EpistemologyEpistemology“Theory of “Theory of

Knowledge”Knowledge”

Traditionally divided Traditionally divided into two categoriesinto two categories

A. RationalismA. Rationalism

B. EmpiricismB. Empiricism

Rationalism:Rationalism:Those who assert that by Those who assert that by

reason alone we can reason alone we can discover knowledgediscover knowledge

I. The school emphasizes that our I. The school emphasizes that our “senses” cannot give any certain “senses” cannot give any certain knowledgeknowledgeII. True knowledge is already within II. True knowledge is already within our minds in the form of “innate our minds in the form of “innate ideas” which we do not acquire, but ideas” which we do not acquire, but are born withare born withIII. Plato and Descartes are III. Plato and Descartes are examples of Rationalismexamples of Rationalism

Empiricism:Empiricism:Those who assert that Those who assert that we obtain knowledge we obtain knowledge solely by our sensessolely by our senses

I. Empiricism has usually developed I. Empiricism has usually developed in countries where the dominant in countries where the dominant interests have been practical and interests have been practical and worldly (US and Great Britain)worldly (US and Great Britain)

II. Modern Empiricism grew out of II. Modern Empiricism grew out of the philosophical struggles in 17the philosophical struggles in 17thth century England, when that country century England, when that country was rapidly developing, commercially was rapidly developing, commercially and industriallyand industrially

III. Roger Bacon, John Locke, George III. Roger Bacon, John Locke, George Berkley, and David Hume are Berkley, and David Hume are examplesexamples

PlatoPlato(Aristocles)(Aristocles)

WritingsWritings

I. Socratic Period:I. Socratic Period:

A. A. The ApologyThe Apology: contains : contains account of Socrates’ speech in account of Socrates’ speech in defense of himself at his trialdefense of himself at his trial

B. B. The CritoThe Crito: A Platonic defense : A Platonic defense as being a loyal citizen of Athensas being a loyal citizen of Athens

C. C. The Euthyphro. The Laches, and The Euthyphro. The Laches, and the Charmidesthe Charmides: discusses the ideas : discusses the ideas of goodness and prudenceof goodness and prudence

D. The Protagoras: discusses virtue D. The Protagoras: discusses virtue and its teachabilityand its teachability

E. The two E. The two HippiasHippias (the Major and (the Major and Minor): seen as a spirited erotic Minor): seen as a spirited erotic tale: the Major attempts to tale: the Major attempts to understand the concepts of “beauty”understand the concepts of “beauty”

II. The Transition PeriodII. The Transition Period

A. A. The LysisThe Lysis: treats the concept : treats the concept of “friendship”of “friendship”

B. B. The CratylusThe Cratylus: devoted to the : devoted to the philosophy of languagephilosophy of language

C. C. The EuthdemusThe Euthdemus: directed : directed against the logical fallacies of against the logical fallacies of some some of the later Sophistsof the later Sophists

D. D. The MenexenusThe Menexenus: discussion : discussion of of Sohistic rhetoricSohistic rhetoric

III. The Period of Maturity (theory of III. The Period of Maturity (theory of “ideas” being developed)“ideas” being developed)

A. A. The MenoThe Meno: again takes up : again takes up the the teachability of virtueteachability of virtue

B. B. The PhaedoThe Phaedo: doctrines of : doctrines of ideas and immortality of the soul ideas and immortality of the soul are interwovenare interwoven

C. C. The SymposiumThe Symposium: the theory : the theory of of “Ideas” applied to the realm of “Ideas” applied to the realm of the the “beautiful”“beautiful”

D. D. The RepublicThe Republic: rests on same : rests on same dualism as dualism as The PhaedoThe Phaedo, concerned , concerned with this world and its problems, with this world and its problems, contains material on ethics, the contains material on ethics, the “Allegory of the Cave”, and the myth “Allegory of the Cave”, and the myth of the fate of the soulof the fate of the soul

E. E. The PhaedrusThe Phaedrus: (Once regarded as : (Once regarded as first work of Plato), a work on love first work of Plato), a work on love and Eros ; contains Orphic-and Eros ; contains Orphic-Pythagorean theory of transmigration Pythagorean theory of transmigration of souls of souls

The Works of Old AgeThe Works of Old AgeA decline in OntologyA decline in Ontology

I. I. The ParmenidesThe Parmenides: Socrates : Socrates defending himself against a series of defending himself against a series of criticisms of the theory of ideas by criticisms of the theory of ideas by Zeno and the Eleatic SchoolZeno and the Eleatic School

II. II. TheatetusTheatetus: epistemelogical : epistemelogical concerns on theory of “ideas”concerns on theory of “ideas”

III. III. The SophistThe Sophist: a continuation of : a continuation of The TheaetusThe Theaetus, main attack is the , main attack is the SophistsSophists

IV. IV. The StatesmanThe Statesman: views the true : views the true ruler as the “Knower” who alone ruler as the “Knower” who alone possesses truth—enlightened possesses truth—enlightened despotismdespotism

V. V. The PhilebusThe Philebus: a short discussion : a short discussion on the “one and many”, shows on the “one and many”, shows relationship of pleasure to the goodrelationship of pleasure to the good

VI. VI. The TimaeusThe Timaeus: the only dialogue : the only dialogue concerning natural science—contains concerning natural science—contains a theory of creationa theory of creationVII. VII. The CritiasThe Critias: discusses the ideal : discusses the ideal agrarian state projected onto the agrarian state projected onto the earliest days of Athensearliest days of AthensVIII. VIII. The HemocratesThe Hemocrates: describes the : describes the degeneration from the original ideal degeneration from the original ideal state to the presentstate to the presentIX. IX. The LawsThe Laws: (last work), basic : (last work), basic concepts of The Republic are concepts of The Republic are reemphasized, some concessions to reemphasized, some concessions to “real life”“real life”

Plato’s EpistemelogyPlato’s EpistemelogyI. Cannot be found systematically in I. Cannot be found systematically in any one workany one work

II. The II. The Theaetetus Theaetetus —considers —considers knowledge, conclusion is negativeknowledge, conclusion is negative

A. Knowledge is not sense-A. Knowledge is not sense-perceptionperception

B. Knowledge is not simply “true B. Knowledge is not simply “true judgment”judgment”

C. Knowledge is not true judgment C. Knowledge is not true judgment plus an “account”plus an “account”

D. Characteristics of true knowledgeD. Characteristics of true knowledge

1. infallible1. infallible

2. of the real2. of the real

Theory of Form or “Ideas”Theory of Form or “Ideas”I. Knowledge is related to the good, I. Knowledge is related to the good, but not the good itselfbut not the good itselfII. Knowledge is in the eternal realm II. Knowledge is in the eternal realm of the essencesof the essencesIII. There is a world of being III. There is a world of being (Parmenides)—unchanging ideals(Parmenides)—unchanging idealsIV. There is also the world of IV. There is also the world of becoming (Heraclitus)—ever-becoming (Heraclitus)—ever-changingchanging

V. There is a third realm (V. There is a third realm (The The TimaeusTimaeus) called space) called space

VI. An interpretation of the theory of VI. An interpretation of the theory of ideasideas

A. Any attempt to reduce it to a A. Any attempt to reduce it to a principle and interpret it as a principle and interpret it as a

whole whole is futileis futile

B. The concept of the idea must B. The concept of the idea must not be interpreted as being a not be interpreted as being a

subjective concept in the mind—subjective concept in the mind— it it has an objective realityhas an objective reality

C. Ideas have a three-fold C. Ideas have a three-fold significancesignificance

1. Ontological—in that they 1. Ontological—in that they represent real beingrepresent real being

2. Teleological—all ideas have 2. Teleological—all ideas have ends and aims to their beingends and aims to their being

3. Logical—the ideas enable us 3. Logical—the ideas enable us to to bring order into the chaos of bring order into the chaos of Individual beingsIndividual beings

D. The ideas exist in a sphere apart D. The ideas exist in a sphere apart from our realityfrom our reality

1. The 1. The Phaedo Phaedo teaches that the teaches that the soul existed before its union with soul existed before its union with the body in a transcendental realmthe body in a transcendental realm

2. The process of knowledge 2. The process of knowledge consists consists essentially in recollectionessentially in recollection

3. God or the “demiurge” form 3. God or the “demiurge” form things of this world according to things of this world according to the model of the model of the Formsthe Forms

E. E. The PhilebusThe Philebus, there is a strong , there is a strong Pythagorean influencePythagorean influence

1. Nature is reality is numbers1. Nature is reality is numbers

2. Uses Pythagorean opposites2. Uses Pythagorean opposites

3. Origin of Ideas is the One3. Origin of Ideas is the One

Allegory of the CaveAllegory of the CaveI.I. Found in Book 7 of Found in Book 7 of The RepublicThe Republic

II. Knowledge advances by stagesII. Knowledge advances by stagesA. From sense perception it A. From sense perception it

proceeds to pure thought (pure proceeds to pure thought (pure mathematics)mathematics)

B. From pure thought is proceeds B. From pure thought is proceeds to to the idea (mathematical the idea (mathematical knowledge to dialectical knowledge to dialectical sciencescienceC. From the ideal to the realm C. From the ideal to the realm

beyond (from ideas to the Good)beyond (from ideas to the Good)

III. The allegory shows the ascent of the III. The allegory shows the ascent of the mind from the lower sections to the mind from the lower sections to the higher as an epistemological progresshigher as an epistemological progress

A. Prisoners represent the majority A. Prisoners represent the majority of of humankindhumankind

B. We live in a world of shadowsB. We live in a world of shadows

C. The view of the world is C. The view of the world is distorted by the shadowsdistorted by the shadows

D. We cling to our distorted viewsD. We cling to our distorted views

IV. The cave also represents the IV. The cave also represents the importance of proper educationimportance of proper education

DescartesDescartes (1591-1650) (1591-1650)

I. Cartesian DoubtI. Cartesian DoubtA. Considered to be the A. Considered to be the

“founder” of modern philosophy—“founder” of modern philosophy—first philosopher to allow the new first philosopher to allow the new physics and astronomy to effect his physics and astronomy to effect his philosophical systemphilosophical system

II. During the Thirty Years’ War II. During the Thirty Years’ War (1619) in Bavaria he had a dream in (1619) in Bavaria he had a dream in which he said “the spirit of Truth” which he said “the spirit of Truth” opened to him “the treasures of all opened to him “the treasures of all the sciences”the sciences”

A. He recorded this incident in A. He recorded this incident in Discourses on MethodDiscourses on Method (1637) (1637)

B. Second major work is the B. Second major work is the MeditationsMeditations (1642) (1642)

1. In the 1. In the MeditationsMeditations he he preaches preaches the “duty of doubt”the “duty of doubt”

2. Wanted to go beyond the 2. Wanted to go beyond the senses to senses to beginning of knowledgebeginning of knowledge

3. In the Second Meditations he 3. In the Second Meditations he uses uses “wax” as an example of how “wax” as an example of how our our senses deceive ussenses deceive us

4. By concentrating only on 4. By concentrating only on what he what he knew for certain, he began knew for certain, he began what we what we know as “Cartesian know as “Cartesian doubt”doubt”

C. The methodology of “Cartesian C. The methodology of “Cartesian doubt”doubt”

1. Begins by doubting 1. Begins by doubting everything that everything that he could manage he could manage to doubtto doubt

a. First begins doubting a. First begins doubting sense-sense- experienceexperience

b. What thing I cannot doubt is b. What thing I cannot doubt is my my own experience “While I wanted own experience “While I wanted to to think everything false, it must think everything false, it must necessarily be that I who thought was necessarily be that I who thought was

something; and remarking this, I something; and remarking this, I THINK THINK THEREFORE I AM, was so THEREFORE I AM, was so certain that certain that all most extravagant all most extravagant suppositions of the suppositions of the skeptics were skeptics were incapable of upsetting it. I incapable of upsetting it. I judged that judged that I could receive it without I could receive it without scruple as scruple as the first principle of the the first principle of the philosophy philosophy that I sought”that I sought”

2. Having set a secure foundation, he 2. Having set a secure foundation, he sets sets to work to rebuild the edifice of to work to rebuild the edifice of knowledgeknowledge

a. “I am a thing that thinks”a. “I am a thing that thinks”b. My existence is different from b. My existence is different from

the the physical world; that the soul is physical world; that the soul is wholly wholly distinct from the bodydistinct from the body

c. Why was the Cogito so c. Why was the Cogito so evident? evident? Because it is “clear and Because it is “clear and distinct”—thus, distinct”—thus, all things that we all things that we conceive clearly and conceive clearly and distinctly are distinctly are truetrue

d. He deals with knowledge d. He deals with knowledge of of our bodies—here he uses our bodies—here he uses the the example of waxexample of wax

e. Proving the existence of e. Proving the existence of an an External World can be done External World can be done only only by proving the by proving the existence of Godexistence of God

3. His Proof of God’s existence (A 3. His Proof of God’s existence (A revision of Anselm’s Ontological revision of Anselm’s Ontological Argument”Argument”

a. Everything has a cause a. Everything has a cause (including (including our ideas)our ideas)

b. We have an idea of Godb. We have an idea of Godc. Nothing less than God is c. Nothing less than God is

adequate adequate to cause our idea of Godto cause our idea of God

4. Besides the ideas of self and God, 4. Besides the ideas of self and God, there was another set of ideas which there was another set of ideas which were seen to be innate without any were seen to be innate without any reference to the external world—the reference to the external world—the truth of mathematicstruth of mathematics

5. All other knowledge comes to us 5. All other knowledge comes to us us from the outside worldus from the outside world

III. Empirical EmphasesIII. Empirical Emphases

A. Descartes realized that one A. Descartes realized that one could could proceed by deduction only a proceed by deduction only a short short distance from the apex of a distance from the apex of a pyramidpyramid

B. A deduction from intuitively B. A deduction from intuitively self-self- evident principles is of a limited evident principles is of a limited

usefulness in science—it would usefulness in science—it would yield yield only the most general of only the most general of lawslaws

C. He also posited a belief that C. He also posited a belief that one one cannot determine from a mere cannot determine from a mere

conclusion of general laws, the conclusion of general laws, the cause cause of physical processesof physical processes

D. For one to be able to deduce a D. For one to be able to deduce a statement about a particular statement about a particular

effect, effect, it would be necessary to it would be necessary to include include among the premises among the premises information information about the circumstances about the circumstances under under which the events occurwhich the events occur

E. An important tool for E. An important tool for observation observation and experimentation is and experimentation is to provide to provide knowledge of the knowledge of the conditions under conditions under which events of a which events of a given type takes given type takes placeplace

IV. Primary Qualities and Secondary IV. Primary Qualities and Secondary QualitiesQualities

A. In his doubting process he had to A. In his doubting process he had to prove what is clear and distinct prove what is clear and distinct

about a about a physical object—he would use physical object—he would use a lump of wax a lump of wax as an exampleas an example

1. We understand the “real 1. We understand the “real nature” of wax through nature” of wax through

“intuition”“intuition”

2. Such “intuition” is to be 2. Such “intuition” is to be distinguished from the distinguished from the

sequence of sequence of appearancesappearances

3. He would distinguish between 3. He would distinguish between those those “primary qualities” which all “primary qualities” which all bodie must possess and “secondary bodie must possess and “secondary qualities” qualities” which exist only in the which exist only in the perceptual perceptual experience of the experience of the subjectsubject

B. He believed that God created a B. He believed that God created a universe of “infinite extension” (thus, no universe of “infinite extension” (thus, no vacuum) and “motion”—science thus reduced vacuum) and “motion”—science thus reduced to to measurement and mathematicsmeasurement and mathematics

1. All change must come through 1. All change must come through motionmotion

2. Motion could neither increase 2. Motion could neither increase nor decrease, but only transferred from one nor decrease, but only transferred from one body to anotherbody to another

3. The universe continues to run 3. The universe continues to run as a as a machine and each body machine and each body persists in a state of motion in a persists in a state of motion in a straight line; the geometrically straight line; the geometrically simplest form in which God set it simplest form in which God set it going, unless acted on by an external going, unless acted on by an external forceforce

V. General Scientific LawsV. General Scientific Laws

A. From his understanding of A. From his understanding of extension, he would develop several extension, he would develop several important physical principlesimportant physical principles

B. He seemed to believe that B. He seemed to believe that because the concepts of extension and because the concepts of extension and motion and clear and distinct, certain motion and clear and distinct, certain generalizations about these concepts must generalizations about these concepts must be considered as be considered as aa prioripriori truths truths

1. One generalization is that 1. One generalization is that all motion is caused by impact or all motion is caused by impact or pressure due to his belief that no pressure due to his belief that no vacuum can exist, thus every entity vacuum can exist, thus every entity must be touched by another entitymust be touched by another entity

2. However, he denied the 2. However, he denied the possibility of action-at-a-possibility of action-at-a-

distance in an effort to defend a distance in an effort to defend a thorough-going mechanistic view of thorough-going mechanistic view of

causationcausation

3. Such a view would be 3. Such a view would be revolutionary in his revolutionary in his

day—this belief would be a denial of day—this belief would be a denial of magnetism and gravitymagnetism and gravity

4. Another generalization is 4. Another generalization is derived from the derived from the

idea of extension is that all motion is a idea of extension is that all motion is a cyclical rearrangement of bodies; if cyclical rearrangement of bodies; if one body changes its “location”, a one body changes its “location”, a simultaneous displacement of others simultaneous displacement of others bodies is necessary to prevent a bodies is necessary to prevent a vacuumvacuum

C. Descartes wrote that God is C. Descartes wrote that God is the ultimate cause of motion—a the ultimate cause of motion—a perfect being would create a perfect being would create a universe “all-at-universe “all-at- once” and this once” and this perfect being would perfect being would keep motion keep motion going, otherwise the universe would going, otherwise the universe would run downrun down

EmpiricismEmpiricism

John LockeJohn Locke

Essay Concerning Essay Concerning Human UnderstandingHuman Understanding

I. He attempts to show how various concepts or ideas come from or are built up from different kinds of experienceII. Denial of Innate Ideas—there are no principles or ideas that we have any reason to believe we have prior to, or independent, of our sense experience

III. The White Paper (III. The White Paper (Tabula Rosa), ), Locke believed that our minds are Locke believed that our minds are like a white paper—void of all like a white paper—void of all characters, without any ideascharacters, without any ideas

IV. Two sources of knowledge—IV. Two sources of knowledge—perception and reflectionperception and reflection

IV. Simple IdeasIV. Simple Ideas1. Simple ideas are the most 1. Simple ideas are the most

basic of our knowledgebasic of our knowledge2. Simple ideas are presented to 2. Simple ideas are presented to

us in us in sensation and reflectionsensation and reflection3. Once the mind experiences 3. Once the mind experiences

simple simple ideas, it has the power to ideas, it has the power to store up, to repeat, and to combine store up, to repeat, and to combine themthem

V. Primary and Secondary QualitiesV. Primary and Secondary QualitiesA. Primary qualities are those A. Primary qualities are those

items in our experience which must items in our experience which must belong to belong to the objects that we arethe objects that we are

B. Secondary qualities are B. Secondary qualities are nothing in nothing in the objects themselves, the objects themselves, but powers to produce various but powers to produce various sensations in us by sensations in us by primary primary qualities, e.g., colorqualities, e.g., color

VI. Kinds of knowledgeVI. Kinds of knowledge

A. Discussed in the Fourth Book A. Discussed in the Fourth Book of the of the EssaysEssays, how reliable can , how reliable can knowledge of sensation and reflection knowledge of sensation and reflection be?be?

B. Our knowledge is the result of B. Our knowledge is the result of the examination of ideas it see if they the examination of ideas it see if they agree agree or disagree in some respectsor disagree in some respects—four —four kindskinds

1. First kind is achieved by the 1. First kind is achieved by the inspection of two or more ideas inspection of two or more ideas

to see to see if they are identical or if they are identical or differentdifferent

2. Second kind is the discovery 2. Second kind is the discovery that that two or more ideas are two or more ideas are related together related together in some mannerin some manner

3. Third kind is about ideas 3. Third kind is about ideas which which deals with the coexistence deals with the coexistence of two or of two or more ideas belonging more ideas belonging togethertogether

4. Fourth kind of knowledge is 4. Fourth kind of knowledge is the discovery of whether or not any the discovery of whether or not any of our ideas are experiences of of our ideas are experiences of something that exist outside of our something that exist outside of our minds, i.e., if they are of some real minds, i.e., if they are of some real existenceexistence

VII. External RealityVII. External Reality

A. In order to keep his theory of A. In order to keep his theory of knowledge from ending to knowledge from ending to

calling calling knowledge one’s person’s knowledge one’s person’s experience experience based on one’s based on one’s observations, he observations, he attempted to show attempted to show that even with that even with our our limited limited knowledge gained from knowledge gained from experience we have some basis for experience we have some basis for

claiming that we know claiming that we know something something about what goes on about what goes on outside of our outside of our mindsminds

B. The Mind is incapable of inventing B. The Mind is incapable of inventing simple ideas—thus they must be the simple ideas—thus they must be the result of something outside of our result of something outside of our mindsminds

VIII. His view on prospects and VIII. His view on prospects and limitations of science are found in his limitations of science are found in his EssayEssay

A. He had a view accepting a A. He had a view accepting a primitive primitive concept of atoms, thus concept of atoms, thus in order to be in order to be able to “predict” able to “predict” mechanical behavior mechanical behavior one would one would need to:need to:

1. Know the configurations and 1. Know the configurations and motions of atomsmotions of atoms

2. Know the ways in which the 2. Know the ways in which the motion motion of atoms produce ideas of of atoms produce ideas of primary and primary and secondary qualities in secondary qualities in the observerthe observer

3. If these two conditions were 3. If these two conditions were met, met, then one would know a priori then one would know a priori that that certain properties would be certain properties would be identified identified with entitieswith entities

B. However, we are ignorant of the B. However, we are ignorant of the configuration and motion of atomsconfiguration and motion of atoms

1. This ignorance is contingent1. This ignorance is contingent

2. Know the ways in which the 2. Know the ways in which the motion motion of atoms produce ideas of of atoms produce ideas of primary and primary and secondary qualities in secondary qualities in the observerthe observer

3. But, we still could not reach a 3. But, we still could not reach a necessary knowledge of necessary knowledge of

phenomenon phenomenon since we are since we are ignorant of the ways in ignorant of the ways in which which atoms manifest certain powersatoms manifest certain powers

C. The atomic constituents of a body C. The atomic constituents of a body possesses the power through motion, possesses the power through motion, to produce in us ideas of secondary to produce in us ideas of secondary qualities such as colors and soundsqualities such as colors and sounds

D. Also, the atoms of a particular D. Also, the atoms of a particular body have the power affect the body have the power affect the atoms of other bodies so as to alter atoms of other bodies so as to alter the ways in which these bodies affect the ways in which these bodies affect our sensesour senses

E. Only by “divine revelation” could E. Only by “divine revelation” could we know the ways in which atomic we know the ways in which atomic motions produce effects on usmotions produce effects on us

F. He also held that an unbridgeable F. He also held that an unbridgeable epistemological gap separates the epistemological gap separates the “real world” of atoms and the realm “real world” of atoms and the realm of ideas that constitute our of ideas that constitute our experienceexperience

IX. He recommended a methodology IX. He recommended a methodology of correlation and exclusion for of correlation and exclusion for scientific investigation based on a scientific investigation based on a compilation of extensive natural compilation of extensive natural historieshistories

A. This understanding involved A. This understanding involved a shift a shift in focus from “real in focus from “real essences” (atomic essences” (atomic configurations configurations of bodies) to “nominal of bodies) to “nominal essences” essences” (the observed properties (the observed properties and and relations of bodies)relations of bodies)

B. He insisted that the most that can B. He insisted that the most that can be achieved in science is a collection of be achieved in science is a collection of generalizations about the association generalizations about the association and succession of “phenomena”and succession of “phenomena”

C. He somewhat “degenerated” C. He somewhat “degenerated” natural science—a trained scientist natural science—a trained scientist may have judgment and opinion, not may have judgment and opinion, not knowledge and certaintyknowledge and certainty

X. He did believe that there do exist X. He did believe that there do exist necessary connections in nature—necessary connections in nature—even though the connections are even though the connections are opaque to human understandings.opaque to human understandings.

A. The usage of the term “idea” A. The usage of the term “idea” was was between gapsbetween gaps

1. “Ideas” are effects of 1. “Ideas” are effects of operations in the “real operations in the “real

world” of world” of atomsatoms

2. Thus, red is produced by 2. Thus, red is produced by processes external to processes external to

the subjectthe subject

B. He was confident that the B. He was confident that the motions of atomic constituents of motions of atomic constituents of matter that give rise to our ideas of matter that give rise to our ideas of colors and taste—even though we colors and taste—even though we cannot learn just how this takes cannot learn just how this takes placeplace

David HumeDavid Hume

I. Carried British Empiricism to a I. Carried British Empiricism to a skeptical blind alleyskeptical blind alley

A. By contending that belief in A. By contending that belief in the the identity of the self or objects in identity of the self or objects in the the external world was simply the external world was simply the result of result of a habita habit

B. Identity is “nothing really B. Identity is “nothing really belonging belonging to these different to these different perceptions and perceptions and uniting them uniting them together; but it is merely a together; but it is merely a quality quality which we attribute to them which we attribute to them because of the union of their ideas in because of the union of their ideas in

the imagination.”the imagination.”

II. In II. In An Inquiry Concerning Human An Inquiry Concerning Human UnderstandingUnderstanding he divided the he divided the perceptions of the mind into two perceptions of the mind into two classesclasses

A. Thoughts or ideas—the least A. Thoughts or ideas—the least forcible and lively—they are forcible and lively—they are

reflections reflections of impressionsof impressions

B. Impressions—results from B. Impressions—results from direct direct experience; what we see, experience; what we see, hear, feelhear, feel

C. The creative power of the C. The creative power of the mind mind amounts to no more than amounts to no more than the faculty of the faculty of compounding, compounding, transposing, augmenting transposing, augmenting or or diminishing the materials afforded diminishing the materials afforded us by our senses and experiencesus by our senses and experiences

The SynthesisThe Synthesisofof

Immanuel Kant Immanuel Kant

I. He initiated a “Copernican I. He initiated a “Copernican Revolution” in philosophyRevolution” in philosophy

A. Reaction to radical A. Reaction to radical empiricism of empiricism of David HumeDavid Hume

B. Freed theology from B. Freed theology from corrosion of corrosion of classical empiricism classical empiricism while maintaining while maintaining rationality of rationality of religious beliefreligious belief

II. Kant responded that Hume and II. Kant responded that Hume and the empiricists had a passive and the empiricists had a passive and dualistic view of cognition—which dualistic view of cognition—which conceived of the mind as simply a conceived of the mind as simply a receptor of particular sense receptor of particular sense impressionsimpressions

A. Kant emphasized that the A. Kant emphasized that the mind is mind is active—instead of beginning active—instead of beginning with the with the object as something already object as something already given to given to which the mind must which the mind must conform, he conform, he reverses the order and reverses the order and conceives of the conceives of the object as in some object as in some respect constituted respect constituted by the by the a prioria priori contributions of the contributions of the knowerknower

B. The mind imposes upon the B. The mind imposes upon the material of experience its own material of experience its own

forms of forms of cognition, determined by cognition, determined by the very the very structure of human structure of human understandingunderstanding

C. The raw material of C. The raw material of experience is experience is thus molded and thus molded and shaped along certain shaped along certain definite lines definite lines according to the cognitive according to the cognitive forms with forms with the mind itselfthe mind itself

D. These forms of the mind are D. These forms of the mind are the the way we “put things together”way we “put things together”

E. All experiences presuppose E. All experiences presuppose these these aa prioripriori categories which are categories which are not not themselves observablethemselves observable

III. The cognitive forms of III. The cognitive forms of experience determine the possibility experience determine the possibility of objects of knowledgeof objects of knowledge

A. The categories of experience A. The categories of experience determine our knowledge of determine our knowledge of

phenomenaphenomena

B. If the word object were taken to B. If the word object were taken to refer to refer to “things-in-themselves”, things “things-in-themselves”, things apart from apart from any relation to a knowing any relation to a knowing subject, then we subject, then we could not say they are could not say they are known by the human known by the human mindmind

C. We cannot, thus, know C. We cannot, thus, know noumenanoumena, , things-things- in-themselves, i.e., in-themselves, i.e., supersensible objects, for supersensible objects, for we lack the we lack the necessary cognitive organnecessary cognitive organ

IV. He looks at the nature of IV. He looks at the nature of judgment of judgment in four waysjudgment of judgment in four ways

A. A. Analytical judgmentAnalytical judgment——(rational & (rational & deductive)—in which deductive)—in which the predicate is the predicate is contained contained within the subject and may within the subject and may be be known by analysis of it, known by analysis of it, e.ge.g., “bald ., “bald

men have no hair” men have no hair”

B. B. Synthetical judgmentSynthetical judgment (empirical (empirical & inductive)—one in & inductive)—one in which the which the predicate predicate is not is not contained with the contained with the subject., subject., e.ge.g., .,

“the rose is red”“the rose is red”

C. C. A prioriA priori judgment judgment (rational) (rational)—one —one which asserts a universal which asserts a universal and and necessary connection, necessary connection, e.ge.g., 2 + ., 2 + 2 = 4, 2 = 4, always and must be, a always and must be, a judgment judgment before the factbefore the fact

D. D. Post-prioriPost-priori judgment judgment (empirical)—one which does not (empirical)—one which does not assert assert a universal and necessary a universal and necessary connection—connection— a judgment after the a judgment after the fact, fact, e.ge.g., “the ., “the rose is red”rose is red”

E. For Kant, the major question E. For Kant, the major question is is whether there are synthetical, whether there are synthetical, a a prioripriori judgments (judgments (i.e.,i.e., those those judgments in judgments in which predicates which predicates are not contained are not contained within the within the subject but are still universal subject but are still universal and and necessary)—he concluded there necessary)—he concluded there were—math is an examplewere—math is an example

V. Kant gives two sources of V. Kant gives two sources of knowledgeknowledge

A. Sensibility—the use of sensesA. Sensibility—the use of senses

B. Understanding—the rational B. Understanding—the rational process process of the mindof the mind