ASSIGNMENT NUTRASETIKA

ESSENTIAL FATTY ACID

Pak Mulyadi

Arranged by :

Wong Chun Ming 2601103032

Alex Biday 2601103034

Danaraj Thangavelu 2601103035

Keerthy Venthen 2601103045

Thineskumaran Ramanchandra 2601103053

Racheal Xunus 2601103058

Yap Jia Lin 2601103064

FAKULTAS FARMASI

UNIVERSITAS PADJADJARAN

JATINANGOR 2013

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Contents

Contents Page No

1.1 INTRODUCTION 4

1.2 Benefits and Functions of Essential Fatty Acids 5

1.3 Sources of Essential Fatty Acids 8

1.4 Deficiency Symptoms 11

1.5 The Danger of Fried Foods 12

1.6 What Are Free Radicals 15

1.7 Over coming Disease With EFA s 17

2.0 How to mobilize body fat 18

2.1 Introduction 18

2.2 How Is Body Fat Gained 19

2.3 How Is Body Fat Stored? 21

2.4 Fat Mobilization and Metabolism 22

3.0 OMEGA 3 FATTY ACIDS 26

3.1 Introduction 26

3.2 Uses 27

3.3 Dietary Sources 33

3.4 Available Forms 33

3.5 How to Take It 34

3.6 Precautions 35

4.1 OMEGA 6 FATTY ACIDS 38

4.2 General Uses 39

4.3 Dietary Sources 41

5.1 OMEGA 9 FATTY ACIDS 45

5.2 What is omega-9 46

5.3 AVAILABLE FORMS 46

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Contents Page No

5.4 What are the symptoms of omega-9 deficiency 48

6.1 SQUALENE 50

6.2 History of Squalene 51

6.3 Structure of Squalene 52

6.4 Benefits of Squalene 52

6.5 Pharmacokinetics 56

6.6 How Squalene Produced in Body 56

6.7 Statins Inhibit Squalene Synthesis 57

6.8 Squalene and Cholesterol Metabolism 57

6.9 Sources of Squalene 58

6.10 Analysis of Squalene 58

7.0 LEPTIN 60

7.1 Introduction 60

7.2 SYNTHESIS 61

7.3 HISTORY 61

7.4 LEPTIN SUPPLEMENTS 61

7.5 BENEFITS 63

7.6 MECHANISM 64

7.7 PRODUCTS 65

8.0 Krill oil 68

8.1 An introduction 69

8.2 Krill oil properties and benefits to human 72

8.3 Why Do People Use Krill Oil 72

8.4 Side Effects 72

8.5 Nutrasetical analysis of krill oil 73

9.0 References 77

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1.1 INTRODUCTION

All About Fats

some people shy away from anything that has the word S“fatty” associated with it. They

instantly think it will cause them to gain unnecessary weight. However, there are “good fats” and

“bad fats,” and the beneficial ones can actually help decrease the desire to eat the harmful ones.

Fats are important for health. Also known as lipids, they help balance the body’s chemistry and

provide padding as protection for vital organs. Fats provide a source of energy for body

processes, and they help with the transportation and absorption of fat-soluble vitamins such as A,

D, E, and K. They are also a source of the vital nutrients known as essential fatty acids.

Categories of fats

include the following:

SATURATED FATS: All fats are composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen molecules. The

carbon atoms of fatty acids hold together in a chain-like fashion. These carbon atoms can attach

hydrogen to them. When each place that can hold a hydrogen atom is filled and there is not room

for even one more, they are described as saturated. The longer the chain, the harder the fat will

be and thus, the higher its melting point. These types of long-chain fatty acids are found in “hard

fats,” such as those in red meat, butter, cheese, sour cream and palm kernel and coconut oils.

When a person’s diet is high in saturated fats, these fats tend to clump together in the body and

form deposits, along with protein and cholesterol. They then lodge in the cells, organs and blood

vessels. This can lead to many health problems, including obesity, heart disease, and breast and

colon cancers.

UNSATURATED FATS: Unsaturated fats are called such because there are at least two adjacent

carbon atoms on a chain which are not attached to hydrogen atoms. When at least two pairs of

carbon atoms are empty it is known as a monounsaturated fatty acid. When two or more sets are

empty, then it is referred to as a polyunsaturated fatty acid. A good rule of thumb is that the more

saturated the fat, the more easily it will stay hard at room temperature.

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ESSENTIAL FATTY ACIDS: Essential fatty acids (EFAs) are vital nutritional components that

our bodies need for many functions. They are found in the seeds of plants and in the oils of cold-

water fish. Essential fatty acids sometimes referred to as vitamin F cannot be made by the body;

they must be supplied in the diet. However, at this time, the government has not officially

established a Recommended Daily Intake (RDI). Many factors, including stress, allergies,

disease, and a diet high in fried foods, can increase the body’s nutritional need for essen-tial fatty

acids.

1.2 Benefits and Functions of Essential Fatty Acids

The body takes combinations of different triglycerides and makes fats from them to help in

various processes. The basic building blocks of any fats are the fatty acids. Fatty acids are either

essential or nonessential. A fatty acid is considered essential if

1) the body is unable to synthesize it and

2) the only way it can be obtained is through the diet.

In addition, it is considered essential if a deficiency will cause a disease. As far back as 1930

researchers discovered that if an animal did not get essential fatty acids in the diet, it could cause

symptoms such as poor reproduction, lowered immunity, rough, dry skin, and slow growth,

among others.

There are basically three essential fatty acids. They are linoleic acid, linolenic acid, and

arachidonic acid. Linoleic acid is the most vital. Linolenic and arachidonic acids can be

converted from linoleic acid, but linoleic acid must be obtained from the diet. Most people are

unaware of the many vital functions of essential fatty acids. The list includes:

• Lowering triglyceride levels.

• Helping to eradicate plaque from the walls of arteries.

• Lowering blood pressure.

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• Altering the production of leukotrienes which aggravate inflammation in the body. This has

shown to be beneficial, especially to those suffering from conditions such as arthritis, lupus,

psoriasis and other inflammationrelated ailments.

•Constructing body membranes. EFAs work with cholesterol and protein to repair old cell

membranes and construct new ones.

•Helping strengthen cell and capillary structures. Fatty acid supplementation in the diet helps

replace saturated fats with unsaturated fats. This increases the fluidity of cell membranes, and

helps renew their proper function, preventing stiffness and deterioration. The health of the cell

membrane depends upon adequate amounts of EFAs.

•Prolonging blood-clotting time, helping wounds to heal. EFAs prevent abnormal blood clotting

by inhibiting the production of a substance known as thromboxane, which allows platelets to

clot.

•Helping the body manufacture hemoglobin, the compound in the blood that provides oxygen to

the cells from the lungs.

•Assisting in the manufacture of cholesterol, while at the same time helping to remove excess

cholesterol from the blood. The much maligned body substance known as cholesterol has

received a bad rap in the press. Cholesterol, a “waxy alcohol,” is actually necessary for many

vital bodily functions. It is found in the bile, blood, brain tissue, liver, kidneys, adrenal glands,

and myelin sheaths (insulating material) of nerve fibers. It helps the body absorb and transport

fatty acids and is necessary for the body to synthesize vitamin D. It is also a building material for

hormones produced by the adrenal and reproductive glands. The body will actually manufacture

its own cholesterol to ensure a continuous supply of this important fat.

Cholesterol is synthesized throughout the body. It is manufactured by cells, glands, the small

intestine and the liver. Cholesterol is constructed from dietary by-products of pro-teins, sugars

and fats. If the diet contains excessive fats, especially the saturated types, the body will convert

them into cholesterol. People who eat high sugar or fat diets may there-fore experience elevated

cholesterol levels.

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•Preventing the growth of bacteria and viruses, which will not thrive in the presence of oxygen,

by oxygenating cell membranes. The ability of the highly unsaturated fatty acids to hold oxygen

can provide additional benefits such as increasing resistance to disease, endurance, metabolic

efficiency, energy conversion, and the balancing of sleep-wake cycles. The entire body is

beneficially affected by essential fatty acid nutrition and supplementation. By oxygenation of

body tissues, EFAs shorten the exercise recovery time for tired muscles.

•Assisting in the functions of glands and hormones.

•Nourishing skin, hair and nails. EFAs help eliminate eczema, psoriasis, dandruff, and help

prevent hair loss. Brittle nails respond to essential fatty acids. EFAs balance the skin’s

metabolism by controlling the flow of oils and nourish collagen, the supporting structure beneath

the skin. Vitamins A and E are fat-soluble and work with essential fatty acids to provide glowing

skin and hair.

• Increasing the rate at which the body burns fat.

• Helping the body maintain proper temperature.

• Assisting in the body’s production of electrical currents vital for a regular heartbeat.

• Acting as precursors to the production of hormone like substances called prostaglandins.

Gamma linolenic acid especially assists the body with this formation process.

Prostaglandins are found in almost all body cells, and act as catalysts for many physiological

processes. They help prevent abnormal blood clotting and nerve inflammation. Prostaglandins

also help promote blood circulation by dilat-ing the blood vessels and improve immune system

function. The most beneficial type of prostaglandin is called PGE-1. PGE-1 balances cholesterol

and blood pressure levels, and stimulates the body’s production of T-lymphocytes which

strengthen the immune capabilities. Each cell keeps tiny amounts of EFAs and produces

prostaglandins from them as they are needed. The name prostaglandins was coined because these

substances were originally found in high amounts in the prostate gland. To date, there have been

dis-covered at least thirty-six different prostaglandins with a wide range of roles in the body.

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1.3 Sources of Essential Fatty Acids

Essential fatty acids are found in both plant and animal sources, although primarily in plants. The

EFA family is com-posed of two main forms, Omega-3 and Omega-6. The following explains

exactly what these forms are.

OMEGA-3: The most common forms of Omega-3 are eicos-apentaenioic acid (EPA),

docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and alpha-linolenic acid, which comes from plants and helps create

EPA and DHA. Omega-3 is usually derived from fish oils. Dr. Roger Illingworth, associate

professor of medicine and bio-chemistry atOregon Health Sciences University, explains that

Omega-3 fatty acids are “long chained metabolic products from

linolenic acid. . . When animals consume and metabolize plants rich in linolenic acid, they

produce Omega-3.” EPA and DHA are liquid and remain that way, even at room temperature. It

is said that they protect fish by providing a body fat that stays fluid even in cold temperatures.

OMEGA-6: The most common form of Omega-6 is is gamma-linolenic acid (GLA). GLA is

known to provide the following benefits, among many others:

1.Helps facilitate weight loss in overweight persons (but not in people who do not need to lose

any weight).

2.Reduces platelet aggregation (abnormal blood clotting).

3.Helps reduce symptoms of depression and schizophrenia.

4.Alleviates premenstrual syndrome symptoms.

5.May help alcoholics overcome their addiction.

Omega-6 is usually found in plant sources. The oils of cold-water fish such as salmon, bluefish,

herring, tuna, mackerel and similar fish are known as Omega-3 fatty acids. The fresh-pressed oils

of many raw seeds and nuts contain Omega-6 fatty acids. The most popular sources of Omega-3

and Omega-6 include:

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BLACK CURRANT SEED OIL: This oil is rich in linoleic acid (44%) and provides almost

twice as much gamma-linolenic acid as evening primrose oil. Black currant seed oil also is an

excellent source of an Omega-3 precursor known as stearidonic acid.

BORAGE OIL: This oil comes from Boragoofficinalis, a plant with blue flowers. It is widely

recommended in Europe to strengthen the adrenal glands, alleviate symptoms of premenstrual

syn-drome and relieve inflammation. Besides possibly helping with

heart and joint function, it may also assist the growth of nails and hair. Borage oil is also an

excellent source of GLA. In The Complete Medicinal Herbal, herbalist Penelope Ody asserts that

it is “helpful in some cases of menstrual irregularity, for irrita-ble bowel syndrome, or as

emergency first aid for hangovers.”

SALMON OIL: This oil is high in Omega-3 essential fatty acids. These types of EFAs are

known to thin the blood, prevent clotting, regulate cholesterol production and strengthen cell

walls, making them less susceptible to viral and bacterial invasion. Salmon oil has a natural

ability to help the body relieve inflammation.

In the ground-breaking book The Omega-3 Breakthrough: The Revolutionary, Medically Proven

Fish Oil Diet, professor Roger Illingworth writes that

Linolenic acid is a fatty acid with 18 carbons and 3 double bonds. It is manufactured exclusively

by plants. When animals consume and metabolize plants rich in linolenic acid, they produce

Omega-3. Plankton, a minute form of marine life, is part plant and part animal. Its plant

component manufactures linolenic acid. Fish eat the plankton, and the linolenic acid breaks

down in their bodies in two types of Omega-3 fatty acids: EPA (eicosapentaenoic acid) and DHA

(docosahexaenoic acid) . . . The liquidity of EPA and DHA serves a vital function in fish, who

require body fat that remains fluid even in very cold water.

Fish oils, besides containing Omega-3 fatty acids, have shown to benefit those suffering from

migraine headaches, arthritis, and high cholesterol levels.

FLAX: Flax is a plant said to date back as far as 5000 B.C. It has been used since approximately

5000 B.C., making it one of the

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oldest cultivated crops. It is exported from several countries, including Argentina, Canada, India,

Russia and the United States. The flowers are usually blue, although they are sometimes white or

pink. The mucilaginous seed is, of course, called flaxseed. The oil primarily provides

Omega-3/linolenic acid, and provides an average of 57 percent Omega-3, 16 percent Omega-6,

and 18 percent of the non-essential Omega-9. Flaxseed oil is said to contain rich amounts of beta

carotene (about 4,300 IU per tablespoon) and vitamin E (about 15 IU per tablespoon). In the

October 1995 issue of Let’s Live, the history and uses of flax were highlighted by herbalist Carla

Cassata. She writes,. . . It’s no wonder the Cherokee Indians highly valued the flax plant. They

mixed flaxseed oil with either goat or moose milk, honey and cooked pumpkin to nourish

pregnant and nursing mothers, providing them with the needed nutrients for creating strong and

healthy children. It was also given to people who had skin diseases, arthritis, malnutrition as well

as men wishing to increase virility. They believed flax captured energies from the sun that could

then be released and used in the body’s metabolic process.

This belief has merit. Flaxseed oil, rich in electrons, strongly attracts photons from sunlight. To

be effective, EFAs must be combined with protein at the same meal. This flaxseed

oil/pro-tein/sunlight combination releases energy and enhances the body’s electrical system.

Also, this combination, along with vitamin E, can be beneficial for infertile couples and women

suffering from premenstrual syndrome . . . Flaxseed oil, having an anti-inflammatory effect on

the body, can benefit the 40 million Americans suffering from osteoarthritis and rheumatoid

arthritis. To achieve optimum results, however, substances that activate the sympathet-ic nervous

system—like refined sugar, soda, coffee, fluoridemust be eliminated. Stress must also be

reduced, because it too,activates the sympathetic nervous system, promoting inflammation.

EVENING PRIMROSE: This flower is indigenous to North America, although the oil is

particularly popular throughout Europe for therapeutic purposes. It is also known as night wil -

low and evening star. It is an excellent source of both linolenic and linoleic acids. Both of these

nutrients must be obtained from the diet, as the body cannot synthesize them. The seeds contain

gamma linolenic acid. This polyunsaturated EFA helps with the production of energy and is a

structural component of the brain, bone marrow, muscles and cell membranes. Evening primrose

oil has also benefited those with multiple sclerosis, PMS, hyperactivity and obesity. It is

estimated that it takes about 5,000 seeds to produce the oil for one 500 mg capsule.

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1.4 Deficiency Symptoms

Many ailments can be traced to essential fatty acid deficiencies. A lack of linoleic acid in the diet

can cause adverse symptoms including:

• Acne • Arthritis

• Changes in personality or behavior • Miscarriage

• Gallbladder dysfunction • Poor growth

• Slow healing of wounds • Kidney problems

• Cardiovascular problems • Muscle tremors

• Prostate inflammation • Skin disorders

• Thirst due to excessive perspiration • Sterility in males

A lack or low content of linolenic acid in the diet can cause adverse symptoms including:

• Poor growth

• Learning disability

• Tingling in the extremities

• Impaired motor coordination

• Poor vision

Adverse symptoms can disappear when adequate amounts of the deficient fatty acid are given to

the person. However, long-term deficiencies of essential fatty acids can cause death. The human

body requires forty-five known essential nutrients, and it requires linoleic acid more than any

other. Researchers estimate that the body needs at least three to six grams a day, or one to two

percent of your daily caloric intake to prevent deficiency symptoms. A much larger amount is

helpful to preserve optimum health.

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How do you know how much your body needs? The requirements will be different for each

person, depending on factors such as stress, diet, and the amount of physical activity you engage

in daily. For instance, an obese person who eats a lot of saturated fats will require much more

than a thin person who is careful about their dietary intake of saturated fats. A well-bal-anced

diet that includes primary nutrients like vitamins B3, B6, C, zinc and vitamin A will help the

body utilize essential fatty acids more efficiently. In his book, Lipid Nutrition, Dr. Randy L.

Wong states,

It should be mentioned . . . that the ability of lipids to hold relatively high levels of oxygen has

negative implications for the obese. Increased oxygen in fat reserves can result in lipid oxidation

and thus free radical formation, which can then increase various tissue pathologies.

This process can be averted by a diet or supplementation regime rich in antioxidant nutrients

such as vitamins A, C and E, among others. Several factors can interfere with fatty acid metab-

olism. They include a diet high in saturated fats and cholesterol, aging, alcohol, high blood sugar,

viral infections and aspirin use.

Stay away from fats in which the normal, health giving properties have been altered to the point

where they actually cause damage to the body’s cells. Ideally, a health-minded person will not

eat deepfried foods, as these are especially dangerous. However, because we are all human and it

is almost impossible to eat a perfect diet nowadays, taking essential fatty acid supplements will

help offset the damage done to the body by the “bad fats.”

1.5 The Danger of Fried Foods

Even natural elements such as light, oxygen and heat can cause the breakdown and rancidity of

fats. Recent research has shown that the composition of extremely heated fats, especially those of

vegetable origin, may turn into cancer causing agents by causing free-radical damage to the

body. You would think that liquid oils are healthier for you than solid fats. Well, not when it

comes to frying. Because solid saturated fats are more stable than liquid unsaturated fats when

they are exposed to light, heat and air, they are more desirable than oils for frying. Ideally, we

shouldn’t really heavily fry food at all, but prepare it like the Chinese do, by stir frying. The

Chinese put water into the pan or wok and then the oil, then the vegetables and meat, constantly

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stirring the mixture around the entire time. This keeps the temperature of the oil lower. It also

protects it from oxidation by forming steam which helps keep air from degenerating the oil.

In many commercial restaurants and fast-food establishments, oil is repeatedly reused at high

temperatures. It will soon become dark and rancid, exhibiting a strong odor and flavor. Many

toxic substances can form when oils are heated to high temperatures. One of these is “trans-fatty

acids.” These sub-stances are deformed fat molecules which can damage the cells and cause a

fatty acid deficiency by inhibiting enzymes that cause fatty acids to be changed into essential

molecules. This may, in turn, interfere with prostaglandin production and cause problems with

blood pressure and normal platelet action. Ann Louise Gittleman, M.S., underscores the negative

impact of commercial oils in her book, Super Nutrition of Women.

Commercially processed oils, hydrogenated margarines, and fried foodswhat I call damaged fats

interfere with the transformation of GLA and EPA into prostaglandins. The once beneficial

polyunsaturates have been exposed to processing in the form of excess heat, air, light or

hydrogenation that makes them now unusable for the human body. Without the ability to

transform into prostaglandins, the EFAs are biologically worthless.

The body cannot use trans-fatty acids so they simply collect around fatty tissues and the body’s

organs. They also take up space where essential fatty acids normally would be, but do not

perform any useful function. It is best to avoid frying food, but when it is necessary, use the

Chinese method, or use a small amount of saturated fat (such as butter), and do not heat it to a

high temperature.

What About Cooking Oils?

The liquid oils you purchase at the supermarket are exposed to light through the bottles, which

causes deterioration. Once you open the bottle, oxygen adds its negative impact. Then, when you

heat the oil to a high temperature, it is a detriment to your health. But that is not all. Before it

even reaches the supermarket, the oil is already denatured because of the extraction process. If

you use oil for cooking, use olive oil.

Mass market refining is concerned with getting the job done as quickly and cheaply as possible.

Petroleum (petrochemical) solvents are used to yield the oils from the seeds. Some companies

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also utilize caustic soda and acid-based clays during the refining and bleaching phases of

refining. Following the bleaching stage, harmful substances known as peroxides may form in the

oils, as a result of the oxidation and breaking down process.

Believe it or not, the manufacturing process which separates oils from their sources has been

employed for more than forty centuries. Modern technology has increased the amount of oil that

can be extracted from seedbearing fruits of flowering plants, and enhanced an oil’s shelf life,

while saving manufacturing costs. However, this has been at the expense of the aroma, flavor,

and nutritional value of the oil.

Sesame seeds are considered to be the first source of extracted oil. More than four thousand

years ago, the Assyrians and Chinese would roast the seeds, grind them to a fine powder, and

then wait for the oil to separate and rise in the bowl. This took a long time, with very little oil as

a result, and this prompted the search for more efficient methods of extracting oil.

Until the 1920s, and even through the early 1940s, oil extraction was conducted on a limited

commercial scale, with slow, small, cool-running presses to extract the oil. It was primarily a

cottage industry, where flax oil was poured into 100 milliliter bottles and delivered weekly to

homes.

In the 1920s, huge oil-producing companies began to emerge. They planted farms where the

seeds of specific crops could be processed in huge machines that could press more than 100 tons

oil seeds daily by running twenty-four hours a day. Pesticides, synthetic fertilizers and

automation increased yields and reduced costs. The negative side was that oils which were

previously nutritionally rich were now processed to increase shelf life. Due to this processing,

essential fatty acids disappeared from massproduced oils. There following are signs that reveal

the differences between mass-produced and tradi-tional oils.

•You can taste and smell traditional oils. Mass-produced oils are very bland and odorless.

•Traditional oils are produced naturally without pesticides, which can poison the nervous system

and interfere with immune function. Mass-produced oils contain pesticide residues.

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•Traditional oils are not extracted with solvents. Mass-produced oils may contain residues of

these chemicals, many of which may depress central nervous system function and act as lung

irritants.

•Traditional oils contain naturally occurring preservatives. Mass-produced oils are kept “fresh”

with synthetic antioxidants such as BHT, BHA, citric acid, and methyl silicone. These synthetic

antioxidants may interfere with cellular respiration and metabolism. When ingested over a period

of years, they may cause degeneration of body systems, leading to disease.

1.6 What Are Free Radicals?

• Traditional oils involve a relative minimum of heat in their production. Lewis Harrison

explains, “Mass-produced oils are produced under very high temperatures with loss of many

nutritional factors and natural antioxidants. Among those substances removed are lecithin,

vitamins A and E, minerals, chlorophyll, and various aromatic and volatile compounds.” Free

radicals are often found in overly-heated oils. Processing destroys the nutritious components of

essential fatty acids and creates what are known as “trans fatty acids.” In TFAs, the nourishing

structure of fatty acids are changed by heat and chemicals, the by-product of which are cancer-

causing free radicals.

Technically, a free radical is an element or molecule with an unpaired electron. If not limited and

controlled, they can dam-age the body’s cells and accelerate the processes of disease and aging.

Certain enzymes and nutrients, known as antioxidants, will scavenge for free radicals and

neutralize them, preventing them from harming the body. They are also known as free rad-ical

scavengers. These nutrients include vitamins C and E, beta carotene (provitamin A), grape seed

extract, the mineral seleni-um, and the enzymes glutathione peroxidase and superoxide

dismutase (SOD). There are a host of others, including herbs, which are too numerous to

mention. Some signs of free radical damage to the body may include premature aging, liver

spots, cancer, arthritis and cross-linking which causes wrinkles.

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Diet Imbalance

Besides the loss of quality in the production of cooking oils, there are other aspects of our

modern world can contribute to imbalanced EFA intake. John Belleme explains in the

September/October 1996 issue of Health Magazine that

For most of us, our diets are out of balance when it comes to EFAs. Unlike our ancestors, whose

diets were made up of foods containing roughly equal amounts of the two essential fatty acids,

Western diets ar short on Omega-3s and too rich in Omega-6s. In fact, the average American diet

contains between ten and twenty-five times as much Omega-6 as Omega-3 far from the ideal

ratio of three to one. How did our diets become so skewed? In large part, it’s because we now

grow food domestically that is lower in Omega-3s than foods grown in the wild. For example,

one researcher found that the eggs of range-fed chickens have a balanced amount of fatty acids,

whereas standard United States Department of Agriculture eggs provide twenty times as much

Omega-6 as Omega-3. The same disparity is also true of the meat of domesticated pigs, chicken,

and cows compared with wild boar, fowl, and deer. Even wild vegetables seem to have more

Omega-3s than farm vegetables. In addition, our overconsumption of Omega-6s is partly due to

modern food processing, which destroys delicate Omega-3s. At the same time, we are consuming

fewer foods that are rich in Omega-3s (such as fish and flaxseeds) and eating more foods that are

high in Omega-6s (meat, eggs, and grains). And many of us are eating only vegetable oils that

are high in Omega-6s and low in Omega-3s, such as sunflower, corn, sesame, and safflower,

which increases our risk of an Omega-3 deficiency.

Many researchers theorize that these radical changes in our diet most of which have occurred

over the last two hundred years are a major factor in the almost epidemic rates of cardiovascular

disease, cancer, and depression these days . . . Although you can remedy a deficiency by taking

supplements, don’t tip the scale too far in the other direction. Longterm (more than two years)

and excessive use (two to four tablespoons a day) of flaxseed or fish oil can cause an Omega-6

deficiency. Once you have eliminated your original Omega-3 deficiency, then concentrate on

getting a balance amount of EFAs. Note: When taking EFA supplements, it’s important to make

sure your diet is rich in vitamins and minerals. Your body needs vitamins A, carotene, B3, B6, C,

E, and the minerals magnesium, selenium and zinc to metabolize EFAs . . .Protect your oils.

Omega-3 oils usually come in dark bottles but should still always be refrigerated.

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1.7 Over coming Disease With EFA s

Studies show that EFAs may be helpful for many chronic, stubborn conditions. The EFAs’ ever-

growing repertoire of valuable applications includes, among many others, overcoming diseases

such as alcoholism, breast cancer and cardiovascular disease, strengthening the immune system,

helping eliminate yeast infection, reducing symptoms of premenstrual syndrome, minimizing

inflammation of rheumatoid arthritis, and assisting in the proper management of weight.

ALCOHOLISM: Alcohol dependence is a serious condition that can result in decreased life

expectancy, suicide, degeneration of the brain and liver, osteoporosis and many other ill effects.

The rate at which alcohol is metabolized in the body is different for each person. It has a lot to do

with the person’s nutritional status, the concentration and activity of certain liver enzymes, and

the speed at which the alcohol itself is consumed.Alcoholics tend not to eat, because the

abundant yet nutrient-poor calories diminish the appetite. Because of this, alcoholics become

extremely malnourished. It is suggested that an overall nutritional program be employed with

persons addicted to alcohol. Especially important are vitamins A, C, and B-com-plex, as well as

the minerals zinc, magnesium and selenium. Amino acids (primarily glutamine or glutamic acid),

the herb milk thistle, Lactobacillus acidophilus, antioxidants, L-carnitine, and the essential fatty

acids are also extremely important. Studies show that EFAs, especially those high in gamma-

linolenic acid, keep blood lipid levels from going out of control.

BREAST CANCER: The body’s immune system plays a vital role in protecting us against

cancer. Every day, each of us has the potential for getting cancer, but the body’s immune system

recognizes and annihilates the wayward cells before they have a chance to multiply and do

damage. However, when the immune system is overwhelmed or is not functioning properly, the

abnormal cells reproduce without anything to stop them. Cancer patients become malnourished

and lose weight because the rapidly growing tumors have a voracious appetite for nutrition to

keep them going and the person is left with virtually nothing to nutritionally support their

health.There are many natural approaches to preventing breast cancer. Studies show that, among

other things, we should have a diet rich in cruciferous vegetables, such as broccoli and cabbage,

as well as any food high in fiber. Antioxidants such as grape seed concentrate, vitamins A, C,

and E, minerals and essential fatty acids should also be key parts of our daily diet. Research has

shown EFAs, especially gamma-linolenic acid (GLA), to have anti-tumor properties.

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CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE: All cells of the body depend upon nutrients transported

by the circulatory network. When the blood vessels become clogged with fats and cholesterol,

nutri-tion distribution becomes impeded. When blood flow is stopped in some areas, the heart

can die, whether from a sudden heart attack or from gradual weakening over time. Free radicals

can damage the linings of the blood vessels, roughening them and making it easier for fat

particles to snag and adhere to the blood vessel walls. Some argue that homogenized milk also

contributes to blood vessel damage in the same way that free radicals do. What are some

solutions? Exercise is a great way to increase circulation and keep the blood from stagnating. A

diet high in fruits, vegetables, natural fiber and low in saturated fats, meats and homogenized

dairy products will also help. In addition, antioxidants, hawthorn be Ginkgo biloba, vitamin E,

Co Q-10, L-carnitine, the minerals calcium, magnesium and potassi-um, and EFAs will also

benefit the cardiovascular system.Studies show that essential fatty acids can help reduce blood

pressure and blood fats (lipids), including excessive cholesterol. When fats combine with

proteins and carbohydrates, they are called lipoproteins. Lipoproteins are categorized according

to the ratio of fat to protein that they contain. High-density lipoproteins (HDL) help the body get

rid of excessive choles-terol. Low-density lipoproteins (LDL) do the opposite; that is, they

contribute to the accumulation of arterial plaque, or the buildup of cholesterol on arterial walls. If

a person has high HDL levels and low LDL levels in their blood, the likelihood of a heart attack

is greatly reduced. Omega-3 fatty acids from cold-water fish sources raise the level of HDL in

the blood.

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2.0 How to mobilize body fat

2.1. Introduction

The two types of fat in the body are: essential fat and nonessential fat, or storage

fat,Essential fat is needed for normal physiological and biological functioning. It is found in

bonemarrow, the brain, the spinal cord, cell membranes, muscles, and other internal organs. The

levelessential fat is approximately 3% of total body weight for men and 12% of total body

weightfor women. Women have a higher essential body fat requirement because of gender-

specific fatdeposits in breast tissue and the area surrounding the uterus. When essential fat drops

below acritical level, normal physiological and biological function may be impaired (Heyward

andWagner 2004).

Nonessential fat has three main functions:

1) As an insulator to retain body heat.

2) As an energy substrate during rest and exercise.

3) As padding against trauma.

Nonessential fat, known as storage fat, is typically layered below the skin and is referred toas

subcutaneous fat. Storage fat is also found surrounding internal organs in the abdominalcavity

and this fat is referred to as visceral fat. Older people tend to have less subcutaneous fatand more

visceral fat than younger people (Heyward and Wagner 2004).

2.2. How Is Body Fat Gained?

Storage fat is found in adipose tissue. Adipose tissue is a form of connective tissue

composed of fat cells, called adipocytes, that are separated by a matrix ofcollagenous

(whitefibrous protein) and elastic fibers. Body fat accumulates in two ways:

(1) Hypertrophy of fat cells: filling existing adipocytes, causing an increase in their size.

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(2) Hyperplasia of fat cells: forming new fat cells.

Fat cells normally increase in size (hypertrophy) and number (hyperplasia) from birth

tomaturity. Obese adults typically have 60 to 100 billion fat cells compared with 30 to 50

billionfat cells found in non-obese adults (Pollock and Willmore 1990). Previous research

indicates thatthe number of fat cells increased markedly during the first year of life, gradually

until puberty,and then modestly for a period of several years, with the maximum number of cells

becomingfixed by adulthood. Current evidence suggests that the size and number of fat cells can

increaseat any age. The exact mechanism for hyperplasia is still unknown; however, it is

hypothesizedthat fat cells have a certain “size” capacity and once that capacity is reached a new

cell is formedvia hyperplasia (Liebman 2004). Fat cells can increase or decrease in size, but once

a fat celldevelops it is permanent and can be removed only by liposuction.

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2.3. How Is Body Fat Stored?

Fat in the body is in the form of triglycerides. Triglycerides (TG) are made up of three

freefatty acid (FFA) molecules held together by a molecule of glycerol (not a fat but a type

ofalcohol) (Brown, Miller, and Eason 2006).

Most of the body’s fat is stored in the adipocytes. Typically, about 50,000 to

60,000kilocalories (kcals) of energy are stored as TG in adipocytes throughout the body (Manore

andThompson 2000). Fat can also be stored as “droplets” within skeletal muscle cells. These

fatdroplets are called intramuscular triglycerides (IMTG) and they may hold 2,000 to 3,000

kcalsof stored energy (Manore and Thompson 2000). In addition to the stores of fat, some TG

travelfreely in the blood. During exercise, TG in fat cells, muscle cells, and in the blood can be

brokendown (a process called lipolysis) and used as fuel by the exercising muscles.

In humans, adipose tissue is located beneath the skin (subcutaneous fat), around internal

organs (visceral fat), in bone marrow (yellow bone marrow) and in breast tissue. Adipose tissue

is found in specific locations, which are referred to as adipose depots. Apart from adipocytes,

which comprise the highest percentage of cells within adipose tissue, other cell types are present

collectively termed stromal vascular fraction (SVF) of cells. SVF includes preadipocytes,

fibroblasts, adipose tissue macrophages, and endothelial cells. Adipose tissue contains many

small blood vessels. In the integumentary system, which includes the skin, it accumulates in the

deepest level, the subcutaneous layer, providing insulation from heat and cold. Around organs, it

provides protective padding. However, its main function is to be a reserve of lipids, which can be

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burned to meet the energy needs of the body and to protect it from excess glucose by storing

triglycerides produced by the liver from sugars, although some evidence suggests that most lipids

synthesized from carbohydrates occurs in the adipose tissue itself.Adipose depots in different

parts of the body have different biochemical profiles. Under normal conditions, it provides

feedback for hunger and diet to the brain.

2.4. Fat Mobilization and Metabolism

The mobilization of fat refers to the process of releasing fat from storage sites in the

body.Two main enzymes regulate the mobilization of free fatty acids: hormone sensitivelipase

(HSL)and lipoprotein lipase (LPL). The metabolism of fat is the complete biological

breakdown, oroxidation (which means loss of electrons) of fat into energy that can be used by

the body. Theprimary sites of fat oxidation are cardiac and skeletal muscle and the liver.

2.4.1. Hormone Sensitive Lipase (HSL)

HSL is located directly in the fat cell and is regulated primarily by the

circulatingconcentrations of epinephrine and insulin. HSL is stimulated by the hormone

epinephrine andinhibited by the hormone insulin. When HSL is stimulated, it acts to break apart

the triglyceridesin the adipose tissue, releasing three free fatty acids (FFA) and glycerol, which

are thecomponents of TG, into the blood stream. This process is called lipolysis. When HSLis

inhibited, lipolysis is inhibited. Under most physiological conditions, the rate of lipolysis

isdetermined by the balance between the stimulating effect of epinephrine and the inhibitory

effectof insulin.

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Lipolysis of a triglyceride

Epinephrine, which is released by the sympathetic nervous system during exercise, is

theprimary stimulator of lipolysis (Rasmussen and Wolfe 1999). Epinephrine binds to

specificreceptors on the fat cell, which in turn, activate HSL. An individual’s physiological state

canaffect the body’s sensitivity to epinephrine. For example, during aerobic exercise

HSLresponsiveness to epinephrine is enhanced due to an increase in body temperature and a

greaterconcentration of epinephrine in the blood stream. Additionally, in an endurance-

trainedindividual the HSL response to epinephrine is enhanced such that HSL can be activated

by alower concentration of epinephrine compared with a non-endurance-trained individual.

Ametabolic training effect of aerobic exercise is an enhanced ability to mobilize and break

apartTG for energy use. In contrast, obesity blunts the HSL responsiveness toepinephrine,

meaningthat a higher concentration of epinephrine is needed to activate HSL in obese

individuals(Rasmussen and Wolfe 1999).

Once in the blood stream, the FFA molecules bind to albumin , a blood proteinthe main

transporter of FFA molecules. FFA molecules are not water soluble and thusrequire a protein

carrier to allow them to be transported to cells and within the blood stream. Once the FFA

molecules are transported to the muscle cell, they are released from albumin andcarried across

the muscle cell membrane by specific transporters.

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Fatty acids (FA) transported by albumin in blood to target tissues in the body

Three main FFA transporters located on the muscle cell membrane take over at this

point:fatty acid binding protein (FABP), fatty acid translocase (FAT), and fatty acid transport

protein(FATP) (Turcotte 2000). These proteins bind the FFA molecules and transport them

across thecell membrane to the mitochondria, the organelle of cells responsible for

energyproduction—for complete oxidation. Aerobic training can increase the number of

FFAtransporters on the muscle cell membrane, thus enhancing the ability to metabolize fat.

Theglycerol molecule released from the process of lipolysis is circulated to the liver for

oxidationand is either used as a molecule in the breakdown of glucose or to make more TG

(Robergs andKeteyian 2003).

2.4.2. Liproprotein Lipase (LPL)

LPL, the second enzyme that regulates the mobilization of FFA, is located on blood

vesselwalls throughout the body. Both adipose tissue and the liver have large quantities of this

enzyme.LPL acts on TG within lipoproteins, special transporters that carry cholesterol and TG

throughthe blood stream to fat storage depots and body cells for fuel and cellular life support. TG

areeither broken down to FFA molecules and used as fuel by active tissues or they diffuse into

fatand liver cells where they are resynthesized into TG and stored. LPL is often referred to as

the“gatekeeper” that controls the distribution of fat in the various storage depots of the body.

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Epinephrine

Epinephrine is the primary hormone that stimulates lipolysis (the breakdown

oftriglycerides) (Blaak 2001). Epinephrine binds to receptors on various cells throughout the

body,such as adipocytes and muscle cells, and can either activate or inhibit HSL (Blaak 2001).

Asexplained above, when HSL is stimulated, it acts to break apart TG in the adipose tissue

andrelease the three FFA molecules and glycerol into the bloodstream.The two main types of

epinephrine receptors are alpha receptors and beta receptors.Epinephrine can stimulate lipolysis

through the beta receptors and can inhibit lipolysis throughthe alpha receptors (Blaak 2001). The

type of receptor available and its sensitivity to epinephrinedetermines the response ofHSL in any

given tissue. Alpha and beta receptors can be located onthe same cells; the response of HSL

depends on which type is more abundant and available forbinding with epinephrine. When the

beta receptors are stimulated, HSL is activated. Incontrast, when the alpha receptors are

stimulated, HSL is inhibited.

Epinephrine acting on the alpha receptors in fat cells

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Epinephrine acting on the beta receptors in fat cell

3.0 OMEGA 3 FATTY ACIDS

3.1 introduction

Omega-3 fatty acids are considered essential fatty acids: They are necessary for human health

but the body can' t make them -- you have to get them through food. Omega-3 fatty acids can be

found in fish, such as salmon, tuna, and halibut, other seafood including algae and krill, some

plants, and nut oils. Also known as polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), omega-3 fatty acids

play a crucial role in brain function, as well as normal growth and development. They have also

become popular because they may reduce the risk of heart disease. The American Heart

Association recommends eating fish (particularly fatty fish such as mackerel, lake trout, herring,

sardines, albacore tuna, and salmon) at least 2 times a week.

Research shows that omega-3 fatty acids reduce inflammation and may help lower risk of

chronic diseases such as heart disease, cancer, and arthritis. Omega-3 fatty acids are highly

concentrated in the brain and appear to be important for cognitive (brain memory and

performance) and behavioral function. In fact, infants who do not get enough omega-3 fatty acids

from their mothers during pregnancy are at risk for developing vision and nerve problems.

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Symptoms of omega-3 fatty acid deficiency include fatigue, poor memory, dry skin, heart

problems, mood swings or depression, and poor circulation.

It is important to have the proper ratio of omega-3 and omega-6 (another essential fatty acid) in

the diet. Omega-3 fatty acids help reduce inflammation, and most omega-6 fatty acids tend to

promote inflammation. The typical American diet tends to contain 14 - 25 times more omega-6

fatty acids than omega-3 fatty acids, which many nutritionally oriented physicians consider to be

way too high on the omega-6 side.

The Mediterranean diet, on the other hand, has a healthier balance between omega-3 and omega-

6 fatty acids. Many studies have shown that people who follow this diet are less likely to develop

heart disease. The Mediterranean diet emphasizes foods rich in omega-3 fatty acids, including

whole grains, fresh fruits and vegetables, fish, olive oil, garlic, as well as moderate wine

consumption.

3.2 Uses

Clinical evidence is strongest for heart disease and problems that contribute to heart disease, but

omega-3 fatty acids may also be used for:

High cholesterol

People who follow a Mediterranean style diet tend to have higher HDL or “good†�cholesterol levels, which help promote heart health. Inuit Eskimos, who get high amounts of

omega-3 fatty acids from eating fatty fish, also tend to have increased HDL cholesterol and

decreased triglycerides (fats in the blood). Several studies have shown that fish oil supplements

reduce triglyceride levels. Finally, walnuts (which are rich in alpha linolenic acid or ANA, which

converts to omega-3s in the body) have been reported to lower total cholesterol and triglycerides

in people with high cholesterol levels.

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High blood pressure

Several clinical studies suggest that diets rich in omega-3 fatty acids lower blood pressure in

people with hypertension. An analysis of 17 clinical studies using fish oil supplements found that

taking 3 or more grams of fish oil daily may reduce blood pressure in people with untreated

hypertension. Doses this high, however, should only be taken under the direction of a physician.

Heart disease

The role of omega-3 fatty acids in cardiovascular disease is well established. One of the best

ways to help prevent heart disease is to eat a diet low in saturated fat and to eat foods that are

rich in monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fats (including omega-3 fatty acids). Clinical

evidence suggests that EPA and DHA (eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid, the 2

omega-3 fatty acids found in fish oil) help reduce risk factors for heart disease, including high

cholesterol and high blood pressure. Fish oil has been shown to lower levels of triglycerides (fats

in the blood), and to lower the risk of death, heart attack, stroke, and abnormal heart rhythms in

people who have already had a heart attack. Fish oil also appears to help prevent and treat

atherosclerosis (hardening of the arteries) by slowing the development of plaque and blood clots,

which can clog arteries.

Large population studies suggest that getting omega-3 fatty acids in the diet, primarily from fish,

helps protect against stroke caused by plaque buildup and blood clots in the arteries that lead to

the brain. Eating at least 2 servings of fish per week can reduce the risk of stroke by as much as

50%. However, high doses of fish oil and omega-3 fatty acids may increase the risk of bleeding.

People who eat more than 3 grams of omega-3 fatty acids per day (equivalent to 3 servings of

fish per day) may have higher risk for hemorrhagic stroke, a potentially fatal type of stroke in

which an artery in the brain leaks or ruptures.

Diabetes

People with diabetes often have high triglyceride and low HDL levels. Omega-3 fatty acids from

fish oil can help lower triglycerides and apoproteins (markers of diabetes), and raise HDL, so

eating foods or taking fish oil supplements may help people with diabetes. Another type of

omega-3 fatty acid, ALA (from flaxseed, for example) may not have the same benefit as fish oil.

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Some people with diabetes can' t efficiently convert ANA to a form of omega-3 fatty acids that

the body can use. Also, some people with type 2 diabetes may have slight increases in fasting

blood sugar when taking fish oil, so talk to your doctor to see if fish oil is right for you.

Rheumatoid arthritis

Most clinical studies examining omega-3 fatty acid supplements for arthritis have focused on

rheumatoid arthritis (RA), an autoimmune disease that causes inflammation in the joints. A

number of small studies have found that fish oil helps reduce symptoms of RA, including joint

pain and morning stiffness. One study suggests that people with RA who take fish oil may be

able to lower their dose of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs). However, unlike

prescription medications, fish oil does not appear to slow progression of RA, only to treat the

symptoms. Joint damage still occurs.

Laboratory studies suggest that diets rich in omega-3 fatty acids (and low in the inflammatory

omega-6 fatty acids) may help people with osteoarthritis, although more study is needed. New

Zealand green lipped mussel (Pernacanaliculus), another potential source of omega-3 fatty acids,

has been reported to reduce joint stiffness and pain, increase grip strength, and improve walking

pace in a small group of people with osteoarthritis. For some people, symptoms got worse before

they improved.

An analysis of 17 randomized, controlled clinical trials looked at the pain relieving effects of

omega-3 fatty acid supplements in people with RA or joint pain caused by inflammatory bowel

disease (IBS) and painful menstruation (dysmenorrhea). The results suggest that omega-3 fatty

acids, along with conventional therapies such as NSAIDs, may help relieve joint pain associated

with these conditions.

Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE)

Several small studies suggest that EPA and fish oil may help reduce symptoms of lupus, an

autoimmune condition characterized by fatigue and joint pain. However, 2 small studies found

fish oil had no effect on lupus nephritis (kidney disease caused by lupus, a frequent complication

of the disease).

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Osteoporosis

Some studies suggest that omega-3 fatty acids may help increase levels of calcium in the body

and improve bone strength, although not all results were positive. Some studies also suggest that

people who don' t get enough of some essential fatty acids (particularly EPA and gamma-

linolenic acid [GLA], an omega-6 fatty acid) are more likely to have bone loss than those with

normal levels of these fatty acids. In a study of women over 65 with osteoporosis, those who

took EPA and GLA supplements had less bone loss over 3 years than those who took placebo.

Many of these women also experienced an increase in bone density.

Depression

Studies have found mixed results as to whether taking omega-3 fatty acids can help depression

symptoms. Several studies have found that people who took omega-3 fatty acids in addition to

prescription antidepressants had a greater improvement in symptoms than those who took

antidepressants alone. Other studies show that omega-3 fatty acid intake helps protect against

postpartom depression, among other benefits. However, other studies have found no benefit.

Studies are also mixed on whether omega-3 fatty acids alone have any effect on depression.

Depression is a serious illness and you should not try to treat it on your own. See a doctor for

help.

Bipolar disorder

In a clinical study of 30 people with bipolar disorder, those who took fish oil in addition to

standard prescription treatments for bipolar disorder for 4 months experienced fewer mood

swings and relapse than those who received placebo. But another 4 month long clinical study

treating people with bipolar depression and rapid cycling bipolar disorder did not find that EPA

helped reduce symptoms.

Schizophrenia

Preliminary clinical evidence suggests that people with schizophrenia may have an improvement

in symptoms when given omega-3 fatty acids. However, a recent well designed study concluded

that EPA supplements are no better than placebo in improving symptoms of this condition.

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Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)

Children with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) may have low levels of certain

essential fatty acids (including EPA and DHA). In a clinical study of nearly 100 boys, those with

lower levels of omega-3 fatty acids had more learning and behavioral problems (such as temper

tantrums and sleep disturbances) than boys with normal omega-3 fatty acid levels.

However, studies examining whether omega-3 fatty acids help improve symptoms of ADHD

have found mixed results. A few studies have found that omega-3 fatty acids helped improve

behavioral symptoms, but most were not well designed. One study that looked at DHA in

addition to stimulant therapy (standard therapy for ADHD) found no effect. More research is

needed, but eating foods that are high in omega-3 fatty acids is a reasonable approach for

someone with ADHD.

Cognitive decline

A number of studies show that reduced intake of omega-3 fatty acids is associated with increased

risk of age related cognitive decline or dementia, including Alzheimer's disease. Scientists

believe the omega-3 fatty acid DHA is protective against Alzheimer's disease and dementia.

Skin disorders

In one clinical study, 13 people with sun sensitivity known as photo dermatitis showed less

sensitivity to UV rays after taking fish oil supplements. However, topical sunscreens are much

better at protecting the skin from damaging effects of the sun than omega-3 fatty acids. In

another study of 40 people with psoriasis, those who took EPA with their prescription

medications did better than those treated with the medications alone. However, a larger study of

people with psoriasis found no benefit from fish oil.

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD)

Results are mixed as to whether omega-3 fatty acids can help reduce symptoms of Crohn' s

disease and ulcerative colitis, the 2 types of IBD. Some studies suggest that omega-3 fatty acids

may help when added to medication, such as sulfasalazine (a standard medication for IBD).

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Others find no effect. More studies are needed. Fish oil supplements can cause side effects that

are similar to symptoms of IBD (such as flatulence, belching, bloating, and diarrhea).

Asthma

Studies examining omega-3 fatty acids for asthma are mixed. In one small, well designed clinical

study of 29 children with asthma, those who took fish oil supplements rich in EPA and DHA for

10 months reduced their symptoms compared to children who took placebo. However, most

studies have shown no effect.

Macular Degeneration

A questionnaire given to more than 3,000 people over the age of 49 found that those who ate

more fish were less likely to have macular degeneration (a serious age related eye condition that

can progress to blindness) than those who ate less fish. Similarly, a clinical study comparing 350

people with macular degeneration to 500 without the eye disease found that those with a healthy

dietary balance of omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids and more fish in their diets were less likely

to have macular degeneration.

Menstrual pain

In one study of 42 women, they had less menstrual pain when they took fish oil supplements than

when they took placebo.

Coloncancer

Eating foods rich in omega-3 fatty acids seems to reduce the risk of colorectal cancer. For

example, Eskimos, who tend to have a high fat diet, but eat significant amounts of fish rich in

omega-3 fatty acids, have a low rate of colorectal cancer. Animal studies and laboratory studies

have found that omega-3 fatty acids prevent worsening of colon cancer. Preliminary studies

suggest that taking fish oil daily may help slow the progression of colon cancer in people with

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early stages of the disease. If you have colorectal cancer, ask your doctor before taking any

supplements.

Breast cancer

Although not all experts agree, women who eat foods rich in omega-3 fatty acids over many

years may be less likely to develop breast cancer. More research is needed to understand the

effect that omega-3 fatty acids may have on the prevention of breast cancer.

Prostate cancer

Population based studies of groups of men suggest that a low fat diet including omega-3 fatty

acids from fish or fish oil help prevent the development of prostate cancer.

3.3 Dietary Sources

Fish, plant, and nut oils are the primary dietary source of omega-3 fatty acids. Eicosapentaenoic

acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) are found in cold water fish such as salmon,

mackerel, halibut, sardines, tuna, and herring. ALA is found in flaxseeds, flaxseed oil, canola

(rapeseed) oil, soybeans, soybean oil, pumpkin seeds, pumpkin seed oil, purslane, perilla seed

oil, walnuts, and walnut oil. The health effects of omega-3 fatty acids come mostly from EPA

and DHA. ALA from flax and other vegetarian sources needs to be converted in the body to EPA

and DHA. Many people do not make these conversions very effectively, however. This remains

an ongoing debate in the nutrition community; fish and sea vegetable sources of EPA and DHA

versus vegetarian sources of ALA. Other sources of omega-3 fatty acids include sea life such as

krill and algae.

3.4 Available Forms

Both EPA and DHA can be taken in the form of fish oil capsules. Flaxseed, flaxseed oil, fish,

and krill oils should be kept refrigerated. Whole flaxseeds must be ground within 24 hours of

use, so the ingredients stay active. Flaxseeds are also available in ground form in a special mylar

package so the components in the flaxseeds stay active.

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Be sure to buy omega-3 fatty acid supplements made by established companies who certify that

their products are free of heavy metals such as mercury, lead, and cadmium.

3.5 How to Take It

Dosing for fish oil supplements should be based on the amount of EPA and DHA, not on the

total amount of fish oil. Supplements vary in the amounts and ratios of EPA and DHA. A

common amount of omega-3 fatty acids in fish oil capsules is 0.18 grams (180 mg) of EPA and

0.12 grams (120 mg) of DHA. Different types of fish contain variable amounts of omega-3 fatty

acids, and different types of nuts or oil contain variable amounts of ALA. Fish oils contain

approximately 9 calories per gram of oil.

Children (18 years and younger)

There is no established dose for children. Omega-3 fatty acids are used in some infant formulas.

Fish oil capsules should not be used in children except under the direction of a health care

provider. Children should avoid eating fish that may be high in mercury, such as shark,

swordfish, king mackerel, and tilefish. (See Precautions section.)

Adults

Do not take more than 3 grams daily of omega-3 fatty acids from capsules without the

supervision of a health care provider, due to an increased risk of bleeding.

For healthy adults with no history of heart disease: The American Heart Association

(AHA) recommends eating fish at least 2 times per week.

For adults with coronary heart disease: The AHA recommends an omega-3 fatty acid

supplement (as fish oils), 1 gram daily of EPA and DHA. It may take 2 - 3 weeks for

benefits of fish oil supplements to be seen. Supplements should be taken under the

direction of a physician.

For adults with high cholesterol levels: The AHA recommends an omega-3 fatty acid

supplement (as fish oils), 2 - 4 grams daily of EPA and DHA. It may take 2 - 3 weeks for

benefits of fish oil supplements to be seen. Supplements should be taken under the

direction of a physician.

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For adults with high blood pressure, scientists generally recommend 3 - 4 grams per day,

but you should only take under the supervision of a health care provider.

3.6 Precautions

Because of the potential for side effects and interactions with medications, you should only take

dietary supplements only under the supervision of a knowledgeable health care provider.

Omega-3 fatty acids should be used cautiously by people who bruise easily, have a bleeding

disorder, or take blood thinning medications including warfarin (Coumadin), clopidogrel

(Plavix), or aspirin. High doses of omega-3 fatty acids may increase the risk of bleeding, even in

people without a history of bleeding disorders -- and even in those who are not taking other

medications.

Fish oil can cause gas, bloating, belching, and diarrhea. Time release preparations may reduce

these side effects, however.

People with either diabetes or schizophrenia may lack the ability to convert alpha-linolenic acid

(ALA) to eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), the forms more readily

used in the body. People with these conditions should be sure to get enough EPA and DHA from

their diets. Also, people with type 2 diabetes may experience increases in fasting blood sugar

levels while taking fish oil supplements. If you have type 2 diabetes, use fish oil supplements

only under the supervision of a health care provider.

Although studies suggest that eating fish (which includes the omega-3 fatty acids EPA and

DHA) may reduce the risk of macular degeneration, a recent study including 2 large groups of

men and women found that diets rich in ALA may increase the risk of this disease. Until more

information becomes available, people with macular degeneration should get omega-3 fatty acids

from sources of EPA and DHA, rather than ALA.

Fish and fish oil may protect against prostate cancer, but some suggest that ALA may be

associated with increased risk of prostate cancer in men. More research in this area is needed.

Some fish may contain potentially harmful contaminants, such as heavy metals (including

mercury), dioxins, and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). For sport caught fish, the U.S.

35

Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) recommends that pregnant or nursing women eat no

more than a single 6 ounce meal per week, and young children less than 2 ounces per week. For

farm raised, imported, or marine fish, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration recommends that

pregnant or nursing women and young children avoid eating types with higher levels of mercury

(such as mackerel, shark, swordfish, or tilefish), and eat up to 12 ounces per week of other fish

types.

Buy fish oil from a reputable source that tests to make sure there is no mercury or pesticide

residues in its products.

Possible Interactions:

If you are currently being treated with any of the following medications, you should not use

omega-3 fatty acid supplements, including eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), docosahexaenoic acid

(DHA), and alpha-linolenic acid (ALA), without first talking to your health care provider.

Blood thinning medications -- Omega-3 fatty acids may increase the effects of blood thinning

medications, including aspirin, warfarin (Coumadin), and clopedigrel (Plavix). Taking aspirin

and omega-3 fatty acids may be helpful in some circumstances (such as in heart disease), but

they should only be taken together under the supervision of a health care provider.

Diabetes medications -- Taking omega-3 fatty acid supplements may increase fasting blood

sugar levels. Use with caution if taking medications to lower blood sugar, such as

glipizide(Glucotrol and Glucotrol XL), glyburide (Micronase or Diabeta), glucophage

(Metformin), or insulin. Your doctor may need to increase your medication dose. These drugs

include:

Glipizide (Glucotrol and Glucotrol XL)

Glyburide (Micronase or Diabeta)

Metformin (Glucophage)

Insulin

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Cyclosporine -- Cyclosporine is a medication given to people with organ transplants. Taking

omega-3 fatty acids during cyclosporine (Sandimmune) therapy may reduce toxic side effects,

such as high blood pressure and kidney damage, associated with this medication.

Etretinate and topical steroids -- Adding omega-3 fatty acids (specifically EPA) to the drug

therapy etretinate (Tegison) and topical corticosteroids may improve symptoms of psoriasis.

Cholesterol-lowering medications -- Following dietary guidelines, including increasing the

amount of omega-3 fatty acids in your diet and reducing the omega-6 to omega-3 ratio, may help

a group of cholesterol lowering medications known as statins to work more effectively. These

medications include:

Atorvastatin (Liptor)

Lovastatin (Mevacor)

Simvastatin (Zocor)

Nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) -- In an animal study, treatment with omega-

3 fatty acids reduced the risk of ulcers from nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs).

NSAIDs include ibuprofen (Motrin or Advil) and naproxen (Aleve or Naprosyn). More research

is needed to see whether omega-3 fatty acids would have the same effects in people.

Reviewed last on: 5/10/2011

Steven D. Ehrlich, NMD, Solutions Acupuncture, a private practice specializing in

complementary and alternative medicine, Phoenix, AZ. Review provided by VeriMed

Healthcare Network.

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4.1 OMEGA 6 FATTY ACIDS

Omega-6 fatty acids are considered essential fatty acids: They are necessary for human health

but the body can' t make them -- you have to get them through food. Along with omega-3 fatty

acids, omega-6 fatty acids play a crucial role in brain function, as well as normal growth and

development. Also known as polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs), they help stimulate skin and

hair growth, maintain bone health, regulate metabolism, and maintain the reproductive system.

A healthy diet contains a balance of omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids. Omega-3 fatty acids help

reduce inflammation, and some omega-6 fatty acids tend to promote inflammation. In fact, some

studies suggest that elevated intakes of omega-6 fatty acids may play a role in Complex Regional

Pain Syndrome. The typical American diet tends to contain 14 - 25 times more omega-6 fatty

acids than omega-3 fatty acids.

The Mediterranean diet, on the other hand, has a healthier balance between omega-3 and omega-

6 fatty acids. Many studies have shown that people who follow this diet are less likely to develop

heart disease. The Mediterranean diet does not include much meat (which is high in omega-6

fatty acids, though grass fed beef has a more favorable omega-3 to omega-6 fatty acid ratio) and

emphasizes foods rich in omega-3 fatty acids, including whole grains, fresh fruits and vegetables,

fish, olive oil, garlic, as well as moderate wine consumption.

There are several different types of omega-6 fatty acids, and not all promote inflammation. Most

omega-6 fatty acids in the diet come from vegetable oils, such as linoleic acid (LA). Be careful

not to confuse this with alpha-linolenic acid (ALA), an omega-3 fatty acid. Linoleic acid is

converted to gamma-linolenic acid (GLA) in the body. It is then further broken down to

arachidonic acid (AA). GLA is found in several plant based oils, including evening primrose oil

(EPO), borage oil, and black currant seed oil.

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GLA may actually reduce inflammation. Much of the GLA taken as a supplement is converted to

a substance called DGLA that fights inflammation. Having enough of certain nutrients in the

body (including magnesium, zinc, and vitamins C, B3, and B6) helps promote the conversion of

GLA to DGLA.

4.2 General Uses

Omega-6 fatty acids may be useful for the following health conditions:

Diabetic neuropathy

Some studies show that taking gamma linolenic acid (GLA) for 6 months or more may reduce

symptoms of nerve pain in people with diabetic neuropathy. People who have good blood sugar

control may find GLA more effective than those with poor blood sugar control.

Rheumatoid arthritis

Studies are mixed as to whether evening primrose oil helps reduce symptoms of rheumatoid

arthritis. Some preliminary evidence suggests evening primrose oil may reduce pain, swelling,

and morning stiffness; but other studies have found no effect. When using GLA for symptoms of

arthritis, it may take 1 - 3 months for benefits to appear. It is unlikely that evening primrose oil

would help stop progression of the disease, so joint damage would still occur.

Allergies

Omega-6 fatty acids from food or supplements, such as GLA from evening primrose oil or other

sources, have a longstanding history of folk use for allergies. Women who are prone to allergies

appear to have lower levels of GLA in breast milk and blood. However, there is no good

scientific evidence that taking GLA helps reduce allergy symptoms. Well conducted research

studies are needed.

If you decide to try GLA for allergies, work with your health care provider to first determine if it

is safe for you. Then follow your allergy symptoms closely for any signs of improvement or lack

or improvement.

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Attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)

Clinical studies suggest that children with ADHD have lower levels of EFAs, both omega-6s and

omega-3s. EFAs are important to normal brain and behavioral function. Some studies indicate

that taking fish oil (containing omega-3 fatty acids) may help reduce ADHD symptoms, though

the studies have not been well designed. Studies that used evening primrose oil have found it was

no better than placebo at reducing symptoms.

Breast cancer

One study found that women with breast cancer who took GLA had a better response to

tamoxifen (a drug used to treat estrogen sensitive breast cancer) than those who took only

tamoxifen. Other studies suggest that GLA inhibits tumor activity among breast cancer cell lines.

There is some research suggesting that a diet rich in omega-6 fatty acids may promote breast

cancer development.

Eczema

Evidence is mixed as to whether evening primrose oil can help reduce symptoms of eczema.

Some early studies found benefit, but they were not well designed. Later studies that examined

people who took evening primrose oil for 16 - 24 weeks found no improvement in symptoms. If

you want to try evening primrose oil, talk to your health care provider about whether it is safe for

you.

High blood pressure (Hypertension)

There is some preliminary evidence that GLA may help reduce high blood pressure, either alone

or in combination with omega-3 fatty acids eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic

acid (DHA), found in fish oil. In one study, men with borderline high blood pressure who took

6g of blackcurrant oil had a reduction in diastolic blood pressure compared to those who took

placebo.

Another study examined people with intermittent claudication, pain in the legs while walking

that is caused by blockages in the blood vessels. Those who took GLA combined with EPA had a

reduction in systolic blood pressure compared to those who took placebo.

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More research is needed to see whether GLA is truly effective for hypertension.

Menopausal symptoms

Evening primrose oil has gained popularity as a way to treat hot flashes associated with

menopause, but so far studies have not shown that it works. If you want to try evening primrose

oil for hot flashes and night sweats, ask your health care provider whether it is safe and right for

you.

Mastalgia

Some evidence suggests that evening primrose oil may reduce breast pain and tenderness in

people with cyclic mastalgia. It may also help reduce symptoms to a lesser extent in people with

non cyclicmastalgia. However, it does not seem to be effective for severe breast pain.

Multiple Sclerosis

Evening primrose oil has been suggested as an additional treatment (in addition to standard

therapy) for multiple sclerosis (MS) although there is no scientific evidence that it works. MS

patients who want to add evening primrose oil to their treatment regimens should talk with a

health care provider.

Osteoporosis

Some studies suggest that people who don' t get enough of some essential fatty acids

(particularly EPA and GLA) are more likely to have bone loss than those with normal levels of

these fatty acids. In a study of women over 65 with osteoporosis, those who took EPA and GLA

supplements had less bone loss over 3 years than those who took placebo. Many of these women

also experienced an increase in bone density.

Premenstrual syndrome (PMS)

Although most studies have found no effect, some women report relief of PMS symptoms when

using GLA. The symptoms that seem to be helped the most are breast tenderness and feelings of

depression, as well as irritability and swelling and bloating from fluid retention.

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4.3 Dietary Sources:

For general health, there should be a balance between omega-6 and omega-3 fatty acids. The

ratio should be in the range of 2:1 - 4:1, omega-6 to omega-3 -- and some health educators

advocate even lower ratios. The average diet provides plenty of omega-6 fatty acids, so

supplements are usually not necessary. People with specific conditions such as eczema or

psoriasis, arthritis, diabetes, or breast tenderness (mastalgia) may want to ask their health care

providers about taking omega-6 supplements.

Available Forms:

Omega-6 fatty acids are available in supplemental oils that contain linoleic acid (LA) and gamma

linolenic acid (GLA), such as evening primrose (Oenotherabiennis) and black currant

(Ribesnigrum) oils. Spirulina (often called blue-green algae) also contains GLA.

How to Take It:

The average diet provides sufficient omega-6 fatty acids, so supplementation is usually not

necessary unless you're treating a specific condition, such as eczema or psoriasis, arthritis,

diabetes, or breast tenderness (mastalgia).

The dose and form of omega-6 fatty acids to be supplemented depends on many factors,

including condition being treated, age, weight, and other medications and supplements being

used. Speak to your doctor to determine what form and what dose of omega-6 fatty acids are

most appropriate for you.

Precautions:

Because of the potential for side effects and interactions with medications, dietary supplements

should be taken only under the supervision of a knowledgeable health care provider.

Do not take omega-6 if you have a seizure disorder because there have been reports of these

supplements causing seizures. Several reports describe seizures in people taking evening

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primrose oil. Some of these seizures developed in people with a previous seizure disorder, or in

people taking evening primrose oil in combination with anesthetics. People who plan to undergo

surgery requiring anesthesia should stop taking evening primrose oil 2 weeks ahead of time.

Borage seed oil, and possibly other sources of gamma-linolenic acid (GLA), should not be taken

during pregnancy because they may harm the fetus and induce early labor.

Avoid doses of GLA greater than 3,000 mg per day. At that level, an increase in inflammation

may occur.

Side effects of evening primrose oil can include occasional headache, abdominal pain, nausea,

and loose stools. In animal studies, GLA is reported to decrease blood pressure. Early results in

human studies do not show consistent changes in blood pressure.

Laboratory studies suggest that omega-6 fatty acids, such as the fat found in corn oil, promote

the growth of prostate tumor cells. Until more research is done, health care professionals

recommend not taking omega-6 fatty acids, including GLA, if you are at risk of or have prostate

cancer.

Possible Interactions:

If you are currently being treated with any of the following medications, you should not use

omega-6 supplements without first talking to your health care provider.

Blood thinning medications -- People taking blood thinning medications, including warfarin

(Coumadin) or clopidogrel (Plavix), should not take omega-6 fatty acid supplements without

consulting a health care provider. Omega-6 and omega-3 fatty acids may increase the risk of

bleeding.

Ceftazidime -- Gamma linolenic acid (GLA) may increase the effectiveness of ceftazidime.

Ceftazidinme, an antibiotic, is used against a variety of bacterial infections.

Chemotherapy for cancer -- GLA may increase the effects of anti cancer treatments, such as

doxorubicin, cisplatin, carboplatin, idarubicin, mitoxantrone, tamoxifen, vincristine, and

vinblastine.

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Cyclosporine -- Cyclosporine is a medication used to suppress the immune system after organ

transplant. Taking omega-6 fatty acids with cyclosporine may increase the immunosuppressive

effects of this medication. It may also protect against kidney damage (a potential side effect from

this medication).

Phenothiazines -- People taking a class of medications called phenothiazines to treat

schizophrenia should not take evening primrose oil. Evening primrose oil may interact with these

medications and increase the risk of seizures. The same may be true for other omega-6

supplements. These medications include:

Chlorpromazine (Thorazine)

Fluphenazine (Stelazine)

Perphenazine (Trilafon)

Promethazine (Compazine)

Thioridazine (Mellaril)

Alternative Names:

Evening primrose oil; EPO; Linoleic acid; LA

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5.1 OMEGA 9 FATTY ACIDS

Some omega−9 fatty acids are common components of animal fat and vegetable oil. Two

omega−9 fatty acids important in industry are:

Oleic acid (18:1, n−9), which is a main component of olive oil and other monounsaturated fats

Erucic acid (22:1, n−9), which is found in rapeseed, wallflower seed, and mustard seed.

Rapeseed with high erucic acid content is grown for commercial use in paintings and coatings as

a drying oil. Canola oil comes from a cultivar of the rapeseed plant that has been bred, or in

some cases genetically modified, to contain very little erucic acid.

Unlike omega-3 fatty acids and omega-6 fatty acid, omega−9 fatty acids are not classed as

essential fatty acids (EFA). This is both because they can be created by the human body from

unsaturated fat, and are therefore not essential in the diet, and because the lack of an omega−6

double bond keeps them from participating in the reactions that form the eicosanoids.

Under severe conditions of EFA deprivation, mammals will elongate and desaturate oleic acid to

make mead acid, (20:3, n−9). This has been documented to a lesser extent in one study following

vegans, vegetarians and semi-vegetarians who followed unbalanced diets.

Omega−9 fatty acids

Common name Lipid name Chemical name

oleic acid 18:1 (n−9) 9-octadecenoic acid

elaidic acid 18:1 (n−9) (E)-octadec-9-enoic acid

gondoic acid 20:1 (n−9) 11-eicosenoic acid

mead acid 20:3 (n−9) 5,8,11-eicosatrienoic acid

erucic acid 22:1 (n−9) 13-docosenoic acid

nervonic acid 24:1 (n−9) 15-tetracosenoic acid

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5.2 What is omega-9

Omega-9 fatty acid is a monounsaturated fat that is also known as oleic acid. It is not considered

an essential fatty acid because of our body’s ability to produce it in small amounts. However, this

can only happen if the essential fatty acids (EFAs) omega-3 and omega-6 are present – if the

body is low on one of these EFAs it cannot produce enough omega-9. In this instance, omega-9

transforms into an essential fatty acid because of the body’s inability to produce it.

While omega-9 is crucial to the body, it plays a much smaller role than the essential fatty

acids omega-3 and omega-6. Primarily, omega-9 has a positive health affect on the lowering of

cholesterol levels and promotes healthy inflammation responses within the body. Other major

health benefits of omega-9 include the reduction of the arteries, reduction of insulin resistance,

improvement of immune function, and provides protection against certain types of cancer.

5.3 AVAILABLE FORMS

Omega-9 fatty acids are found in lard, butter, bacon fat, chicken fat, and also in:

Almonds

Avocados

Cashews

Hazelnuts

Macadamia nuts

Olives

Peanuts

Pecans

Pistachio nuts

Sesame oil

The best source of omega-9 fatty acids, however, is olive oil.

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Olive oil is the most important nutrient in the Mediterranean diet. Moderate use of olive oil in

dressing salads and as a dip for bread is associated with lower blood pressure, lower LDL

cholesterol, and lower rates of heart attack and hardening of the arteries.

A little olive oil with your meal slows down the rate at which your stomach empties into the

small intestine. This helps you feel full faster and keeps you feeling full longer.

Olive oil stimulates the release of a hormone called cholecystokinin. This is the hormone that is

triggered by eating "comfort foods," most of which are high in calories and sugar. The

"creaminess" imparted by just a little olive oil is what causes the release of the hormone.

If you diet also contains fish or fish oil, olive oil slows down fat gain. The additional fat in your

meal increases the rate at which your body burns fat, compensating for the extra fat in the olive

oil.

A little olive oil, up to one and one-half tablespoons (25 ml) per meal is a good thing. Like all

good things, it's possible to get too much. But olive oil is by far the easiest omega-9 fatty acid to

incorporate into your diet.

What about taking omega-9 supplements? It's important to remember that the omega-9's are non-

essential. Our bodies can make them. The problem for most of us who do not live in famine

conditions is that our bodies make too much!

When a small amount of omega-9 fat is obtained from the diet, even if it's lard or bacon fat, we

have all the fat we need for storage. It's far more important to obtain the omega-3's and omega-

6's our bodies need for hormones from supplements

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5.4 What are the symptoms of omega-9 deficiency?

Each EFA (3, 6, 9) share a symbiotic bond that requires each other to operate to their fullest

potential and to provide the body with most positive health effects as possible. A lack of omega-

9 in the body can have a detrimental effect that the benefits the other omega fatty acids provide.

Signs of omega-9 deficiency can include:

Eczema-like skin eruptions

Bumps on the back of upper arms

Cracking/peeling fingertips

Dandruff

Hair loss

Behavioral changes

Dry glands

Male sterility

Growth retardation

Dry skin

Dry Eyes

Miscarriage

Irregular heart beat

Craving of fatty foods

Stiff or painful joints

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Who can benefit from using supplements containing omega-9?

Because of the expansive list of benefits of the entire omega fatty acid group provides to our

bodies, every healthy adult should consume omega-9. The omega fatty acid group can help

prevent and combat many common illnesses and health problems. These include countless

conditions, like anorexia, ADHD, diabetes, eye disease, osteoporosis, menopausal symptoms,

premenstrual syndrome, acne, eczema, alcoholism, allergies, arthritis, cancer, weight loss, high

blood pressure, heart disease, tuberculosis, and ulcers.

Does omega-9 have any side effects?

While omega-3 and omega-6 have some (rare) reported side effects, omega-9 has none.

However, be cautious if you are using anticoagulants or antiplatelet drugs due to an increased

risk of bleeding.

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6.1 SQUALENE

Squalene is a unique oil that naturally occurs in skin and helps to stabilize the structure of

skin. This unique fatty substance is structured as an isoprenoid, which is a fat-soluble antioxidant

with a unique ability to anchor itself to cell membranes. Vitamin E, tocotrienols, Q10,

mangosteen, and beta carotene are other examples of nutrients with primary isoprenoid structure.

Many fruits and vegetables have small amounts of isoprenoids.

Squalene, an isoprenoid compound structurally similar to beta-carotene, is an

intermediate metabolite in the synthesis of cholesterol. In humans, about 60 percent of dietary

squalene is absorbed. It is transported in serum generally in association with very low density

lipoproteins and is distributed ubiquitously in human tissues, with the greatest concentration in

the skin, where it is one of the major components of skin surface lipids.

Squalene is a derivative of shark liver and is often referred to as ‘shark liver oil.’   It's

benefits may include temporary relief from arthritic pain and joint inflammation, and for

maintaining healthy immune function, endurance and fighting disease.

Shark liver oil is promoted as a complementary or alternative form of treatment for

cancer and other diseases. The oil is taken from the liver of cold-water sharks. Shark liver oil is a

rich source of alkylglycerols, chemicals that may have anti-cancer properties. Alkylglycerols are

also found in human bone marrow and in breast milk. Other chemicals in shark liver oil being

studied against cancer are squalamine and squalene.

6.2 History of Squalene

The uses of sharks and/or sharks liver oil for health benefits are not new, but have been

widely practiced throughout the world for a long time. An ancient Chinese medicine reference

book, Bon Cho Gang Mok, often referred to as the “Bible” of Chinese medicine, contained 2

pages of information on sharks and their health benefits. Through this we know that ancient

Chinese people also had much interest in sharks, and used them for medical purposes.

Squalene was discovered in 1906 by a Japanese marine oil chemist, Mitsumaru

Tsumimoto. Paul Karrer, Ph. D, winner of a Nobel Prize, identified the molecular structure of

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squalene in 1935, which brought much interested in the substances in Japan, Europe and in North

America.

The West is no exception. The famous American novelist, Earnest Hemingway, wrote in

his novel, THE OLD MAN AND THE SEA, “…but it (shark liver oil) was no worse than getting

up at the hours that they rose and it was very good against all colds and grippes and it was good

for the eyes…” This shows that since the olden days, shark liver oil was used efficiently even

among the Caribbean fisherman.

6.3 Structure of Squalene

Isoprenoids are fat-soluble antioxidants with the unique ability to anchor themselves to

cell membranes.

A carbon spine is the backbone of any fat. Hydrogen molecules are attached to each side

of the carbon, forming the fat structure. Saturated fat has two hydrogens per carbon, one on each

side. Unsaturated fat means one of the hydrogens is missing. Olive oil is called an omega 9 oil

because it is missing one hydrogen at the 9th carbon, a monounsaturated oil. DHA is a

polyunsaturated oil, and has 6 missing hydrogens. Saturated fats are stiff. They are easy to use

for fuel, as our bodies chop them up into smaller units to metabolize. Unsaturated fats can bend

and fold as well as chemically interact, thus forming different shapes that enable them to interact

in body structure in an endless array of possibilities.

Squalene has a 30-carbon-long skeleton. By comparison, the longest length essential fatty

acid, DHA, is 22 carbons long. Squalene is not a fatty acid because it does not have an acid

molecule attached to the end of its carbon skeleton. Like DHA, squalene is highly unsaturated

(10 missing hydrogens), enabling significant bending of its carbon spine and biological

interaction. In fact, squalene forms 3 interconnected rings composed of 6 isoprenoid units, a

fascinating structure to say the least.

The unsaturated bonds of DHA are easily damaged by oxygen. The structure of squalene,

on the other hand, is highly stable against oxygen and is itself able to act as an antioxidant. In

fact, adding squalene to food has been shown to protect DHA from oxygen induced free radical

damage. It is the isoprenoid structure that enables this excellent antioxidant activity.

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6.4 Benefits of Squalene

Squalene is a natural lipid belonging to the terpenoid family and a precursor of

cholesterol biosynthesis. It is synthesized in humans and also in a wide array of organisms and

substances, from sharks to olives and even bran, among others. Because of its significant dietary

benefits, biocompatibility, inertness, and other advantageous properties, squalene is extensively

used as an excipient in pharmaceutical formulations for disease management and therapy.

In addition, squalene acts as a protective agent and has been shown to decrease

chemotherapy-induced side-effects. Moreover, squalene alone exhibits chemopreventive activity.

Although it is a weak inhibitor of tumor cell proliferation, it contributes either directly or

indirectly to the treatment of cancer due to its potentiation effect.

In addition, squalene enhances the immune response to various associated antigens, and it

is therefore being investigated for vaccine delivery applications. Since this triterpene is well

absorbed orally, it has been used to improve the oral delivery of therapeutic molecules. All of

these qualities have rendered squalene a potentially interesting excipient for pharmaceutical

applications, especially for the delivery of vaccines, drugs, genes, and other biological

substances.

6.4.1 Squalene for Skin Health

Squalene is naturally produced during cholesterol synthesis and is widely distributed in

human tissues. Its major concentrations are in the skin and in the oils secreted by sebaceous

glands, which provide a protective barrier to the skin surface. Squalene helps maintain skin

moisture by lubricating the skin surface.

Squalene can deactivate the free radical known as singlet oxygen, the free radical that is

generated by exposure to the sun's UV radiation. Squalene can also absorb and bind fat-soluble

toxins, helping to excrete them from the body. These multiple functions of squalene make it an

excellent nutritional support product for the skin.

With squalene, the elasticity of the skin is enhanced, thus preventing dryness that leads to

fine lines, as well as wrinkles. 

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Squalene is also present within a mother’s womb, protecting the unborn child’s skin, and

keeping it well-hydrated. It is a component of the vernix, a cheesy –like substance, helping in

moisturizing and protecting baby skin, even before he is born.

Squalene provides moisturizing and hydrating for the skin, and is a powerful antioxidant

that not only the face can benefit from, but the entire body as well. 

The great thing about squalene is that it does not feel greasy on the skin, is

hypoallergenic, and does not cause any irritations. As a matter of fact, squalene is an active

component in numerous medications or skin ointments.

6.4.2 Immune Support

The use of squalene as an immune support supplement was popularized by Hans Nieper,

world-renowned German physician and physicist. He became interested in the oil because

squalene is 80 percent of the oil in the shark's liver. Plus, the shark's liver is 25 percent of its

mass. He believed it was the squalene that enabled sharks to maintain their energy in low-oxygen

depths of the sea. His research indicated squalene was extremely Kirlian-positive, which meant

squalene helped convert field energy into photon energy (like getting energy from the sun instead

of from calories). He noticed those taking the oil would warm up and have improved circulation

in their extremities. His research is little understood in modern context and the immune support

principles he espoused have never been verified in human studies, though a few animal and cell

studies show some support.

Squalene contains isoprenoid structures that are known to attach to cell membranes, has

significant antioxidant and detoxification capacity, and shows great potential as an immune-

support nutrient.

6.4.3 Squalene in Vaccines

Since 1997, an influenza vaccine (FLUAD, Chiron) which contains about 10 mg of

squalene per dose, has been approved in health agencies in several European countries. Squalene

is present in the form of an emulsion and is added to make the vaccine more immunogenic.

Squalene is being added to improve the efficacy of several experimental vaccines including

pandemic flu and malaria vaccines which are being developed.

Squalene is a component of some adjuvants that are added to vaccines to enhance the

immune response. MF59, an adjuvant produced by Novartis and added to the FLUAD flu

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vaccine, is such an example. Squalene by itself is not an adjuvant, but emulsions of squalene

with surfactants do enhance the immune response.

6.4.4 Squalene as an Antioxidant

Squalene accumulates at the greatest concentrations in the skin, where it appears to play a

vital role in quenching free radical oxygen (oxygen singlets), preventing the harmful effects of

lipid peroxidation. Adequate concentrations of squalene in the skin prevent oxidative damage

from ultraviolet light.

Squalene also appears to play a similar role in the retina, where it is known to play some

kind of important function.

6.4.5 Squalene for Detoxification

Administration of squalene at high doses induces the detoxification and elimination of

toxic pollutants such as organochlorines, theophylline, and strychnine in animals. The doses used

are very high, and it is as yet unclear what the implications of this are for human health.

Squalene as an Anti-Cancer Agent, Tumors, and Chemotherapy

A significant body of evidence indicates that reasonable doses of supplemental squalene

prevents the chemical initiation of some kinds of cancers, and promotes the regression of some

kinds of preexisting tumors.

One animal study found that a 1% squalene diet reduced a certain type of colon cancer

foci by 46%. Another study found that squalene as 2% of the diet made animals resistant to the

toxic effects of whole-body gamma radiation.

According to the American Cancer Association, squalene can help to prevent cancer and

may even be beneficial with reducing the growth of blood vessels that feed tumors. In fact, the

American Cancer Society reports that squalene supplements along with chemotherapy may go a

long way in treating cancer. In addition, the American Cancer Society also reports that since

squalene has cell-protecting abilities it can help to reduce side effects of chemotherapy. Taking

squalene supplements can prevent nausea, vomiting, and other problematic side effects caused by

chemotherapy from reducing your quality of life.

6.4.6 Squalene in Food

While the oils of olive, palm, wheat-germ, amaranth, and rice bran contain some

squalene, none match the squalene content of shark liver oil, after (the latin name of) which

squalene is named.

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Shark liver oil, like cod liver oil, contains the same benefits as cod liver oil, such as

vitamins A and D, and omega-3 fatty acids, but its high squalene content as well as its

alkoxylglycerol content make it an even more prized supplement to a healthy diet.

Many people find that shark liver oil boosts their immune system and increases the health

of their skin, and some researchers suggest it has cancer-preventative properties because of its

high squalene content.

Squalene also does wonders for the skin topically, although shark liver oil is not practical

to use for this because of its fishy smell. Some companies have isolated the squalene from shark

liver oil to use topically.

6.4.7 Cosmetic use

Squalene's chemical similarity to human skin sebum has made it a popular component in

natural cosmetic formulas designed to soften and protect the skin. The antioxidant properties of

squalene have also been touted as being very beneficial for many skin conditions. In a study

published in the International Journal of Cancer in July 2006, squalene was found to protect the

skin of mice from developing tumors when exposed to carcinogenic substances.

6.4.8 Squalene as amplifier and adder of life spirit

Squalene is the main material to build cholesterol and steroid. Cholesterol has many

function in the body such as for metabolism and for building vitamin D. However, cholesterol is

also used to make hormone similar with steroid which also functions as hormone builder.

Hormone is very important for human life. Without hormone, human beings are useless in their

everyday life, physically and mentally. Old persons has decrease their sexual spirit because their

hormone (estrogen and testoteron) decrease. So if they consume squalene, their sexual

enthusiasm can increase to normal level, even more maximal.

6.4.9 Squalene as a healer of liver disorder

It has been reported from some hospitals in Japan such as Hospital of Tokyo University,

Fakuoka Hospital and National Hospital, that they have underwent some experiments to cure

hepatitis. Finally, they concluded that squalene is benefits to heal many liver disorder.

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6.4.10 Oxygenation

Another benefit of squalene supplements is as an antioxidant. Ingestion of squalene

supplements help to increase the amount of oxygen transported to the blood and cells in our

bodies. Increased oxygenation can help to prevent damage in the body by environmental and

chemical hazards. In addition, squalene supplements can oxygenate our skins cells and ultimately

reduce the risk of premature aging. In fact, squalene oil is very similar to vitamin A, which also

serves the same purpose for our skin. This can help our skin to look younger and healthier and

lessen the appearance of fine lines and wrinkles.

6.5 Pharmacokinetics

Serum squalene originates partly from endogenous cholesterol synthesis and partly from

dietary sources, especially in populations consuming large amounts of olive oil or shark liver.

Although its post-absorptive metabolism has not been studied in detail in humans, available

evidence indicates somewhere between 60-85 percent of dietary squalene is absorbed from an

oral dose. Up to 90 percent of the post-absorptive dose is transported in serum, generally in

association with very low density lipoproteins, until it is distributed ubiquitously in human

tissue. The greatest concentration of squalene occurs in the skin, where it is one of the major

components of skin surface lipids. Based on animal evidence, prolonged oral administration

might result in a significant accumulation of squalene in the liver (3-6 percent of an oral dose).

Metabolic studies of squalene in human adipose tissue indicate fat tissue contains very

high concentrations of squalene, about 80 percent of which is located in the central neutral lipid

droplet, while 20 percent is bound to the microsomal membranes. Experimental evidence also

suggests only microsomal membrane-bound squalene is metabolically active and that

approximately 90 percent of the newly formed squalene is stored in the lipid droplet and only 10

percent is used in cholesterol synthesis.

6.6 How Squalene Produced in Body

Squalene is a 6-isoprenoid unit containing triterpenoid. It is produced in vivo by (1) the

conversion of Acetyl-CoA into HMG-CoA, the (2) reduction of HMG-CoA into mevalonate via

HMG-CoA reductase, the (3) phosphrylation and decarboxylation of mevalonate to form delta 3-

isopentenyl diphosphate, which is the donor molecule for polyprenyl compounds. D3IDP then

(4) adds phenyl groups to form farnesyl diphosphate, and then (5) two farnesyl diphosphate

56

molecules undergo a reactive coupling to form a single squalene molecule. Due to squalene

synthesis being downstream of HMG-CoA, statins (HMG-CoA) can inhibit in vivo squalene

production.

After synthesis (in the skin and liver), it is either secreted by sebaceous glands in the

skin or bound to LDL and vLDL for transport.

If ingested, approximately 20% of squalene is cyclized into sterols and ejected back into

the gut without being effectively taken up into systemic circulation. Despite this, approximately

60-85% of orally ingested squalene is distributed to body tissues.

6.7 Statins Inhibit Squalene Synthesis

Statins do not only inhibit the synthesis of cholesterol. Since squalene is a precursor to

cholesterol, and statins cut off cholesterol synthesis prior to the formation of squalene, statins

therefore inhibit the synthesis of squalene.

As is true for coenzyme Q10, this cannot be considered a "side effect." Inhibiting

squalene, a cholesterol precursor, is the direct purpose of the statin drugs.

Yet squalene is much more than a precursor to cholesterol. In fact, only 10% of

synthesized squalene is used for cholesterol synthesis. The other 90% is stored or used as an

antioxidant.

6.8 Squalene and Cholesterol Metabolism

Squalene is absorbed and converted to cholesterol in humans; however, this increase in

synthesis is not associated with consistent increases of serum cholesterol levels, possibly as a

result of a concomitant increase in fecal elimination. 1g/day for 9 weeks: increase cholesterol

concentration. 0.5g/day for 6 weeks: normalized serum sterols. Squalene feeding produced a

significant increase in fecal excretion of cholesterol, its nonpolar derivatives, and bile acids,

suggesting that, although cholesterol synthesis probably increased by as much as 50 percent,

fecal elimination was also upregulated, resulting in no net effect on serum cholesterol

concentrations.

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6.9 Sources of Squalene

Squalene is commercially extracted from fish oil, and in particular shark liver oil. Shark

liver oil contains large quantities and is considered the richest source of squalene. Squalene used

in pharmaceutical products and vaccines is purified from this source. Other than shark liver oil,

olive oil, palm oil, wheat-germ oil, amaranth oil, and rice bran oil also contain squalene.

6.10 Analysis of Squalene

Acid Hydrolysis For Squalene

Sample was finely ground (1.0 mm mesh size) using a Moulinex Optiblend 2000 and 1 g

of sample was weighed into a 20x150mm Pyrex culture tube with Teflon- lined screw cap.

Sample was hydrolysed under acidic conditions. Briefly, 1 ml of absolute ethanol and 5 ml of 6

M HCl were added to tube and sample was shaken vigorously. Tube was kept at 80°C for 1 hour

in a water bath, during which tube was shaken every 10 minutes. The tube then cooled on ice and

5 ml ethanol, 10 l hexane/diethyl-ether. The combined extracts was dried under nitrogen and

stored in a refrigerator until saponified.

Saponification for Squalene Analysis

Sample was saponified. Briefly, the dried extract was mixed thoroughly with 300µl of

50% KOH (w/v) and 2 ml of 1% ethanolic pyrogallol (w/v) in screw-top tubes fitted with Teflon-

lined screw caps. The tubes were kept for 30 minutes at 70°C in a water bath. The tubes were

cooled on ice and 1 ml water and 4 ml hexane were added. The tubes were shaken vigorously

and then centrifuged at 2000 rpm for 10 minutes. The hexane layer was removed and the

extraction repeated with a further 2 ml hexane. The combined extracts were dried under nitrogen.

The extract was redissolved in 200 µl ethanol, transferred to a plastic insert in a HPLC vial and

stored at -20°C until further analysis by HPLC.

HPLC Analysis of Squalene

Among several reported techniques of squalene analysis by HPLC, selected efficient

method had valuable as well for oil mixtures than for cell extracts.

Materials and reagents

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HPLC system, C18 column(150x3.9 mm Symmetry from Watres), UV or diode array

detector, acetone, acetonitrile, ethanol, chloroform, methanol, squalene standard.

A squalene stock solution is prepared in dissolving an appropriate amount in ethanol and stored

at -20°C. Working solutions are prepared by dilution with acetonitrile (from 0.1 to 40 mg/l).

Extraction procedure

Vegetal lipids are extracted or dissolved in methanol/acetone (7/3, v/v) or

chloroform/methanol (1/2, v/v), after filtration and evaporation, the residue is dissolved in

mobile phase.

A fractional crystallization may be used to avoid the interference of high amounts of

cholesterol or phytosterols. Lipid solutions are kept at -20°C for 30 h and interferences are

eliminated by filtration.

Chromatographic separation

The column is maintained at 30°C and acetonitrile is pumped at a flow rate of 1.5 ml/min.

Squalene is detected at 195 nm and is eluted at around 15 min. Even for complex lipid samples,

there is no interference of other sompounds at the elution time of squalene. Linearity is excellent

from 0.1 to 40 mg/l and the detection limit is about 0.04 mg/l. The recovery (from 90 to 95%)

may be determined by addition of a known amount of standard in the sample.

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7.0 LEPTIN

7.1 Introduction

Leptin is a hormone produced by our fat cells. The human body is comprised of literally

trillions of cells which do different things but must interact and communicate with each other

effectively in order for the body to function optimally and therefore to maintain our good health.

Our cells communicate with each other by way of our hormones which act as chemical

messengers.

Leptin is one of the most important chemical messengers. Leptin influences a diverse

range of metabolic activities in the body. How effectively our cells listen to leptin's messages

plays a critical role in maintaining, among other things, healthy weight management. This is

done through influencing appetite, satiety (feeling full), metabolism and mood.

The protein hormone called leptin is activated through adipocytes and secreted in your

stomach lining and in the placenta, according to Colorado State University. Leptin helps to

regulate metabolism and body weight, as well as the reproductive system. The leptin levels in

your body tend to fluctuate when you lose weight, notes the University of Pittsburgh Medical

Center.

That's part of the reason for the initial success of low-carb diets. By severely reducing the

carbohydrates (and the leptin that comes along with them) you can get the brain to start

recognizing leptin again and signal when it's full.

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7.2 SYNTHESIS

It's produced primarily by the adipocytes of white adipose tissue, but it's also

manufactured by your bone marrow, brown adipose tissue, liver, mammary epithelial cells,

ovaries, pituitary, placenta, skeletal muscle and the stomach. The amount of leptin in the body is

proportional to the amount of fat in the body.

LEPTIN RESISTANCE

Leptin resistance simply means that even at high levels, leptin is no longer able to

properly signal fat burning to your body, dramatically decreasing it's fat loss effects. That's a

pretty disheartening truth for the fat loss enthusiast.

7.3 HISTORY

The effects of leptin were first clinically observed on a colony of mice in 1950. The mice

ate all the time and became morbidly obese. It took until 1994 before researchers discovered it

was the hormone leptin that was causing the problem. After receiving injections of leptin, obese

mice dropped their fat and returned to a normal body weight.

That clinical result led to supplement companies manufacturing leptin and promoting it

for weight loss. There was just one little problem. Obese people didn't have a deficiency.

7.4 LEPTIN SUPPLEMENTS

As important as lifestyle changes are, there are some nutritional supplements that may be

able to lower leptin levels and re-sensitize the brain. Those include melatonin, L-carnitine,

conjugated linoleic acid (CLA) and omega-3 fatty acids. Leptin supplements are concoctions that

may help the body with leptin levels; they may help improve the body's use of a protein hormone

called leptin, increase the body’s production of it, or actually add leptin into a person’s diet.

Supplements commonly are available as pills, capsules or powders. Many people go in

search of leptin supplements, expecting them to contain leptin. Most of them do not, however, as

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the substance is a hormone and may be subject to government prescription-drug regulation in

many places.

It may be possible, though, to obtain it by prescription if a doctor believes its use is

necessary.Leptin is a protein hormone that many people seek in supplement form because it has

been associated with weight loss.

In fact, leptin has been referred to as the obesity or starvation hormone. The protein is

made in a person’s fat cells and travels through the bloodstream to the brain. It is said to let the

brain know whether or not there is enough energy in a person’s fat cells.

When leptin levels are high enough, the brain is said to believe there is enough stored

energy to allow the body to burn calories as it normally would. If leptin levels are too low,

however, the body may go into starvation mode, believing it does not have enough energy,

slowing metabolism, increasing appetite, and making it harder to lose weight.

When a person buys leptin supplements, he may do so expecting to get leptin and real

help losing weight. In most cases, however, he will get a supplement that contains substances

said to boost leptin levels or help balance hormones in the body.

Some of these supplements may help maintain overall good health or keep hormones

balanced, but there is often little proof that they actually do so. Additionally, a person’s body

may not even absorb and use leptin taken in supplement form. The body may simply digest it

without producing any noticeable change in leptin levels.

An individual interested in taking leptin supplements may be disappointed to learn that

the hormone may not significantly encourage weight loss. Some studies of this hormone have

produced disappointing results.

Many people have failed to lose weight, even with higher leptin levels. In fact, some

people may have leptin resistance, which means their brains do not signal them to stop eating

when leptin levels rise. Instead, they may continue to be hungry, overeat, and gain weight

because the brain misses the cues that leptin usually provides.

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7.5 BENEFITS

Do nothing more than take leptin pills or supplements can decrease your appetite and lose

weight. Most leptin promoters claim the weight loss happens without a change in diet or exercise

habits.

The amount of leptin in your body is directly proportional to the amount of fat. As fat

cells become enlarged in obesity, they release more leptin. Obese people have plenty of leptin,

one of the reasons they're fat is because of leptin resistance in the brain.

When your leptin levels drop after you lose weight, you develop a type of leptin

deficiency that can cause you to regain the weight, says the University of Pittsburgh Medical

Center. Therefore, taking a leptin supplement could help you to keep off the weight you've lost

by reducing your hunger and food intake while increasing the amount of calories you burn, notes

Colorado State University. Supplementation of leptin after weight loss can help bring the

hormone levels back up to the circulating levels in your body before the weight loss and

i. Helps control appetite

ii. Supports healthy metabolism

iii. Promotes a feeling of fullness

iv. Promotes healthy weight loss

v. Helps support blood sugar levels already within the normal range

vi. Helps to promote cellular and tissue health

vii. Promotes positive mind and mood

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7.6 MECHANISM

Since leptin is an appetite suppressant, your brain needs it as a signal that it's full. When a

normal size person eats a meal, leptin levels continue to climb until your brain eventually says

"enough" and you recognize the feeling of fullness. Obese people are resistant to leptin, so they

don't get that "full" signal and they continue to eat.

Unfortunately the modern diet seems to be a huge contributor to the problem. Simple

carbohydrates (like sugar) contain higher levels of leptin than our bodies are designed to handle.

If you constantly bombard the brain with carb rich foods that have excessive levels of leptin,

eventually your system will shut down and you won't recognize when you're full.

That means taking leptin as a supplement isn't the answer. What you need to do is re-

sensitize the brain. One of the best ways of doing that is to reduce the amount of leptin in the

body.

When your leptin levels decrease after you lose weight, this signals your body to reduce

the rate at which you burn calories, says the University of Pittsburgh Medical Center. Leptin's

effects on burning calories may explain why many people tend to regain the lost weight.

Leptin communicates with your body through your hypothalamus to regulate your body

weight and provide an overall view of your body's nutritional status, says Colorado State

University. The hormone accomplishes these tasks by influencing your hunger, energy use and

body temperature to either increase or decrease your body weight,

WARNING

Don't use leptin to lose weight or maintain weight loss without first talking with your

doctor. Leptin has some promise for overweight or obese individuals, but the effects of

supplementation are as yet unknown, warns Colorado State University.

Further, the potential side effects, health dangers and drug interactions of leptin

supplements or injections are unknown as well.If you do take leptin supplements, you must avoid

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taking too much, or you risk de-sensitizing your brain to its effects and you'll end up feeling even

hungrier.

7.7 PRODUCTS

1.LeptiCore®

LeptiCore® is a nutraceutical ingredient containing several types of plant

polysaccharides, esterified fatty acids, pomegranate extract and beta-carotene antioxidants and

blue-green algae.

This proprietary nutraceutical supports a healthy lifestyle by helping to promote healthy

weight management. What makes LeptiCore® different from other dietary supplements is that it

also uniquely provides benefits in several other synergistic ways to the body. LeptiCore® does

this by promoting healthy metabolic balance and wellness.

LeptiCore® is clinically studied and has been found to help balance healthy metabolic function

and to support healthy weight management. LeptiCore® has also been found to have a positive

influence on biomarkers of cardiovascular health, blood sugar health, and the body's natural

antioxidant defense system.

Reaching your healthy weight is an important way to support overall well-being and

metabolic balance. Supplementation with LeptiCore® has been shown to help support a healthy

weight management program by promoting satiety, stimulating thermogenesis and supporting

emotional well-being.

LeptiCore® is particularly effective when combined with changes in lifestyle and diet

that scientific research has found can contribute to improved overall health and well-being. This

includes regular exercise, reducing stress and maintaining a positive mental outlook, consuming

lean protein and fish rather than red meat, whole grains instead of refined grains, unsaturated fats

rather than saturated or hydrogenated fats and fresh fruits and vegetables while minimizing

sweets and heavily processed or fried foods.

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2. LEPTIBURN™

Leptiburn™ truly is a breakthrough formula whose key ingredients have been

scientifically shown to assist with your body's biggest fat-loss problem, your body's production

of, and sensitivity to, the one solitary hormone that literally controls everything with regards to

fat loss.

FORMULATION (INGREDIENTS) IN LEPTIBURN

LeptiBurn's first ingredient is IrvingiaGabonensis, a compound that has been shown to

support leptin sensitivity by inhibiting the production of C-reactive protein (CRP), a chemical in

the body that has been linked with the development of leptin resistance, by up to 52%.

To further support its dramatic effect on weight loss, in one double-blind study, 102

otherwise-healthy overweight volunteers received either 150 mg of Irvingia extract or a placebo,

twice daily prior to meals, for a period of 10 weeks. At the end of 10 weeks, the Irvingia group

lost an average of 28 pounds (13.1% decrease in body weight), shed 6.7 inches from their

waistline, and had reduced their total body fat by an average of 18.4%!

Next up is Oleanolic Acid, a compound extracted from olive tree leaves that has a

stimulatory effect on a specific gut peptide called Glucagon-like Peptide-1 (GLP-1). Research

shows that an oral dose of this extract can increase GLP-1 by 48%, which has in turn been

closely linked to increased leptin production.

The third ingredient, Modifilan®, a potent seaweed extract harvested from pristine Arctic

waters, has been shown to stimulate increased leptin production in fat cells by up to 18% through

its ability to stimulate Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH) in the adrenals. Stimulation of TSH

in turn stimulates the production of leptin in fat cells.

LeptiBurn's fourth ingredient is PanaxNotoginseng, a well-known and commonly used

traditional Chinese herb called "Shan Qi" by master herbalists that was recently shown to also

have unique metabolic properties, including naturally suppressing appetite and increasing leptin

sensitivity.

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And finally, to further enhance the fat-burning effects of LeptiBurn™, we've included

potent natural extracts of Yerbe Mate and Green Tea, which have been shown to increase resting

metabolic rate and mobilize fatty acids from fat cells to be burned, all while suppressing appetite

and increasing energy and alertness.

BIOLOGICAL OR CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE

Leptin is synthesized in adipocytes as a 16 kD molecule. The circulating level is directly

proportional to the total amount of fat in the body, but it is primarily associated with the

subcutaneous fat depot.

It binds to its receptors in the hypothalamus and plays an active role in regulation of food

intake, energy expenditure and reproductive function. Serum leptin levels show a moderate

circadian variation, with a peak at about 2 AM.

The values at this time may be 30-100% higher than later in the morning or early

afternoon. This variation and the influence of food intake need to be taken into account when

collecting blood samples for leptin analysis.

LEPTIN ANALYSIS

Analyte: Leptin

Specimen Type: Serum or EDTA Plasma

Optimum Volume: 0.5 mL

Method: ELISA

Principle of Test Method:

The Leptin assay is a solid-phase ELISA designed to measure human Leptin in serum and

plasma. It employs the quantitative sandwich enzyme immunoassay principle.

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8.0 Krill oil

8.1 An introduction

Krill are small shrimp or prawn-like creatures that feed the world's most mammoth animals – the

great whales. Toothless great whales gulp down huge quantities of krill to provide the energy

they need to fuel their massive bulk. A blue whale eats up to 8,000 pounds of krill each day

during feeding season.

These highly intelligent great whales aren't the only animals that depend on krill for their

nutritional needs. So do seals, penguins, sea birds, squid and fish.

The hardy krill harvested from harsh Antarctic waters – the ones that comprise our Pure Krill

Oil – are so important they are considered a "keystone species," an organism upon which many

Antarctic predators depend.

These semi-translucent crustaceans congregate in dense masses or swarms that can turn the

ocean's surface pink or red.

Together with plankton, krill make up the largest biomass on earth... one of the most easily

renewable food resources available, an excellent nutritional source from an environmental

perspective.

Krill aren't a new source of nutrition either. They've been harvested as a food source for both

humans and domesticated animals since the 1800s. Possibly even earlier in Japan where they're

considered a delicacy.

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In Japan, this is real food.Actually, let's take that a giant step further. It's considered a luscious

delicacy known as okiami.

Okiami has been harvested by the Japanese as a food source since the 19th century – and

possibly even earlier. Krill is also a traditional food of South Korea and Taiwan. And the Soviet

Union (now Russia and Ukraine) were also large markets for krill.

It is processed by freezing, to go to Japanese, Korean, and Taiwanese markets. Asians also enjoy

dried krill. In fact, the Japanese prefer dried krill to frozen.

The only edible part is its tail – known for its rich omega-3 fatty acids.

It is used for soups, seafood salads, and restaurant entrees – and also as a seasoning (when used

dried). Large krill with eggs are highly regarded as delicacies. They're stronger tasting than

shrimp, and somewhat salty.

In Russia, Ukraine, Poland, Germany and South Korea there's been high interest in krill as a

coagulated paste and as mince (a precooked dense pink paste). At the end of the 1970s, 2,000

tons per year were being produced for the Soviet market.

But specialists from many countries declare that the real delicacy is the intact shell-free tail meat

– which as you might guess, is also the most difficult to obtain.

Perhaps it should come as no surprise that these countries consumed krill as food, since krill

inhabits the oceans off the West coast of Vancouver Island, Russia, Ukraine and Japan (besides

Antarctica).

8.2 Krill oil properties and benefits to human

Unlike fish oils, pure krill oil carries omega-3s in the form of phospholipids – liposomes or little

packages that deliver the fatty acids directly to your body's cells.

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Scientific evidence to date has shown that the safest and most effective carriers of EPA and

DHA are these phospholipids.

Unfortunately, standard fish oils (and inferior krill oil brands) lack this phospholipid

complex. Instead they contain omega-3 fatty acids in the less-beneficial form of free

triglycerides.

Why are phospholipids important?

They are the building blocks for your cell membranes, regulating cellular transport by

functioning as 'gate-keepers.'* In this role, they protect cell membranes from free radical attack.*

This unique relationship between the phospholipids and omega-3 fatty acids greatly facilitates

the passage of the fatty acid molecules through your intestinal wall.* This helps you in two

ways...

Makes the omega-3 fats in Pure Krill Oil significantly more bioavailable than those in fish oil

by allowing EPA and DHA to directly enter your cells.

Improves your omega-3 to omega-6 ratio.

Another important fact: The most predominant phospholipid in pure krill oil is phosphatidyl

choline, which is partially composed of choline.

Numerous studies have demonstrated the importance of choline in brain development,

learning and memory.* In fact, choline is particularly important for fetal and infant brain

development in pregnant and nursing women.*

Choline is the precursor for the vital neurotransmitter acetylcholine (which sends nerve signals to

the brain) and for trimethylglycine, a recognized liver protector.*

Further, it also boasts a full complement of necessary antioxidants not seen in fish or cod

liver oil...

There is no question that you can benefit from taking a high-quality fish oil. However, Pure

Krill Oil offers clear advantages to fish oil in a number of important ways.

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You get all the same multi-system health benefits of omega-3-rich fish oil,* including

crucial EPA and DHA ...

But Pure Krill Oil also offers: 

Your brain is a huge "consumer" of DHA. Antarctic Pure Krill 

Oil is made from krill with health-promoting DHA and choline, 

which are absolutely essential not only for adults, but

also for normal fetal and infant brain development!*

MUCH Better Absorption Than Fish Oil*

This means you can take 1/5 the dose – two small capsules rather than 10 large ones. The

phospholipid binding increases the bioavailability of the omega-3s, improves the omega-3 to

omega-6 ratio and supports healthy cell membrane functioning.

Superb Antioxidant Protection

Unique antioxidants – including astaxanthin and a novel marine flavonoid – may protect you

from damaging free radicals.*

Pollution-Free 

Krill are at the bottom of the food chain and collected far from pollution in the pristine seas

surrounding Antarctica. So you don't have to worry about unsafe accumulations of mercury,

PCBs, heavy metals or other toxins that low-quality fish oil products may contain.

Ongoing Supply 

Krill are a highly renewable source. They are the largest biomass in the ocean and there is

simply no risk of causing them to perish from over-harvesting.

Stability 

Antarctic Pure Krill Oil is more stable and more resistant to rancidity than conventional fish

oils.* This means it will last longer. It will last for TWO years at room temperature. (do not

refrigerate.)

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No Fishy Aftertaste, Reflux Or Other Side Effects 

Although fish oil consumption commonly leads to side effects of fishy aftertaste, reflux or

belching of fish flavors, this has not occurred with Antarctic Pure Krill Oil. No adverse effects

have been noted even at high dosages.

Renewable Food Source 

Krill represent a renewable, sustainable and environmentally positive nutrition source.

8.3 Why Do People Use Krill Oil

People use krill oil for the same reasons they use fish oil, flax oil or other omega-3 fatty acids.

Unlike fish oil, krill oil doesn't cause fishy burps or an aftertaste, a common side effect of fish

oil. Also, krill oil contains higher amounts of astaxanthin than fish oil. Here are some specific

conditions for which it's used.

1) High Cholesterol

Krill oil is being studied as a natural remedy for high cholesterol. In one study, 120 people were

given krill oil, fish oil or a placebo. Krill oil reduced LDL (commonly referred to as "bad")

cholesterol by 34% and increased HDL ("good") cholesterol by 43.5% compared to the placebo.

In comparison, fish oil reduced LDL cholesterol by 4.6% and increased HDL cholesterol by

4.2%. Krill also lowered triglycerides.

2) Premenstrual Syndrome

Preliminary research suggests krill oil may help reduce symptoms of premenstrual syndrome

(PMS), however, more research is needed.

3)Arthritis

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A study in the Journal of the American College of Nutrition examined krill oil (300 mg daily)

compared to a placebo and found that krill oil was effective at reducing arthritis symptoms and

inflammation.

8.4 Side Effects

People with allergies to seafood shouldn't use krill oil. People with bleeding disorders shouldn't

use krill oil unless under the supervision of a qualified health professional.

Side effects of krill oil may include loose stools, diarrhea or indigestion.

Possible Drug Interactions

People taking blood thinners (anticoagulant or anti-platelet medication), such as aspirin, warfarin

(Coumadin), heparin, clopidogrel (Plavix), non-steroidal anti-inflammatory medications

(NSAIDS) such as ibuprofen (Motrin, Advil), naproxen (Naprosyn, Aleve) should only use krill

oil under a physician's supervision.

Krill oil should also be used with caution by people taking herbs and supplements that are

thought to increase the risk of bleeding, such as ginkgo biloba and garlic.

8.5 Nutrasetical analysis of krill oil

ANTARCTIC KRILL OIL

PRODUCED AT SEA AS BY-PRODUCT FROM DRIED MEAL PROCESS

PRODUCT COMPOSITION OUR STANDARD STANDARD RANGE*

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PROXIMATE &

OTHERSLipids, % min. 99.5 99.5 - 99.9

Moisture, % max. 0.5 0.1 - 0.5

Vitamin E

(tocopherals),550 550 - 950

ppm min.

Cholesterol, %

max.2.5 1 - 2.5

OIL QUALITY **Polyunsaturated,

% min.8 8 - 15

Monounsaturated,

% max.42 37 - 42

Saturated Fat, %

max.45 43 - 45

Acid Value (oleic

acid),0.4

% max.

PHYSICAL

SPECIFICATIONSColour Red to strong red

Odor/Taste Fresh, typical marine oil

PIGMENT LEVELS CLASS 1, ppm as min. 1,000

Astaxanthin at

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shipment

CLASS 2, ppm as min. 700

Astaxanthin at

shipment

CLASS 3, ppm as <700

Astaxanthin at

shipment

STORAGE

RECOMMENDATIONS

Store in a cool dark place

net weight, storage minimum requirements

SHELF LIFE Minimum 2 years under above storage conditions.

**FATTY ACIDS COMPOSITION (AS % OF FATTY ACIDS)

POLYUNSATURATED MONOUNSATURATED

20:5W3 (EPA) 5.7 16:1W7 13.1

22:6W3 (DHA) 1.2 18:1W9 + 18:1W7 24.3

18:3W6 1.6 20:1W9 1.3

TOTAL

POLYUNSATURATED9.7%

TOTAL

MONOUNSATURATED38.7%

SATURATED

14:0 18.4

75

16:0 22.0

17:0 1.9

18:0 1.3

TOTAL SATURATED 43.6%

Source:

Product in review

9.0 References

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http://krilldoctor.com/krill-oil-information/

http://krilloil.mercola.com/krill-oil.html

http://www.blackmores.com.au/products/eco-krill-oil

http://www.gnc.com/product/index.jsp?productId=4021749

http://www.krill.ca/analysis.html

Sinha, MK, Ohannesian, JP, Heiman, ML, Kriauciunas, A, Stephens, TW, Magosin, S, Marco, C,

and Caro, JF. Nocturnal rise of leptin in lean, obese, and non-insulin-dependent diabetes

mellitus subjects. J Clin Invest. 1996; 97:1344-1347.

Flower, L, Ahuja, RH, Humphries, SE, and Mohamed-Ali, V. Effects of sample handling

on the stability of interleukin 6, tumour necrosis factor-alpha and leptin.Cytokine. 2000;

12:1712-1716

Meier U and Gressner AM. Endocrine regulation of energy metabolism: review of

pathobiochemical and clinical chemical aspects of leptin, ghrelin, adiponectin and

resistin. Clin.Chem. 2004; 50:1511-1525.

Evans, MJ, Livesey, JH, Ellis, MJ, and Yandle, TG. Effect of anticoagulants and storage

temperatures on stability of plasma and serum hormones.ClinBiochem. 2001; 34:107-

112.

http://www.swansonvitamins.com/health-library/products/lepticore-leptin-focused-

weight-loss-formula.html

http://www.pacbio.com/biomarker/assay_detail_pdf.php?id=132

http://www.webmd.boots.com/diet/the-facts-on-leptin-faq

http://www.wisegeek.com/what-are-leptin-supplements.htm

http://www.livestrong.com/article/292706-do-leptin-supplements-work-for-weight-loss/

http://bootcampexercises.biotrust.com/shop.asp?p=LeptiBurn

http://www.webefit.com/supplements/Sup_Leptin.html

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