EST 612. Environmental Policy and Governance Chinese Environmental Politics and the Political System...

EST 612. Environmental Policy and Governance

Chinese Environmental Politics and the Political System

Lei Zhang, Ph.D.

Dept. of Environmental PolicyWageningen University

The Netherlands

May 2007

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Outline

• Relevant facts about China political system• Who is who?• Who says in China?

• Evolution and dynamics of environmental politics• Historic review• Current shape• Implications for environmental governance

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China’s Political System (1)

Constitutional Framework

• Article 1: The People's Republic of China is a socialist state under the people's democratic dictatorship.

• Article 2: All power belongs to the people (through People’s Congress system)

• Article 3: The state organs apply the principle of democratic centralism

• The Communist Party is the sole party in power in China (although 8 parties exist in China, through the Chinese People’s Political Consultative Conference).

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Power Structure of the State

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Structure of the State Council

(State Environmental Protection Administration (SEPA) since 1998)

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Three systematic features of centrally-planned economies:

- Limitations of citizen involvement

- Obsession with growth and industrialization

- High material intensity of production modes

Shortcoming within the system of environmental protection:

- Insufficient authority and lack of coordination

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A maze of intricacies, complexities and contradictions, and changing fast.

Governing the most populous country in the world is an art, not a skill which one can gain by training. Any one of these policy challenges could overwhelm a government’s capacity, yet the CPC must deal with all of them at the same time.

(Source: Saich, T. 2004)

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• High level of internal organization required for facing external challenges

• Deprivation of individual rights by internal organization

Chinese Response• A political system is a outcome of a given historical period with

an economic system which fits the given survival environment. Thus, the diversity of natural environmental conditions lead to the diversity of political systems.

• Incremental democracy

The Dilemma of Athenian Democracy

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Evolution of environmental strategies in China (1)

Political determinationFrom ‘capitalist exclusive’ to ‘national fundamental policy’

Institutional building From ‘Nobody’ to one of ‘wuge bawang (hegemonic powers)’

Policies and enforcement “Dragon seed harvests flea from reality”

Shift from environmental regulation to governanceCall for fundamental institutional reforms and to involve all

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Political determination

1949 - 1973

irrelevant to political affairs

1973 - 1983

Stockholm Conference (1972),

first National Conference (1973),

Constitution 1978: first cardinal law for environmental protection, legislation, but economic development dominated

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1983 - 1992

Second National Conference (1983),

became a fundamental policy, leading to special laws (12), Administrative decrees (22), regulations (26), standards (263)

1992 - now

UN Conference (1992), China’s Agenda 21 (1994), Trans-century Green Plan (1996-2010).


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In 2003, during the National People’s Congress, the Chinese president stressed the urgency of environmental protection.

“3 rivers and 3 lakes” pollution control plan (10th-five year plan): 1534 projects, total investment 103.63 billion Rmb.

中国环境科学研究院调研

Political determination: A new pathway of development since 2002


The President and the Premier stress environmental protection works at various occasions

15 中国环境科学研究院调研

Political determination: A new pathway of development since 2002


2005“Decision Concerning Scientific Development and Environmental Protection”, the State Council

2006During the 6th National Conference on Environmental Protection, “three transitions”:

• to bring together economics and environmental protection• to put growth and such protection on an equal basis• and to use administrative, legal and market mechanisms to protect the environment with all the implications for pricing

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Institutional building:

SEPA system by 2005:

- 3,226 EPBs at all levels

with 167,000 people

- 3,854 supervision and

enforcement organs with 50,000 staff

- more than 300,000 in

departmental or enterprises organs


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Institutional building: environmental legislation


Constitution: “The state protects and improves the environment in which people live and the ecological environment. It prevents and controls pollution and other public hazards”.

Laws by NPC: 9 on env. Protection and 15 on natural resources protection

Administrative Regulations by State Council: over 50

Local Regulations: over 660 by local PC, governments and relevant departments

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Institutional building: Participation in International Environmental Agreements


International conventions: ratified more than 50 on environment

• CITES (1973)• Montreal Protocol (1987) • Basel Convention (1989)• Convention on Biological Diversity (1992)• Kyoto Protocol (1997)• Rotterdam Convention (1998)• Stockholm Convention (2001)

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Regional co-operation:

Greater Mekong Subregion, Environmental Cooperation Mechanism, 2005

Environmental cooperation under Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN)

Environmental Ministers’ Meeting (EMM) of the Asian-Europe Meeting (ASEM), 2002

China-Arab Cooperation Conference on the Environment, 2005

China-Europe ministerial dialogue on environmental policy

Chair country of the environmental working group of ASAI….

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Bilateral co-operation:

On environmental protection: agreements or MOUs with 38 countries, US, Japan, Canada, Russia…

On nuclear security: 11 countries

Bilateral assistance gratis: EU, Germany, Japan

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Institutional building: enforcement capacity


Industrial enterprises under environmental monitoring as part of all industrial enterprises

YearNo. of enterprises included in the NBS statistics

Gross Industrial Output Value (GIOV) (billion RMB)

No. of enterprises included in environmental statistics

GIOV under environmental statistics (billion RMB)

Ratio of GIOV of environmental statistics to that of national statistics

2002 181557 11077.6 70831 6075.7 54.8

2001 171256 9544.9 71425 5382 56.4

2000 162885 8567.3 70944 4979.8 58.1

1999 162033 7270.7 70997 4146.8 57.0

1998 165080 6773.7 74101 4259.1 62.9

1997 468506 6835.2 54909 3669.7 53.7

1996 506445 6274 62867 3597.1 57.3

1995 510381 5494.7 70177 2732.1 49.7

Source: China Statistics Yearbooks (1996-2003) and China Environment Yearbooks (1996-2003).

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Greening of economic agencies


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Greening of economic agencies


(Source: Shi, H. and L. Zhang, 2006)

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Economic actors step in

Search for more affordable pathways since early 1990s

More susceptible to reputation risks, foreign green consumerism and global standards

More stringent environmental enforcement

Respond to increasing environment-related pressures or market signals

Signals from the financial and capital markets


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Increasing public awareness and NGOs, traditional ways of public participation increased

New ways of public participation emerged

Environmental incidents caused social unrest

SEPA proactive in involving civil society in policy making

Mass media increasing attention to environmental problems

National government encouraging citizens


Emerging green civil society

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• ENGOs in China:

close to 3000, 49.9% GONGOs, 40.3% students groups, grassroot groups 7.2%, international NGOs 2.6%

• 29.5% of grassroot groups are registered with Civil Affairs Departments

• 92% of the ENGOs conducted environmental education and publicity activities; 15.6% involved in environmental complaints and protests; 11.8% involved in policymaking

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According to “China Public Environmental Protection Index 2006”

(Chinese Environmental Culture Promotion Association, 2007)

• Environmental issue ranks no. 2 among 10 hot public issues

• 63% think environmental problems in China are severe and very severe

• 32% are not satisfied with the current environmental quality and 44% think the quality is normal

• Only 4% think the government is not attaching importance to environmental protection

• 70% support the enforcement of Environmental Impact Assessment

• Compared to the date of 2005, 4.9% more will choose to report to EPB in case of environmental problems

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Emerging green civil societyNational Trends in Complaints (Bretell in: Ho and Edmonds,

forthcoming)

0

50.000

100.000

150.000

200.000

250.000

300.000

350.000

400.000

450.000

500.000

1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001

Nu

mb

er o

f C

om

pla

ints

Total Complaints(Letters + Visits-RenCi)

Water PollutionComplaints

Air PollutionComplaints

Total Complaints(Letters + Visits-Incidents)

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From Environmental Regulation to Governance

China’s accession to WTO

Industrial transformations- Reform of SOEs

- Privatization of TVEs

- Expansion of FDI and international trade

The empowerment of the civil society


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From Environmental Regulation to Governance

Failures of the State-dominated environmental regime


(Source: Shi, H. and L. Zhang, 2006)

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New industrial environmental governance in the making


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Directions for future

Role of the government will be strengthened Role of the society: involvement and participation

should be increased and institutionalized Government-industry relation: mix of forceful

regulation and cooperation


EST 612. Environmental Policy and Governance Chinese Environmental Politics and the Political System...

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