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Joumal of t^usic Therapy, XLV (1). 2008. 21 -51
© 2008 by the American Music Therapy Association
Epistemological Development and
Collaborative Learning: A Hermeneutic
Analysis of Music Therapy Students
Experience
David W. Luce, PhD, MT-BC
Chapman University
Undergraduate education must address student s develop-
mental needs as well as their learning needs . Yet, there has
been little discussion regarding music therapy students
epistemological development, how that influences their
education and clinical training, and how that understanding
can inform educators and clinical supervisors. As part of an
introductory music therapy course that was taught using
collaborative learning consensus groups, students provided
written and verbal comments about their experience and
some students agreed to
a
series of interviews (Luce, 2002).
This hermeneutic analysis of that data was based upon
Perry s Scheme
and
W omen s W ays of Knowing
suggested
that (a) the students comm ents reflected the various
perspectives or positions within the models, (b) the
collaborative learning consensus groups facilitated transi-
tions and m ovemen t within the models, and (c) there was a
need for more research to understand music therapy
students developmental needs, to enhance teaching meth-
ods and pedagogy, a nd to address students developmental
needs as they prepare to enter the profession.
The education and training of music therapists has been
extensively discussed and debated. The current approach to
David W. Luce PhD MT-BC is the Director of Music Therapy at Chapman
University Orange California. The original data and findin gs used for this article
were reported in his dissertation and have been edited o r rewritten for this article.
The author acknowledges and thanks the students that participated in this
project and shared their experiences for the benefit of others. The author also
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oumal of Music Therapy
curriculum is based upon achieving professional competence with
increased breadth and depth of understanding at each of the
degree levels: bachelors, masters and doctorate. Moreno (1969)
observed that the means by which a music therapist strives to
achieve therapeu tic goals is related to the personality, abilities,
and general orientation of the individual therapist (p. 19).
There is an extensive literature base that considers college
students' epistemological development: that body of knowledge
and research that considers how the individual develops
conceptions of knowledge and knowing and utilizes them in
developing unde rstand ing of the world (Hofer, 2002, p . 4) . Yet,
there has been little discussion regarding music therapy students'
epistemological developm ent or ways of knowing in their
education and clinical training, and how music therapy students'
ways of knowing inñuence that process. Milgram-Luterman
(1997) offered a developmental model of music therapy
education based on theories of epistemological development as
discussed by Belenky, Clinchy, Golberger, and Tarule (1986/
1997) and Perry (1970/1999), and a theory of reflective practice
(Schön, 1983), yet this model has yet to be further researched or
discussed. Thus, it is unclear from the literature if music therapy
students' epistemological development is simply allowed to
emerge as part of the process, intentionally developed through
curricula and teaching methods, or addressed through some
oth er specific training (Kohlberg & Mayer, 1972). Moreover,
there is a distinct need for educators and clinical supervisors to
unders tand studen ts' epistemological developm ent: There were
times in which I simply did not think as the students did. Beyond
that, I couldn't imagine why they thought the way that they did
(Wheeler, 2002, p. 301).
Development and Learning in College Students
Undergraduate education must address student's distinctly
different individual developm ental needs, as well as their leam ing
needs (Baxter Magolda, 1992, 2000, 2001; Corno W inne, 2004;
Granott, 1998; Hill, 2004; Hofer & Pintrich, 2002; King &
Kitchener, 1994; Kohlberg & Mayer, 1972; Parker, 1978; Widick
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Vol. XLV No. 1 Spring 2008 3
the person to respond to more complex situadons effectively
(Parker, 1978, p . 12). Kohlherg and Mayer (1972) identified three
disdnct ideological perspectives about college students' self
development.
1. The educadonal environment allowed a studen t's good
qualides to emerge from within, rather than force that
unfolding through external adult pressure.
2. The environment l approa ch in which the role of educadon was
the direct transmission of informadon regarding a culture's
cognidve and moral knowledge and the rules of the culture.
3.
The interactionist approach in which the role of educadon
was to nourish the cognitive and affective processes that
emerge as a result of interactions that reorganize the
student's existing cognitive and affective perceptions,
beliefs, or processes.
Silverman and Casazza (2000) idendfied six topics that were
related and interrelated in learning and personal development:
(a) self and idendty, (b) motivadon, (c) interacdon with the
environment, (d) ways of knowing, (e) learning styles and
preferences, and (f) self-reguladon and goal setdng. For Silver-
man and Casazza (2000), ways of knowing were reflected in the
works of Perry (1970/1999), Belenky et al. (1986/1997), and
Gardner (1983). Silverman and Casazza (2000) asserted that each
student brought different perspectives of what consdtuted
knowledge and how knowledge was interpreted as dualisdc and
absolute, relativisdc and permeable, or interdependent and
contextual. Thus, each student experienced, rehearsed, learned,
and expressed their knowledge in a different way, and each
student required a different level of dependence or indepen-
dence from peers or the teacher. In order to meet music therapy
student's developmental needs, there must be an understanding
of the way students think with a teaching pedagogy tha t p rom otes
epistemological development. The purpose of this qualitadve
research project was to conduct a hermeneudc analysis of music
therapy students' comments about their epistemological develop-
ment or ways of knowing during a sophomore level, introductory
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ournal of Music Therapy
students to developing inter- and intra-dependence through
building relationships. The research questions for this analysis
were the following:
1. What comments or statements reflected the students' level
of epistemological development as described by Perry
(1970/1999) or Belenky et al. (1986/1997)?
2. Was there any movement or transition along the positions
identified by Perry (1970/1999) or Belenky et al. (1986/
1997) for any students?
3.
Did any statements seem to reflect any epistemological
movement or development as the result of the use of
collaborative learning consensus groups?
Method
hermeneutic analysis searches for meaning and context in the
actions of people, and hermeneutic theory argues that any
interpretation of meaning or context must derive from a
particular perspective or theoretical orientation (Patton, 2002).
The analysis requires direct observation of human interactions,
processes, and experiences in order to learn how individuals
cognitively organize their perception of the world, their role in it,
and how they may change or adapt through learning (Aigen,
1995). Hermeneutic analysis is therefore a cyclic and emerging
process: Evaluation, understanding, and theory are reviewed and
reflected upon in order to develop a broader understanding and
interpretation of hum an interactions in what has been referred to
as the
hermeneuti
árele
The goal of hermeneutic research is not
to develop flxed, singular bodies of knowledge, but to engage
deeply in the circle of understanding in order to develop
insightful and plausible inte rpre tatio ns of events (Aigen, 1995,
p. 292). Kenny, Jahn-Lan genb erg, and Loewy (2005) suggested
that musicians, and thus music therapists, are consistendy
involved in hermeneutic inquiry to interpret and understand a
particular musical selection or to interpret and understand the
actions, interactions and expressions of the people we serve.
Moreover, they noted that the researcher's relationship and level
of involvement with a research project would impact the quality
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o XLV No. 1 Spring 2008 5
The data for this analysis were derived from an ction rese rch
project in which the researcher was also the instructor for the
course (Luce, 2002). Within the qualitative research paradigm, an
action research project appropriately positions the researcher
within the pheno m enon that is being studied as a way of working
to solve organizational problems. An action research project seeks
to find out what happened from the perspectives of the
participants, and thus action research becomes an essential
component of the change process. One of the purposes of the
original action research project was to facilitate my development
as a music therapy educator: to help me to improve my teaching
methodology and pedagogy. Thus, it is particularly essential to
consider the researcher's perspective for this analysis.
Research er s Perspective
My interest in the education and training of music therapists
came out of my own education, life experience, clinical training
and professional practice. It is grounded in my understanding of
education as being culturally determined and dependent (Freiré,
1970;
Hooks, 1994) and the function of education within a
democratic society (Dewey, 1916). My understanding of curricu-
lum refiects a post-m odern perspective (Doll, 1993) and my belief
that education and training must address student's developmental
needs, as well as their learn ing needs (Kohlberg Mayer, 1972;
Parker, 1978; Silverman Casazza, 2000). In orde r to stimulate
students' cognitive and affective development, my teaching
pedagogy and methodology is based on the principles of
collaborative learning with the preferred use of collaborative
learning consensus groups (Bruffee, 1999). My personal philos-
ophy and definition of music therapy as a profession and clinical
discipline are grounded in Aldridge (1996), Bruscia (1998),
Crowe (2004), Eagle (1991), Kenny (1989), Pavlicevic (1997), and
Ruud (1998).
The lens through which I view music therapy, education, and
clinical training drove the development of this research project
and infiuenced my interpre tation of the da ta. In the course of my
life,
I have developed a philosophical perspective that is
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ournal of Music Therapy
within the material and spiritual universe. I therefore, believe that
we must accept individual responsibility for our actions as being
uniquely our own and for the ultimate impact that they have.
Moreover, we must recognize and honor our individual differ-
ences for they are valuable and important for each of us, and I
believe that this will help us to learn to interact and live together
in a global community. I believe that the role of education is to
nurture and facilitate the development of wisdom and under-
standing through critical reflection, cultural sensitivity, and
attention to the individual.
I believe that the education and clinical training of music
therapists must be holistic to facilitate the student's understand-
ing of their role and influence in the clinical experience and
process (Eagle, 1991; Kenny, 1989). I believe tha t edu cation and
clinical training should facilitate music therapy students' explo-
ration of their own relationship with music so that they may bette r
understand the person or group that they are working with, the
music that is created, and their relationship with that experience
and process. And I believe that educators and clinical trainers
must provide experiences in which the students can learn to
develop their intra- and interdependence as members of an
interdisciplinary treatm ent team. Ruud (1998) noted: Our
profession will forever be populated with people and paradigms
with competing claims of knowledge. The only answer is to learn
from each other and com municate what we learn (p. 114). The
intention of this article is to report this experience and what has
been learned from it.
Epistemolo^cal evelopment
T h e Perry Scheme (Perry, 19 70/1 999 ) and Women s W ays of
Knowing (Belenky et al., 1986/1997) models were used to frame
this hermeneutic analysis. Perry conducted longitudinal inter-
views between 1954 and 1963 with male students at Harvard
University to better understand their learning experience. He
identified forms or structures (p. 1) through which each
student progressed as they made meaning of the world, their view
of the world, and their place in it, as well as their understanding
and development of knowledge, values, and relationships.
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Vol. XLV No. 1 Spring 2008 7
gaps in their learning and often doubted their own intellectual
com petence . Moreover, real learning occurred in relationships
and not necessarily within the confmes of
an
academic institution.
They noted that women's ways of und erstand ing and interpreting
the world were considered as less valuable because the re was a
masculine bias at the very heart of most academic disciplines,
methodo logies and theories (p. 6). They discussed a morality of
responsibility and ca re wherein a wom an's self-concept was
rooted in a sense of connection and relatedness to oth ers as
opposed to separation and autonomy (p. 8). They believed that
Perry (1970/1999) was poorly designed to uncover those themes
that might be more prom inent am ong women (p. 9). They
developed five categories or epistemological perspectives [sic]
from which women know and view the world (p. 15).
ollaborative Leaming
Bruffee (1999) identified three basic principles of collaborative
learn ing: (a) knowledge is socially con structed as a consensus
among the members of a community of knowledgeable peers
(p . xii), (b) the authority of knowledge is shared by the members
of the community, and (c) interdependent personal relationships
shape a community of knowledgeable peers. Goodsell, Maher,
Tinto,
Smith, and MacGregor (1992) noted that collaborative
learning changes students from passive recipients of information
given by an expert teacher, to active agents in the construction of
knowledge (p. 4). Collaborative learning emb races multicultural
perspectives and individual differences and explores and creates
new plans for social order and social responsibility
Wolf,
1994,
p.
92). Collaborative learning dem and s a distinctively different
relationship between the teacher and student in that it challenges
the teacher to face fundam ental questions abo ut the purposes of
their classes, teacher and student roles and responsibilities, the
relationship between educational form and content, and the
natu re of knowledge itse lf (Smith
MacGregor, 1992, p. 9) . Th e
collaborative learning consensus group is one method for
implementing a collaborative pedagogy.
Collaborative leaming consensus groups Collaborat ive learning
consensus group processes are characterized by phases of
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oumal of Music Therapy
that they are fully responsible for their own learning and social
interacdons. Students are given a high level of autonomy so that
adjusdng can be difficult, dysfuncdonal, and even combadve.
Studen ts who have excelled in competitive teach ing environm ents
may resist because they have learned to focus on their own grade.
Thus, they may not be modvated to change their learning style or
to help the slower studen ts. In addition , cridcal thinking or
reflective pracdce skills may not be equally present in all members
of a group, some students may have a difficult time socializing,
and issues of power and conflict may emerge. In order to
accomplish the group 's tasks, the collaboradve learning consensus
group must work through all of these issues. Thus, the primary
focus of the collaboradve consensus group may be on the group's
process, rather than a specific outcome. For more informadon on
collaborative learning group process and experiences, interested
readers are referred to Bosworth and Hamilton (1994), Bruffee
(1999), Fox (1994), Imel and Tisdell (1996), Luce
(2001,
2002),
Pescosolido and Aminzade (1999), Schrader (2004), and Shor
(1996).
In the inidal research project (Luce, 2002), the class met three
times p er week for 50 minutes p er session. The first weekly
meeting was reserved for musical experiences and was no t part of
the collaboradve learning process. The second weekly meedng
was reserved for small group discussions and the third weekly
meedng was for a full class discussion with a designated group
mem ber repo rdng on' the gro up's responses to the discussion
questions. As the instructor in the original project, I assigned the
students to a sequentially numbered group on the first day of
class. I assigned weekly readings from the course materials
(Bruscia, 1998; Davis, Gfeller, & Thaut, 2001; Gaston, 1968;
Kenny, 1989; Sears, 1968): The assignments were listed in the
course outline. For each week, I developed discussion questions
that were based on the reading material. The students were
required to take personal responsibility for completing the
homework, preparing for discussion, and actively participating
in their group work. The discussion process required that the
students develop inter and intradependent relationships and
social experiences for their individual learning and group process
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Vol. XLV No. 1 Spring 2008
9
music therapy knowledge community as inter and intradepen-
dent, competent professionals (Bruffee, 1999). During the
preliminary discussions, I served primarily as timekeeper. As
Bruffee (1999) no ted and as I observed in the class, any specific
influence or interactions by me during the group discussions
often altered peer interactions and group process: The group
would tend to rely on or defer to me as the knowledge authority,
rather than work towards their own construction of knowledge.
Once the group's preliminary discussions were completed, I
facilitated and directed a full-class discussion towards a deeper
understanding of the topics, clarified any misunderstandings, and
helped them to reflect on their newly constructed knowledge
base.
When necessary, I redirected the group to work through
inconsistencies, inaccuracies, or conflicts.
The Students and Their ollaborative Groups
Students were enrolled in a sophomore level, introductory
course in music therapy and ranged in age from 19-32 with a
m ed ia no f2 0y ea rsa nd am od eo f 19years . Of the 17 s tudents , 11
were music therapy majors, 15 were women and the two males
were not music therapy majors. Pseudonyms were used for the
students and I assigned group names based on my personal
reflection of each gro up 's dynamics and character. Th e Task
Masters were a highly focused, directed and in tense g rou p with
an active exchange of dialogue and a clearly deflned leader: The
Quiet Ones were quie t, isolative, and soft-spoken. The Five
Amigos were highly social and appe ared to be good friends. Th e
Seis Co mpañe ros were six students who seemed to be united in
a quest to flnd out what it was that I wanted from them
ata Sources
Data sources for this analysis were collected for my dissertation
(Luce, 2002) and included (a) written course materials submitted
by all students; (b) individual, tape-recorded interviews with
research participants; (c) my written evaluations of group
discussions and presentations; and (d) a reflective journal that I
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ournal of M usic Therapy
dependent relationships over a prolonged period of engagement
(Aigen, 1995).
ourse
documents
Multiple written documents were required for
the course: (a) written reports of eight clinical observations and a
single written report covering 5-hours of volunteer service and an
end-of-semester summary for all of this work, (b) a written
summary for each of six, in-class musical experiences, (c) a daily
music listening jou rnal and an end-of-semester summary of that
exp erience, (d) an end-of-semester summary of each studen t s
experience in their collaborative learning consensus group. Thus,
each stud ent created 19 written do cum ents: nine clinical
observation reports, six in-class experiential summaries, a listen-
ing journa l, and three end-of-semester summary repo rts. Th e total
of completed assignments included 210 clinical observation
reports, 117 summary reports (clinical observations, listening
journals, group evaluations), and 116 experiential reports.
Interviews The original researcb project participants completed
a sequence of three audio taped, open-ended interviews (Seid-
man, 1998). The first interview assessed student s motivations,
expectations, critical thinking style, and preferred learning style.
Th e second interview assessed the studen t s experience in their
group and the classroom, level of satisfaction and motivation. The
third interview asked for refiective com ments ab out the stud ent s
experience in the course. A total of 7 interviews were completed
for the original research project.
nstructor
materials As tbe instructor, I observed and listened to
each gro up s process d uring tbeir discussions and provided
written evaluations eacb week. I maintained a refiective journal
that provided an opportunity for the phenomenological bracket-
ing tbat is essential in any qualitative analysis (Patton, 2002).
Analysis: The Perry Scheme
This epistemological profile consists of nine positions along a
continuum from absolute dualism, through relativism, towards a
stud ent s com mitmen t to an individual framework or way of
knowing and learning for self-expression. While there were many
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Vol. XLV No. 1 Spring 2008 3
Position One: Basic Duality
In this position, there are only absolute, polar opposites of
we-
right-good versus other-wrong-bad. Authority flgures are the
source of knowledge and know the right answers . I would
have liked David to take a slighdy more aggressive role in
conveying the truths of
usic
Therapy [sic] and his own personal
theory (Mary, Task Masters). Studen ts appreciated being in the
right gro up , and they feared being in the wrong gro up in
which one person end ed up doing all the work, and often that
person was m e (Marian, Seis Com pañ eros ). In this position,
students perceive that they can become knowledgeable through
hard work and obedien ce. Perhaps we bon ded , and were
somewhat cohesive in the goal directed structure of getting our
work do ne (Mary, Task Masters).
Position Two: M ultiplidty Pre kgitimate
In this position, diverse opinions and viewpoints are recog-
nized, bu t only because they are he ld by poorly qualified teachers
or presented as exercises to help studen ts learn to find The
Answer for themselves. Th e comments of two students tha t
reflected this position are reported later as a Retreat to this
position.
Position Three: Multiplidty Subordinate
In this position, diversity and uncertainty exist because the
absolute answers have not yet been found, and students perceive
that grades are based on creating and making effective presen-
tations . During ou r flrst day of discussion, we left the class feeling
that
we
had not adequately discussed the question to make a good
presenta tion (Mary, Task M asters).
In the beginning of the semester all of us were very concerned
in [sic] doing well on the group presentations on each Friday.
Everyone has a general hard working attitude and cares about
meeting the deadlines and shows concern for everyone doing
his or her part to put together the final project. (Miranda, Five
Amigos)
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oumal of Music Therapy
groups just trying to decide exactly what David was after" (Susan,
Seis Compañeros).
osition Four:
Multiplidty Correlate or Relativism Subordina te
In this position, diverse opinions are rampant and therefore
anyone has a right to their own opinion in spite of authority's
knowledge and control over what is right or wrong. Or, there is
the perception that relativism exists, but only in special cases and
then it
is
related to what authority wants. Th ere did n ot seem to be
any statements that clearly reflected this position.
osition
Five: Relativism
Correlate Competing
or
Diffuse
In this position, knowledge and values depend upon context
and relationships. "Working with four o the r people gave me ideas
and insights about music therapy that I may never have come up
v^th on my own " (Karen, Quiet O ne s). "Five minds toge ther
means
[sic]
much more information than one alone, and each
unique mind and individual personality influences how that
person interacts within the group" (Beth, Task Masters).
By the end of the semester, I really came to rely on [Marian].
She knows a lot about music therapy and seems to truly love it.
Anytime I had a question about the reading I knew that she
would no t only know the answer, but she would explain it to me
in a way that I und erstood. Th at takes someone special. I d on 't
know w hat would have do ne in class without he r. (Tammy, Seis
Compañeros)
This recognition of the diverse contributions and perspectives
that each member brought to the collaborative leaming group
experience was not necessarily expected.
So you would think that we would all be similar because our
major's
[sic]
are no t tha t far off from each oth er. You would also
think that
we
were similar by just looking at our g roup , all from
white, middle class families, approximately 20 years old and all
pursu ing further education . Well, so much for flrst impressions.
(Tammy, Seis Compañeros)
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Vol. XLV No. 1 Spring 2008
It's hard for me to think of any other circumstandal factor that
has affected my oudook and approach to life more than my
extended travels (getdng beyond the tourist phase of travel and
immersing in other cultures). I feel that there was an unspoken
und erstandin g between us based on these separate exp eriences.
The funny thing is that
we
never talked about them in any kind
of depth, or commented on this dynamic, but it's something
that I was aware of. (Sarah, Five Amigos)
At this level, right-wrong dualism only exists in special cases.
Perry (1970/1999) considered that simple dualism condnued
through the midpoint of Posidon 5 as the basis for one's
percepdons and view of the world. Beyond Posidon 5, the
relativisdc aspects of a pard cular issue were perceived and realized,
so that an it depen ds response becam e more prevalent. As a
student moved towards a commitment to relativism at Posidon 9,
personal values and choices were affirmed as a conscious act or
realization of idendty and responsibility (Perry, 1970/1999,
Glossary). He also noted that characterisdcs of the previous levels
were embed ded in the advanced levels and that a stud ent's locadon
along the condnuum was not absolute or exclusive.
Position Six Comm itment Foreseen
In this posidon , the world is perceived as reladvisdc: A persona l
commitment must be made to funcdon within a paradigm, rather
than through an unquesdoned belief in certainty.
y
working in a group, not only will I be expected to know the
material being discussed, but I will also have to share my own
opinions and ideas on the material. Also, I would gain insights
and ideas that I hadn't thought of before from other group
members. (Karen, Quiet Ones)
While looking at all of these different aspects of group work, I
am forced to recognize that this type of learning process
definitely makes me look at different social skills such as
communicadon, listening, and working as a team. These same
social skills that are vital to group work are non-existent in the
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ournal of Music Therapy
Position
Seven
Initial Commitment
At this point, a student chooses an area in which to make some
form of commitment to relativism.
Here, we had to learn to trust, because part of each person's
grade relied on contributions from his or her group members.
And jus t talking to these p eop le every class period help ed build
bon ds tha t go above jus t the academic level. After a while, we
w eren't just interested in each oth er as part of our grade.
(Mandy, Five Amigos)
Position Eight Or ientation in Implications of
Commitment
In this position, students recognize the effect and implications
of personal commitment and explore the meaning and actions
required to accept personal responsibility for that commitment.
Now, I came to the point where I do not want to do that
anymore. I want to be myself and express my true feelings. I
know I am a friendly perso n who is able to express myself It w ll
take time to go through this transition. I think I took a good
step in this class, but it was only one step. I don't want to
pressu re myself
too
much about this however, because I feel like
I have had enough stress in the past. (Mae, Quiet Ones)
Position N ine Developing Commitment s)
In this final position , persona l identity is affirmed as it exists for
the self and among multiple others, and commitment is a
constantly changing process of adaptation for self-expression. I
want to learn different ways of living wherever I go and integrate
them into my personal lifestyle (Mae, Quiet Ones).
Alternatives to Grow th
Perry (1970/1999) identified three alternatives to growth:
Temporizing, Escape and Retreat.
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o
XLV No. 1 Spring 2008
5
Escape
The student exploits the opportunity for detachment
offered by the structures of Positions 4 and 5 to deny
responsibility through passive or opportunistic alienation.
etreat
The student entrenches in the dualistic, absolutistic
structures of Position 2 or 3. (p. 11)
Tbe duration of the research project was insufficient to
attribute any statements to Temporizing, and there did not
seem to be any statements that refiected Escape. Perry (1970/
1999) no ted that a final setding for the attitudes described in
'Escape' or 'Retreat' was by definition a failure of growth and
maturity (p. 199). It occurred rarely for Perry, yet wben it
app eared. Retreat was dramatic and called for an enemy
(p . 205). He observed that the main reason for e ntrenchm en t
in dualism, indeed, seems to lie in a dependence on highly
'authoritarian,' all-or-none structures of emotional control
(p. 206). Retreat is the result of a student w ith some natu ral
limitation in academic aptitude trying to deal with the
ambiguous nature of relativism, and the pain implied can be
poig nan t (p. 207). Retreat represen ts a rejection of relativism
and an entrenched grounding in first and second position
thinking. Because of these characteristics, Danni (Seis Compa-
ñeros) and Barb's (Quiet Ones) comments seemed to refiect
the characteristics of a Retreat to Position 2, rather than simply
being within Position 2.
anni
Her group members seemed to feel that she made a
positive contribution to the group. She w s the quiet on e, who all
of a sudden would offer her own bit of comedy, or offer just the
information we were looking for (Susan, Seis Co m pañ eros ).
The really cool thing about [Danni] was that she also brought a
lot of good knowledge about music therapy to the group
(Tammy, Seis Compañeros). Yet, for Danni, the experience was
poignant and dramatic, and there were enemies.
I also originally thought the group I was in was fine, until the
week I was assigned to join a different gro up . Tha t week I found
out what it was like to have people listen to my ideas, and I
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ournal of Music Therapy
When we were in the original groups, it felt like nothing ever
got done. I think one of the main reasons for this is because
everyone is so preoccupied in wanting their opinion heard, yet
no one wanted to hea r anyone else s opinion s. Whenever we
had group discussions I felt like it was pointless for me to even
be the re. Unlike m ost of the o ther mem bers, with the exception
of [Marian], I would not force my opinion on everyone. At the
beginning of the semester I tried to give my opinion on several
occasions, but was unsuccessful and eventually stopped even
attempting to give any sort of feedback.
Danni also asserted her preference for full-class discussions,
rather than within her own collaborative consensus group. She
believed that her^opinions were the minority opin ion in he r g roup
and thus not heard, and that there was a greater likelihood that
someone else from the full class would agree with her.
Being taught by the method of collaborative learning was an
interesting experience that I am not likely to forget. It was
frustrating for me because it was something new and unusual,
and I had a hard time adjusting. I must admit that tt
sic]
made me really think about all the various teaching
techniques and learning styles. This experience definitely was
able to help me realize how I learn the best and why I learn
the best that way.
arb Barb (Quiet Ones) was a senior, and during the second
interview, she disclosed that she was taking the class to improve
her grade point average so that she could get into a top graduate
school. Barb commented that while she found value in collabo-
rative learning as a teaching method, she criticized its implemen-
tation in this course.
If collaborative learning is not accurately facilitated, it can be
harmful in the learning process of class syllabus material and may
even hinder this material while focusing on other issues.
. . Although we all read the material, with no outside help from
our leader (teacher) much of the time we were at a loss or
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Vol. XLV No. 1 Spring 2008 7
She expressed her concern regarding the appropriateness of
collaborative learning consensus groups to help the music therapy
majors develop prerequisite or sequential knowledge.
I do no t know what the nex t course in this major entails so I can
not report on if
think that I have learned eno ugh abou t music
therapy to go on to the next course, but frankly I hope that the
rest of my classmates have. I think that the actual process of
collaborative learning could have been better facilitated in our
class.
Barb stated that reading the textbook assignments had not
helped her to learn about music therapy because she was not
getting any confirmation from the instructor that she had
correctly interpreted or comprehended the material. In addition,
she seemed frustrated that m ost of her group discussion time was
spent translating information for the oth er m emb ers of her grou p
whose primary language was not English.
We were forced however, to focus much of our time on
language syntax and the like and much of the time the class
material fell second. I th ink that we also had fewer interac tions
between all group members due to this language barrier.
Barb's comments also reflected the Subjective nowing perspective
described by Belenky et al. (1986/1997).
Analysis: Women's Ways of Knowing
As noted earlier, Belenky et al. (1986/1997) considered that
women's epistemological development was grounded in the
development of relationships and shared understanding as they
moved from Silence to Constructed Knowledge.
ilen e
In this first perspective women experien ce themselves as
mindless and voiceless and subject to the whims of external
authority (Belenky et al., 1986/1997 , p. 15). There is an
underlying sense of dualism and right answers, yet these are
unknow n. Hence , I do no t know responses are typical.
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oumal of Music Therapy
I have no idea what he/she (author) is talking about in this
boo k... I do n't know ...I really do n't know ... We were often
stuck and didn't know what to say. (Mae, Quiet Ones)
More significantly. Silence appeared in one student's inability to
speak or participate in her group's discussions, or to report her
group's findings to the full class.
[Ann] seemed to know what she planned to say in our
presentations, it was written out for her. We discussed the
presentation as a group before class began. Yet when it came time
for [Ann] to speak in front of the class she 'froze'.
She was
unable
to clearly communicate the thoughts and ideas of our group.
... I wonder what causes this blockage in her self-expression. It
seems to be consistent in our group discussion times as well. It
was clear to me that [Ann] had things she wanted to share, but
was unable to express them in a way that we understood. It
seemed that she often gave up and would simply say 'I don't
know' or 'I don't understand'. (Mary, Task Masters)
It was very hard at dmes to decipher what [Ann] was trying to
say. Every dme that I felt myself becoming irritated, just tryed
sic
to remember that maybe she never had the opportunities
that most of us had to develop skills needed to become an
effecdve communicator. I believe that social skills grow and
develop with age and expe rience, so maybe she jus t ne eds a
litde inore practice. (Beth, Task Masters)
Silence was also related to establishing trust as an essential
com po ne nt of group process. It takes a long time for me to really
express myself to anybody other than those whom I trust, or who
are actually interested in my op inion (Mae, Quiet O nes).
Our first couple of group discussions did not go very well. I
think we were all being a bit shy. No one seemed to want to
share their sic] ideas, and when somebody did, we all jus t
agreed. No one was daring enough yet to state an opposing
view, if they had on e. I am no t normally a shy person, bu t I felt
there was a bit of tension and awkwardness in our g roup during
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Vol. XLV No. 1 Spring 2008 9
Silence was also driven by individual fears related to socializa-
tion, grou p acceptance an d peer approval, thus influencing grou p
interactions and cohesion.
My first day in the group confirmed my fears. We got the
questions and everyone just comp lained the whole time abou t
how hard the reading was to understand, or how they didn't
really get thro ugh all of
it
I always feel like a dork in groups like
that. I didn't really want to, at that point, whip out the
highlighted book in my bag and start discussing with
myself
I
knew that I should be bold and try to lead the group, but I was
afraid of rejection. I didn't want to start out on the wrong foot
and have everyone ha te m e all semester. I am sure that everyone
was saying the same thing. (Marian, Seis Compañeros)
As the semester went on, for whatever reason I became less
invested in the group process. It might have been just
circumstances of business with other classes, and life schedule?
It may have been as a result of my frustration with my group and
their lack of cohesiveness and investment in our group? I'm no t
sure. I do take ownership of the fact that I became discouraged
and less of an assertive group member. (Mary, Task Masters)
Finally, Silence was reflected within a cultural context. I was
surprised that American students have their own thoughts, and
express them confidentially [sic] I was not confident to speak
English, so I was nervous to speak up at the first time (Alice, Quiet
Ones). People in Jap an are fairly reserved It s even a part of beauty
in Japan not to speak too much about yourself (Mae, Quiet Ones ).
Received Knowledge
In this epistemological perspective, wom en conceive of themselves
as capable of receiving, even producing, knowledge from the all-
knowing external authorities but not capable of creating knowledge
on their own (Belenky et al., 1986/1997, p. 15). I felt deprived of
the knowledge and self-experiences that a teacher in a regular
classroom would have shared with the class (Ann, Task Masters).
I did n ot know how I was going to learn anything in this form at.
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ournal of Music Therapy
those text books as a professor would. (Marian, Seis Compa-
ñeros)
In this perspective, the individual may also feel capable of
receiving knowledge or information from friends or associates
and then repeating it, but not yet capable of generating their own
knowledge and recognizing its value. I also sat back and learned
as much as possible from the other people in my group. I felt I
had more to learn from them then
sic]
they had to learn from
m e (Tammy, Seis Compañeros).
Received Knowers also believe that they share exactly the same
thoughts, knowledge, ideas, feelings and experiences as their
friends. This sense of commonality is so strong that they are
unaware of how they tend to shape their experience to match that
of others. No one seemed to want to share their ideas, and when
somebody did, we all jus t ag reed. No one was daring eno ugh yet to
state an opposing view, if they had on e (Karen, Qu iet On es) .
Moreover, there is a tendency to celebrate and magnify any
common thought or experience as proof of this
belief
as was the
case with Danni's Retreat. In the larger group setting it is m ore
likely that someone else may have the same perspective, or agree
with your perspective and change their current perspective
(Danni, Seis C om pañeros).
Subjective nowledge
In this third perspective, truth and knowledge are conceived of as
personal, private, and subjectively known or intuited (Belenky et al.,
1986/1997,
p.
15).
This position is essentially dualistic in that th ere is
a belief that the right answers exist s the inner self begins to intu it
the truths of the world in a quest for self-identity. Yet there is also an
increasing recognition of
the
value of intuitive understand ing with a
correspond ing passionate and absolute rejection of logic, iinalysis,
abstraction and even language (p. 71) as artifacts of authoritarian,
male dominated hierarchies. The various complexities within this
perspective were best refiected by Barb's (Quiet Ones) comments
that were reported earlier as Retreat.
Procedural nowledge
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Vol. XLV No. 1 Spring 2008 4
knowledge (Belenky et al., 1986 /1997, p. 15). The auth ors
distinguished between separate and connected knowing. Separate
Knowers constitute th e self as separate from othe rs so that
relationships are engaged in from a do unto others, as you would
have them do unto you po int of view.
I think that in a group, every member must have good listening
skills,
and that does not necessarily mean that you have to agree
with what you h eard. T hou gh, it is of utmost impo rtance that at
least you heard it. If you want people to hear you, or even
further, uderstand sic] you, you must have good communica-
tion skills so that p eople can effectively un derstand what you are
saying to them. (Beth, Task Masters)
For Connec ted Knowers, relationships are based on shared
conversations about individual experience to gain a true
understanding of another's perspective through active listening
and empathy.
I think there was an extremely interesting theory behind this
learning style. I was able to interact with my classmates and
learn about them on a deeper level. I learned their different
views, how they were different from m ine , and how they interact
with different people. (Mae, Quiet Ones)
As noted earlier, the students' comments reflected a need for
trust in order to work together as a collaborative group: There
need ed to be a shared sense of personal comm itment. In o rder to
actively participate in the collaborative group process, there was a
need to break outside of previously held notions about the
self
knowledge, and learning. The re was an un derstan ding of
v lue
in
that this process added to the construction of knowledge and
persona l growth. Five minds together means
sic]
much more
information than one alone, and each unique mind and
individual personality influences how that pe rson interacts within
the gro up (Beth, Task Masters).
When there were different ideas and different opinions coming
from people, there is sic] so much more to learn. Every person
has had their own experiences and each group member brings
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oumal of Music Therapy
just one persons
[sic]
idea, the class gets a collection of 20
different people's ideas. (Natalie, Seis Compañeros)
onstructed Knowledge
In this perspective, women view all knowledge as con textu al,
experience themselves as creators of knowledge, and value both
subjective and objective strategies for knowing (Belenky et al.,
1986/1997, p. 15). For some students in this course, there was a
clear understanding of the personal responsibility for one's
participation in the collaborative learning group and the creation
of knowledge. I know that the information, ideas, and
experiences I am leaving this course with are only pardy due to
what
read in ou r textbooks, and are mainly due to my experien ce
working in a grou p (Karen, Quiet On es).
I am now a firm believer in the fact that we learned m uch m ore
from this format than we would've
sic]
from a lecture. We all
had individual learning to do: reading the books. Then we
brought what we learned to class and combined it to become a
much bigger pool of knowledge within o ur groups. This allowed
the whole class to walk away with an understanding of the topic,
instead of each person taking home what they thought was
going on, and maybe not being sure of it (Mandy, Five Amigos)
Analysis: Movement or Transformation
While both epistemological schemes suggest a developmental
sequence or progression through the positions or perspectives, it
is important to understand that the qualities of any position or
perspective may emerge as students explore new situations, new
areas of knowledge or personal growth so that movement or
transformation may be temporary or contextua l. For Perry (197 0/
1999),
movem ent along the continuu m required the reorgani-
zation of major personal investments and the work of
considerable psychic energy (p. 54). Th e analysis of students'
statements for this paper demonstrated several aspects of
movement or transformation.
Perry (1970/1999) considered Retreat as movement because
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Vol. XLV No. 1 Spring 2008 4
failure in growth and maturity, and the analysis suggested that
Danni and Barb's retreats
w r
related to their reacdons to being in
a collaboradve learning environment. Both students ardculated a
preference for a learning environment of lectures about the truths
of music therapy that could be memorized and repeated on tests
for good grades. Both studen ts clearly retreated to Perry's Posidon
2 dualism and Belenky et al.'s Received or Subjecdve Knowledge.
A transformadon was apparent for Marian (Seis Compañeros),
who by the end of the semester moved from Received Knowledge
to Procedural Knowledge.
I came h ere to be taught about music therapy by a professor. ...
After thirteen weeks, am I terribly in love with groups?, sic] not
so much. I have, however, learned that it is possible to teach
yours lf
if you are given some lead in quesdons.
Mae (Quiet Ones) reflected on her tradidonal learning
experiences in her primary culture as being clearly grounded in
dualisdc roles for the instructor and studen t. Our teachers jus t
lectured for the whole dme and wrote some important points on
the board. Everything was to get good scores on exams so that we
could get into a good high school and the n university. As this
course began, she was reluctan t to speak ou t in her g rou p because
of her cultural tradidon, her personal life-experience, and the
issue of trust as no ted earlier. Mae reflected a transidon to seventh
posidon Inidal Commitment by affirming her determinadon to be
herself and acdvely pardcipate in her learning and the construc-
tion of knowledge.
For Alice (Quiet Ones), her transidon was related to communi-
cadons within a cultural context. As noted earlier, her Silence was
not due to a lack of self-expression, but rather a cultural tradidon
that imposes Silence as a form of respect for those in authority.
Addidonally, Alice's Silence was related to her perceived confi-
dence in her ability to effecdvely communicate in English. Thus,
her transidon was related to Perry's sixth posidon commitment to
work within a new cultural paradigm by acdvely con tributing to the
construcdon of knowledge, and it also reflected a transidon to
Procedural Knowledge (Belenky et al., 1986/1997).
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ournal of M usic Therapy
hesitate to speak up. I realized it was important to speak up so
that I communicated with classmates, otherwise I may not be
able to have chances to express myself I think most important
thing is not how I speak, but what I speak.
Alice, Barb, Danni, Mae, and Marian experienced transfor-
mation or movement along these epistemological continua, and
it seems to have been the collaborative learning consensus
group structure that provided the opportunity and environ-
ment for that change.
Conclusion
A hermeneutic analysis searches for meaning and context
within the interactions among people as they are situated in a
particular environment or setting, and to understand how those
interactions may fit within a particular perspective or theoretical
orientation. The analysis requires direct observation or participa-
tion in the environmen t or setting in orde r to unde rstand how the
participants cognitively organize their perception of the world,
their role in it, and whether or not any change or adaptation is
necessary. The purpose of this hermeneutic analysis was to
consider students comments and statements about their experi-
ence in an introductory course in music therapy. The research
questions for the analysis sought to identify comments or
statements that reflected the epistemological frameworks of the
Perry Scheme (Perry, 197 0/19 99) an d Wom en s Ways of Knoxving
(Belenky et al., 1986/1997). Additionally, these frameworks were
used to de term ine if the re was any change in a stud en t s
epistemological development as evidenced by movement or
transition along the positions of either of these models. The
course was taught using collaborative learning consensus groups,
so the analysis also sought to understand if any comments or
statements suggested that any movement or transition in
epistemological development could be attributed to the use of
collaborative learning consensus groups in the classroom.
The analysis found that the studen ts comm ents predom inantly
fell into the dualistic frameworks of Positions 1 through 5 (Perry,
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VoL XLV No. 1 Spring 2008 5
perspectives were primarily from older or upper division students.
This finding refiected a consistency with the age appropria te basis
and developmental character of the models. However, the
frequency of statements related to Silence (Belenky et al., 1986/
1997) should be of particular concern for educators and clinical
trainers as movement from this position is essential for active
participation in clinical practice and interdisciplinary treatment.
The content of the comments suggested that any positioning
along the epistemological frameworks were directly refiective of the
students' participation in the collaborative learning consensus
groups. Th e structure of that learning paradigm clearly altered the
na ture of authority in tbe traditional student-instructor relation-
ship. Since the authority of knowledge was shared, the students
were immediately confronted with a need to refiect on the
instructor's role in the experience and to consider tbe authority
of knowledge in relation to tbeir own epistemological perspective
and development. Tbus, the analysis found that a student's
epistemological perspective was related to their experience of
exploring and understanding knowledge and how they perceived
their role in the world and if changes needed to be made.
The withdrawal of authority by tbe instructor in the collabora-
tive learning process also required tbe students to explore and
confront their own understanding of relativism and thus triggered
the intra-psychic confiict that Perry (1970/1999) asserted was
essential to movement or transformation within that framework.
At least
fiv
students refiected transformation or movem ent within
the epistemological models, and two students retreated to
dualistic positions. In e ither case of transformation or Retreat, it
was the student's confrontation witb relativism during the
collaborative learning consensus group process that facilitated
the movement. Moreover, it was a student's participation in the
collaborative learning consensus groups tbat facilitated some
form of commitment to personal development, awareness of
personal learning style, or a decision to remain within a particular
level of epistemological development.
Transformation through the epistemological stages is essential
to college students' development and thus for the proper
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oumal of Music Therapy
al identity (Bruscia, 1987). Without an individual's firm commit-
m ent and understanding of relativism, the music therapist may be
locked in a one way fits all app roach to professional p ractice
that would ignore individual and cultural characteristics. More-
over, a purely dualistic epistemology would limit the therapist's
ability to (a) effectively transition from the academic environment
to an internship and then the profession, (b) modify therapeutic
interventions, (c) adapt to different professional settings, and
thus grow as a professional. Post baccalaureate difficulties in
dealing with relativism could trigger an intra-psychic conflict that
may lead the practicing therapist to false conclusions such as (a)
they were not adequately prepared for the profession, (b) a
particular professor was poorly qualified, or (c) that the
profession is not what they imagined it to be. All of these
conclusions could lead the therapist away from the profession.
More importandy, without a transition to an understanding and
commitment to relativism, beginning professional music thera-
pists may look outside of themselves for the knowledge or
experience that justifies their viability as a treatment team
member, or the efficacy of the profession. They may find
themselves asking what outside authority figures want rather than
affirming their own knowledge and belief n the efficacy of clinical
practice and the profession. Or, the entering therapist may be so
concerned with his or her own agenda, that developing
appropriate empathy and understanding for the people that he
or she serves may not be possible. Again, leading these young
professionals away from the profession.
Belenky et al. (1986/1997) advocated for connected and
collaborative relationships, in-depth understanding and accep)-
tance through firsthand experiences that encouraged students to
evolve and develop their own approaches to problem solving.
These students clearly recognized their need to ground their
relationships in trust as they developed a certain level of cohesion
within their groups through social interaction. Some students
grew to understand that their work toge ther was driven by sincere
interest and appreciation for each other and no t just to get a good
grade. The collaborative learning consensus group structure
provided the opportunity to create that environment and the
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Vol. XLV No. 1 Spring 2008 7
enjoyed the opportunity to develop connected and collaborative
relationships, and their comments seemed to suggest that they
learned more effectively. The ability to develop these relationships
and to understand the contexts in which the relationships were
formed was significant in this analysis in multiple contexts. The
collaborative learning consensus groups provided the students
with practice and experience in modeling the new social
structures that they vnW confront and create as interns and
practicing professionals. These social structures will emerge and
change as part of (a) therapeutic process and progress, (b) a
music therapist's professional development, (c) effective partici-
pation in multi-disciplinary treatment planning, and (d) main-
taining, establishing or promoting the efficacy of music therapy.
Culture is a significant component of learning and epistemo-
logical development, and the importance of multicultural
perspectives is another fundamental principle of collaborative
learning (Bruffee, 1999; Ortiz, 2000). Cultural perspective and
understanding is of ever increasing importance for music therapy
education, clinical training and professional practice (Darrow
Malloy, 1998; Toppozada, 1995). Th ere is increased interest in
music therapy around the world. The number of international
music therapy students in the United States is increasing, and the
demographic character of the United States is rapidly changing.
Our teaching methods must honor and recognize the unique
contributions that international students bring to the classroom
environment and the learning process, and we must explore
multicultural approaches to music therapy to meet the needs of
our changing population. Alice's recognition that what she said
was not as important as the fact that she said something was
significant in terms of her acculturation in the United States.
Mae's comment about Silence as a form of eauty within her
culture provided important cultural information for the instruc-
tor. Her participation in the collaborative learning consensus
group did not discount her cultural perspective, but rather it
helped her to understand a different cultural perspective and
facilitated her transformation and acculturation. For other
students, the seeming similarities and perceived homogeneity
within the pred om inan t culture were found to be suspect and the
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oumal of Music Therapy
Understanding students' epistemological needs is essential to
help educators and clinical supervisors effecdvely guide, nurture,
and prepare students for entry into the field. Clearly there is a
need for much more discussion and research that considers the
epistemological develop ment of music therapy studen ts, as well as
research that explores teaching methods and pedagogy for
educators and clinical supervisors. This experience has helped
me to better understand those needs, improve my teaching
methods, and affirm my personal perspecdve regarding educa-
don. Hopefully, others will begin to understand or explore
student's epistemological development to inform their work.
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