, consumer society, pedagogy

INTRODUCTION: Consumption informed by the ideology of consumerism has created a world rife with structural violence. Due to no fault of their own, Northern consumers’ purchases harm others, other species and the environment. They even harm themselves because consumerism leads to a life of oppression within a society shaped by market values (e.g., competition, scarcity, wealth accumulation, self-interest and efficiency). The resultant consumer culture reinforces individualism. It values money and materialism over relationships. It keeps people stressed, angry and living in fear, which they assuage with more spending (McGregor, 2007, 2010).In his book about the perils of over consumption, Durning (1992) advocated for a culture of permanence instead of a culture of consumption, arguing that consumerism does not promote human happiness; hence, it cannot promote peace. Nearly a decade later, the United Nations (1998a) introduced a new concept called a culture of peace. It then proclaimed 2000 as the International Year for the Culture of Peace (United Nations, 1998c), followed with the proclamation of a Decade for a Culture of Peace and Non-violence for the Children of the World

(2001-2010) (United Nations, 1998b). In the spirit of the UN decade for a culture of peace, unfolding in the throes of a consumer culture that is riddled with structural violence and unpeaceful consumption, this discussion paper develops an argument for reframing consumer education as a means to ensure peace. A culture focused on peace and human solidarity would counter the damage being wrought by a consumer culture. This paper strives to advance the knowledge base of home economics and consumer studies by contributing to the cumulative improvement of theoretical knowledge and pedagogical practices in consumer education. It is intended to stimulate discussion and dialogue about using consumer education to ensure peaceful consumption, thereby contributing to a culture of peace. Until recently, peace educators tended to not consider consumerism as a contributor or deterrent to peace, and consumer educators tended to eschew percepts from peace education. How could this indifference happen? What is it about a consumer society that is so unpeaceful? How does conventional consumer education contribute to this lack of peace? What is it about a culture of peace that would make consuming

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less harmful? How would consumer education have to be reframed so it would inculcate peaceful and mindful consumer behavior? How would consumer education pedagogy have to change to create peace through the consumer education process? What insights from peace education can inform a re-conceptualization of consumer education so that people learn to consume in sustainable and responsible ways leading to justice, security and solidarity? After distinguishing a culture of peace from a consumer culture, elucidating the challenges of finding peace in a consumer society and comparing consumer education to peace education, this discussion paper proposes potential synergy between peace education and consumer education such that we can strive for peace through the consumer education process, leading to peace through consumption. In particular, this paper merges Fisk’s (2000) model of three approaches to peace education with Bannister and Monsma’s (1982) seminal consumer education concept classification system to get a new approach to consumer education. This is the first this idea has been tendered in the home economics or consumer studies literature. Culture of Peace The new concept of a culture of peace is intended to move the world beyond a culture of war and violence. A culture of peace would lead to a world that respects diversity, tolerance, solidarity, freedom, sustainability, equality, justice, empowerment, accountability and democratic participation. It would entail the transformation of values, attitudes and behaviors’ so that peace is entrenched within each individual, group and nation, leading to entire cultures shaped by peace (Canadian Centers for Teaching Peace, 2000; UNESCO, 2000; United Nations, 1999). A culture of peace places the universal welfare of all people without exception as the highest priority of a society. Advancing a culture of peace entails: promoting sustainable development; promoting respect for all human rights; ensuring equality between women and men; fostering democratic participation; advancing understanding, tolerance and solidarity; supporting participatory communication and the

free flow and sharing of information and knowledge; and, promoting international peace and security. Fostering a culture of peace through education is the anchor to all of these activities, the best and most effective tool to promote and implement a genuine culture of peace (Mercieca, 2000; UNESCO, 2000; United Nations, 1999). In a culture of peace, the definition of security changes from national security to include human security. The value system is redefined from power as a reference point (combined with a ‘poverty of vision’) to community as a reference point, with the well-being of all citizens coming before the self interest of the few. Global awareness, cooperation and a deep respect for interdependency are key features of this culture. Responsibility and accountability, and notions of empowerment and emancipation, are central tenets. Intercultural understanding leading to sustainable dialogue, cross-cultural exchanges and a shared vision of peace are cornerstones of a peaceful culture. Mutual support, empathetic listening and unwavering respect are solid anchors for peaceful cultures. Respecting the role of history, the arts and peoples’ lived stories is central to creating a peaceful culture (McGregor, 2010b). Consumer Culture Although the word consumer does not appear in the United Nation’s (1999) programme of action to build a culture of peace, consumption and consumer education have a powerful role to play in this process (McGregor, 2004). However, the task of sensitizing citizens to value the peace and the welfare of everyone above themselves is a huge challenge in a consumer society (McGregor, 2010b). Consumer societies and consumer cultures value self-interest, material and wealth accumulation, status, novelty and individualism, and define people by what they can consume, how much they make and how much they own. People’s self-respect and self-esteem are strongly tied to their level of consumption relative to others in the society (Goodwin, Ackerman & Kiron, 1997; Radhakrishnan, 1999). McGregor (2010b) argued that this situation is profoundly unpeaceful, even immoral and amoral. A consumer society has several prevalent

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characteristics that are key reflections of its inherent unpeacefulness (i.e., its conflict and violence): alienation, dissatisfaction, disenchantment, misplaced self-identity, and false relationships. First, a consumer culture is devoid of communal values and driven by self-interests and material pursuits such that it intensifies people’s sense of loss and alienation. They mitigate this loss through consumption. Second, in a consumer society, many people feel tricked and betrayed, becoming listless, unhappy and dissatisfied. Such people are permanently disappointed (expectations are never met), and end up chasing shadows (spending, spending) because the consumer society promises more. Third, consumption is a tool by which the consumer culture is perpetuated, used in a way that people become disenchanted and disillusioned, longing for a sense of identity (McGregor, 2010b). Fourth, in fact, people living in a consumer society are in the constant process of (re)constructing themselves by consuming goods and services; they try to create a sense of identity through the ownership and display of goods and the consumption of services. People relentlessly seek self-fulfillment and self-identity through what they consume instead of through relationships with others. Finally, in a consumer society, people do not see themselves in relation to anyone or with nature. Consumption serves as the basis for relationships and becomes the most important tool when people try to create a meaningful life. The consumer society perpetuates the false impression that there is positive relationship between consuming and being happy in relationships (McGregor, 2010b). It is evident that there is a deep contrast between a culture of peace and a consumer culture. Peace is the source of all happiness; however, in a consumer society, people search for peace and happiness in the wrong places. They believe that wealth, money and material goods provide happiness; yet, many are unhappy although they have material wealth, and many more are unhappy due to impoverishment (Radhakrishnan, 1999). This unhappiness exists because they have yet to realize that peace develops from inside the

person not from the outside. They do not feel at peace with themselves because they have yet to appreciate that peace is linked to the spiritual aspect of being human not just the outside, physical sphere. This unpeacefulness does not mean people should not value material goods; rather, they should strive not to become attached to them to the extent that they value physical things (materialism) more than the spiritual, inner-peace sphere of life (Mercieca, 2000). Consumer Education versus Peace Education Consumer education is one agent for socializing people into their consumption role in a consumer society (Moschis, 1987). More recently, consumer education has been augmented with a focus on human rights, a global perspective, citizenship, human responsibilities, sustainability, and peace and non-violence (McGregor, 2010a, b, and c). These latter initiatives address the shortfalls stemming from the longstanding focus of consumer education on preparing people for their role as consumer, negating their role as global citizen. The traditional approach to socializing people into their role involves helping them get the best value for their dollar by making reasoned purchase decisions; teaching them to complain if they do not get their money’s worth; convincing them to advocate for, and take action on behalf of, other consumers; and, helping them gain an appreciation for how the economy works so they can function efficiently as a consumer agent. The focus on individual self-interest as an economic agent mitigates concern for the welfare and well-being of other citizens affected by consumer behavior informed by conventional consumer education (Bannister, 1983; Bannister & Monsma, 1982; McGregor, 2010b, 2011b). The aforementioned approach to consumer education is traditionally predicated on neoclassical, neoliberal economic theory, whereby educators teach rationale decision making, information processing, choice maximization, optimal management of scarce resources to ensure efficiency, and consumer rights to protect the individual’s economic interests (McGregor, 2011a). Under this ideological banner, consumer education leads people away from peace. It precludes

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consideration of making consumer choices within a sophisticated and fast-changing world where everything and everyone is interconnected and interdependent. This lack of respect for holistic thinking is critical to a peaceful world because decisions taken by consumers now have a profound impact on themselves, the next generation, those not born, those living elsewhere, the Earth’s ecosystem and other species. Consumption is integrally intertwined with global justice, peace, sustainability and the human condition (McGregor, 2007). Peace education, on the other hand, aims to prepare people to hold a sense of responsibility for themselves as well as every person in society, striving for world unity and sharing (Reardon, 1997). Peace education is the pedagogical effort to create a world at peace. This educational effort is visionary and inherently moral and transformative in nature. Peace education seeks to draw out from people their own best instincts about how to live more peacefully with others. This approach implies working from within, assuming that changes to the world start with each person. Peace education is both a process and a personal philosophy. Especially, it teaches the value and the risk of conflict and violence in our society, mediated and transformed by the philosophy of non-violence (Harris & Morrison, 2003). Peace education draws from people the skills for critical analysis of structural and institutional arrangements that produce and legitimize injustice and inequality (Harris & Synott, 2002). It seeks to enhance the confidence of people as individual agents of peace and as citizens who can envision a peaceful future (Page, 2008). Peace education attempts to transform the present human condition by changing social structures and patterns of thought that have created them. Intentional, sustained and systematic peace education leads the way to a culture of peace (Harris & Morrison, 2003). While consumer education focuses on the individual in the marketplace, peace education focuses on relationships among persons, communities and nations. While consumer education is traditionally concerned with

preparing a person to be a consumer, peace education is concerned with preparing a person to be a world citizen. Consumer education is designed to prepare people to adhere to a set of consumer values while peace education strives to prepare people to respect and live by a set of social values (Fisk, 2000; Reardon, 1997). Consumer education tends to focus on teaching students about the consumer interest of each individual taken to be actions that support their rights as a consumer (information, safety, choice, redress, safe environment and a voice in the policy process), consumer rights recognized by the United Nations in 1985 (McGregor, 1999, 2011b). Peace education, on the other hand, focuses on teaching students about the mutual interests of the human family, taken to be human rights, dignity, tolerance, social justice, freedom, equality and environmental integrity, plus other issues (Fisk, 2000; Reardon, 1997). It is focused on the greater or holistic good of all peoples rather than focused on individuals. Consumer education usually serves to socialize people into their role as an individual economic agent in a consumer culture while peace education socializes people into their role as a caring world citizen in a culture of peace. History reveals that consumer education fell victim to the neo-liberal, capitalist mind-set shaping today’s world (Goodwin et al., 1997). Until recently, peace educators tended to not consider consumerism as a contributor or deterrent to peace, and consumer educators tended to eschew percepts from peace education. In fact, the resurgence of peace education is a reaction to a prevailing world view driven by the ideology of consumerism. Synergy Between Consumer Education and Peace Education Despite the differences between consumer education and peace education, there are many similarities in their overall objectives that point to exciting synergies (Figure 1, drawn from McGregor, 2010a,b,c). Granted, conventional consumer education strives for these principles in order to advance the consumers’ interest while peace education strives to advance the interest of

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humankind. And, although the two streams of education may have the same objectives, they, in fact, serve very different ends - the individualistic consumer culture in the free market economy versus the human family in a culture of peace. Fortunately, innovations in consumer education have paved the way for augmenting it with peace education. As McGregor (2010a) chronicled,

consumer education has conceptually evolved over the past half century, “moving away from teaching consumers how to function efficiently in the marketplace towards socializing them to be citizen-consumers striving for citizenship, solidarity and sustainability, acting from a site of political resistance within the pervasive context of a global consumer culture” (p.2).

Figure 1:Similarities Between Objectives of Consumer Education and Peace Education One way to continue to foster synergy between these areas of study, despite their differences, is to reframe consumer education as peace through the consumer education process, drawing on the works of Fisk (2000) and Bannister and Monsma (1982). Fisk conceptualized three types of peace education and Bannister and Monsma presented a hierarchy of consumer participation in the marketplace, which also can be collapsed into three, streams (see Table 1). The objective of both types of education is to strive for the higher ends of their respective continuum, peace and consumer responsibility through education and citizen participation leading to systemic and world change. The nature of the education process is the key to this learning process. Three Strands of Peace Education

Fisk (2000) set out a three-way distinction between (a) education about peace, (b) education for peace, and (c) peace through the education process. As an aside, Pike and Selby (1988) used a similar approach to global and sustainability education. Education about peace would focus on accumulating knowledge, facts and ideas about peace-related activities, or their absence. It would not challenge the social order and it would be anti-dialogical due to little interchange amongst people. Because it tends to foster passivity, this technical approach to peace education deflects people from reflection and emancipatory actions. The result can be a disregard for the need to make changes to one’s own behavior or value system or to contribute to the amelioration of others’ situations.

Similarities between objectives of consumer education and peace education. Both have a concern for:

■ values formation, clarification and value reasoning ■ ethical decision making processes and problem solving ■ conflict resolution ■ responsible citizen participation ■ respect for shared concerns in society at large ■ income and wealth distribution ■ ecological sustainability ■ knowledge, skills and attitudes as appropriate curriculum objectives ■ changes to policies, institutions and systems ■ promotion of self confidence, independence and interdependence ■ improved quality of life and general welfare ■ creation of a stable society ■ making people responsible for their actions and the consequences

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Education for peace would involve students learning values, attitudes, moral standards, sensitivities to others and new perceptions that move them to take different actions than in the past, actions that address complex, emergent problems facing humanity and the planet. These different actions are possible due to new openness and more understanding attitudes, pushing people beyond passivity. This interpretative approach to peace education

strives for meaning, relationships, sharing and community building. Educating for peace means equipping people with skills as well as knowledge, especially those related to questioning one’s usual way of doing things and seeing the world. Students benefitting from education for peace become considerers of the world around them, readers of the world, which can be transformed by their activities for peace (Fisk, 2000).

Table 1: Parallel Conceptualizations of Peace and Consumer Education

Peace Education (Fisk, 2000) Consumer Education (Bannister & Monsma, 1982)

Education about peace refers to accumulating knowledge, facts and ideas about things that affect peace: social justice, tolerance, gender equality, social literacy, just and peaceable living, human rights, environmental security, human security, morality, diversity, and conflict and dispute resolution (major weakness - passivity)

Education about consuming: Being able to cope means one has been exposed to knowledge, facts and ideas about things that affect getting good, fair and safe deals in the marketplace (weakness - a ‘how-to’ approach to spending money means no concern for the welfare of others)

Education for peace refers to a process wherein people learn ideologies, values, attitudes, moral standards, sensitivities to others and new perceptions such that they are moved to take different actions than they did in the past (major weakness - ideological and passive)

Education for consuming: Questioning, planning and conserving refer to being able to use processes to make more rational, well thought out purchase decisions (weakness - personal growth as a consumer occurs but not for the betterment of humankind)

Peace through the education process means that education, done right, will lead to a collection of individuals who strive for wisdom, clarity, cooperation, democracy, human potential, and a critical awareness of life's conditions and who strive for, and settle for nothing but, peace and the fair, safe and healthy living of all citizens

Peace through the consumer education process: Consumer education done right will lead to people participating as consumer-citizens, challenging and changing the policies, institutions and systems at the local, national and global level so that peace is privileged. This would be able to happen because they are empowered to be both moral leaders and ethical managers as well as to take on the role of advocate on behalf of global citizens impacted by unpeaceful consumption.

Education as peace (peace through the education process) that is, viewing education in and of itself as a vehicle for peace, would involve several key paradigmatic, methodological and pedagogic assumptions and approaches. This emancipatory, transformative approach would involve students (a) striving for wisdom and clarity, (b) acting democratically as global citizens, (c) living cooperatively towards one's human potential, and (d) being critically aware of the human condition and compromised ecological integrity. It would involve learning to (e) live with uncertainty, chaos, moral ambiguity and knowing

they do not know things while (f) uncomfortably facing up to their cherished certainties. Students would (g) face their own limitations and be conditionally open and critical with others, while (h) dispensing of preconceived notions and values for the sake of new and greater knowledge, for the integration of multiple view points (realities) leading to integral insights. They would (i) work together for larger, integral truths, (j) challenge prevailing worldviews and paradigms, and (k) accept that the world is incomplete and that the future is uncertain. (l) Importantly, they would have faith in the possibilities of the future and

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their abilities to inform it (Fisk, 2000). Three Strands of Consumer Education Banister and Monsma’s (1982) consumer participation hierarchy set out a broad, six-dimension spectrum of consumer behavior roles ranging from coping to changing the whole system to improve the consumer interest (see Figure 2). Consumers need to gain competencies related to (a) coping and surviving with current circumstances, day-to-day, in their consuming role, and (b) securing a think-for-yourself attitude enabling them to ask questions before they make purchases and to challenge marketplace scenarios. They need to be able to (c) engage in a planning process to manage resources over time, entailing considerations for goals, needs and obtaining income, and (d) they must learn how to make considered purchases using a rational decision process. Consumers need to (e) master the skills for conserving by using resources efficiently and not being wasteful. They need to learn how to (f) get involved in business, government and community decisions that impact the consumer interest. Finally, at the ultimate end of this consumer behavior spectrum, consumers need to know how to (g) exercise power to change things in the system that affect the consumer interest, how to modify policies and institutions (Bannister & Monsma, 1982). These six aspects of consumer behavior can be collapsed into three strands of consumer education, similar to Fisk’s (2000) approach to peace education: education about consuming, education for consuming and peaceful consumption through consumer education (consumption as peace), see Table 1). For the first time, this paper develops this idea for consideration by consumer educators. Education about consuming provides people with information, facts and ideas that affect their economic interest in the marketplace: information symmetry, choice and competition, fairness of contracts and transactions, redress and complaint options, opportunities for a political voice, and strategies to reduce or mitigate vulnerabilities and minimize risk and harm (McGregor, 2011b). McGregor (2005) and Sandlin (2005) likened this to Type 1 consumer education, focused on helping people navigate their consumer world so they can fulfil their role of contributing to the economy. Education about

consuming also entails learning to question what it means to live in a consumer society, but people do so to serve their own self interest. The latter facet of this approach equates somewhat to McGregor’s (2005) and Sandlin’s (2005) Type 2 consumer education, focused on individual critique to preserve one’s self-interest in the economy. Education for consuming would involve people learning values, attitudes, moral standards and sensitivities to others that move them to take different actions in the marketplace than in their past, changing the consumer system so its negative features are not propagated. This type of consumer education teaches people to be critical citizens in their consumer role, becoming ethical, green and/or anti-consumers. Education for consuming strives for open-mindedness and a critical approach that has people addressing the structural factors and economic and social inequities that disempowered them to act in their own self-interest. The main focus of this approach to consumer education is to free oneself from the ideological grasp of the marketplace so that one can change one’s own lifestyle, with this thinking beginning to extend to the plight of others and the planet. This approach likens to McGregor’s (2005) and Sandlin’s (2005) Type 3 consumer education, critical self-interest with leanings towards mutual interest for humanity and other species. Peace through the consumer education process loosely equates to McGregor’s (2005) Type 4 consumer education, an empowerment approach for mutual interest. As does the peace thorough the process of education approach (Fisk, 2000), this form of consumer education adopts a pedagogy that facilitates people finding their own inner voice, inner peace and inner power, releasing their potential as human beings to foster a culture of peace within a consumer society. Consumer education becomes a vehicle for peace because it emancipates people from the chains of the consumer culture, freeing them to strive for a culture of peace by consuming differently. As well, people learn to think beyond their private, materialistic sphere and embrace an abiding concern for the commons, which they appreciate is profoundly affected by unsustainable, unethical, irresponsible, even immoral consumer behavior. As consumer

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citizens, they gain respect for being accountable human beings as they learn to consume with a conscience. They learn to approach the act of consumption through a moral lens, holding themselves and everyone else responsible for their consumer choices. This form of consumer education helps people learn to work together as fellow citizens in a global community to offset the negative impacts of unsustainable consumption, striving for a culture of peace (see McGregor,

2010b). The Potential and Implications of Peace Through Consumer Education Any educational activity is purposeful; it is done for a reason (Harris & Morrison, 2003). Intentionally teaching peace through the consumer education process, adhering to the precepts of peace education, would significantly broaden the scope of consumer education.

Figure2: Hierarchy of Six Dimensions of Consumer Behavior Roles (Bannister & Monsma, 1982) It would expand to include: social justice as well as economic justice, human rights as well as consumer rights, human responsibilities well as consumer responsibilities, human dignity as well as social status, equality and equity as well as efficiency and effectiveness, human and social security as well as economic and national security, social and peace literacy as well as financial literacy, fair trade as well as free trade, localization as well as globalization, citizens as well as consumers... the list goes on. McGregor (2008; 2010a, b) provides more detail about these innovations.

To paraphrase Fisk (2000), consumer education done right (as a pedagogical tool for peace) will lead to a collection of individuals who strive for wisdom, clarity, cooperation, democracy, human potential and a critical awareness of life's conditions. It will lead to people who appreciate that the world is full of uncertainties, but who have faith in the possibilities of the future. Consumer education done right will sensitize people to appreciate that they have to face their own limitations, develop capacities for trust and commitment and be willing to let go of their preconceived notions and values for the sake of new and greater knowledge and insights. It will help people work for the larger truths by

Coping Questioning Planning Purchasing

and Conserving

Participating as a Citizen

Influencing Social

Change

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diligently verifying facts and findings, and garnering insights and meanings from many different perspectives and worldviews, all the while knowing it is necessary to live with uncertainty couched in human potential. Peace through the consumer education process will ensure that people are educated to respect, strive for and settle for nothing less than peace and the fair, safe and healthy living of all citizens. Consumer decisions would be made very differently within a peace framework. Peace through consumer education is a new frontier for consumer educators and a moral obligation pursuant to the UN decade for a culture of peace. Asking people to exercise responsibility for humankind is a daunting task in an individualistic consumer society (McGregor, 2010b). But, striving to build a culture of peace would have us at least try to foster a society shaped by responsible and peaceful consumption intentions. If, as peace educators assume, peace comes from within a person, then every educator has a responsibility to develop a safe context within which a student’s character and personality can develop - their inner self (Mercieca, 2000). This obligation also applies to consumer educators. Not only would they be obligated to provide students with knowledge about and for the marketplace (conventional consumer education); they also would be compelled to support conditions conducive to the development of students’ character and a sense of ethical and moral responsibility in the marketplace (McGregor, 2010b). Harper (2010) explains that the word education is derived from Latin educere, to bring out or lead forth. Simply put, to educate means to lead someone from one place to another. Peace through the consumer education process would lead people from being focused on their own self-interest to being concerned for the welfare of others, other species and the planet as they consumed goods and services. Peace through the consumer education process means educators would have to shift pedagogies, moving beyond the role of expert and authority to one of facilitator and teacher as learner. It would involve: a respect for democracy in the classroom; a culture of student-centered, authentic and collaborative learning; and, the development of their personal, social and political skills as well as their economic skills. Consumer education can be deeply informed by a pedagogy

of peace, including: (a) recognition and rejection of violence, augmented with understandings of non-violence; (b) resolving differences through dialogue; (c) critical awareness of injustice and social justice; and, (d) imaginative understandings or visions of peace (Joseph & Duss, 2009), a prime example being consumption as peace. Consumer educators would require in-servicing from a peace perspective, but the resultant culture of peace, versus a culture of consumption, would be worth the effort. When people consume out of compassion for others and a healthy love of self (inner peace), they better ensure justice and peace for fellow humans, other species and the planet. But, they need to be consciously socialized into this mind-set. Peace thorough the consumer education process is a powerful vision and pedagogy. It has the potential to carry primary, secondary, higher education and lifelong learning consumer educators into the future, into a 21st century culture of peace.

REFERENCES: Bannister, R. (1983). A classification of concepts in consumer education. NASSP Bulletin, 67 (December), 10-15. Bannister, R. (1996). Consumer education in the United States. Ypsilanti, MI: National Institute for Consumer Education. Retrieved from http:// www.ue-varna.bg/bg/index.php?page=4025. Bannister, R., & Monsma, C. (1982). Classification of concepts in consumer education (Monograph 137). Cincinnati, OH: South-Western Pub Co. Canadian Centers for Teaching Peace. (2000). Year 2000 UN International Year for a Culture of Peace. Okotoks, AB: Author. Retrieved from http://www.peace.ca/un2000celebration.htm Durning, A. (1992). How much is enough? New York: W. W. Norton. Fisk, L. (2000). Shaping visionaries: Nurturing peace through education. In L. Fisk and J. Schellenberg (Eds.), Patterns of conflict, paths to peace (pp. 159-193). Peterborough, ON: Broadview. Goodwin, N. R., Ackerman, F., & Kiron, D. (Eds.). (1997). The consumer society. Washington, DC: Island Press. Harper, D. (2010). Online etymology dictionary. Lancaster, PA: Self-Published. Retrieved from Http://www.etymonline.com. Harris, I., & Morrison, M. (2003). Peace education (2nd ed.). Jefferson, NC: McFarland. Harris, I., & Synott, J. (2002). Peace education for a

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new century. Social Alternatives, 21(1), 3-6. Joseph, P. B., & Duss, L. S. (2009). Teaching a pedagogy of peace. Journal of Peace Education, 6(2), 189-207. McGregor, S. L. T. (1999). Globalizing consumer education: Shifting from individual consumer rights to collective, human responsibilities. Proceedings of the 19th International Consumer Studies and Home Economics Research Conference (pp. 43-52). Belfast, N. Ireland: University of Ulster Jordanstown. McGregor, S. L. T. (2004). Workshop on the challenges of building a culture of peace in a consumer society. Paper presented at the Eastern Family Economics and Resource Management Association Conference (pp. 82-87). Tampa, Florida: EFERMA. McGregor, S. L. T. (2005). Sustainable consumer empowerment through critical consumer education: A typology of consumer education approaches. International Journal of Consumer Studies, 29(5), 437-447. McGregor, S. L. T. (2007). Consumerism, the common good and the human condition. Journal of Family and Consumer Sciences, 99(3), 15-22. McGregor, S. L. T. (2008). Ideological maps of consumer education. International Journal of Consumer Studies, 32(5), 545-552. McGregor, S. L. T. (2010a). Consumer education as a site of political resistance: 50 years of conceptual evolutions (McGregor Monograph Series No. 201001). Seabright, NS: McGregor Consulting Group. Retrieved from http://www.consultmcgregor.com/documents/publications/monograph_consumer_education_2010.pdf McGregor, S. L. T. (2010b). Consumer moral leadership. The Netherlands: Sense Publishers. McGregor, S. L. T. (2010c). Politicizing consumer education: Conceptual evolutions. In J. Sandlin and P. McLaren (Eds.), Towards a critical pedagogy of consumption: Living and learning in the shadow of the “Shopocalypse” (pp.122-133). Florence, KY: Routledge. McGregor, S. L. T. (2011a). Complexity economics, wicked problems and consumer education. International Journal of Consumer Studies, 36(1), 61-69. McGregor, S. L. T. (2011b). Conceptual clarity in consumer scholarship (McGregor Monograph Series 201101). Seabright, NS: McGregor Consulting Group. Retrieved from http://www.consultmcgregor.com/documents/pu

blications/primer_on_consumer_terms.pdf Mercieca, C. (2000, May). Culture of peace. Paper presented at the United Nation’s Millennium Forum (World Peace Summit). New York: United Nations. Moschis, G. P. (1987). Consumer socialization. Toronto, ON: D.C. Heath and Company. Page, J. (2008). Peace education. Charlotte, NC: Information Age Publishing. Pike, G., & Selby, D. (1988). Global teacher, global learner. London, England: Hodder & Stoughton. Radhakrishnan, N. (1999). The culture of peace versus materialism and consumerism. In B. Saraswati (Ed.), Culture of peace. New Delhi, India: Indira Gandhi National Center for the Arts. Retrieved from http://ignca.nic.in/cd_09023.htm Reardon, B. (1997). Human rights education as education for peace. In G. Andrepoulos and R. Claude (Eds.), Human rights education for the 21st century (pp. 255-261). Philadelphia, PA: Pennsylvania University Press. Sandlin, J. A. (2005). Culture, consumption and adult education: Refashioning consumer education for adults as a political site using a cultural studies framework. Adult Education Quarterly, 55(3), 165-181. UNESCO. (2000). Peace is in our hands. Paris, France: Author. Retrieved from http://www3.unesco.org/iycp/ United Nations. (1998a). Culture of peace (Resolution A/RES/52/13). Paris, France: Author. Retrieved from http://www3.unesco.org/iycp/kits/res52-13_en.htm United Nations. (1998b). International Decade for a Culture of Peace and Non-Violence for the Children of the World (2001–2010) (Resolution A/RES/53/25). Paris, France: Author. Retrieved from http://www3.unesco.org/iycp/uk/uk_sum_decade.htm United Nations. (1998c). Proclamation of the year 2000 as the International Year for the Culture of Peace (Resolution A/RES/52/15). Paris, France: Author. Retrieved from http://www.un.org/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=A/RES/52/15 United Nations. (1999). Declaration and programme of action on a culture of peace (Resolution A/RES/53/243). Paris, France: Author. Retrieved from http://www3.unesco.org/ iycp/kits/uk_res_243.pdf

DEDICATION

This paper is dedicated to the memory of my dear friend and peace mentor Dr.Larry Fisk, who passed away July 25 2011.

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CULTURAL CONTEXT AND CHILDREN’S PERCEPTIONS OF CONFLICT AND PEACE Chris Coughlin1, Gloysis Mayers2, Jesse Dizard1, Judy Bordin1

Email: ccoughlin@csuchico.edu 1Department of Child Development Program, and Anthropology, California State University, Chico CA, USA

2College of Education, Zayed University, Dubai Campus, Dubai, United Arab Emirates

ABSTRACT This is a cross cultural comparison of children’s perceptions of conflict and peace. Thirty children, age 6-10 living in the United States and 33 children, of the same age living in the United Arab Emirates were interviewed and asked to respond to 18 questions concerning war, enemy, and peace. Analysis of responses included assessment of sex, culture, and age similarities and differences. Findings indicate that culture plays a prominent role in the way children experience their world and world events. The findings of this study support taking a cultural context focus towards understanding children’s perceptions and using such insight in helping children learn cooperation and acceptance of others knowing that children see the world from the context in which they live.

Keywords: Cross Cultural Comparison, Children’s Perceptions, Conflict , Peace. United States United Arab Emirates

INTRODUCTION: This is the continuation of a cross-disciplinary, cross-cultural project designed to address our primary concerns that social science remains relevant to contemporary issues, and to offer undergraduates opportunities for practical research. Thus, the purpose of this research project was for our undergraduate students to help us investigate children’s perceptions about peace, war and enemy and to compare our findings, inter alia, across cultural contexts, while considering both developmental (child development) and cultural (anthropological) contexts. The goal of this research was two-fold: 1) to learn more about how children perceive war and peace within the local and regional contexts of cultural and environmental influences, while taking into consideration sex and age; and 2) to create and maintain an opportunity for cultural and intellectual exchanges among university students through participation in an international research project. In addition to the main objectives, this project also served as the basis for an Honors Project for one California State University, Chico (CSU, Chico) student majoring in Child Development and a Special Research Project for a student majoring in Anthropology. Review of the Literature: Children’s Understanding of War and Peace Our work attempts to both contribute to the existing body of knowledge on the subject of

children’s conceptions and perceptions of peace and war and to encourage others to engage in comparable investigations. In trying to describe previous work on the subject, it is difficult to avoid conflating concepts such as ‘enemy’ or ‘enemies’ and ‘war’ or ‘conflict’. Clearly the terms and the concepts they purport to describe are co-determinant; one cannot exist without the other, each is constitutive of the other. Where distinctions are critical we are careful to point them out. The classic early research by Frenkel-Brunswick (1947) examined the presence of enemy images and prejudice among children studied just after the Second World War. She found that prejudiced children presented particular behavioral patterns that involved a glorification of the group to which they belonged coupled with unfriendliness toward outsiders such as minorities or other countries. In short, ethnocentrism defines the boundaries of belonging. Frenkel-Brunswick’s findings are supported by Hesse and Poklemba (1989, see Oppenheimer, 2005), who studied enemy images among 4-6 year old children in Germany and the United States. Interestingly, they found that while 4-6 year olds have no unambiguous images of political enemies, they do show evidence of clearly understanding the concept of enemy/enemies. Further, the categories of enemy/enemies and friends appear to be

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permanent. According to Hesse and Poklemba, friends will never become enemies, and the latter are regarded as inherently evil and can never become a friend (p. 66). Povrzanovic (1997), elaborated upon these findings to show that children who did not experience conflict directly did not apportion blame for causing war, rather they conceived of war as some kind of natural disaster or other passing phenomena. For children with direct experience of war, clear images of enemy/enemies were present. Her research demonstrated the importance of direct experience, nationalist propaganda, and parental attitudes and influence in the formulation of hostile, negative and unambiguous enemy concepts. This research highlights the importance of children’s social context in formulating concepts of the enemy/enemies. But even without direct experience of war, Hesse and Mack (1991) show that 5-6 year old American children know what enemies are. Their subjects described the enemy/enemies in individual, personalized terms as ‘angry ’people, who ‘attack you,’ ‘fight and shoot people’ and ‘steal jewelry.’ Further research suggests that there are a variety of factors that influence the way children conceptualize enemy/enemies in the context of peace and war (Hakvoort & Hagglund, 2001; Myers-Bowman, Walker, & Myers-Walls, 2005; Raviv, Oppenheimer, & Bar-Tal, 1999). Hakvoort (1996), in reviewing research from 1960s-1990s, posited that for children the concept of war is more easily understood than that of peace. However it remains unclear if and to what degree this varies by culture. Additionally, research has also found sex and age-related factors are prominent domains influencing a child’s understanding of war and peace. Hagglund (1999) has concluded that younger children associate peace with friendships and war with violent activities and war objects. For older children and adolescents concepts of peace are associated with much more complex and abstract schema such as “international cooperation, reconciliation, and equality” (Hagglund, 1999, p. 193). From a cognitive-developmental perspective, these findings would be expected as children move from the preoperational stage through the concrete stage, and finally into the formal operational stage of cognitive development as proposed by Piaget (1950). Prior to age six, as posited by Paramjit and

Deborah (2003) children have a difficult time taking other’s perspectives into account. Another key feature with children of this age is an inability to understand death as permanent. This makes it difficult if not impossible for children still in the cognitive stage of preoperational thinking to understand the concept of war, killing, and the finality associated with death. A child’s sex also appears to be an influential factor in understanding the concepts of enemies, peace and war. Studies have found that girls more frequently defined concepts of both war and peace in terms of relationships between human beings (e.g., peace is being friends, war is quarreling with friends), whereas boys tend to talk about peace as a result of war activities rather than negotiations (Hagglund, 1999; Hakvoort & Oppenheimer, 1998). Further, girls tend to personalize peace whereby they associate peace with their own social environment and relations, unlike boys who have been found to more frequently refer to peace as something distant (Hakvoort & Oppenheimer, 1993). Further support for both age and sex differences in children’s perceptions of war have been reported by Buldu (2009) in his study of children, age five to eight, living in the United Arab Emirates. As reported by Buldu, Emirati children’s responses reflect differences in both age and sex. Specifically, Buldu’s study found older children, unlike younger children, were able to articulate causes and consequences of war. Females displayed more concern about the consequences of war, whereas boys were found to know more about weapons and displayed more interest in the elements of war. These findings support the familiar and consistent socio cultural and socio moral differences found among male and female children as well as age differences as previously discussed. Ronen, Rahav, and Rosenbaum (2003) assessed war’s impacts on second, sixth and tenth grade children. The study took place in Israel during the third week of the 1991 Gulf War. The results indicated that war had a negative effect on all children, however, in terms of sex and age, they found war produced higher levels of anxiety and problem behaviors for girls and younger children. According to Raviv, Oppenheimer, and Bar-Tal (1999), factors within a child’s environment also contribute to his/her understanding of many social concepts, including enemies, peace and war. From a social learning theoretical

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perspective, this is certainly not a surprising finding given we know children learn vicariously through interaction and observation. In short, children’s perceptions of war, peace and enemies are dependent on their direct or indirect experiences. Spielmann (1986) reports that children not exposed to war conceive of peace as non-violence and tranquility while children experiencing war more directly describe peace as freedom of movement. The research of Myers-Bowman, Walker, and Myers-Walls (2005) investigating American and Yugoslavian children’s perceptions of war and peace supports the findings of Spielmann. Myers-Bowman, et al. (2005) found both “overwhelming similarities” (p. 177) along with “striking differences” (p. 177) in comparing perceptions of war and peace between the two groups of children in part due to the proximity of their exposure. In describing peace, both groups of children referred to terms such as tranquil and quiet. In contrast when asked to describe war, children in the United States used general terms, whereas Yugoslavian children used personal pronouns and described war from their own personal experiences. A study by Covell, Rose-Krasnor, and Fletcher (1994), found that Canadian children associated peace with being nice and sharing. According to Hakvoort and Hagglund (2001), Dutch and Swedish children associated peace with friendship and social relationships, and the two cultures share sufficient similarities that there is little difference between Dutch and Swedish children’s perceptions of war or peace. Oppenheimer’s (2005 and 2006) investigations among Dutch children examined how images of the enemy/enemies develop (2005). Older children conceptualized enemies as aliens or animals rather than humans. As children age, more abstract conceptualizations become dominant, shifting from concrete personal referents like other children in the classroom to indefinite abstractions such as imaginary aliens or animals. According to Costello and Phelps (1994), children's perceptions of war, their emotional responses, and their subsequent coping strategies all seem to rely on many interrelated variables such as age, sex, familial stability, and socializing agents including the media and peer groups (also see Oppenheimer, 2006). These researchers suggest that war-related effects may develop even though the conflict is taking place in a

distant country. However, unlike research investigating how sex and age influence a child’s understanding of enemies, peace and war, less is known in terms of cultural influences. Myers-Bowman, et al. (2005), in their brief but thorough review of literature concerned with socio-cultural factors influencing children’s perceptions of war and peace, conclude “there is a relation between children’s socio-cultural environment and how they perceive war and peace but much remains unknown” (p.180). Cultural Anthropologists have long been interested in childhood. Boas (1912) described human plasticity on the basis of examining skeletal growth among immigrants to the United States, showing that environments can profoundly affect intellectual development. Mead went further to show that universal generalizations made on the basis of only one culture are invalid (1928, 1947). LeVine and New (2008) point out that cross-cultural studies offer powerful and compelling insights regarding local contexts and cultural meanings organizing the lives of families. For example, children are protagonists in their own lives, not passive recipients of norms and values. Also, parents are profoundly influenced by cultural norms and values at every stage of the reproductive process that contribute to maintaining the moral framework of communities. And culture gives meaning to the material and social experiences of individuals that constitute acceptable developmental pathways within specific communities.

Purpose of the Study As noted by de Souza, Sperb, McCarthy, and Biaggio (2006), investigation of children’s understanding of war, peace and conflict has tended to be conducted primarily with Europeans, and has included children’s experiences in the context of surviving ongoing violence, the aftermath of violence and the absence of violence. Very little research has been done comparing Middle Eastern children’s perceptions of war, peace, or enemy to those of American children. Thus the primary objective of our study was to gain a greater understanding of how children perceive war, enemy and peace

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within the local and regional contexts of Western and Middle Eastern cultures. Specifically, interviewing children living in the United Arab Emirates (UAE) and the United States (USA), permits comparative analysis of the relative effects of proximity to, or distance from war, as well as cultural differences on children’s conceptualization of peace, war and enemy.

METHODOLOGY: This project originated during the fall of 2007 when we initiated a conversation between undergraduate students from CSU Chico, USA and Zayed University, UAE, based on common interests in gaining a better understanding of children’s perceptions of peace and war, in addition to a mutual desire for cross cultural exchanges between the two campuses. To accomplish the above objectives, students from Zayed University and CSU Chico participated in a pilot study fall 2007 through spring 2008, in which undergraduate students on both campuses interviewed a total of 41 children, age 5-10, concerning their perceptions of peace and war (Coughlin, Mayers, Dizard, & Bordin, 2008, 2009). After completion of that pilot study, beginning fall, 2009, faculty and students from Zayed University and CSU, Chico reviewed and revised the interview questions, adding “enemy” as a category of inquiry and in the spring of 2010 conducted a second wave of interviews with 63 children, ages 6-12, living in Chico, CA and the UAE, which is the focus of this paper. Interviews consisted of 18 questions concerning children’s perceptions of peace, war, and enemy. In addition, children were asked to draw pictures of their concepts of peace, war and enemy, however, pictures are not included in this data analyses. The interview questions were first developed in English by the CSU, Chico participants. Taking into consideration cultural differences, the English constructed questionnaire was then translated into an Arabic version for the children in the UAE. Data Collection Data were collected through an interview process. Data collection included the use of audio tape recording of children’s responses. Audio taped recordings for both groups were later transcribed. Undergraduate students from CSU,

Chico conducted interviews with 15 boys and 15 girls, age 6-12, who attended a local non-profit, local boy’s and girl’s club in Chico, California. The UAE sample consisted of UAE National children, 19 girls and 14 boys, age 6-12, and the interviews took place with undergraduate students interviewing family members. The UAE sample consisted of children from each of the seven Emirates. CSU Chico students collected their data at a local community club for boys and girls, while in the UAE, researchers visited children's houses to collect the data. In the homes, researchers used a quiet place with no other family members present. Informed consent: Prior to the interview process, researchers requested permission from parents for their children to participate in the study. Findings The data were analyzed using a phenomenological procedure as reported by Buldu (2009). Two primary investigators (faculty) identified key themes that emerged from the children’s response to the 18 questions. Findings from the study are reported and discussed in terms of sex and cultural similarities and differences as well as differences based on age. The summary of the children’s responses is reported in terms of the most frequent responses, thus not all responses are reported, only those that emerged as the most common/frequent. To highlight the children’s responses in terms of sex and cultural similarities/differences, the findings are reported in terms of category classification and also in terms of within-group frequency of response (percentages, e.g., the percentage of children, by sex and country, who responded “an enemy can never be a friend”; “my country is at war”; “enemies are always men”; etc.). The last section reports differences in younger children’s (age 6-9) and older children’s (10-12) responses. As stated, children responded to a total of 18 questions, however, this paper will report on the children’s responses to the following 16 questions (two questions were descriptive and do not lend themselves to categorical classification and thus are not included in this analysis). Children responded to the following questions: Peace 1. What is peace? 2. How did you learn about peace?

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3. Do you hear people talking about peace? 4. What is war? 5. How did you learn about war? 6. Do you hear people talking about war? Where? 7. Is your county at war? 8. Are fighting and wars necessary? Why or why not? 9. What is an enemy? 10. What does an enemy look like? 11. Is an enemy a woman or a man? 12. Are enemies necessary? 13. Can an enemy ever become a friend or is an enemy always an enemy? 14. How does an enemy make you feel? 15. How did you learn about enemies? 16. Does your country (USA or UAE) have an enemy? Questions concerning peace.

What is peace? In response to the question, “What is peace?” the majority of male and female children in both the USA and UAE responded by stating that peace was the “opposite” of war or made reference to a “peaceful, quiet” environment (see Table1). How did you learn about peace? When asked how they had learned about peace, 60% of USA females reported learning about peace from family members such as parents, or grandparents, or both parents and grandparents. The majority of UAE females reported learning about peace at school from readings, classes, or school projects. USA boys responded family, school somewhat equally and UAE boys discussed learning about peace but could not readily identify where they had learned about it (see Table 2).

Do you hear people talking about peace and if so, where? In answer to this question, roughly 40% of USA females reported they did not hear people talking about peace and 40% reported hearing people talking about peace at home (20%) or school (20%). USA males responded that they had heard people talking about peace predominately at school (33%) and also at home (27%) or on TV (13%). UAE female and male children’s responses were similar in that home,

school, and TV were all sources where the children reported having heard people talking about peace (see Table 3). Questions concerning war.

What is war? In response to the question, “What is war?” the majority of USA females and UAE males responded briefly by stating, “It means to fight,” or “It is fighting.” USA male responses were found to be a bit more detailed and included description of battles and conflict. UAE females were also more descriptive and more frequently included greater detail in terms of describing war in terms of death, blood, and destruction (see Table 4) Table 1: Responses to “What is peace?”

Responses USA Girls

USA Boys

UAE Girls

UAE Boys

Opposite war 33% 27% 26% 7% Environment 20% 27% 10% 21% Cooperation 7% 7% 31% 21% Emotion 13% 0 5% 14% Greeting 0 0 5% 14% Table 2: Responses to “How did you learn about peace?”

Responses USA Girls

USA Boys

UAE Girls

UAE Boys

Family 60% 27% 15% 7% School 7% 20% 58% 14% TV/Media 7% 0 5% 14% Non-specific 0 0 10% 42% Don’t know 20% 27% 5% 14% Table 3: Responses to “Do you hear people talking about peace and if so, where?”

Responses USA Girls

USA Boys

UAE Girls

UAE Boys

Home 20% 27% 31% 14% School 20% 33% 26% 7% TV 0 13% 21% 21% No 40% 0 10% 21% Table 4 : Responses to “What is war?”

Responses USA Girls

USA Boys

UAE Girls

UAE Boys

Word “Fight” 46% 33% 36% 57% Battle/Conflict 13% 33% 26% 0% Weapon/ Blood/Death/ Destruction

0 7% 21% 7%

Country 7% 0 15% 7% People 20% 0 0 21%

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How did you learn about war? In comparison to learning about peace, the majority of USA males and USA females more frequently mentioned leaning about war while at school through their class discussions or assignments. In contrast, both UAE males and females predominately indicated television as the medium by which they had learned about war (see Table 5)

Do you hear people talking about war? In response to the question concerning hearing people talk about war, USA males’ and females’ responses were similar to their responses to the same question concerning peace; they more frequently mentioned school as the place they hear people talking about war. The majority of UAE females (53%) reported television to be the where they hear people talking about war, and UAE males’ responses reflected various sources but predominately school and TV. Unlike USA males and UAE males and females, USA females did not mention TV as a medium of information concerning war (see Table 6).

Is your country at war? In reference to “Is your country at war?” all Emirati females, and all but one Emirati male, responded “no” their country was not at war. For children in the USA, responses were more divided with 60% of females and 27% of males responding “no” their country was not at war. Sixty percent of the USA sample, males and females, stated they did not know if their county was at war (Table 7).

Are fighting and wars necessary? When asked if fighting and wars are necessary, the majority of USA and UAE males and females responded “no.” However, about half the USA males responded “yes” wars are necessary or “sometimes” necessary (Table 8). Questions concerning enemy.

What is an enemy? The description most often provided by USA females in defining an enemy included reference to “someone hated” or “someone disliked.” The UAE children in comparison to the USA children used descriptors that included “an enemy is evil” or “an enemy is the devil.” Also, UAE children were more likely to describe an enemy as having the potential to be “anyone” given the right circumstances (see Table 9).

What does an enemy look like? The majority of children describe an enemy as someone who “wears a disguise,” is a “stranger or other (specifying a person),” “anyone,” or someone who looks “scary/frightening.” The majority of UAE children described an enemy as someone who is “scary/ frightening.” USA females more frequently described an enemy as “anyone,” and roughly a third of USA males described an enemy as a stranger (see Table 10).

Is an enemy a women or a man? The majority of USA males and females stated an enemy can be either a woman or a man. UAE children, in comparison, was somewhat more likely to specify an enemy as someone who is male. None of the children responded that an enemy was always a “woman” (see Table 11). Table 5: Responses to “How did you learn about war?”

Responses USA Girls

USA Boys

UAE Girls

UAE Boys

Family 13% 13% 5% 21% School 47% 21% 21% 14% TV/Movies 7% 28% 68% 42% Table 6: Responses to “Do you hear people talking about war?”

Responses USA Girls

USA Boys

UAE Girls

UAE Boys

Home 20% 13% 5% 14% School 27% 33% 21% 21% TV 0 13% 53% 21% No 20% 13% 10% 21% Table 7: Responses to “Is your country at war?”

Responses USA Girls

USA Boys

UAE Girls

UAE Boys

Yes 20% 33% 0 0 No 60% 27% 100% 93% Don’t know 20% 40% 0 7% Table 8: Responses to “Are fighting and wars necessary?”

Responses USA Girls

USA Boys

UAE Girls

UAE Boys

Yes 13% 33% 10% 14% No 80% 47% 79% 71% Sometimes 0 13% 10% 7% Don’t know 7% 7% 0 7%

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Table 9 : Responses to “What is an enemy?”

Responses USA Girls

USA Boys

UAE Girls

UAE Boys

Opponent 7% 47% 32% 28% Someone you hate/dislike

87% 33% 16% 28%

Evil/devil 0 0 21% 14% Anyone 0 0 16% 14% Table 10 : Responses to “What does an enemy look like?”

Responses USA Girls

USA Boys

UAE Girls

UAE Boys

Wears a disguise

13% 15% 21% 21%

Stranger/ other

27% 30% 5% 14%

Anyone 33% 15% 10% 7% Scary/ frightening

13% 7% 47% 42%

Table 11 : Responses to “Is an enemy a women or a man?”

Responses USA Girls

USA Boys

UAE Girls

UAE Boys

Man 20% 29% 53% 57% Women 0 0 0 0 Both 80% 71% 47% 43% Table 12: Responses to “Are enemies necessary”?

Responses USA Girls

USA Boys

UAE Girls

UAE Boys

Yes 20% 29% 10% 7% No 66% 50% 84% 93% Sometimes 7% 21% 0 0 Don’t know 7% 0 5% 0 Table 13 : Responses to “Can an enemy ever become a friend?”

Responses USA Girls

USA Boys

UAE Girls

UAE Boys

Yes 73% 57% 53% 57% No 13% 28% 42% 35% Sometimes 13% 14% 5% 7% Table 14 : Responses to “How does an enemy make you feel?”

Responses USA Girls

USA Boys

UAE Girls

UAE Boys

Sad/bad 71% 71% 32% 28% Mad/angry 20% 14% 5% 21% Frightened 0 7% 58% 35%

Table 15 : Responses to “How did you learn about enemies?”

Responses USA Girls

USA Boys

UAE Girls

UAE Boys

Home 21% 14% 0 0 School 21% 21% 21% 42% TV 0 7% 63% 28% Interpersonal Conflict

28% 0 5% 7%

Don’t know 14% 14% 0 0 Table 16 Response to “Does your country have an enemy?”

Responses USA Girls

USA Boys

UAE Girls

UAE Boys

Yes 43% 71% 32% 21% No 0 0 58% 65%

Are enemies necessary? The majority of UAE children, both male and female, more frequently responded, “No, enemies are not necessary.” In comparison, half USA males and about one third of USA females responded, “Yes, enemies are necessary” or “sometimes necessary” (see Table 12).

Can an enemy ever become a friend? In comparing responses between children in the USA and children in the UAE, UAE males and females more frequently responded, “No, an enemy can never be a friend.” USA girls on average, in comparison, were more likely to state that an enemy can always or sometimes become a friend (see Table 13).

How does an enemy make you feel? USA children, both male and female, responded more frequently that enemies made them feel “sad or bad.” UAE children, more frequently, responded that an enemy made them feel “frightened” (see Table 14).

How did you learn about enemies? None of the UAE children spoke about home or family in terms of learning about enemies. UAE males reported television as the medium through which they had learned about enemies. For UAE girls, the most frequent answer indicated learning about enemies at school. It is interesting to note that USA females more frequently indicated that they learned about enemies through their own personal experiences (interpersonal conflict), e.g., experiencing someone as an enemy (see Table 15).

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Does your country have an enemy? All of the USA children responded either “yes” the USA has an enemy or “I don’t know.” In comparison, the majority of UAE children responded “no” when asked if the UAE has an enemy (see Table 16) Comparison of children’s responses based on age. The only difference found based on the age of the child was in response to two of the questions: “Can an enemy ever become a friend?” and “How does an enemy make you feel?” Older children (age 10-12) were more likely than younger children (age 6-9) to respond, “yes” an enemy can become a friend and older UAE children more frequently responded an enemy makes you feel “mad/angry” in comparison to younger children who more frequently responded an enemy makes them feel “sad/bad.”

DISCUSSION: Regarding questions concerning peace, UAE children in comparison to children in the USA made more frequent reference to cooperation as a means of defining peace. For example, comments included, “To be a friend with someone” (Emirati male, age 10); “Understanding” (Emirati female, age 7); “Group of people living together without problems” (Emirati female, age 11). As found in other studies (see Myers-Bowman, et. al., 2005), in response to questions concerning peace, children in our samples from both the USA as well as the UAE also referred to peace in terms of quiet and tranquil environments in addition to defining peace as the opposite of war. UAE children, however, were more likely than USA children to contrast peace to war, describing peace as the opposite of war. However, given limitations of this study, caution is warranted in terms of the generalizations that can be made. Limitations of the study concerns a small sample size and sampling procedures. Interviews in the UAE were conducted in the children’s homes. This may have influenced children’s replies. Nearly all of the children in the UAE sample were related to the students conducting the interviews. In discussing where they had learned about peace/war and if they heard people talking about peace/war, television, or other forms of media, were presented as a more prominent medium of

information for children living in the UAE. For children living in the USA, family and school predominately were the most frequent answers given in response to questions about where they had learned about peace/war, as well as where they hear people talking about peace/war. When asked if “their country was at war,” male children living in the United States demonstrated more confusion in not knowing if their country was at war (40% responded “don’t know”). In comparison, only one Emirati child stated he did not know if his country was at war, while the remaining children, 32, all responded 'no', their country was not at war. This is an intriguing difference and more research is required to explain why, after seven years at war (nine including Afghanistan), essentially the entire lifespan of the younger respondents, so many children from the USA sample, especially male children, did not know if their country is at war or peace. An explanation for USA children’s response to this question might stem from the fact that children in the USA hear “the USA is at war” (at war with Iraq, Afghanistan) but they don’t see “war" and they aren’t exposed to the violence or chaos of the Global War on Terror, hence it is confusing; they hear their country is at war, but given it is not something tangible, they simply don’t understand what war in that context means, and hence when responding to this question gave conflicting comments as an indication of their confusion. One can speculate further that perhaps American attitudes toward childhood as a magical time of innocence restricts discussion of or access to information about the Global War on Terror such that younger children are simply not exposed to the information in such a way as to make the concept of war and its implications understandable. Almost half of the USA males reported “yes” wars are necessary or “sometimes” necessary in comparison to 21% of UAE males. In terms of sex differences, females more frequently responded, “No, wars are not necessary” and USA females were found to respond “No wars are never necessary” more often than any of the other children. This is one of the most striking differences found between children in the USA and children in the UAE. Roughly half of male children in the USA sample, 46%, stated that they believe war/fighting is necessary or sometimes necessary. In contrast, only 21% UAE males stated that they believe war/fighting is necessary or

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sometimes necessary. We suspect, however, that a careful examination of the psychosocial environment of the children in the American sample will reveal a broad cultural preference for regarding conflict as a source of amusement (e.g., the ‘fun’ and ‘happy’ violence of many popular films and video games) and the means for assessing quality (e.g., may the best person win), and establishing superiority. This finding could have profound implications when considering a child’s view of the world and his or her place in it. That children this young have developed a mindset that wars are acceptable and necessary may reflect broader culturally defined attitudes towards violence and how conflict is dealt with and resolved. However, as previously noted, caution in interpreting this finding is warranted and more research is needed before conclusions from this finding can be drawn. In reviewing the children’s’ responses concerning enemy, children living in the United States more frequently described an enemy as someone you “don’t like”, “hate” or who could be “anyone.” Children in the UAE most frequently described an enemy as someone who was “scary/frightening” in terms of appearance; for example responses included: “He is colored in white and black” (Emirati male, age 7); “looks like a criminal” (Emirati male, age 10); “He has lots of scars on his face” (Emirati male, age 9). All the children included females as potential enemies; however, males as enemies dominated all the children’s responses. None of the children stated female only as an enemy. However, children in the USA sample more frequently responded that an enemy could be both “male and female” in comparison to children living in the UAE. As with responses to the necessity of war, we found similar cultural differences in children’s responses to the necessity of enemies. Children in the USA, both male and female, were much more likely to respond “yes” enemies are necessary or “sometimes” necessary. Both male and female children living in the USA, however, more frequently responded “yes” enemies can become friends, or “sometimes” can become friends in comparison to male and female children living in the UAE. The differences in responses may be explained in part by how the children reported learning about enemies. Females and males in the USA more frequently reported having learned about enemies through their own personal experiences (having an

enemy) or learning about enemies at home or school. Children in the UAE reported fewer personal experiences concerning their understanding of enemies, specifically reporting that their knowledge most frequently was acquired through the television/media. It may be through these more personalized experiences that children in the USA have learned firsthand that enemies can become friends and further, that enemies can be male or female. It is also interesting to note, as previously discussed, Hesse and Poklemba (1989, see Oppenheimer, 2005) reported in their study of children age 4-6 the belief that enemies can never be friends. In our study, over half the children and predominately the older children responded that enemies could become friends. Given that our study, in comparison to Hesse and Poklemba, includes older children, this difference in response appears to indicate older children’s more advanced understanding of relationships. Their response that enemies can be friends demonstrates a more complex understanding of interpersonal relationships as well as an understanding that relationships have the potential to change over time. In response to the question, “Does your country have an enemy?” the majority of males living in the USA responded yes, however, the majority of females responded “don’t know.” The majority of UAE children, both male and female, predominately responded “no,” their country did not have an enemy. The UAE does have a military. However, given that these children have never experienced their country’s armed forces involved in international conflict, it is not surprising that they, unlike USA children, perceive their country as having no enemies. Only two notable age differences were found specifically in terms of children’s responses to enemies becoming friends. Older children were more likely than younger children to respond “yes” an enemy can become a friend (as previously discussed), and in terms of how enemies make you feel; older UAE children more frequently responded “mad/angry” in comparison to younger children. Even though striking differences were not found in terms of how children responded to the questions based on age, it became very apparent in reviewing all responses that older children in comparison to younger children demonstrated a much more

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abstract understanding of peace, war, and enemy. This study was concerned with investigating the role of culture on children’s perceptions of the concepts of war, enemy, and peace while considering the sex and age of the child. In reviewing the responses of the children, it is evident that culture plays a prominent role in the way children perceive these concepts as well as the way they experience their world and world events. Thus, when we consider how children learn about conflict, peace, and the characterizations of, or identification with an enemy, it becomes evident that we must consider a cultural perspective knowing that children see the world from the context in which they live.

REFERENCES Boas, F. (1912). Instability of human types. In Gustave Spiller (Ed.), Papers on interracial problems communicated to the First Universal Races Conference held at the University of London, July 26-29, 1911 (pp. 99-103). Boston, MA: Ginn & Co. Buldu, M. (2009). Five- to- 8 year old Emirati children’s and their teachers’ perceptions of war. Journal of Research in Childhood Education, 23 (4), 461-474. Costello, M., & Phelps, L. (1994). Children and military conflict: Current issues and treatment implications. The School Counselor, 41, 220–225. Coughlin, C., Dizard, J., Bordin, J., & Mayers, G. September 2010. Children’s perceptions of war, peace and enemy. Paper presented at the Viewing Anthropology Through the Eyes of Children. Study of Childhood & Adolescence Conference. VU University Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands. Coughlin, C., Mayers, G., Dizard, J., & Bordin. J. June 2009. Cross-cultural examination of children’s perceptions of conflict, war and peace. Paper presented at the World Forum on Early Care and Education, Belfast, Ireland. Coughlin, C., Mayers, G., Dizard. J., & Bordin, J. October, 2008. Children’s perceptions of war and peace: A cross cultural investigation facilitating international undergraduate collaborative research. Paper presented at the Conference on Middle East Studies, Fresno, CA. Covell, K., Rose-Krasnor, L., & Fletcher, K. (1994). Age differences in understanding peace, war, and conflict resolution. International Journal of Behavioral Development, 17, 717–737. De Souza, L. K., Sperb, T. M., McCarthy, S., &

Biaggio, S. M. B. (2006). Brazilian children’s conceptions of peace, war and violence. Peace and Conflict: Journal of Peace Psychology. 12(1), 49-63. Frenkel-Brunswick, E. (1947). A study of prejudice in children. Human Relations, 1, 295-306. Hagglund. S. (1999). Peer relationships and children’s understanding of peace and war: A sociocultual perspective. In Raviv, A., Oppenheimer, L., & Bar-Tal, D. (Eds.). How children understand war and peace. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Hakvoort, I. (1996). Children’s conceptions of peace and war: A longitudinal study. Peace and Conflict: Journal of Peace Psychology, 2(1), 1-15. Hakvoort, I., & Hägglund, S. (2001). Concepts of peace and war as described by Dutch and Swedish girls and boys. Peace and Conflict: Journal of Peace Psychology, 7, 29–44. Hakvoort, I., & Oppenheimer, L. (1998). Understanding peace and war: A review of developmental psychology research. Developmental Review 18, 353-389. Hakvoort, I., & Oppenheimer, L. (1993). Children and adolescents’ conceptions of peace, war, and strategies to attain peace: A Dutch case study. Journal of Peace Research, 30, 65–77. Hesse, P., and Mack, J. E. (1991). The world is a dangerous place: Images of the enemy on children’s television. In R. W. Rieber (Ed.), The psychology of war and peace: The images of the enemy (pp. 131-151). New York: Plenum. LeVine, R. A., & New, R. S. (2008). Anthropology and child development: a cross-cultural reader. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing Ltd. Mead, M. (1928). Samoan children at work and play. Natural History, November/December, 103-104. Mead, M. (1947). Age patterning in personality development. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 17, 232-236. Myers-Bowman, K., Walker, K., Myers-Walls, J. (2005). Differences between war and peace are big: Children from Yugoslavia and the United States describe peace and war. Journal of Peace Psychology, 11 (2), 177-198. Oppenheimer, L. (2006). The development of enemy images: A theoretical contribution. Peace and Conflict: Journal of Peace Psychology, 12(3), 269-292. Oppenheimer, L. (2005). The development of enemy images in Dutch children: Measurement and initial findings. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 23, 645-660. Paramjit, J., & Deborah, D. (2003). Consequences of child exposure to war and terrorism. Medical Science Journal, 6 (4) 275-292.

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Piaget, J. (1950). The psychology of intelligence. London: Routledge. Povrzanovic, M. (1997). Children, war and nation: Croatia 1991-4. Childhood: A Global Journal of Child Research, 4, 81-102. Raviv, A., Oppenheimer, L., & Bar-Tal, D. (1999). How children understand war and peace. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Ronen, T., Rahav, G., & Rosenbaum, M. (2003). Children's reactions to a war situation as a function of age and gender. Anxiety, Stress and Coping, (3), 59-69. Speilmann, M. (1986). If peace comes…future expectations of Israeli children and youth. Journal of Peace Research, 23, 51-67.

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THE EFFECT OF SNACKS ON PERIODONTAL HEALTH AND DENTAL CARIES AMONG SCHOOL GOING ADOLESCENTS IN WESTERN KENYA

Omutimba D.S., Joseph K. Rotich, C.K. Sang , School of Public Health, and Dentistry, Moi University, Eldoret, Kenya

Email: scott.omutimba@gmail.com .

ABSTRACT The state of oral health in Kenya continues to generate a lot of interest considering there has been no national oral health survey for the entire nation. The main aim of the study was to investigate the relationship between snacking behavior and the level of dental caries and periodontal health. Simple random sampling techniques were used to select the study participants. Data collection was done through self-administered questionnaires and oral examination of the 389 respondents from a total of 20 schools in Western Kenya. Snacking behavior was reported in 62.5% of the respondents. Higher caries and poor periodontal health reported in those who didn’t take snacks. The risk of poor periodontal health was 1.7 times more likely in those who didn’t take snacks. Key words: Dental Caries, Periodontal Health Status, Snacking

INTRODUCTION Dental caries is defined as a chronic infectious condition that affects the mineralized portions of the tooth, characterized by the demineralization of the organic portion followed by dissolution of the organic residues. Dental caries is a multi factorial and complex process entailing the interaction of both direct and indirect factors. The direct factors include a susceptible tooth, fermentable carbohydrate and cariogenic microorganisms while the indirect factors are saliva, patient or dentist measures, fluorides and genetics. Periodontal conditions are one of the major oral diseases that afflict the mouth and its related tissues and are considered among the world’s commonest diseases (Ohito, 1992). The Application for the International Classification of Diseases to Dentistry and Stomatology (WHO 2009) classifies gingival periodontal conditions using the code K05 as an almost universal disease that afflicts the gingival periodontal tissues. Chronic gingivitis is a periodontal condition defined as inflammation of the marginal gingival tissues due to the accumulation of dental plaque around the necks of the teeth. It occurs as a result of persistent low grade infection of the gum around the teeth, which is characterized clinically by redness, swelling and bleeding of the gingival tissues (Williams, Odell and Farthing, 1992). Gingival periodontal conditions may cause undue discomfort, pain, social and functional impairments and limitations to the unfortunate victims. There has been a vast amount of

experimental work (Jenkins, 1978) linking fermentable carbohydrate etiology and it has shown how dietary advice has an important role in the management of the carious process. Animal experiments have confirmed the positive correlation between frequency of sugar intake and caries severity (Jenkins, 1978). In animal experiments which have been used to test the cariogenicity of foods, glucose and sucrose were found to be the most cariogenic (Kidd and Joyston-Bechal, 1997).

Controlled diet before the age of 12 does not confer any immunity from caries after the age of 12 years. The Vipeholm study carried out by the Swedish government in 1939 sought to investigate the relationship between diet and caries. It observed that caries increased with the addition of sucrose supplements between meals (Kidd and Joyston-Bechal, 1997). A longitudinal study done in Northumberland (UK) and Michigan (USA) among adolescent school children living in areas with minimal fluoride found a positive but low correlation between caries increase and diet (Rugg-Gunn, Hackett, Appleton, Jenkins and Eastoe, 1984; Burt et. al, 1988 ).Caries was seen to be more in children with high sugar intakes. The invasion of sweet snacks into the Kenyan urban way of life could have contributed to the development of dental caries in school children (Masiga and Holt, 1993).Some past studies found no significant relationship between snacking and caries (Joshi, Rajesh and Sunitha, 2005;Guadagni , Cocchi , Tagariello and Piana,2005 and Burt et.al,1988). Many studies have reported a

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positive association between snacking and caries level (Rugg-Gunn et. al,, Walker et.al, 1981and de Moura et.al, 2006 andNormark and Mosha, 1989). In one study, girls had a higher snacking behavior compared to boys (Joshi et. al)There have been no studies to demonstrate the association between periodontal health and either snacking or frequency of tooth brush change. Dental caries is also an important problem to address among adolescents since it may result in loss of teeth that may interfere with self esteem of those in this age bracket. Periodontal conditions are important in adolescents due to the effect of hormonal changes on the periodontal tissues during this phase of human development. This study examined the relationship between dental caries, periodontal health and snacking between meals of school going adolescents.

MATERIALS AND METHODS This was a cross-sectional study involving secondary school students from public, private, day and boarding schools aged between 13-19 years (158 males and 231 females) in Webuye Division, Western Kenya. Sampling Procedure The formula z2(p.q)/d2 was used to determine the sample size required for the study, therefore, an estimated prevalence of 50% was employed since at the time of the study the prevalence of dental caries and periodontal health was unknown for the Kenyan population. z=statistical constant representing 95% confidence interval=1.96. d=sampling error=0.05. p=prevalence (50%) =0.5 q=1-p=1-0.5=0.5 Substituting the formula: 1.96X1.96X0.5X0.5 = 385 0.05X0.05 This was the minimum sample size required but in order to obtain an equal number of participants from each of the 20 schools, a convenience sample of 400 was chosen out of which 11 were non-respondents leaving a sample of 389. Simple random sampling was used to select 20 schools out of a total of 23 schools within the study area. A total of 20 students meeting the inclusion criteria were randomly selected from each of the 20 schools that took part in the study. The following were the inclusion criteria;

a) The selected school was within Webuye Division, Bungoma District, and Western Province of Kenya. b) Any student among the selected schools in Webuye Division. c) Those students that were willing to participate in the study. d) Students aged 13-19 years, both male and female. The exclusion criteria were the following; a) Students who were in their final year at the

school at the start of the study. b) Those students who met the inclusion criteria

but were unwilling to participate in the study. Ethical clearance was sought from Institutional Research and Ethics Committee of Moi University and Moi Teaching and Referral Hospital in Eldoret, Kenya. Informed consent was obtained from the school administration of the all the students who were examined. The participants were interviewed about their snacking behaviour to ascertain whether they took any sweet snacks between meals. They then underwent an intra oral examination to assess their level of dental caries periodontal health which recorded using the Decayed, Missing and Filled Tooth (DMFT) index and Community Periodontal Index (CPI) respectively. All the subjects were Kenyans of African origin. The statistical package for social sciences (SPSS V.12) was used for data entry and analysis. Descriptive statistics including frequencies, means and standard deviation were used as measures of central tendency. For analytical statistics Mann-Whitney U and Kruskal Wallis tests were used to measure differences in means for dependent variables in two and more than two groups respectively. Chi-square test was used to check for associations between independent variables. Multiple logistic regressions were employed to identify factors associated with the outcome or dependent variables.

RESULTS: This study was able to evaluate the relationship between dental caries and periodontal health status of secondary school students and their snacking behavior. A total of 389 respondents took part in this study with 231(59.4%) females and 158(40.6%) males. They were between the ages of 13-19 years with majority in the age range of 16-18 years with a mean age of 16.8. (SD 1.34). Dental caries was present in 366 (94.1%) of the

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subjects while 23(5.9%) did not have dental caries. The mean DMFT for the study population was 0.2 with a median of 0.16(SD 0.161). Poor periodontal health as assessed by CPI was present in 295(75.8%) of the respondents while 94(24.2%) were observed as not having poor periodontal health. The mean CPI was 0.317 with a median of 0.33 and SD of 0.274 (Table 1).

More than half(62.5%) of the respondents reported to have had snacks between meals while the rest did not take any snacks between meals(Table 2).The level of dental caries was higher among those that did not take snacks between meals(mean DMFT 0.97) compared with those who did(mean DMFT 0.92) as can be seen from table 3. Those who did not report use of sweet snacks (median CPI 0.82) had a poorer

periodontal health status compared to those that did (median CPI 0.71) as shown in table 4.When Man- Whitney U and Kruskal Wallis non-parametric tests were done, there was no statistically significant association between dental caries and the snacking behavior with a p-value of 0.107(Table 3). Similar findings were observed for the periodontal health status where the p-value was 0.15(Table 4). Keeping all other factors constant, a significant predictive pattern was observed for snacking behavior when CPI and oral health behavior were subjected to regression analysis. Those who did not report use of snacks had more than 1.7 times likelihood of developing poor periodontal health (p=0.0299, OR 1.772) as seen in Table 5.

Table 1: Summary of Findings

Table 2: Frequency of snacking behavior Snacking between meals

Frequency Percent

Cumulative frequency

Cumulative percent

Yes No

243 146

62.5 37.5

243 389

62.5 100.0

Table 3: Relation Between Dental Caries and Snacking Behavio Oral health behavior Mean DMFT Chi-square df p-value

Snacking between meals Yes(n=243)

0.92

No(n=146) 0.97 2.594 1 0.107

Table 4: Relation Between Periodontal Health and Snacking Behavior

Table 5: Regression Analysis Findings Parameter df Estimate Standard

error Wald Chi-square

p-value Odds Ratio

95% Wald confidence limits

Intercept 1 0.1150 0.6722 0.0293 0.8642 Snacking No 1 0.5721 0.2635 4.7138 0.0299 1.772 1.057 2.970

No. of respondents Mean age No. with caries No. with poor periodontal Health

Mean DMFT

Mean CPI

389 16.8 366(94.1%) 295(75.8%) 0.2 0.317

Oral health behavior Mean CPI Chi-square df P value

Snacking between meals Yes(n=243) No(n=146)

0.71 0.82

5.92

1

0.15

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DISCUSSION: This study sought to find out whether the respondents took any sweet snacks in between meals. The use of sweet snacks was reported among 62.5% of the respondents while the rest (37.5%) did not report their usage. Contrary to expectations, the caries level was higher among those that reported no snacking behavior (mean DMFT 0.97) compared to those that did (mean DMFT 0.92). This is contrary to what one would expect since the presence of sweet snacks should increase the level of caries. A possible explanation for this observation is that those who took snacks were more meticulous in brushing their teeth and hence decreased their chances of developing caries. There was no statistically significant association between the level of dental caries and snacking behavior (p=0.107). Some previous studies have reported no significant relationship between snacking habits and the prevalence of dental caries (Burt et. al,Joshi et.al and Guadagni et al).Most studies however report a positive association between snacking and the level of caries (Rugg-Gunn et. al,Walker et.al, de Moura et.al and Nörmark and Mosha). As is expected, there was a reported higher snacking behavior among the females compared to the males. This is similar to findings from previous studies. The periodontal health status was good amongst those who reported taking sweet snacks between meals (mean CPI 0.71) compared with those who didn’t (mean CPI 0.82). This difference may be due to the fact that those who take snacks tend to brush their teeth after the snack thereby improving their periodontal health status. However, there was no statistically significant association between the periodontal health status and snacking behavior (p=0.15).

CONCLUSION: The findings of this study indicate that there is some association between use of snacks between meals and the periodontal and caries status. The use of snacks had a positive effect on the periodontal health and caries status of those who engaged in the habit. It is conclusive to say that snacking between meals reduces the chances of having poor periodontal health and dental caries by encouraging better oral hygiene after consumption of snacks.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT: This study formed part of a Master’s Thesis of Moi University by the corresponding author. The study was supported by the Ministry of Health of the Government of Kenya. The authors are grateful to the authorities of Webuye Division for allowing this study to be undertaken, and the teachers and students of the secondary schools visited for their cooperation.

REFERENCES: Burt B.A, Eklund S.A, Morgan K.J, Larkin F.E, Guire K.E, Brown L.O, Weintraub J.A., (1988).The effects of sugars intake and frequency of ingestion on dental caries increment in a three-year longitudinal study. In: J Dent Res Vol.67 (11):1422-9 Available At: URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez? April 2nd, 2008. de Moura, F.R, Romano, A.R, Demarco, F.F, Lund, R.G, Braghini M and Rodrigues S.A., (2006). Demographic, socio-economic, behavioural and clinical variables associated with caries activity. In: Prev Dent. Vol.4 (2):129-35. Available at: URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entr?ez April 2nd, 2008. Guadagni, M.G.et al, (2005).In: Minerva Stomatol. Vol.54 (10):541-50. Available at: URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez? April 2nd, 2008. Jenkins, G.N. (1978). The Physiology and Biochemistry of the Mouth. London: Blackwell Scientific Publications. Joshi, N.et al, (2005). Prevalence of Dental Caries among School Children in Kulasekharam Village: A Correlated Prevalence Survey. Available at: URL: http//www.jisppd.com/text.asp?2005/23/3/138/16887. 23rd September, 2006. Kidd, E.A.M .and S. Joyston-Bechal.1997. Essentials of Dental Caries. New York Oxford University Press. Masiga, M.A. and R.D.Holt, (1993). The Prevalence of Dental Caries and Gingivitis and their Relationship to Social Class amongst Nursery School Children in Nairobi Kenya. In: International Journal of Paediatric Dentistry Vol.3:135-140. Nörmark, S. and H.J. Mosha (1989). Relationship between habits and dental health among rural Tanzanian children. In: Community Dent Oral Epidemiol. Vol.17 (6):317-21. Available at: URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?2nd April,2008 Ohito, F.A. (1992). Dental Caries as a Global Health Problem, Medicus. Vol 6:3-8. Rugg-Gunn, A.J.et al, (1984). Relationship between

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dietary habits and caries increment assessed over two years in 405 English adolescent school children. In: Arch Oral Biol.Vol.29 (12):983-92. Available at: URL: http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?23rd September, 2006. Walker, A.R,Dison, E.,Duvenhage, A.,Walker ,B.F,Friedlander,I and Aucump, V (1981). Dental

caries in South African black and white high school pupils in relation to sugar intake and snack habits.In : Community Dent Oral Epidemiol.;Vol. 9(1):37-43 Available at:URL : http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/entrez?2nd April , 2008. Williams et al. (1992). Pathology of Periodontal Disease. New York. Oxford University Press.

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CONSUMERS’ CONSIDERATION OF FUNCTIONAL UTILITY WHEN CHOOSING MAJOR HOUSEHOLD APPLIANCES

Suné Donoghue, Alet C Erasmus Nadine Sonnenberg Department of Consumer Science, University of Pretoria, Pretoria

alet.erasmus@up.ac.za

ABSTRACT This research investigated consumers’ consideration of product attributes concerning their choice of major household appliances to explicate the pertinence of functional attributes versus other concerns such as environmental issues and status-bearing factors. A cross-sectional survey was performed amongst middle- to upper-income households in Tshwane, South Africa. The sample (N = 446) consisted of 69.4% females and 30.6% males who were further distinguished in terms of age, income and level of education. Exploratory factor analysis revealed consumers’ attention to seven factors, of which functionality and durability aspects seemed more prevalent. A stronger concern for functional attributes compared to status factors and environmental issues confirms a need for the provision of product information that would enhance informed buying decisions, minimize consumers’ functional risk perception and reduce negative post-purchase judgments. Key words: functional utility, complex buying decisions, status factors, environmental factors, product evaluation, household appliances.

INTRODUCTION Major household appliances are complex, visually conspicuous commodities (Donoghue, De Klerk & Ehlers, 2008) that involve an intricate consideration of multiple product attributes during the pre-purchase phase. Consumers’ buying decisions may be quite complex because products are often purchased “not for what they can do, but for what they mean” (Solomon, Bamossy, Askegaard & Hogg, 2009, p. 33). The obvious functional purpose of a product therefore not necessarily drives a product decision. A product such as a household appliance might therefore be chosen for its status value (Goldsmith, Clark & Goldsmith, 2006) or an awareness that it needs to be kind to the environment more so than considering its functional utility, despite the latter being the primary purpose for the acquisition. More than three decades ago, Elias (1987) described consumers’ shift in focus from the functional utility of appliances and their subsequent value as labor-saving devices, to a value-for-money orientation and eventually an almost inflated concern with product attributes that are associated with status and a sense of fulfillment. Other researchers similarly proclaim that in modern societies, household appliances as a product category has secured itself as a semiotic marker of fortune and a primary indicator of progress and status (Du Plessis, 2003:87-93; Mehlwana, 1999).

Amidst such debate, an impressive automatic washing machine that proudly offers the sophistication of nanotechnology and the ability to sanitize and deodorize, nonetheless still needs to successfully perform the very basic washing cycles that are offered by their counterpart at the bottom of the product range. Inevitably then, one wonders how pertinent the various product attributes are when consumers select an evoked set of appliances before they conclude their final buying decisions. Specifically referring to major household appliances, suppliers, retail and consumer organizations agree that it has become very difficult to attend to consumers’ product expectations and needs because they are not necessarily concrete, realistic or clear (Donoghue & De Klerk, 2009). This research was prompted by a notion that consumers’ choice of major household appliances, although influenced by status-bearing factors and environmental issues, are eventually driven by functional and performance utility, because consumers’ post-purchase dissatisfaction with household appliances and their subsequent complaint behavior generally revolve around functional performance failures. It should be noted that complaint statistics typically report on the kinds of defective products and the product problems that cause dissatisfaction. This might be because complainers would find it easier to express themselves in terms of the functional performance as symbolic performance failures

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are more abstract and subsequently more difficult to verbalize (Donoghue et al., 2008). Evidence to the contrary, i.e. a precedence of the instrumental dimension during the pre-purchase phase, would signify the need for an urgent reconsideration of how appliances are launched and promoted in the marketplace, and how consumer facilitation should be approached in retail to enhance customer satisfaction and to reduce customer complaints. Theoretical Background Rational Buying Decisions Rational decision-making presumes that a consumer strives towards an informed purchasing decision and subsequently intentionally gathers product information that would enable an objective, informed comparison of different products in terms of relevant attributes. A consumer obviously would have to possess the cognitive ability to identify relevant discriminators and to judge the expected value of product alternatives (Babin & Harris, 2011:216-217). A consumer firstly retrieves whatever knowledge about the products may exist in memory, based on prior exposure and experience, and then starts an external search for additional information before investigating product alternatives. Consumers would typically consider attributes in terms of their potential importance and eventually carefully assimilate the information they have gathered based on its potential to satisfy their needs (Babin & Harris, 2011:218). An external search of product information may involve various potential sources of information such as personal information obtained from friends, family and salespeople, or impersonal information acquired from printed and electronic media such as promotions, independent research reports or the Internet. Consumers would typically take into consideration the ease of obtaining information from these sources as well as the objectivity and trustworthiness of the information. Information obtained from friends and family is generally considered more trustworthy than the recommendations of salespeople, who mostly receive incentives through increased sales of certain brands (Babin & Harris, 2011:223; Erasmus, 2010). The Significance Of Multiple Product Attributes

Consumers are generally bombarded by a bewildering array of choices in terms of both product offerings and product features, forcing them to base their evaluation of major household appliances on multiple product attributes. Functional characteristics specifically refer to the ability of an appliance to perform as expected and to achieve a particular goal (through specific functions) (Desmet & Hekkert, 2007; Donoghue et al., 2008; Hawkins & Mothersbaugh, 2010:635), for example, a vacuum cleaner has to have an expected suction power and has to operate for a minimum period of time (expected service life) before having to be replaced. Consumers are not necessarily competent to judge the functional and performance attributes of different products in a complex product category and are therefore not necessarily able to make informed buying decisions. This is partly attributed to long inter-purchase times for major appliances, which makes it almost impossible to keep abreast with technological progress or to remain informed about the market offering at any point in time. The price of an appliance and its running costs inevitably communicate the affordability of an appliance in the short and long term. Lack of ability to judge performance and durability characteristics may divert consumers’ focus to price, which often serves as an indication of quality – assuming that more expensive appliances would be superior (Erasmus, Makgopa & Kachale, 2005; Isaac, 2010:9). The guarantee of an appliance increases trust in the product and provides an indication of durability along with some assurance that would lower consumers’ perception of performance risk. It is further supported by the brand of the product and an associated image that may have developed over time. Through exposure, personal experience and/or communication with friends and family, all brands eventually develop reputations that aid (or destroy) consumers’ confidence in selecting them and that also influence consumers’ risk perception (Huang, Schrank & Dubinsky, 2005). Brands also bear status (O’Cass & McEwen, 2005) and provide a sense of prestige that may be highly desirable for some. Aesthetic factors refer to the style and attractiveness of appliances and are especially noteworthy when appliances are installed where they would be visible to guests in one’s home. The visual appearance, style, design, size and colour of an appliance may be even more

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important when a new appliance needs to match existing appliances in a home (Creusen & Schoormans, 2005). Compared to functional characteristics, consumers can easily evaluate an appliance’s aesthetic appearance at the point of purchase simply by looking at it. Consumers may also infer higher quality based on the beauty of an appliance, which in turn implies perceptions of better usability (Desmet & Hekkert, 2007). When products of comparable price and functionality are presented, a consumer is more likely to purchase the one that is aesthetically more pleasing (Creusen & Schoormans, 2005). Aesthetic attributes are therefore highly likely to sway consumers’ final buying decisions. In addition, the first impression that a customer gets upon entering a store is generally based on the aesthetic attributes of the product array, which will draw attention (or not). Environmental issues have certainly become more prevalent in recent years in terms of consumers’ choice of major household appliances. Issues of energy consumption and the scarcity of water resources have been high on the agenda of the media in South Africa during the last decade. Unfortunately the general perception exists that environmentally friendly products are more expensive than competing offerings, which may discourage consumers from considering appliances that are ethically or environmentally better (Wagner, 2003:186). The most price-conscious consumers in the world are apparently found in Africa (UNEP & UNESCO, 2001:11-12). It is therefore unlikely that appliances that are more expensive will form part of price-sensitive consumers’ evoked set of products. In order to encourage pro-environmental buying decisions, a ‘green’ appliance must therefore be competitive in terms of non-environmental attributes such as price, functionality and aesthetic features (Schlegelmilch, Bohlen & Diamantopoulos, 1996). Research indicates that inexperienced consumers and those who find it difficult to identify the most suitable products tend to rely on surrogate indicators such as price, brand name and the reputation of retailers to guide their buying decisions (Brucks, Zeithaml & Naylor, 2000). The Prevalence Of The Functional And Performance Utility Of Major Appliances An appliance’s physical features (intrinsic attributes) represents its tangible (physical) form and composition and involve characteristics such as the power of the motor, the number of

programmes, materials used in its manufacture, and design of the appliance (Erasmus & Donoghue, 1998). These attributes are relevant in terms of an appliance’s functional performance, its durability, ease of use, maintenance and care (Donoghue et al., 2008). Consumers that have difficulty to evaluate appliances’ functional performance may however divert their attention to other product attributes that they are more familiar with (Erasmus et al., 2005; Isaac, 2010:9). The utilitarian value and the quality of an appliance may for example be deduced from pertinent external physical characteristics such as its style, design and brand (Creusen & Schoormans, 2005). Evidence to the latter was confirmed in an earlier South African study that reported that consumers across all age groups are inclined to base their product judgements on the brands and specific design elements rather than the specific performance dimensions of product alternatives (Erasmus et al., 2005). The Persuasive Influence of Quality Indicators Quality, which is a hypothetical construct that is instrumental in consumers’ efforts to minimise perceived risk, can be defined in various ways. It could indicate conformance to certain requirements (Day & Castleberry, 1986); the ability of a brand to perform the duty it was designed for; or the extent to which a product conforms to tight manufacturing standards (Garvin, 1984). Quality can be evaluated directly through the inspection of the product (e.g. the materials and finishes used in the construction) or indirectly through surrogate indicators such as the recommendation of significant others, for example friends and family, brand name preference or brand reputation (Day & Castleberry, 1986). On the face of it, manufacturers are encouraging the use of heuristics because products across all price ranges are purposely designed to offer highly desirably extrinsic product features to enhance the image of brands and to insinuate quality and integrity (Yamamoto &Lambert, 1994). Brands per se are therefore promoted to distinguish products from competitors in the market place in terms of pertinent characteristics such as status (O’Cass & McEwen, 2005). Although very persuasive, it is not clear whether in so doing, the functional and performance utility of products is neglected and perhaps misinterpreted by consumers. A Neglect Of The Functionality Of Appliances

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Major household appliances are important time- and labour-saving devices without which many households where both partners are working full-time would not be able to function effectively. These appliances are however generally expensive, complex and expected to be durable, which explains why it is of the utmost importance that consumers make informed buying decisions and are satisfied with their choices. Evidence of consumers’ complaints unfortunately indicates the contrary. Letters published in consumer columns of major South African newspapers as well as online letters to consumer complaint websites and consumer bodies bear evidence of the frustration of consumers encountering multiple problems with the performance of their household appliances. The expectancy disconfirmation paradigm suggests that consumers enter into a consumption experience with predetermined cognitive expectations about a product’s performance against which the actual performance is then compared during use (Laufer, 2002). Whether a particular product was purchased because of its presumed superior functional performance or for any other reason, consumers have pertinent expectations of its performance in mind, although not necessarily realistic (Hawkins & Mothersbaugh, 2010:633). Expectations are beliefs, i.e. preconceived predictions about appliances’ performance (Donoghue et al., 2008:41; Laufer, 2002) that provide consumers with a platform on which future judgements of the actual product performance are based during or after use. Expectations about product performance, whether realistic or not, are based upon prior experience with the product, word-of-mouth endorsements/ criticisms and/or companies’ marketing/ promotional communications (Babin & Harris, 2011:254; Laufer, 2002; Solomon et al., 2009:87). Experienced and knowledgeable consumers are better able to form realistic expectations about product performance and will be better able to detect if a product’s performance is incongruent with prior expectations (Goldsmith, Clark & Goldsmith, 2006). Friends and family members are considered to be trustworthy sources of information and may play an important role in shaping consumers’ expectations. Marketers generally promote the attributes that their products excel in and make explicit promises that

may seem very inviting. Unless consumers have established cognitive conceptions and are able to distinguish relevant product attributes, promotions may instigate false and/or unrealistic expectations and claims concerning the performance of appliances could then be unrealistic. When a product’s performance does not meet a consumer’s expectations (i.e. when a performance failure occurs or when the product performs poorly), negative disconfirmation occurs that leads to feelings of dissatisfaction (Steward in Ndubisi & Ling, 2006). Sometimes that manifests in formal complaint behaviour directed at manufacturers and/or retailers (second parties) and/or public consumer protection agencies, legal agencies and newspapers (third parties). Indirect complaint behaviour such as negative word-of-mouth, intentional decisions to boycott a retailer, brand switching and/or boycotting a product type is more difficult to control (Chen-Yu, Williams & Kincade, 1999). In order to prevent consumer dissatisfaction, more information about the operation, maintenance and care of appliances should be provided to consumers via in-store support, marketing efforts and advertising.

OBJECTIVES: This research aimed to determine and describe consumers’ consideration of the functional and performance attributes of major household appliances as an indication of their regard for the primary utility of these commodities. Consumers’ concern about the functional utility of major household appliances is investigated amidst the perplexity caused by highly desirable status-bearing features that are probably easier to judge, and environmental issues that have been a prominent concern in South Africa in recent years. Ultimately, the findings may be useful in directing efforts to facilitate consumers’ buying decisions towards informed, responsible buying decisions that would result in positive post-purchase evaluations. Findings would also make a valuable contribution in terms of the design of the content of promotional material that is distributed by retail and industry.

METHODOLOGY: A cross-sectional survey was performed during the second quarter of 2010 amongst middle- to upper-income households in suburbs across Tshwane, a major urban area in South Africa. The

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structured questionnaire, which consisted of nine sections, was pre-tested first, to reduce error through possible misinterpretation of constructs and scales. Questions involved simple statements that required responses by means of nominal-, ordinal- and Likert-type scales. A cohort of fourth-year Consumer Science students of the University of Pretoria distributed 500 structured questionnaires on a drop-off-collect-later basis in purposely selected suburbs across the city. Convenient, snowball sampling was done and intentional effort was made to involve a diverse sample in terms of age, income and education level. Fieldworkers requested willing spouses/partners of households to participate. Participants were assured of the confidentiality of their contributions and the liberty to withdraw whenever they wished. Students managed to retrieve 446 useful questionnaires within two weeks. They then coded the questionnaires and performed data checks under supervision. Four sections of the questionnaire are relevant for this report, i.e. (1) Demographic information; (2) Consumers’ prioritisation of choice criteria; (3) Importance of product features; (4) Product information required during the pre-purchase phase. The other sections dealt with Payment methods used; Status-related attributes; and Environmental issues. Descriptive statistics, ANOVA as well as exploratory factor analysis were used to analyse and interpret the data.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE SAMPLE The demographic characteristics of the sample (N = 446) that are presented in Table 1 indicate a larger representation of females (69.4%), which was coincidental because any willing partner in a household could volunteer to complete a questionnaire. Although the majority indicated that when buying a new household appliance, one of the spouses/partners took sole responsibility for the purchase decision, more than 40% indicated that they shared the responsibility. The mean monthly household income of the target population at the time of the study was R14.5K, compared to the mean income of the South African population, i.e. R5.4K (Bizcommunity.com, 2010). Income levels were distinguished in accordance with established

lifestyle discriminators (Du Plessis, 2003:87-93), while three levels of education were distinguished to represent the potential influence of formal education; and three age categories were distinguished to represent different levels of product-related experience. Consumers’ Consideration of Product Features

Table 1: Demographic Characteristics of the Sample

Characteristic n % Gender Male 136 30.6 Female 308 69.4 Total 444 100 Monthly household income < R5000 - R9999 142 33.4 >R10K - R24999 169 39.8 >R25K 114 26.8 Total 425 100 Level of education <Grade 12 161 36.5 Grade 12 + degree/ diploma 181 41.0 Postgraduate 99 22.5 Total 441 100 An investigation of consumers’ regard for the functional utility of household appliances involved an investigation of consumers’ consideration of 35 randomly listed product attributes which included several function- and performance-related statements amongst other considerations, using a five-increment Agreement scale. A subsequent section investigated consumers’ concern about environmental issues in combination with questions pertaining to the functional utility of appliances, which simultaneously provided an opportunity to triangulate respondents’ apparent attention to function- and performance-related attributes. Responses were subjected to exploratory factor analysis, implementing a Varimax rotation and a norm of an Eigenvalue > 1 to reduce and distinguish the number of relevant factors. Seven distinct factors emerged and were labeled in accordance with their descriptors. Ten of the 35 attributes were assembled in terms of two coherent factors that inferred functional utility, i.e. factor 1: Functionality and durability and factor 4: Quality. The remaining 25 attributes were divided amongst four factors that distinguished pertinent status-related constructs, i.e. factor 2: Impressiveness; factor 3: Aesthetics; factor 5: Exterior finishes/Colour; and factor 6:

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Reputation. Factor 7, i.e. Price, inferred affordability and was hence excluded as a status-bearing factor. Interestingly, 15 functional and performance attributes were cohered in terms of only two factors that were fairly inclusive. Status-bearing attributes, on the other hand, were cohered in terms of various factors containing fewer and more specific attributes. This suggests that functional utility is perceived more

holistically, unlike status factors that seem more differentiated, for example distinguishing the colour of appliances (Factor 5) from aesthetics (Factor 3), which inferred the exterior appearance, size, style and design. The factors that were distinguished through factor analysis are presented in Table 2. Factor loadings are presented in descending order.

Table 2: The Relevance of Product Characteristics when Evaluating Appliances Product characteristics Factors

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 I prefer durable appliances that will last long 0.79 -0.01 0.05 0.08 -0.01 0.12 0.07 The performance of the appliance is important 0.69 -0.08 0.18 0.13 0.04 0.02 0.00 I prefer brand names that I trust 0.67 -0.08 0.28 0.17 0.05 0.23 -0.13 Appliances should be safe to use 0.66 0.05 0.09 0.00 0.05 0.08 0.18 The product guarantee should be considered 0.62 0.11 0.17 0.12 0.05 0.21 0.11 I consider price: affordable, not necessarily cheapest 0.59 0.00 0.02 0.06 -0.03 -0.02 0.06 Appliances must be well-designed (exterior and interior)

0.55 0.18 0.30 -0.01 0.13 0.14 -0.08

Appliances must be easy to operate (not complicated) 0.51 0.07 0.17 -0.07 -0.02 0.03 0.16 Appliances must have best functions, even if it costs more

0.44 0.17 0.15 0.30 -0.08 0.06 0.22

I prefer certain brand names that cause fewer problems 0.39 0.03 0.20 0.32 -0.14 0.17 -0.11 Beautiful appliances could boost one’s image amongst friends

-0.13 0.71 0.12 0.26 -0.01 0.12 0.03

Appliances that people own reveal part of their personality

0.02 0.70 0.13 0.11 -0.07 -0.05 -0.02

People prefer appliances that will make a good impression

0.12 0.70 0.15 0.15 0.14 0.14 -0.05

Appliances must have beautiful exterior features 0.03 0.62 0.22 0.03 0.18 0.12 0.00 The appliances that people own reveal their personal style

0.12 0.61 0.24 0.18 0.04 0.03 -0.03

People would buy certain brands to impress others -0.01 0.60 -0.08 0.18 0.03 0.06 0.09 Owning beautiful appliances makes one feel good 0.04 0.57 0.09 0.03 -0.10 0.08 0.18 I prefer appliances with impressive features (new technology)

0.23 0.31 0.19 0.29 0.14 0.18 -0.18

The colour of my appliances should match my kitchen’s colour scheme and decor

0.10 0.36 0.62 0.07 0.31 0.07 -0.10

The size of appliances, i.e. dimensions/capacity is important to me

0.21 0.10 0.61 0.06 -0.06 0.07 0.08

The design of appliances, i.e. shape, is important to me 0.24 0.16 0.57 0.23 -0.12 0.05 0.02 I attend to the appearance of appliances, i.e. compact /large/ conspicuous)

0.20 0.29 0.55 0.20 0.02 0.06 0.07

Appliances should match to create a coordinated look 0.19 0.44 0.47 0.13 0.36 0.00 -0.14 I prefer certain brands because they are easy to service /repair

0.31 0.03 0.44 0.21 -0.17 0.11 -0.10

Electronic appliances are of a better quality than -0.16 0.28 0.10 0.64 0.13 -0.07 0.14

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Table 2: The Relevance of Product Characteristics when Evaluating Appliances Product characteristics Factors

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 manual ones Expensive products are of better quality 0.07 0.30 0.06 0.50 -0.07 0.18 -0.07 Appliances with special finishes are of good quality 0.20 0.14 0.19 0.42 0.08 0.03 0.12 I prefer appliances with electronic controls over manual controls

0.22 0.18 0.12 0.41 0.17 -0.15 0.03

The materials used, signify the quality of the appliances 0.21 0.15 0.26 0.33 0.00 -0.02 -0.12 I prefer appliances made of stainless steel / a stainless steel look

0.16 0.20 0.18 0.24 0.57 0.07 0.01

I prefer white appliances, i.e. a white enamel finish 0.09 0.07 0.16 0.02 -0.58 -0.05 0.09 I prefer brand names that are recommended by my friends, family

0.15 0.12 0.06 0.01 0.10 0.60 0.11

I prefer appliances with a good reputation amongst friends, family

0.25 0.22 0.13 0.02 0.00 0.57 0.03

Appliance must be as affordable as possible, i.e. as cheap as possible

0.14 0.05 -0.02 0.00 -0.13 0.13 0.54

Price is important to me, i.e. I decide beforehand what I will pay

0.37 0.13 0.04 0.14 0.05 -0.03 0.40

Cronbach Alpha 0.85 0.84 0.80 0.65 * * * % Variance explained 0.49 0.21 0.07 0.06 0.06 0.04 0.03

Mean/ Maximum 43.5/ 50

27.2/ 40

23.2/ 30

17.3/ 25

6.6/ 10

7.6/ 10

7.5/ 10

Std dev 5.9 6.8 4.5 3.7 1.4 1.8 1.8

The internal consistency of responses was confirmed through Cronbach’s Alpha which varied between 0.65 and 0.85 for all factors that contained more than three attributes. Despite a higher standard deviation for factor 2, the internal consistency was acceptable. CONSUMERS’ CONSIDERATION OF THE FUNCTIONAL UTILITY AND THE PERFORMANCE OF APPLIANCES (FACTORS 1 AND 4) Respondents’ regard for attributes relating to the functional utility of appliances seemed more pertinent compared to other factors, because they strongly agreed that the functional utility of appliances is important (factor 1), whilst they agreed that quality indicators (factor 4), status-bearing factors (factors 2, 3, 5) and price/affordability (factor 7) are pertinent. Quality per se is however more difficult to judge because it involves product knowledge and experience, which probably explains why factor 4

seemed less important than factor 1 – although factor 4 also infers functional utility. INFORMATION THAT CONSUMERS WOULD LIKE TO OBTAIN PRIOR TO PURCHASING Respondents had to indicate what type of information they would like to have at hand before finalising their purchase decisions. Twelve statements were responded to by means of a five increment Agreement scale, which was meant to triangulate respondents’ prioritization of the functionality of appliances (see former section) and to give an indication of their need for information about environmental issues. Responses were once again subjected to exploratory factor analysis and a principal axis factor extraction method with oblique rotation that implemented a norm of an Eigen value > 1 to identify the number of factors. Two distinct factors containing six items each emerged, and were labeled Greenness and Functionality for purposes of further discussion.

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Table 3: Information Consumers would like to have Prior to Purchasing

Information required (N = 395) Mean SD Factor 1 Factor 2 • How the manufacturing of appliances could harm the

environment 3.8 1.1 0.86 0.56

• How our use of appliances could harm the environment 3.9 1.1 0.84 0.55

• What manufacturers actually do to protect our environment

3.9 1.1 0.78 0.49

• How to evaluate the water consumption of appliances 4.0 1.1 0.81 0.61

• How to use energy rating information 3.8 1.2 0.79 0.61

• How to judge the noise level of appliances 3.9 1.0 0.62 0.58 Where and how to complain when an appliance is

faulty 4.5 0.9 0.49 0.78

How one could benefit from product guarantees 4.2 1.0 0.52 0.78 What the retailer/manufacturer will do when an

appliance is faulty 4.3 0.9 0.48 0.76

How to make the best use of new appliances 4.2 1.0 0.76 How to judge the service life of appliances 4.2 1.0 0.61 0.74 How to evaluate the running cost of appliances 4.1 1.0 0.64 0.69

Cronbach Alpha 0.93 0.90 0.88 % Variance explained 85.4 14.5 Mean/ Maximum 23.5/30 25.7/30 Std dev 5.7 4.8

Factor 1 involved items referring to environmental aspects, while Factor 2 assembled functional attributes. Consumers expressed a stronger need for information pertaining to the performance and functional utility of appliances (Table 3) than to environmental issues. Cronbach’s Alpha > 0.88 confirmed the internal consistency of responses. In terms of the functionality of appliances, means > 4 and standard deviation < 1 suggest that consumers strongly agreed about acquiring information pertaining to the performance, durability and after-sales service of appliances. Efforts to inform and educate consumers about functional utility as well as environmental issues involve cognitive thought processes. Consumers’ strong regard for functionality is therefore encouraging because it indicates that the provision of useful, understandable factual information would be appreciated. Respondents’ need for information is visually presented in Figure 1, along with findings regarding the pertinence of various factors during consumer decision-making. Both investigations

indicated consumers’ stronger concern pertaining to the functionality of major household appliances than to status-bearing factors or environmental issues. Consumers’ need for information about the functional utility of appliances therefore supported the findings of the former section. A single mean was subsequently calculated to compare consumers’ need for information about the functionality of appliances to enable comparisons per subsets of the sample, i.e. gender, age, income and level of education (Table 4). This study showed that gender and age seem to be significant indicators of consumers’ need for information about the functionality and performance of appliances. In terms of gender, a T-test revealed that females’ need for information about the functional utility of major household appliances was significantly stronger than the need expressed by men, although both agreed that the information was necessary (means ≥ 24, p = 0.009).

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Figure 1. The pertinence of different factors as well as the type of information required to evaluate appliances Table 4: A Comparison of Consumers’ Need for Information pertaining to the Functionality of Appliances across Different Subsets of the Sample

Characteristic Needs Score* Mean Std dev Gender Male 24.8 5.0 Female 26.2 4.6 T-Test: p = 0.009 Age 18-29 (n=152) 25.0 5.0 30-49 (n=168) 26.0 4.9 ≥ 50 (n=87) 26.9 3.7 One-way Anova: p = 0.010 Monthly household income < R5000 25.0 5.0 ≥ R5K - R9999 25.3 4.9 ≥ R10K - R14999 25.9 4.7 ≥ R15K - R24999 26.0 5.1 ≥ R25K 26.2 4.3 One-way Anova: p = 0.487 Level of education <Grade 12 25.6 5.1 Grade 12 + degree/diploma 26.1 4.5 Postgraduate 25.4 4.8

One-way Anova: p = 0.417 *higher score indicate greater agreement to

perception of need In a post-purchase behaviour context, Donoghue et al.’s study (2008) offered strong empirical

support that females had more definite/explicit expectations about appliances’ product performance compared to men, and that females were more explicitly concerned about obtaining information regarding the functionality of appliances. This finding may be attributed to the general division of household labour among South African couples (especially among older and African couples), that is still traditional and stereotypical in terms of specific gender roles. Older consumers (> 50 years) were significantly more interested in information about the functionality of appliances than younger consumers (< 30 years), although all age groups agreed that such information was important. Consumers’ need for information did not differ significantly across different income levels, nor across education levels. Sources consulted by females (e.g. specific magazines) as well as older consumers (e.g. specific television programmes, newspapers) would provide proper avenues for targeting information at consumers who are interested.

CONCLUSIVE FINDINGS: Despite the potential influence of new technology, the inevitable influence of price and highly desirable aesthetic attributes, this study concluded that consumers’ regard for the functional utility of major household appliances surpassed all other influencing factors. Respondents strongly agreed that the functional utility of appliances is important when buying

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major household appliances; they strongly agreed, for instance, that they wanted durable appliances that would last long without causing problems; that they preferred brand names that could be trusted and which offered a supporting guarantee, and that they preferred appliances with the best/most suitable functions rather than buying the cheapest. This suggests rational buying behaviour, i.e. a deliberation of product features in terms of the consequences of the buying decision. Through factor analysis it also became clear that consumers’ comprehension of functional utility involved a holistic perception that involved an integration of multiple relevant attributes. Status-bearing factors, to the contrary, were distinguished in a more specific, discerning manner, i.e. differentiating the colour of appliances, the material used in its manufacture, the style and the design of product alternatives, rather than considering all of these as exterior design and finishes. Difficulty to judge intangibles was confirmed through respondents’ strong concern about functional utility amidst an apparent lower regard for quality – a construct which undoubtedly infers functional utility and performance. This suggests a lack of understanding of relevant attributes and of what quality implies. Respondents may therefore opt for indirect ways (heuristics) to judge quality, for example trusting specific brand names and more expensive appliances if they lack the ability to inspect and interpret actual product characteristics, for example manufacturing standards or performance characteristics, directly. On the face of it, manufacturers are not making it easy for consumers, because household appliances have become so sophisticated in recent years that it has become very difficult to keep up with product features and to evaluate and compare the functional properties of alternatives in the marketplace. Long inter-purchase times further complicate matters in terms of anticipating and judging products’ functional and performance utility. This study therefore proposes that useful, relevant information that would aid informed buying decisions and that would reduce risk perception should be made available to reduce consumers’ functional risk perception. Consumers’ regard for the functional utility of major household appliances was confirmed through unequivocal confirmation that they

needed information pertaining to the performance and functionality of appliances prior to purchasing. Respondents lacked information on where and how to complain when an appliance is faulty; how they could benefit from product guarantees; what retailers/manufacturers would do when they encountered problems with their appliances; how to make the best use of new appliances; how to judge the service life of appliances; and how to evaluate the running cost of appliances. Although this type of information may be presented in printed format in appliances’ instruction manuals, it may not be clear/understandable enough for the average consumer, and knowing that these instruction manuals are mostly sealed in the containers in which appliances are delivered, the information is only available after the appliances has been delivered to their home. Manufacturers and retailers will therefore have to reconsider the format in which written information is presented to prospective buyers. This study showed that, in the context of this research, gender and age seemed to be significant indicators of consumers’ need for information about the functionality and performance of appliances. Females and older consumers (> 50 years) expressed a significantly stronger need for information about the functional utility of major household appliances than their younger counterparts. However, this does not necessarily mean that males and younger consumers are better informed. It may only confirm that increased experience contributes to an increased awareness of the potential shortcomings of appliances: females are more involved with appliances in their homes in South Africa due to a more traditional role orientation (Donoghue et al., 2008), and older consumers have almost certainly made more repeat purchases over time. A One-Way ANOVA followed by a post hoc Bonferoni test, however, indicated that consumers > 50 years of age who were significantly more concerned about the functional utility of appliances, were significantly less concerned about the impressiveness of appliances (a status-bearing factor) than younger consumers were (< 30 years: p = 0.031; 30 to 49 years: p = 0.002). Mehlwana (1999) explains that young aspiring consumers may associate impressive products with a luxurious lifestyle. A symbolic attachment to appliance ownership may thus be more important to younger consumers than their

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older counterparts, while the reverse is true for functional utility. Insignificant evidence that income and education level influence consumers’ concern about the functional and performance utility of household appliances, could be investigated in a subsequent study.

LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY: The study was confined to an urban area. According to Heaney, Goldsmith and Jusoh (2005), urban consumers benefit from more extensive exposure to stores and products than consumers in smaller towns and rural areas. This affects consumers’ awareness of product differences. Either way, confusion exists. Urban consumers may find it difficult to choose from the array of products in stores, while limited exposure may exert pressure to purchase what is made available in one’s area because that would affect availability of spare parts and after-sales service. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH This exploratory study provides valuable evidence that should be optimised through in-depth panel discussions to explicate consumers’ concerns and to formulate clear recommendations in terms of suitable ways in which manufacturers and retail could address the gaps in their service offering.

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dissatisfaction and consumer attributions for product failures universal? Advances in Consumer Research, 29, 312-317. Mehlwana, M. (1999). The economics of energy for the poor: fuel and appliance purchase in low-income urban households. Energy and Development Research Centre: University of Cape Town, SA. Ndubisi, N.O., & Ling, T.Y. (2006). Complaint behaviour of Malaysian consumers. Management Research News, 29, 65-76. O’Cass, A., & McEwen, H. (2005). Exploring consumer status and conspicuous consumption. 2005. Journal of Consumer Behaviour, 4, 25-39. Schlegelmilch, B.B., Bohlen, G.M., & Diamantopoulos, A. (1996). The link between green purchasing decisions and measures of environmental consciousness. European Journal of Marketing, 30, 35-55.

Solomon, M.R., Bamossy, G., Askegaard. S., & Hogg, M.K. (2009). Consumer behaviour. A European perspective (4th ed.). Harlow: Prentice-Hall. United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP); United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO). (2001). Is the future yours: UNEP/UNESCO research project on youth and sustainable consumption. Retrieved March 3, 2004, from http://www.unesco.org/education/youth_consumption/ Wagner, S.A. (2003). Understanding green consumer behaviour: a qualitative cognitive approach. London: Routledge. Yamamoto, M., & Lambert, D.R. (1994). The Impact of Product Aesthetics on the Evaluation of Industrial Products. Journal of Product Innovation Management, 11, 309-324.

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COMPARATIVE STUDY OF ENERGY AND WATER CONSERVATION IN DOMESTIC GAS GEYSERS

Imran Shami1, Nomana Anjum2, Nazia Iftikhar3, Shaista Babar2, Saima Manzar2, 1Plan International, 2 Environmental Design programme Allama Iqbal Open University, Islamabad Pakistan,

3NED University, Karachi, Pakistan anjums41@hotmail.com

ABSTRACT Pakistan is facing the severe energy crisis by continuous increase in gap between supply and demand. Researchers associated with the field of Environmental Design & Home Economics are motivated to explore the ways to deal with current energy crisis, consumption and conservation. The research is an attempt to conserve energy and water at domestic level by comparing the performance of conventional gas geysers and instant water heaters. The study also looked at the amount of water that can be saved from instant water heaters. An experimental house had been selected where instant and conventional geysers are installed and used based on alternate week during five winter months from December 2010 to April 2011. Amount of consumed gas was observed over the peak winter time. Four control houses were also selected in the same vicinity with approx. same number of inhabitants who used conventional gas geysers. The amount of gas consumption in these houses was also observed. The amount of saved water had been calculated, based on the length of pipes from geysers to point of use and water allowed to be drained before hot water is obtained. Generally, instant water heaters are not in use locally, therefore, a questionnaire was randomly distributed to various households to know their general perception about instant water heaters. Keywords: energy and water conservation at domestic level, conventional gas geysers, instant water heaters, gas consumption,

INTRODUCTION: The energy sector is expected to play a critical role in economic and social development of any country. In Pakistan, the economy is currently growing at a rate of over 8% by an expanding industrial sector which currently contributes 38% of the economic output and growing at a rate of 12.5%. According to Pakistan Energy Year Book (2008) total energy supplies were 62.9 MTOE (Million Tons Oil Equivalent) in financial year 2007-8 with an annual production of 28 MTOE in which gas is a dominant fuel accounting for 47.5% of Pakistan’s primary energy demand, followed by oil at 30.5%, hydro at 12.2% and coal at 9.2%. Reliance on natural gas a major energy source needs to be reviewed for strategic and controlled consumption at various levels besides exploring alternate sources of energy. Over the period demand for natural gas in Pakistan has increased by almost 10 percent annually from 2000-01 to 2007-08, reaching around 3200 million cubic feet per day (MMCFD) in 2008 against the total production of 3774 MMCFD (The Nations, 2009). Haq, R. (2011) mentioned that demand for natural gas exceeded

the available supply with production of 4528 MMCFD gas against demand for 4731 MMCFD, indicating a shortfall of 203 MMCFD. Shahzad (2011) quoted the statement of Hagler Bailly (a global management consultant firm with an office in Islamabad) that “Pakistan is going to face gas shortage starting in 2007 and will grow every year to cripple the economy by 2025 when shortage will be 11092 MMCFD against total 13259 MMCFD productions”. Based on the current trend, Pakistan’s gas shortage would get much worse in the next two decades if it did not manage any alternative sources (Haq, R. 2010). Media has also reported the shortfall of 700 MMCFD of gas recorded by Sui Northern Gas due to increasing use of heaters and geysers (www.geo.tv). About 18% of the population has gas connections installed at their homes and households are motivated to use gas geysers and heaters with the availability of gas (Pakistan Economic Survey, 2004-05). The conventional gas geysers are being widely used throughout the country with 25, 30 and 50 gallons storage tanks having gas fired burners to heat them. American Council for Energy Efficient Economy (ACEEE) (2007)

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describes the process in which thermostat controls the temperature and automatically turns off the burner when required temperature is achieved. The amount of gas consumed by the water geysers is 1.5-2 cft/hr (cubic feet per hour) with only the pilot ignited and 30-40 cft/hr when the burner is in use. These facts indicate that careful selection of geysers can substantially reduce the gas consumption. Jehangir, F. and Javed, Y., (2007) claimed that water is another neglected sector in Pakistan where 38.5 million people do not have access to safe drinking water and 50.7 million people lack access to improved sanitation. The total water availability on per capita basis in Pakistan decreased from 5000 cubic meters per capita in 1951 to 2,961 cubic meters per capita in 2000 and to 1,420 cubic meters in 2005 (Government of Pakistan, 2005) and moving with an available supply of water around 1,000 cubic meters per person, which puts Pakistan in the category of a high stress country (UNWWDR, 2009). If the current trends continue, it could go as low as 550-cubic meters by 2025. Even though the per capita water availability is facing a gradual reduction, the water requirement is increasing due to population increase and with better living standards. The water crisis draws attention towards designing domestic appliances such as washing machines, dish washers and geysers with less consumption of water. The conventional water heaters lead to profound wastage of this valuable resource and clean water wasted in order to obtain hot water which may pose a serious risk to the country in future. Furthermore, there is a considerable length of pipe running from the geyser to the faucets, and all this cold water stagnant in the pipe has to be drained out, resulting in a lot of water being wasted prior to availability of heated water in the faucets, this system results in the wastage of both energy and water. Taking into account water and natural gas as prime factors for our economic and social development, an attempt is made to address the energy and water conservation at domestic level. The research is carried out to explore the pros and cons of instant water heaters as there is no

documented research available on the efficiency of instant water heaters in the local context. The specific objectives of the research were to asses and compare the energy consumption of conventional geysers and instant water heaters and also to ascertain the water conservation through instant water heaters. 2. Water Heaters: Water heating is a thermodynamic process using an energy source to heat water above its initial temperature. Generally, more than 20% of a domestic energy use comes from heating water for bathing, washing dishes, laundry and cooking (Kloub, 2005). At domestic level water is traditionally heated in vessels like water heaters, kettle, cauldrons, pots or coppers for cooking, cleaning, bathing and space heating in which temperature rate vary based on the consumption rate of hot water. Appliances for providing a constant hot water supply are known as water heaters, boilers, heat exchangers, clarifiers or geysers depending on weather they are heating portable or non portable water in domestic or industrial use. Generally, there are two categories of water heaters that are used domestically namely: a) Tank storage water heater and b) Tank-less water heater. The major differences between the two are described in box 1 2.1 Tank-Storage Water Heaters: Conventional water heaters or storage water heaters also known as geysers are the most common type of water heater in Pakistan. They are available in electric or gas models (Figure 1). Klenck (1997) described detail process explaining that they contain an internal heating element which heats water to the temperature indicated on the thermostat and continuously heats the water throughout the day, whether or not it is being used and normally add up the cold water on using. Cold water must be added so that the temperature is comfortable for use. When a hot water faucet is activated, the tank water heater is replenishing the tank with cold water at the same time, lowering the overall water temperature in the tank.

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Tank Storage Water Heaters Tank Less Water Heaters

Most Common Less Costly Than Demand Units The Highest Efficiency Storage Tank Units

Show Recovery Efficiencies Of 85% And Energy Factors As High As 0.72 The High Efficiency Units Will Compare

Favorably In Energy Savings To The Demand Units When The Initial Costs Of The Units Are Taken Into Account All Gas Combustion Units Require Basic Safety

Installation Requirements.

Does Not Store Hot Water Designed To Heat Water On Demand Near The Point

Of Use Unit Is Useful If Space Is Limited For Installing A

Storage Tank Unit May Not Be Able To Serve Simultaneous Draws Of Hot

Water A Typical Medium Size Unit Will Raise The Incoming

Water Temperatures 60 Degrees At A Rate Of 3.5 Gallons Per Minute (125,000) Btu Input Some Units Can Sense The Incoming Water

Temperature And If The Incoming Water Is Already Adequately Heated, It Will Not Turn On. This Is Useful For Solar Interconnections Or Circulating Systems They Are Most Often Wall Mounted And Use Vertical

Venting. Limited Horizontal Venting Can Be Used

Box 1: The Major Differences between Storage and Demand Water Heaters

This triggers the element to draw more power to reheat the water to the desired temperature. The internal element in a gas water heater is similar to a gas stove; therefore, gas water heaters must have adequate exhaust ventilation to ensure safety. ACEEE (2007) mentioned that storage tank water heater is continuously radiating heat loss which also contributes to the re-heating rate and energy consumption. This type of heat loss is often referred to as stand-by heat loss. By eliminating stand-by heat loss alone, energy consumption can be reduced from 20 to 30%. Due to this inefficient process a 60 gallon tank only supplies the 45 gallons of usable hot water. The other 15 gallons are lost as cold water is added to the tank during the usage process (Du Pont, P. 1989). 2.2 Tankless Water Heaters Tank less water heaters, also called instantaneous, on-demand or instant water heaters, are popular and widely used internationally. They are compact heating units (figure 2) that provide hot water as it is needed, and do not store hot water like conventional water heaters. When a hot water tap is turned on, water enters the tank less water heater. A sensor detects the water flow, and activates an electric or gas heating device, which quickly raises the water temperature to a preset level. When water flow stops, the heating element shuts off. Thermostatically-controlled tank less water

heaters vary their output temperature according to water flow rate and inlet water temperature (Klenck, 1997). Orloff, J. (2011) claimed that these water heaters instantly heat water as it flows through the device, and do not retain any water internally except for what is in the heat exchanger coil. These units are highly efficient because they do not waste energy heating a tank of water when it’s not in use. It only uses energy when the hot water outlet is on and shuts down immediately when the outlet is turned off. This energy saving mechanism provides potential saving of up to 50% on water heating bills generated by conventional heaters, which keep the stored water hot, even when not being used (Du Pont, P: 1989). As tank less water heaters do not store a reservoir of hot water, therefore, standby losses are reduced, which makes them an energy-efficient alternative to traditional water heating. Tank less units can reduce water heating bills by 10 to 20 percent – a significant savings for homeowners. Deneen (2011) claimed that for homes that use 41 gallons or less of hot water daily, a demand heater can be 24% to 34% more energy-efficient than standard water heaters. Gas and electric tank less water heaters are available in a variety of capacities by numerous manufacturers. They can be used to meet all of a home’s hot water needs. In general, gas tank less heaters have larger capacities than their electric counterparts. Some tank less units may not be able to supply enough hot water for a home that

48

has large draws or simultaneous use of hot water. In addition, theses units have lower capacity in cold climates where more energy is needed to raise water temperature. The data obtained from the office of Sui Northern Gas Pipelines Limited (SNGPL) concluded that the thermal efficiency of tank less water heaters is 85% which is much higher than the conventional ones. It may require high rate of gas initially on ignition, and that at 20°C, correspondent to a discharge water temperature of 25°C if the inlet water temperature is 5°C. Due to the higher number of bends on the heat exchanger there is a greater heat loss in the instant water heater. 3. Advantages and Disadvantages of Tankless Water Heaters:

A tank less water heater might cost more initially but it may result in both energy and cost savings in the long term. As water is heated only when it is needed there is no storage of hot water. Even in homes or buildings with a high demand for hot water a tank less water heater may provide some levels of savings. If instant hot water at the taps for limited hours is a priority, a recirculation system similar to those in the tank type systems can be accommodated by using an aqua stat and timer in order to decrease the added heat loss from the recirculation system. In addition to the energy savings the tank less water heaters are also capable of supplying unlimited hot water as long as the water is flowing through the heat exchanger.

Figure 1: Conventional water heater (source: Klenck, T: 1997)

49

T Figure 2: Instant Water Heater (Source: Klenck, T:

1997) The chance of tank failure or rupture can also be eliminated. Tank less water heaters required limited space and can be installed anywhere close to the point of use mostly indoors. Tank less heaters do not store water, they are less subject to corrosion than conventional geysers. As a result, their expected equipment life is longer – more than 20 years, compared with 10 to 15 years for traditional heaters. As they are not under pressure, tank less water heaters are less susceptible to leakage than tank-type water heaters. However, in areas with hard water, scaling can build up in the heat exchanger and reduce energy efficiency over time (Journal of Light Construction: 1997). According to Gregor et al (2009) there have been issues of temperature control with conventional methods controlling tank less water heaters, which typically allow a high degree of error in the outlet water temperature when subjected to disturbances in flow rate or inlet water temperature. The prime reason that many households today are shifting from the tank variety of hot water heaters to tank less variety are the huge cost savings. Tank less water heaters can save anything between 10% to over 40% even

60% in total hot water bills. The real saving is when uses the gas variations of tank less water heaters. Gas based tank less water heaters including propane and kerosene, can heat much larger volumes of water to a higher temperature instantly. That is why tank less water heaters are recommended for the whole house units. Larger models will be able to handle even 3 to 4 simultaneous connections (Kevin, 2007). Tank less systems are reliant on the water pressure which delivered to the property and cannot be increased, whereas in tanked systems the tanks can be positioned above the water outlets so the force of gravity can assist in delivering the water and pumps can be added into system to increase pressure. If tank less electric heaters are installed in a large percentage of homes within an area, may create demand management problems for utility providers. As they are high energy using devices and hot water use tends to peak at certain times of the day, their use can cause short spikes in electricity demand including peak load periods which increases operating costs. Instantaneous type heaters are also problematic if they are connected to district heating systems as they raise peak demands and most utilities prefer all buildings to have hot water storage (Wikipedia, 2009). US Department of Energy (2009) define that sedimentation may buildup in the tank. As water heaters age, they tend to accommodate sediment and lime deposits. If the heaters are not cleaned periodically, the sediment may rise to a level that will act as a barrier between the burner and the water, making it harder to heat and result in reduction of flow rate.

RESEARCH DESIGN: The research was carried out during the five months that is from December 2010 to April 2011 when the geysers are usually turned on. Since the research is considered as an exploratory study to compare the performance of conventional gas geysers and instant water heaters, therefore the most appropriate method of investigating the research was experimental research design. Based on the identification of five houses termed as an one experimental house and four control houses, research was conducted in the area of sector I-8, Islamabad with the selection of houses

50

having approximately similar number of inhabitants (four or five family members) which supported to acquire the conducive results. In the experimental house, where the conventional gas geyser and instant water heater had been installed and used on an alternate week basis, the amount of gas had been noted from the same meter to compare the performance of both. While in the control houses there were only the conventional geysers installed and readings were also noted on monthly basis during the same period to compare the consumption among all these control houses. The amount of excess water was also calculated in the experimental house on the basis of the distance of the faucets from the geysers along with the diameter and length of pipes that gave the amount of water stored in the pipes and had to be discharged prior to the availability of hot water in the faucets. The second part of the study was the use of questionnaire to get the perception and data about instant water heaters from different people along with their gas consumptions and amount of monthly bills they had received. There were 31 households from different sectors of Islamabad which were interviewed and the questionnaire was subsequently filled by them. Data was collected from the experimental house by reading the gas meter every week for the experimental part of the research. The readings were recorded and amount of gas consumed during the week was noted along with the remarks about the type of geyser that was in use during the period. For the amount of water allowed to flow through the pipes before hot water was obtained the length of the pipes and diameter were noted with the pattern of the use of hot water and subsequently the amount of waste water in a day was calculated. The data was obtained and tabulate according to the necessary information required for research. The amount of savings that were obtained using the instant water geyser versus conventional one was calculated. The savings in the amount of the water utilized in accessing hot water were calculated.

DATA ANALYSIS: In the experimental house the conventional

geyser and instant water heater had been used on an alternate week basis from December 2010 to April 2011. Even though there is on set of winters and increased gas utilization, the gas consumption by instant water heater is comparable less than the conventional one (table 1). Therefore, in the experimental house the difference in gas consumption is significant and average weekly gas consumption is 17893 units while with the conventional one it is 36724 units (Figure 3). In the control houses, the gas consumption during five peak winter months when the heaters and geysers are being used had been observed. Average gas consumption in the control houses has been summarized in Table 2. Therefore, it is evident that gas consumption in the experimental house which was using an instant water heater is the least of all the five houses (Figure 4). The use of instant water heaters does contribute to the savings in gas consumption and the amount of gas saved with respect to the control houses comes to 70%. However keeping in view the varying gas consumption requirements in each control house and the variation in the monthly use, we can study the pattern of the gas consumption in the experimental house, where the two geysers were used alternately on a weekly basis. The results of this show that the instant water geysers contribute savings of 50.7% (table 3). The amount of water wasted before hot water is obtained with conventional geyser was also calculated and tabulated in table 4 and the amount of water wasted when instant water heater is used is shown in table 5. These readings were calculated on the basis of distance of faucet from the geyser and the number of times the hot water was being used. The amount of waste water from instant water heater is 47% less than the conventional geyser. Thus, the results had shown an excess wastage of 6640 liters of water in just one household in the winter season of five months in order to get hot water in their faucets. Therefore, the data obtained and analyzed is evident that there is a considerable amount of saving of gas and water with the use of instant water heater with very limited drawbacks.

51

Table 1: Data on gas consumption n experimental house

Figure 3: Comparison of Weekly Gas Consumed Using Instant and Conventional Water Geyser in Experimental House

0

5000

10000

15000

20000

25000

30000

35000

40000

Instant Conventional

Uni

ts o

f Gas

con

usm

ed

Type of Geyser

Types of geyser in use Date

Gas units consumed weekly From To

Conventional Geyser 1-12-10 7-12-10 51861 Instant Geyser 8-12-10 14-12-10 31923 Conventional Geyser 15-12-10 28-12-10 45048 Instant Geyser 29-12-10 4-1-11 46676 Conventional Geyser 5-1-11 11-1-11 72666 Instant Geyser 12-1-11 18-1-11 55419 Conventional Geyser 19-1-11 25-1-11 59555 Instant Geyser 26-1-11 1-2-11 36506 Conventional Geyser 2-2-11 8-2-11 47340 Instant Geyser 9-2-11 15-2-11 36976 Conventional Geyser 16-2-11 22-2-11 47580 Instant Geyser 23-2-11 1-3-11 23291 Conventional Geyser 2-3-11 8-3-11 39886 Instant Geyser 9-3-11 15-3-11 16232 Conventional Geyser 16-3-11 22-3-11 35942 Instant Geyser 23-3-11 29-3-11 21763 Conventional Geyser 30-3-11 5-4-11 29486 Instant Geyser 6-4-11 12-4-11 16102 Conventional Geyser 13-4-11 19-4-11 29791 Instant Geyser 20-4-11 27-4-11 10237

Total 754280

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Table 2: Average gas consumption in control house 1,2,3,4

Figure 4: Average Monthly Gas Consumption with Geyser in Use

Table 3: Gas savings in experimental house

Winter months during Dec 10- Apr 11 Gas consumed with instant water heater 284888 9 weeks Average weekly gas consumed 31654 Gas consumed with conventional water heater 429364 9 weeks Gas consumed with instant water heater 47707 Average saving per week with instant water heater 50.7 %

0

500

1000

1500

2000

2500

3000

Experimental House

Control House 1

Control House 2

Control House 3

Control House 4

Gas

con

sum

ed in

HM

3

Location

Remark Gas consumed

Control House 1 Control House 2 Control House 3 Control House 4 Units HM3 Units HM3 Units HM3 Units HM3

Average gas consumed per month

126317 1.263 190400 1.904 144882 1.449 260569 2.606

Average per week 31579 0.316 47600 0.476 36221 0.362 65142 0.651 Gas consumed with geysers operational

1063800 10.638 1978200 19.782 2463000 24.630 3387400 33.874

Average per month with geysers

177300 1.773 282600 2.826 144882 1.449 260569 2.606

53

Table 4: Water wastage with conventional gas geyser

Location of bath

No of times hot water used in a day

Distance of main line from conventional Geyser (m)

Diameter of main pipe ( mm)

Length of branch pipe (m)

Diameter of branch pipe (mm)

Amount of water wasted before hot water was obtained ( litres)

F 2 10.05 25 2.13 20 11.39 G 4 12.19 25 2.43 20 27.46 K 1 12.19 25 3.65 20 7.21 H 1 15.23 25 2.13 20 8.30 N, kitchen 3 12.19 25 13.10 20 29.73 Amount of water wasted in a day 84.17 Total liters of water wasted in a winter season ( five months) 12625

Table 5: Water wastage with instant gas geyser Location of bath

No of times hot

water used in a day

Distance of main line

from Instant water Geyser

(m)

Diameter of main

pipe ( mm)

Length of

branch pipe (m)

Diameter of branch

pipe (mm)

Amount of water wasted

before hot water was obtained ( litres)

F 2 3.65 25 2.13 20 4.90 G 4 2.13 25 2.43 20 7.08 K 1 3.65 25 2.43 20 2.54 H 1 1.52 25 2.13 20 1.36

N, kitchen 3 15.23 25 0.91 20 23.92 Total amount of water wasted in a day 39.90 Total litres of water wasted in a winter season ( five months) 5985

FINDINGS: During the research comparison of gas readings show that for peak winter season from December to April the gas consumption in the experimental house was 7.142 HM³ where as in control houses the average was 14.90 HM³ and in the experimental house where the instant water geyser was used on an alternate basis, the energy consumption was less than any of the control houses. As far as saving of water is concerned, in the experimental house the water saving was 6640 liters in five months which is a big amount of treated water being allowed to flow in the sewer line before hot water is obtained in the faucets. In the experimental house the amount of water discharged from the pipes before the hot water was obtained was 18.54 gallons or 84.17 liters daily with conventional gas geyser. On the other hand by using instant water heater in the same house the water discharged to obtain hot water was 39.90 liters per day. Therefore, there is

definitely a significant amount of savings in the requirement of energy needed for the water heating by use of instant water heaters. From the questionnaire survey it was found that the knowledge on instant water heater is limited and even though 65% were only aware of the same but did not have sufficient information about it. 48% population did not have detailed information on the appliance. 11% felt the technology is too complicated and 15% did not have time to switch over to instant water heaters.

CONCLUSIONS: Based on the study findings, it was found that Instant water heaters are more energy efficient and also conducive to water conservation: • The amount of gas conservation in case of the

experimental house and the control houses was 70 % during the winter months and the average over the whole year including

54

summers the difference was a saving of 44 % wherein the experimental house had the luxury of hot water throughout the year.

• The instant water heaters also contribute towards conservation of water and the amount of water saved in the experimental house using instant water heater was about 6642 liters during the year, which amounts to 52.61%.

• Therefore, Instant water heaters, which have been in frequent use in the developed countries, have a definite edge in energy conservation for the supply of hot water to the users.

RECOMMENDATIONS: The study put forward the following recommendations: • Government should take step to appreciate

the people to install instant water heater in order to conserve the energy. Initially, the families that have installed instant water heaters may be given a 5-10% rebate in their bills; this will encourage the others to switch over to the instant water heaters. It is recommended that either the Government or SNGPL should introduce a tax credit for households using energy efficient appliances.

• The only reliable data on the instant water heaters was obtained from SNGPL, who had done work on the calibration of the gas consumption as well as the efficiency of the instant water heaters, but that was not available in printed form accessible to the public. It is recommended that they publish the same and make it available to all consumers, as is being done on sensitization of public on conservation methods on monthly gas bills.

• The Government has institutions dealing with energy conservation and there should be a service initiated wherein the consumers can obtain relevant information from these departments to get answers to their quarries.

• From the questionnaire it was seen that majority of the people did not have valid information on the instant water heaters and had not installed them in their homes due to lack of information and also the disbelief that instant water geysers would meet their hot water requirements without any compromise on the flow, yet with greater reduction in the

gas consumed and the conservation of it. It is recommended that the use of instant water heaters should be encouraged and the Government and SNGPL should initiate a mass awareness program to sensitize the public.

REFERENCES: American Council for an Energy Efficient Economy (ACEEE), (2007), available at http://www.aceee.org/consumer/waterheating.htm Deneen, S. (2011)Tank less water heaters, the daily green, available at www.thedailygreen.com. Department of Design and Environmental Analysis, Journal of Light Construction (1997). Performance of Instantaneous Gas-Fired Water Heaters, Volume 15, No. 4, pp. 51-54, available at http://www.human.cornell.edu/che/DEA/.../Copy-of-Demand-h-water-htrs.pdf Du Pont, P. (1989). “Going Tank less”, Home Energy Magazine, Volume 6, No. 5, pp. 34-37, September/October 1989. Government of Pakistan (2005). State of the Environment, available at http://www.pakistan.gov.pk/.../environment.../state_of_Environment.htm Gregor, P., Henze, Y., David P., Coward, A. H. (2009). “Development of a model predictive controller for tank less water heaters” HVAC & R Research Journal, Volume 15, Issue 1, pp. 3(21), American Society of Heating, Refrigerating, and Air-Conditioning Engineers, Inc. Available at http://shop.omgili.com/5-1000-heater+tankless+water-sr-1-Books.html Haq, R. (2011). Pakistan’s Gas Reserves, Pak Alumni Worldwide, available at www.pakalumni.com. Haq, R. (2010). Pakistan’s twin energy shortages of gas and electricity, available at www.riazhaq.com. Jehangir, F., Javed, Y. (2007). Delivering Access to Safe Drinking Water and Adequate Sanitation in Pakistan, Paper provided by Pakistan Institute of Development Economics in its series PIDE-Working Papers with number 2007:30, available at ideas.repec.org. Kevin, Mathias. (2007). Tankless Water Heater - On Demand Tankless Hot Water Heaters available at http://www.buzzle.com/articles/tankless-water-heater-on-demand-tankless-hot-water-heaters.html Klenck, T. (1997). How It Works: Water Heater, 1997 September. Popular Mechanics available at www.popularmechanics.com Kloub, N. (2005). Improving the gas instantaneous water heaters performances, American Journal of

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Applied Sciences, May, 2005. Orloff, J. (2011) How Tank less Water Heaters Save Energy, available at, http://saveenergy.about.com. Pakistan Economic Survey 2004-05,Government of Pakistan (2005). Pakistan Energy Year Book, (2008). M/o Petroleum and Natural Resources, HDIP, Jan 2008. Shahzad, F. (2011). Gas shortage adversely impacting economy, Pakistan Today on September 11, 2011, available at www.pakistantoday.com. United Nations World Water Development Report (UNWWDR). (2009). Water in a changing world, 3rd United Nations world water development

report WWDR3 2009, available at www.unesco.org/water/wwap/wwdr/wwdr3/tableofcontents.shtml. The Nations, (2009). 10pc annual increase in gas demand being witnessed published on 7 March 2009. www.geo.tv US Department of Energy (2009), Demand (tank less or instantaneous) water heaters, March 2009 available at http:///www.energysavers.gov/your_home/water_heating/index.cfm.mytopic=12820 Wikipedia, (2009). Water heating, available at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_heating

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CHARACTERIZATION OF HOUSEHOLD WASTE IN ISLAMABAD AND EXPLORI NG POSSIBLE REUSE AND RECYCLING OPTIONS

Muhammad Qasim1, Nomana Anjum2, Nazia Iftikhar3, Saima Manzar2, Shaista Baber2

1Capital Development Authority, Islamabad Pakistan, 2 Environmental Design programme, Allama Iqbal Open University, Islamabad Pakistan, 3NED University, Karachi, Pakistan

anjums41@hotmail.com

ABSTRACT: Increased solid waste generation creates additional environmental problems as many cities are unable to manage it. Unfortunately, none of the cities of Pakistan has a proper solid waste management system right from collection of waste up to its proper disposal. Islamabad, being a capital city of Pakistan with 90% literacy rate faces the similar solid waste management problems. In Islamabad around 91% of total municipal waste is composed of green and household waste which may support composting. Currently, there is no proper sorting system of municipal solid waste which indicates insufficient and inefficient recycling of organic/inorganic waste materials in Islamabad. The major portion of the recyclable household waste collected is gone wasted and buried at dumping sites in sectors H-12 and H-10. The paper is an initiative to determine reusable components of household solid waste in Islamabad and explore possible recycling/reuse options. By adopting stratified random sampling design, the primary research is carried out in sector G-7, Islamabad. Districts with in the sector have been made on the basis of income groups. 2% sample size is taken as waste generated within the income groups has high degree of similarity. The study concluded the possible reuse and recycling options for the major household waste in Islamabad. Keywords: solid waste management, household waste, recycling, stratified random sampling

INTRODUCTION: According to UN-HABITAT (2010), “In a rapid urbanized global society, solid waste management (SWM) is a key challenge facing all the world's cities”. SWM can be defined as the subject associated with the control of generation, storage, collection, transfer, processing and disposal of Municipal Solid Waste1 (MSW), in a way which is governed by the best principles of public health, economics, engineering, aesthetics and other environmental considerations (Daskalopoulos et al., 1999). Institutional Arrangements – Pakistan (2010) described that SWM has been the responsibility of local governments. However, with the increasing rate of solid waste generation, various institutions have got involved into one or more aspects of SWM chain. Recycling of waste may generally be considered as a key strategy for alleviating the society’s pressures on environment. A variety of environmental justifications for recycling exist: recycling processes reduce demand for energy

1 The type and composition of solid waste depends on the nature of activity from which the waste originates (Shehri: 1997).

and finite resources. Moreover, recycling may be considered economically beneficial in developing countries. The recyclable waste can be converted into valuable products with minimum environmental impacts, utilizing less natural resources and creating employment opportunities by the recycle industry. Standard Operating Procedures (SOP), (2008) estimated the daily MSW generation is about 500-550 tons in Islamabad out of which 425 tons is being collected by Capital Development Authority (CDA) (PPI, 2006). 77% of the total waste is transported to dumping sites. The total municipal waste comprised of green and household waste is 91% which may support composting whereas remaining waste of 9% is comprised of 3% plastic, 2% cloth, and 1% paper, glass and construction material. The major portion of recyclable waste collected from household is gone wasted at dumping sites. Sorting of recyclable waste is not being done either at collection/storage or at dumping/disposal stage. Thus, research is carried out to study the solid waste generation in Islamabad, its collection and sorting system and to explore possible recycling/reusing options. This paper is an attempt to provide a comprehensive review of SWM Practice in

57

Islamabad with objectives to determine recyclable/reusable components from households in Islamabad. 2. Solid Waste Management In Islamabad: In Islamabad, CDA is responsible to perform municipal functions (GoP, CDA Ordinance: 1960) which also incorporate SWM within the area enclosed by municipal limits. Later on with the growth of the city a separate Directorate of Sanitation was created with main job allocation of SWM in Islamabad (SOP, 2008). According to M/s Ceres Associates: EIA Report of Landfill (2006) CDA has a program to implement an integrated waste management2 project for the city. Directorate of Sanitation, CDA (2008) estimated about 550 to 600 metric tons of mixed solid waste daily generated in Islamabad and has relatively much organized system of solid waste collection and disposal. Islamabad urban generates 205.382 tons of daily household waste in which 76.71% is biodegradable waste. Due to acute shortage of sanitary staff, machinery, equipments and expansion in the size of the city, the sanitation services of six sectors that are G-7, G-10, I-10, G-9, G-8 and G-6 had been privatized by CDA (Directorate of Sanitation, CDA, 2008). 900 employees are responsible for sweeping, collection of waste and its transportation to final disposal site. At present there is no proper engineered sanitary landfill site. The solid waste is being disposed off at final garbage containment site located in sector H-10 on Kashmir Highway (Hayat, 2010). Composition of SW generated in Municipal area of Islamabad from five sectors, G-5, G-9, F-7, H-8 and I-9 is depicted in the table 1. As per table 6.87% of the MSW which has been reached at dumping sites at H-12 and H-10 is composed of recyclable waste. From total waste only 2.72% recyclable waste is collected by scavengers. From the table it is also clear that the major components of MSW are household waste and green waste (kitchen and garden waste) i.e. 92.07%.

2 Integrated waste management is a system of waste disposal that includes separating materials according to type, and finding the best used for discarded products, which may or may not include depositing in a landfill. (http://www.wisegeek.com)

Table 1: Composition of Solid Waste, Islamabad (Source: Waste Characterization Study by Project Procurement International,

Islamabad during February 2006) Waste Components

Waste/week (kg)

%age w.r.t. total

OCC (Card Board) 1131 0.37 Tetra Pack 1131 0.37 Cloth 6411 2.12 Paper 2025 0.67 Plastic (PET and other)

8531 2.82

Metals (Ferrous and Non Ferrous)

119 0.04

Aluminum 22 0.01 Glass 1160 0.38 Wood Waste 241 0.08 Green Waste 77210 25.54 Household Waste (Kitchen and Garden waste)

201084 66.53

Construction and Demolition waste

2836 0.94

Others 350 0.12 Total 302251 100

ECNEC (2005) indicated a site measuring 100 acres in Mouza Kuri that has been allocated for planning and development of landfill in Islamabad but according to Master Plan of Kuri Agro Farming Scheme (2002) development of landfill has not been started due to issues regarding its land acquisition. An area of 20 acres adjacent to landfill site in Kuri has also been allocated for establishment of compost plant in Islamabad (Figure 1). The land has been leased out for composting of biodegradable components of MSW. The hurdle in the establishment of compost is the delivery of land possession due to which project is being delayed. Also a land measuring 1.79 acres has been allotted in CDA Board Decision (2007) at sector H-11/2 for construction of material recovery facility3 (MRF) and transfer station4 in 2007. Consultant has submitted conceptual

3 A materials recovery facility or materials reclamation facility or materials recycling facility is a specialized plant that receives, separates and prepares recyclable materials for marketing to end-user manufacturers. (http://en.wikipedia.org) 4 A transfer station is a building or processing site for the temporary deposition of waste. (http://en.wikipedia.org)

58

plan and land utilization plan for the approval of the authority. 3. Research Design: Islamabad, the capital of Pakistan with an area of 906 sq km (Govt. of Pakistan: 1960), having urban area comprises of sectors having series of C, D, E, F, G, H and I. Every series has numbers ascending from East to West with 61 urban sectors in which 23 sectors have been developed up till now. The master plan of Islamabad has Islamabad Capital Territory, municipal limits and the peripheral limits within which Sanitation Directorate performs its functions. Sector G-7 Islamabad has been taken as a case study for the research (Figure 1). Sector G-7 is fully developed and densely populated having the accommodation of government and private houses with 5963 residential units (Figure 2). The plot sizes range from 3 marlas to 1 kanal which indicates the communities of various income levels. Furthermore, for the research sector G-7 has been divided into three districts. District-1 is for low income group comprising mostly government houses of categories A, B, C and D. District-2 represents middle income group and comprises of government houses category E and private houses built on small plots having the value of 5 to 8 millions. District-3 is for high income group comprising private houses built on l1 kanal plot. The detail of number of units in sector G-7 with reference to the income group is reflected in table 2. To fulfill the research objectives following information had been gathered from primary source: - volume and composition of household

solid waste generated in sector G-7 - collection and sorting system of

household solid waste

METHODS 3.1 Sampling: Before determining the sample size a pilot survey of ten households, one from high income group, three from middle income group and six from low income group was conducted for three days. From analysis of the output it was observed that the waste of recyclable and non-biodegradable waste materials is missing in 70% of the waste collected and the waste generated by low income group has large similarity. The size and type of residential plots in sector G-7 indicated the community with various income

levels. Thus, the waste generated from the household is in variety and covers all types of household waste as quantities of waste are invariably lower in developing countries because of lower prosperity and consumption (Holmes, 1992). The pilot survey also showed that composition and rate of production of waste is similar in one economic group. Keeping in view the districts with diversified range of plots and income groups Stratified Random Sampling Design is followed.

Table 2: Number of Residential Units w.r.t. Income Level, Sector G-7, Islamabad Income

Group

Number of

Units

Number of

Households

Low 5363 5363

Middle 473 946

High 127 254

Total 5963 6563

3.2 Sample Size: An average of 2% sample size had been taken to gather the information regarding household waste from residents of sector G-7. Keeping in view the outcome of the pilot survey and opinion of the experts a samples size 1.34%, 3.38% and 5.5% of household units has been taken to investigate the household waste in sector G-7. Household waste from 118 households in sector G-7 has been collected after every 24 hours for 7 days from 15th October 2010 to 21st October 2010. 72 households out of 5363 from low income group have been surveyed which showed large similarity in the waste generated as observed from the analysis during pilot survey 32 household out of 946 from middle income group and 14 households out of 254 from high income group have been surveyed. To explore reuse and recycling options from household waste two shopping bags with the capacity of 10 kg having transparent and black colors had been provided to every respondent with guidelines. The respondent was guided to put kitchen waste in transparent and other waste in black shopping bags. The guidelines clearly indicated which type of waste is to be put in the bag as shown in box 1.

59

Box 1: guidelines indicate the type of waste is to be put in the right bag. 4. Data Analysis: The total 7 days waste from 14 households of high income group was 192.69 kg, 32 households of middle income group was 282.86 kg and 72 households of low income group was 658.098 kg. The major component from households of high income group was kitchen waste with 71.49%. Other considerable components were 4.00% garden waste, 9.82% paper and 10.21% of plastic waste of the total. The quantity of kitchen waste/capita/day came out to be 0.246 kg, and garden waste was 0.013 kg/capita/day, paper waste was 0.034 kg/capita/day and plastic waste was 0.035 kg/capita/day (Figure 3). In middle income group the major components of the waste were kitchen, paper and plastic with 81.41%, 8.90% and 6.15% respectively. The paper waste was 0.016 kg/capita/day and plastic waste was 0.011 kg/capita/day (Figure 4). In low income group the major components of waste were kitchen, paper and plastic with 76.20%, 7.93% and 7.45%. The paper waste was 0.014 kg/capita/day and plastic waste was 0.013 kg/capita/day. The kitchen waste/capita/day came out 0.133 kg i.e. 76.20% of the total (Figure 5). Therefore, the major component of the waste was kitchen waste which is biodegradable and can be easily recycled. (Biodegradable waste is a type of waste, typically originating from plant or animal sources, which may be degraded by other

living organisms, commonly found in municipal solid waste) The character and volume of household solid waste generated by low, middle and high income groups in sector G-7 is reflected in table 3. It is observed that the average waste generated increases with increase in income and major component of the waste is biodegradable which can easily be recycled (Figure 6). 5. Recycling/Reuse Options Sorting of waste has not been done at any stage in Islamabad. However, at the dumping site some informal sorting is done by the scavengers. Most of the recyclable waste is being dumped in an open dumping site which results wastage of resources and burden on available resources. The characterization of household waste has set pointers towards some possible recycle and re use options. 5.1 Composting In Islamabad 157.55 tons of kitchen waste is generated per day i.e. most viable waste for composting. Composting can be done both at state level and household level. The plan to establish the composting plant near proposed landfill at Kuri needs to be given top priority by the government for effective SWM and acquiring the compost in the form of manure for horticulture or food production. At household level residents can be motivated to have their own small set ups for composting relying on their kitchen waste. One compost plant is surveyed in Lahore (Mehboob booti band) over an area of 300 kanals. It is operating on an open dump site where solid waste from various parts of Lahore is collected. Here 650 tons of daily waste is gathered. The waste is sorted into organic and non-biodegradable waste with ratio of 55% and 45%. The 55% organic waste is used for composting and compost is sold @ Rs. 258 per 50 kg whereas the expenditure of production of 59kg compost is Rs. 150. The calculated profit per ton is Rs. 2700. When kitchen waste is sorted at source level and collected separately and sequentially taken to compost plant the ratio at which compost is produced raises upto 50%. By composting 157.55 tons of Kitchen waste in Islamabad 78.77 tons of good quality compost can be produced daily.

PUT IN Transparent

Shopping Bag Black Shopping

Bag Vegetable residues Peels of fruits & vegetables Pieces of flesh Tea leaves Cereals Food residues Egg coverings etc.

Biscuit packers Masala packers Ice cream packets Paper Card Plastic bottles & bags Large iron boxes Glass Clothes Leather shoes, products etc

60

Figure 1: Islamabad Master Plan Shows Location Of Sector G-7, Landfill Site And Compost Plant Site (Source: Http://Www.Estateman.Com)

Figure 2: Detailed Plan of Sector G-7, Islamabad.

(Source: http://www.alnoorpakistan.com)

61

5.2 Reuse of Solid Waste as Fuel The survey of SWM practices in Islamabad has identified one reuse option being practiced by the Fauji Cement Company Limited (FCCL), a cement factory in Jhang Bhatar, district Attock. The factory in pursuance of its commitment to produce its cement under stringent environment friendly condition, has installed first refuse derived fuel5 (RDF) processing plant which uses MSW as a raw material. It utilizes MSW which is collected from dumping sites and converted into fuel for subsequent usage in the cement plant. This plant has a capacity of 12 tons per hour and will replace about 170 tons of coal per day as fuel. FCCL has executed a contract with CDA to lift all the municipal solid waste of Islamabad to its cement factory site at Jhang Bhatar, 50 km away from dumping site located near sector H-10. However, currently they are only lifting about 200 tons of SWM as the factory is working 300% less than its capacity due to technical and mechanical problems. At state level other factories near Islamabad can be encouraged to adapt similar environment-friendly practices.

5.3 Recycling of Plastic Waste Plastic is another major waste material generated at household level (table 3)which can easily be recycled and can be converted into useful plastic ware with less energy, low cost and least environmental impacts. Again there is no significant plastic recycling factory near Islamabad. The plastic waste is transported to Lahore, where plastic waste is sorted with reference to plastic composition and its colour then it is shredded. By heating shredded plastic granules are marketed and supplied to the factories which are producing plastic furniture, domestic utensils, bottles, parts of motor bikes and vehicles, shoes/chapels, housing products, cable coverings and electronic appliances.

5.4 Recycling of Paper Waste

5 Refuse-derived fuel (RDF) or solid recovered fuel/ specified recovered fuel (SRF) is a fuel produced by shredding and dehydrating municipal solid waste (MSW) with a Waste converter technology. (http://ec.europa.eu)

The other significant household waste is paper (table 3). The paper waste is also being supplied by middlemen to the factories in Lahore which is sorted and graded at the factories and converted into papers, cards, card boards, disposable and packaging by products. Old paper is also used in the ‘paper mache’ craft whereby paper is soaked and molded in beautiful shapes and decorated with colours. This technique is also experimented to produce the roofing material for the low cost housing structures at the Council for Housing and Works in Karachi

CONCLUSION: The most important component for recycling of waste is sorting of it at source level according to the requirement. The household survey has identified that the residents of Islamabad did not appreciate sorting of waste at source level therefore it is imperative to enhance their knowledge about waste and its management through reuse and recycling options as a shared responsibility with SWM agencies. No composting of biodegradable waste is being done in Islamabad by formal or informal sector which results wastage of resources and increased burden on the available resources. Kitchen waste is the major household waste and has the great potential for composting at domestic level and governmental level for its added advantages as manure. The organic waste hence, needs to be collected separately and not dumped with other waste that might be hazardous or toxic. Plastic and paper are identified as other two major wastes that can be sorted, graded and recycled into new products at low cost with minimal environmental burden. Similarly, the other categories of biodegradable and non bio degradable waste materials such as glass, tin, textile and leather can be sorted, collected and graded for re-use and recycling options. Moreover, households are to be trained on reduction of waste in the first place and respecting the practices associated with re-use and recycling.

62

Figure 3: Household Waste Production in Sector G-7, Islamabad by High Income Group

Figure 5: Household Waste Production in Sector G-7, Islamabad by Low Income Group

Figure 4: Household Waste Production in Sector G-7, Islamabad by Middle Income Group

Figure 6: Average Household Waste Production in Sector G-7, Islamabad

0.01

3

0.00

0

0.00

3

0.00

3 0.01

4

0.00

2

0.13

3 0.

006

0.00

1 0.000

0.020

0.040

0.060

0.080

0.100

0.120

0.140

Plas

tic

Tin

Text

ile

Glas

s Pa

per

Leat

her

Kitc

hen

Gard

en

Oth

ers

Kg/p

er p

erso

n pe

r day

Type of Solid Waste

Low Income

0.01

1

0.00

0

0.00

3

0.00

2 0.01

6

0.00

0

0.14

5 0.

001

0.00

0

0.000

0.020

0.040

0.060

0.080

0.100

0.120

0.140

0.160

Plas

tic

Tin

Text

ile

Glas

s Pa

per

Leat

her

Kitc

hen

Gard

en

Oth

ers

Kg/p

er p

erso

n pe

r day

Type of Solid Waste

Middle Income

0.03

5

0.00

3

0.00

5

0.00

5 0.03

4

0.00

1

0.24

6

0.01

4

0.00

1

0.000

0.050

0.100

0.150

0.200

0.250

0.300

Plas

tic

Tin

Text

ile

Glas

s Pa

per

Leat

her

Kitc

hen

Gard

en

Oth

ers

Kg/p

er p

erso

n pe

r day

Type of Solid Waste

High Income

0.01

5

0.00

1

0.00

3

0.00

3 0.01

7

0.00

1

0.15

1 0.

005

0.00

0

0.000

0.020

0.040

0.060

0.080

0.100

0.120

0.140

0.160

Plas

tic

Tin

Text

ile

Glas

s Pa

per

Leat

her

Kitc

hen

Gard

en

Oth

ers

Kg/p

er p

erso

n pe

r day

Type of Solid Waste

Total

63

Table 3: Amount (in Kg/day) of total Solid Waste produced per day by households in Sector G-7, Islamabad

Type of

solid Waste

% of total

Amount (in Kg/day)

Overall (n=837)

According to Income Level of households Low

(n=535) Middle (n=222)

High (n=80)

Plastic 7.60 86.19 49.07 17.42 19.69 Tin 0.37 4.14 1.59 0.70 1.85 Textile 1.69 19.11 12.34 4.06 2.71 Glass 1.47 16.67 10.42 3.40 2.84 Paper 8.50 96.34 52.20 25.20 18.94 Leather 0.65 7.35 6.36 0.31 0.68 Kitchen 76.71 869.62 501.50 230.36 137.76 Garden 2.77 31.38 22.31 1.35 7.72 Others 0.25 2.87 2.32 0.06 0.49 Total 100.00 1133.66 658.10 282.86 192.61

RECOMMENDATIONS: The Capital Development Authority (CDA) needs to play a catalyst role to improve the SWM system: a) The project for the landfill and composting site should be made operational on priority b) Extensive educational campaign should be launched at household level c) For sorting of waste low cost containers should be designed, manufactured and distributed to all the residents. CDA should also improve the collection and transportation of the recyclable waste from residents of Islamabad. The existing Kabari and scavengers’ activity needs to be regularized and patronized into a proper collection system. Government must prioritize setting up of more recycling factories throughout the country and encouraging as well as streamlining the re-use of waste materials in the form of fuel or other by products.

REFERENCES: CDA Board Decisions, 2007, Capital Development Authority, Ceres Associate Gulf Pakistan Pvt. Ltd., 2006, Environmental Impact Assessment Report of Landfill, Islamabad. Daskalopoulos E., Badr O., Probert S.D., 1999, Economic and Environmental Evaluations of Waste Treatment and Disposal Technologies for

Municipal Solid Waste. Applied Ecology 58, pp. 2009-255 Directorate of Sanitation, CDA, 2008, Presentation on Directorate of Sanitation, CDA, Islamabad. Executive Committee of the National Economic Council, 2005, PC-1 for the project: Improvement of Environment by Solid Waste Management in Islamabad, Interior Division, Govt. of Pakistan, Islamabad. Govt. of Pakistan, 1960, Capital Development Authority (CDA), Ordinance 1960, Islamabad, Pakistan. Govt. of Pakistan, 1960, Municipal Administration Ordinance 1960, Islamabad, Pakistan. Hayat, Liaqat, 2010, Solid waste disposal in Islamabad, Daily Dawn, Published on Dec. 3, 2010, available at http://www.dawn.com Holmes, J. R., 1992, The UK Waste Management Industry, Institute of Wastes Management, London. Institutional Arrangements – Pakistan, 2010, Extract from the report “Converting Waste Agricultural Biomass into Energy Source - Legal Framework and Financing Mechanisms for Waste Agricultural Biomass (WAB)/Solid Waste in District Sanghar, Pakistan” available at http://www.unep.or.jp Master Plan of Kuri Agro Farming Scheme, 2004, Regional Planning Directorate, CDA, Islamabad. Master Plan of Sector H-12, Islamabad, 2007, Urban Planning Directorate, CDA, Islamabad. Pacific Regional Solid Waste Management Strategy 2010-2015, 2010, Adopted at the 20th SPREP Meeting (Samoa) on 18 November 2009, Apia, Samoa: SPREP. Pak-EPA, 2005, Guidelines for Solid Waste

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Management, Pak-EPA in collaboration with JICA, Ministry of Environment, PEP and UNDP. Project Procurement International (PPI), Islamabad, Feb. 2006, improvement of Environment by Solid Waste Management in Islamabad, Pakistan, Waste Characterization Study, Final Report. Standard Operating Procedures (SOP), 2008,

Directorate of Sanitation, Capital Development Authority, Islamabad. UN-HABITAT, 2010, Solid Waste Management in the World's Cities : Water and Sanitation in the World's Cities 2010, Earthscan, London Washington DC, available at http://www.unhabitat.org

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REVIEWERS FOR VOLUME 5 OF NURTURE

Dr. Igbo Chinyere Anne Professor Department of Vocational Education Home Economics Unit, University of Nigeria, Nsukka NIGERIA.

Dr. Marja Aulanko Professor Department of Household Technology, University of Helsinki Finland

Ms. Susan Beaton, Researcher, Department of Primary Care, University of Liverpool, Liverpool UK

Dr Jette Benn, Associate Professor, PhD, Department of Curriculum Research, Copenhagen DENMARK

Dr. Charlene J Erasmus Professor Department of Human Ecology University of the Western Cape Town, SOUTH AFRICA

Dr. Rubina Hakeem Professor and Principal Raana Liaqat Ali Khan Government College Of Home Economics, Karachi, PAKISTAN

Dr Tahira K. Hira, Prof and Executive Assistant President, Iowa State Univ., Ames Iowa USA

Dr. Panagiota Karametou, Professor Department of Home Economics and Ecology, Harokopio University of Athens, Athens GREECE

Ms. Botha, Marietjie , Faculty of Theology, Univ. of Stellenbosch, SOUTH AFRICA

Peggy S. Meszaros , , Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Virginia USA

Dr Anubati Thakur California State University Northridge USA

Dr. Laszlo Vasa, Associate Professor The Szent Istvan University, HUNGARY

Dr. Virginia B. Vincenti Professor Family & Consumer Sciences, University of Wyoming. Laramie, WY USA

Dr Hena Yasmin Lecturer University of Swaziland Mbabane SWAZILAND