Erica Gallinaro, Marta Grodzicka, Michał Skrzypek, Błażej Grzechnik

The product

Motivation& Selection

Reception & Process

Effects & Consequences

KUHL- survey

Concentrates on:1. Negative effects of violent entertainment

games2. Utility of educational games3. General effects of game playing

Positive effects of violent entertainment games (except for the catharsis theory) and negative effects of educational games are not discussed.

Consequences/ Sort of games

Negative effects Positive effects

Violent entertainment games

Affect (hostility, anxiety)Agressive behaviorsArousalEmpathy toward othersPhysiological responses (heart rate, blood pressure, skin conductance)Priming agressive thoughtsProsocial behavior

Catharsis

Nonviolent entertainment games

Addiction or game dependencyGender stereotypingPhysical health problems

TrainingSociabilityAcademic performancesTherapySpatial visualizationCognitive abilities

Educational games LearningMotivationRetention memoryUtility for special groups (attention-deficit children, patients)

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Learning Motivation Retention memory Utility for special groups

(attention-deficit children, patients)

Why might computer games be more effective?

(Malone, 1981)

Characteristics of the computer game Fantasy- attractiveness, attention

Endogenous fantasy- it has to do something with thelearning material (Rieber, 1996)

Challenge- goals must be uncertain to gain, obvious, meaningful to players and the player needs feedback if he had achieved them

Curiosity

Electronic simulations/games vs. conventional methods

(Randel, Morris &Wetzel, 1992)

Depend on subject matter Math has the best results (Randel et al., 1992)

Mathematics problem solving, reading comprehension, word study (Blanchard, Stock & Marshall, 1999)

Visual and interactive components (Sedbrook, 1998)

no improvement in the knowledgeincrease of enjoyment

Is it the effect of the game or of the computer? Wiebe & Martin: geography“non-computer classroom games and activities” vs.

“computer-based adventure games”no differences

Antonietti & Mellone (2003): computer-based and traditional version of Pegopolisno differences in performance

or strategy Perhaps it is the effect of the game,not the computer

Educational games have positive effects on motivation.

For example in studies with learning-disabled children (Malouf, 1987) intermediate-level students with learning

disabilities (Okolo, 1992)

higher level of continuing motivation was found.

Does a higher motivation lead to better learning effects?• Yes (Lepper, 1992)• No (Druckman, 1995)

Why should computer games improve retention memory?

1. attention for media stimuli is higher than for other stimuli

2. higher engagement

In 86% of the studies educational computer games produced greater retention memory than conventional classroom instruction (Randel et al., 1992)

personalized vs. neutral messages (Moreno & Mayer, 2000)personalized messages are better for retention memory andproblem solving

1. Children with learning disabilities or attention-deficit disorder• difficulty of the game increases, when the child

becomes less attentive (brainwaves)(Pope & Bogart, 1996)

2. Elderly people• faster reaction times and higher sense of well-

being after playing Super Tetris (Goldstein et al. 1997)

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NWn32bCXnRE

Learning In 39% of the studies they are better than

conventional methods This might be the effect of learning during play, not

the effect of the computer as a mediaMotivation

is higher, but do not necessarily increase the learning effect

Retention memory Increases

Utility for special groups It can help children with learning disabilities or

attention-deficit disorder and elderly people

Training Spatial skills Sociability Academic performances Therapy Cognitive abilities

Games and simulations created for Military Doom was modified (by the Marine Corps

Modeling and Simulation Management Office) to teach the combats tactics

America’s Army has been used for Army recruitmenthttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=iedBodvPLiY

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lpgD5yuUAA4&feature=related

Playing computer games showed a developmentin 2 and 3-dimensional mental rotation among• students (McClurg & Chaille, 1987; Miller & Kapel, 1985)• boys and girls equally (Greenfield, 1996; De Lisi & Wolford,

2002)• Kindergarten children (Perzov & Kozminsky, 1989)• college students (Pepin & Dorval, 1986)

But there are also results that suggest noimprovement, e.g.• Seventh-grade students (Pepin & Dorval, 1986)• Elderly participants (Pepin & Dorval, 1986; Gagnon, 1985)

Possible explanation• Noncontrollable variables in the study, e.g. experience with

computer games

Popular hypothesis: children who play computer games stay at home alone what has a negative effect on their social adjustment

Computer game players• scored higher sociability (Shimai, Masuda & Kishimoto, 1990)• more often see their friends after school (Colwell, Grady & Rhaiti, 1995)• In an Australian study (Durkin & Barber, 2002) among sixteen- year-old

(N=1304) High players scored higher family closeness and attachment to school Low players scored lower in depressed mood, aggression and

disobedience and higher in self-esteem Nonplayers did not score high in any measure

Playing computer games is a positive feature of a healthy adolescent (playing with friends, exchanging game experience)

Popular hypothesis: decrease of academic performance, because time that should be spend on homework is spend on playing

It was found that• there is a positive correlation between time spent on

nonviolent entertainment games and intelligence among children in elementary school (van Schie & Wiegman, 1997)

• heavy use of computer games has a positive relation to low self-esteem, poor academic performance and less sociability (Roe & Muijs, 1998)

The results are mixed; further research needed

Application of video games in psychotherapy session (Gardner, 1991) Common grounds between the therapists and his

patient Behavioral observation opportunities

Diversion from side effects of cancer chemotherapy and reduction of pain (Redd et al., 1987)

Increase of motivation to exercise and metabolic activity during wheelchair use (O’Connor, Fitgerald, Cooper, Thorman & Boninger, 2001)

…. New tool for psychology and medicine

To play a computer game certain skills are needed e.g.: proactive and recursive thinking, systematic organization of

information, interpretation of visual information, means-ends analysis,… (Pillay, 2003)

Playing might develop cognitive skills, which are then transferred to other tasks

Research has shown that playing computer games has a positive effect on• understanding and interpreting scientific and technical information

presented graphically on a computer screen (Greenfield, Brannon & Lohr, 1994)

• generating a wide variety of alternative hypotheses for a problem situation (Doolittle, 1995)

• inductive reasoning (Camaioni, Ercolani, Perrucchini & Greenfield, 1990)• complex thinking in problem solving (Keller, 1992)• strategic planning (Jenkins, 2002; Keller, 1992)• self-regulated learning (Rieber, 1996)• development of different learning styles (Jenkins, 2002)

Training Computer games and simulations can be used for training, for example

in militarySpatial skills

Playing computer games develops spatial skills there are also results which suggest no improvement

Sociability Playing computer games has no negative effect on children and youths’

sociability; players even score higherAcademic performances

Children playing computer games scored higher in intelligence tests Heavy playing is correlated with poor academic performances

Therapy Computer games may be used in a wide range of therapeutic methods

Cognitive abilities Playing computer games develops cognitive abilities

Addiction or game dependency

Gender stereotyping

Physical health problems

08.08.2005, South Korea: an adult gamer died after 50 hours of

continuous playing

Addiction is a compulsion to engage in some specific activity, despite harmful consequences to the individual's health, mental state or social life.

Current studies do not support the game addiction hypothesis. Results, which suggest an addiction, are either based on a unrepresentative sample or focus on nonpopular games.

It is suggested not to use the word “addiction” but “dependency”

Dependency means that playing is not only a preoccupation, but also serves special social and psychological functions in the player’s life. (Shotton, 1989)

Survey with 387 adolescents (12-16 years old)

(Griffiths & Hunt, 1998):

20% were dependent on computer games boys played more regularly and were

oftener classified as dependent the earlier a child starts to play, the more

likely it is that it becomes dependent

“Children Now” surveyed 1716 characters of video games (2001)

Female characters were less likely to be player-controlled

Male and female characters were portrayed in a stereotypical way Female characters were very

sexy Male characters were

hypermasculinized Female characters = victims Male characters = heroes

Affect on the self-image of girls and expectations of boys

Study of 387 patients, who were extremely sensitive to electronic visual simulation (Kasteleijn-Nolst et al., 1999)

Patients became more sensitive when playing than when viewing games; especially Super Mariohttp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6_wsEtxpj14&feature=related

Consequences if sitting in front of the computer (vision, spine) instead of outdoor activities

Addiction or game dependency No reliable surveys on addiction Dependency concerns 1 out of 5 players,

especially boys and those, who started earlyGender stereotyping

Stereotypic image of male and female characters, which might effect the self-image and expectations of children

Physical health problems Especially, when playing becomes a substitute for

outdoor activities

Symbolic Catharsis Hypothesisdischarging aggression by purging aggressive emotionsor emotional purification

Psychoanalytic theory: aggression and sexuality are the major drives emotional catharsis is based on the hydraulic model of anger release may happen in real life or in fantasy (for example while

playing video games)

Players can release their aggression in a nondestructive way, what has the effect of relaxing (Bowman & Rotter, 1983; Kestenbaum & Weinstein, 1985)

There is no empirical support for the catharsis effect. (Bushmann, 2002)

What could be the reason? Catharsis means “intellectual clarification” and may not

occur for aggression in general or for violence in media Problems with research. What should an experiment to

test this hypothesis look like?a. The subjects must feel aggressive and angry at the

beginning.b. Two experimental groups:

1. can use media in any way they like 2. control group without media choice

c. Second measure of aggression Further research needed

Affect (hostility, anxiety) Agressive behaviors Priming aggressive thoughts Physiological responses

(heart rate, blood pressure) Prosocial behavior

1. Social cognitive theory (Bandura) players identify themselves with the characters justification of violence might be internalized and transferred to the real world

2. Excitation transfer model (Zillmann) the player gets excited while playing the emotional state of a player is intensified after

that3. Cognitive priming (Berkowitz)

playing increases accessibility to a subset of cognitions related to violence and aggression

transfer to real-world aggressive behavior

(Anderson & Bushman, 2002; Carnagey & Anderson, 2003; Buckley & Anderson)

Violent media • teaches how to aggress• increases arousal and affective aggressive states• primes aggressive cognitions

When playing is repeated• aggression-related cognitive structures• aggressive perceptual schema• aggressive behavioral scriptsare reinforced and• the aggressive personality of a person increases changes in the environment, e.g. new peers groups, which are

more aggressive use of more violent media

(Anderson & Bushman, 2002; Carnagey & Anderson, 2003; Buckley & Anderson)

GMA explains short-term effects on aggressive

cognitions, affects, behaviors and phisiological arousal

long-term effects on aggressive attitudes, schemata, personality and aggression desensitization

of violent media.

Playing violent games causes a feeling of aggression; Mortal Kombat and Corner

Pocket have been compared (Ballard & West, 1996) induces temporary higher level of anxiety (Anderson & Ford, 1986) correlates with general hostility and anger (Chory-Assad & Mastro,

2000)

But other surveys suggest that playing video games is a weak predictor for anger state (Abel-Cooper, 2001) has no effect on hostility (Anderson & Ford, 1986; Anderson & Dill, 2000) is in no relation with aggressiveness measured by Buss-Durkee

Hostility Inventory and Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (Scott, 1995)

Anderson and Dill suggest that playing violent video games does not influence behavior through the affective path, but the cognitive

Postgame aggressive behaviors such as

the duration and intensity of noise blast to opponents (Anderson & Dill, 2000; Cohn, 1996)

attacking Bobo doll (Shuttle et al. 1988) childrens’ aggressive behavior in free play

(Silvern & Williamson, 1987) time spent playing with an aggressive toy

(Cooper & Mackie, 1986)

showed a relationship between playing violentcomputer games and later behavior in

experimentalconditions.

Violent computer games have no effect on

withholding money from another (Winkel et al., 1987)

pushing buttons that could punish or reward others (Graybill et al., 1987)

suggesting punishment or reward to friends (Cooper & Mackie, 1986; Kirsch, 1998)

Which behaviors do you find more adequate for real life situations?

Cognitive priming hypothesis would predict that playing violent games increases the accessibility to aggressive thoughts.

It is found out that players of aggressive games• have shorter the reaction time to aggressive words

(Anderson & Dill, 2000)• list more aggressive thoughts (Calvert & Tan, 1994)• interpret ambiguous situations negative (Kirsch, 1998)

after playing (short-term effects).

Continuous playing makes aggressive thoughts chronically accessible to players. Aggressive thoughts can be internalized in players’ mind.

Playing violent games • increases heart rate for 15 minutes after play

(Griffiths & Dancaster, 1995)

• causes more arousal change among girls than among boys (Fleming & Rickwood, 2001)

• increases systolic blood pressure (Ballard & West, 1996)

Winkel et al. (1987) did not find such effect (N=56).

Playing violent games reduces the amount of monetary donation to charity among children (third, fourth, seventh and eighth graders) (Chambers & Ascione, 1987)

Children with high preference for violent games show less prosocial behaviors, especially boys(N=278,

10-14 years old) (Wiegman & van Schie, 1998)

have a lower self-perception of behavioral conduct (N=364, fourth and fifth graders) (Funk, Buchman & Germann, 2000)

Playing violent games predicts delinquent behaviors (drinking alcohol and destroying school property) among college students (N=227) (Anderson & Dill, 2000)

Affect results are mixed, it is not clear if hostility and anger are

in a relation with game playingAgressive behaviors

results are mixed; the adequacy of the postaggressive behaviors should be questioned

Priming aggressive thoughts the majority of surveys found a positive relation between

playing violent games and aggressive thoughts after doing so

Physiological responses (heart rate, blood pressure) Increase of blood pressure and heart rate

Prosocial behavior negative effect of prosocial behavior

Discussion

And next time more about theoretical foundations empirical research findings critic of methodologyin research of the relationship between

violentgame playing and aggression