Ephesians - Thomas B. Slater

Ephesians

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Smyth & Helwys Bible Commentary: Ephesians

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Slater, Thomas B.Ephesians / by Thomas B. Slater.

pages cm -- (Smyth & Helwys Bible commentary ; 27a)Includes bibliographical references and index.

ISBN 978-1-57312-624-3 (alk. paper)1. Bible. N.T. Ephesians--Commentaries. I. Title.

BS2695.53.S59 2012227'.507--dc23

2012004751

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EphesiansSMYTH & HELWYS BIBLE COMMENTARY

Thomas B. Slater

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PROJECT EDITORR. SCOTT NASHMercer UniversityMacon, Georgia

OLD TESTAMENTGENERAL EDITOR

SAMUEL E. BALENTINEUnion Presbyterian Seminary

Richmond, Virginia

AREAOLD TESTAMENT EDITORS

MARK E. BIDDLEBaptist Theological Seminary

at Richmond, Virginia

KANDY QUEEN-SUTHERLANDStetson UniversityDeland, Florida

PAUL REDDITTGeorgetown College

Georgetown, Kentucky

Baptist Seminary of KentuckyLexington, Kentucky

NEW TESTAMENTGENERAL EDITORR. ALAN CULPEPPER

McAfee School of Theology Mercer University Atlanta, Georgia

AREANEW TESTAMENT EDITORS

R. SCOTT NASHMercer UniversityMacon, Georgia

RICHARD B. VINSONSalem College

Winston-Salem, North Carolina

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Contents

SERIES PREFACE xi

HOW TO USE THIS COMMENTARY xv

FOREWORD 1

INTRODUCTION 5

OUTLINE OF EPHESIANS 35

1 Setting the Stage Eph 1:1-23 37

2 The New People of God Eph 2:1-22 59

3 The Mystery Revealed Eph 3:1-21 85

4 Attaining Community Eph 4:15:2 105

5 Sustaining Community Eph 5:3-20 129

6 The Household Codes Eph 5:216:9 149

7 Concluding Comments Eph 6:10-24 171

BIBLIOGRAPHY 187

INDEX OF MODERN AUTHORS 191

INDEX OF SIDEBARS AND ILLUSTRATIONS 193

INDEX OF SCRIPTURES 197

INDEX OF TOPICS 199

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Dedication

In memory of Graham N. Stanton

A true scholar and gentleman

My mentor and dear friend

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ABBREVIATIONS USED IN THIS COMMENTARY

Books of the Old Testament, Apocrypha, and New Testament are generallyabbreviated in the Sidebars, parenthetical references, and notes according tothe following system.

The Old Testament

Genesis GenExodus ExodLeviticus LevNumbers NumDeuteronomy DeutJoshua JoshJudges JudgRuth Ruth12 Samuel 12 Sam12 Kings 12 Kgs12 Chronicles 12 ChrEzra EzraNehemiah NehEsther EsthJob JobPsalm (Psalms) Ps (Pss)Proverbs ProvEcclesiastes Eccl

or Qoheleth QohSong of Solomon Songor Song of Songs Songor Canticles Cant

Isaiah IsaJeremiah JerLamentations LamEzekiel EzekDaniel DanHosea HosJoel JoelAmos AmosObadiah ObadJonah JonahMicah Mic

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Nahum NahHabakkuk HabZephaniah ZephHaggai HagZechariah ZechMalachi Mal

The Apocrypha

12 Esdras 12 EsdrTobit TobJudith JdtAdditions to Esther Add EsthWisdom of Solomon WisEcclesiasticus or the Wisdom Sirof Jesus Son of Sirach

Baruch BarEpistle (or Letter) of Jeremiah Ep JerPrayer of Azariah and the Song Pr Azarof the Three

Daniel and Susanna SusDaniel, Bel, and the Dragon BelPrayer of Manasseh Pr Man14 Maccabees 14 Macc

The New Testament

Matthew MattMark MarkLuke LukeJohn JohnActs ActsRomans Rom12 Corinthians 12 CorGalatians GalEphesians EphPhilippians PhilColossians Col12 Thessalonians 12 Thess12 Timothy 12 TimTitus TitusPhilemon PhlmHebrews HebJames Jas12 Peter 12 Pet123 John 123 JohnJude JudeRevelation Rev

viii Abbreviations

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Other commonly used abbreviations include:

AD Anno Domini (in the year of the Lord)(also commonly referred to as CE = theCommon Era)

AT Authors TranslationBC Before Christ

(also commonly referred to as BCE =Before the Common Era)

C. centuryc. circa (around that time)cf. confer (compare)ch. chapterchs. chaptersd. dieded. edition or edited by or editoreds. editorse.g. exempli gratia (for example)et al. et alii (and others)f./ff. and the following one(s)gen. ed. general editorGk. GreekHeb. Hebrewibid. ibidem (in the same place)i.e. id est (that is)LCL Loeb Classical Librarylit. literallyn.d. no daterev. and exp. ed. revised and expanded editionsg. singulartrans. translated by or translator(s)vol(s). volume(s)v. versevv. verses

Selected additional written works cited by abbreviations include the following. Acomplete listing of abbreviations can be referenced in The SBL Handbook of Style(Peabody MA: Hendrickson, 1999):

AB Anchor BibleABD Anchor Bible DictionaryACCS Ancient Christian Commentary on

ScriptureANF Ante-Nicene FathersANTC Abingdon New Testament CommentariesBA Biblical ArchaeologistBAR Biblical Archaeology ReviewCBQ Catholic Biblical Quarterly

ixAbbreviations

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HTR Harvard Theological ReviewHUCA Hebrew Union College AnnualICC International Critical CommentaryIDB Interpreters Dictionary of the BibleJBL Journal of Biblical LiteratureJSJ Journal for the Study of Judaism in the

Persian, Hellenistic, and Roman PeriodsJSNT Journal for the Study of the New TestamentJSOT Journal for the Study of the Old TestamentKJV King James VersionLXX Septuagint = Greek Translation

of Hebrew BibleMDB Mercer Dictionary of the BibleMT Masoretic TextNASB New American Standard BibleNEB New English BibleNICNT New International Commentary on the

New TestamentNIV New International VersionNovT Novum TestamentumNRSV New Revised Standard VersionNTS New Testament StudiesOGIS Orientis graeci inscriptiones selectaeOTL Old Testament LibraryPRSt Perspectives in Religious StudiesRevExp Review and ExpositorRSV Revised Standard Version SBLSP Society of Biblical Literature Seminar

PapersSP Sacra paginaTDNT Theological Dictionary of the

New TestamentTEV Todays English VersionWBC Word Biblical Commentary

x Abbreviations

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SERIES PREFACE

The Smyth & Helwys Bible Commentary is a visually stimulating anduser-friendly series that is as close to multimedia in print as possible.Written by accomplished scholars with all students of Scripture inmind, the primary goal of the Smyth & Helwys Bible Commentary isto make available serious, credible biblical scholarship in an accessibleand less intimidating format.

Far too many Bible commentaries fall short of bridging the gapbetween the insights of biblical scholars and the needs of students ofGods written word. In an unprecedented way, the Smyth & HelwysBible Commentary brings insightful commentary to bear on the livesof contemporary Christians. Using a multimedia format, the volumesemploy a stunning array of art, photographs, maps, and drawings toillustrate the truths of the Bible for a visual generation of believers.

The Smyth & Helwys Bible Commentary is built upon the idea thatmeaningful Bible study can occur when the insights of contemporarybiblical scholars blend with sensitivity to the needs of lifelong stu-dents of Scripture. Some persons within local faith communities,however, struggle with potentially informative biblical scholarship forseveral reasons. Oftentimes, such scholarship is cast in technical lan-guage easily grasped by other scholars, but not by the general reader.For example, lengthy, technical discussions on every detail of a par-ticular scriptural text can hinder the quest for a clear grasp of thewhole. Also, the format for presenting scholarly insights has oftenbeen confusing to the general reader, rendering the work less thanhelpful. Unfortunately, responses to the hurdles of reading extensivecommentaries have led some publishers to produce works for ageneral readership that merely skim the surface of the rich resourcesof biblical scholarship. This commentary series incorporates works offine art in an accurate and scholarly manner, yet the format remainsuser-friendly. An important facet is the presentation and explana-tion of images of art, which interpret the biblical material or illustratehow the biblical material has been understood and interpreted in thepast. A visual generation of believers deserves a commentary seriesthat contains not only the all-important textual commentary onScripture, but images, photographs, maps, works of fine art, anddrawings that bring the text to life.

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The Smyth & Helwys Bible Commentary makes serious, crediblebiblical scholarship more accessible to a wider audience. Writersand editors alike present information in ways that encouragereaders to gain a better understanding of the Bible. The editorialboard has worked to develop a format that is useful and usable,informative and pleasing to the eye. Our writers are reputablescholars who participate in the community of faith and sense acalling to communicate the results of their scholarship to their faithcommunity.

The Smyth & Helwys Bible Commentary addresses Christians andthe larger church. While both respect for and sensitivity to theneeds and contributions of other faith communities are reflected inthe work of the series authors, the authors speak primarily toChristians. Thus the reader can note a confessional tonethroughout the volumes. No particular confession of faith guidesthe authors, and diverse perspectives are observed in the variousvolumes. Each writer, though, brings to the biblical text the bestscholarly tools available and expresses the results of their studies incommentary and visuals that assist readers seeking a word from theLord for the church.

To accomplish this goal, writers in this series have drawn fromnumerous streams in the rich tradition of biblical interpretation.The basic focus is the biblical text itself, and considerable attentionis given to the wording and structure of texts. Each particular text,however, is also considered in the light of the entire canon ofChristian Scriptures. Beyond this, attention is given to the culturalcontext of the biblical writings. Information from archaeology,ancient history, geography, comparative literature, history of reli-gions, politics, sociology, and even economics is used to illuminatethe culture of the people who produced the Bible. In addition, thewriters have drawn from the history of interpretation, not only as itis found in traditional commentary on the Bible but also in litera-ture, theater, church history, and the visual arts. Finally, theCommentary on Scripture is joined with Connections to the worldof the contemporary church. Here again, the writers draw on schol-arship in many fields as well as relevant issues in the popularculture.

This wealth of information might easily overwhelm a reader ifnot presented in a user-friendly format. Thus the heavier discus-sions of detail and the treatments of other helpful topics arepresented in special-interest boxes, or Sidebars, clearly connected tothe passages under discussion so as not to interrupt the flow of thebasic interpretation. The result is a commentary on Scripture that

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focuses on the theological significance of a text while also offeringthe reader a rich array of additional information related to the textand its interpretation.

An accompanying CD-ROM offers powerful searching andresearch tools. The commentary text, Sidebars, and visuals are allreproduced on a CD that is fully indexed and searchable. Pairing atext version with a digital resource is a distinctive feature of theSmyth & Helwys Bible Commentary.

Combining credible biblical scholarship, user-friendly study fea-tures, and sensitivity to the needs of a visually oriented generationof believers creates a unique and unprecedented type of commen-tary series. With insight from many of todays finest biblicalscholars and a stunning visual format, it is our hope that the Smyth& Helwys Bible Commentary will be a welcome addition to the personal libraries of all students of Scripture.

The Editors

xiiiSeries Preface

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HOW TO USE THIS COMMENTARY

The Smyth & Helwys Bible Commentary is written by accomplishedbiblical scholars with a wide array of readers in mind. Whetherengaged in the study of Scripture in a church setting or in a college orseminary classroom, all students of the Bible will find a number ofuseful features throughout the commentary that are helpful for interpreting the Bible.

Basic Design of the Volumes

Each volume features an Introduction to a particular book of theBible, providing a brief guide to information that is necessary forreading and interpreting the text: the historical setting, literarydesign, and theological significance. Each Introduction also includesa comprehensive outline of the particular book under study.

Each chapter of the commentary investigates the text according tological divisions in a particular book of the Bible. Sometimes thesedivisions follow the traditional chapter segmentation, while at othertimes the textual units consist of sections of chapters or portions ofmore than one chapter. The divisions reflect the literary structure of abook and offer a guide for selecting passages that are useful inpreaching and teaching.

An accompanying CD-ROM offers powerful searching andresearch tools. The commentary text, Sidebars, and visuals are allreproduced on a CD that is fully indexed and searchable. Pairing atext version with a digital resource also allows unprecedented flexi-bility and freedom for the reader. Carry the text version to locationsyou most enjoy doing research while knowing that the CD offers aportable alternative for travel from the office, church, classroom, andyour home.

Commentary and Connections

As each chapter explores a textual unit, the discussion centers aroundtwo basic sections: Commentary and Connections. The analysis of apassage, including the details of its language, the history reflected inthe text, and the literary forms found in the text, are the main focus

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of the Commentary section. The primary concern of theCommentary section is to explore the theological issues presentedby the Scripture passage. Connections presents potential applica-tions of the insights provided in the Commentary section. TheConnections portion of each chapter considers what issues are rele-vant for teaching and suggests useful methods and resources.Connections also identifies themes suitable for sermon planning andsuggests helpful approaches for preaching on the Scripture text.

Sidebars

The Smyth & Helwys Bible Commentary provides a unique hyper-link format that quickly guides the reader to additional insights.Since other more technical or supplementary information is vitalfor understanding a text and its implications, the volumes featuredistinctive Sidebars, or special-interest boxes, that provide a wealthof information on such matters as:

Historical information (such as chronological charts, lists of kingsor rulers, maps, descriptions of monetary systems, descriptions ofspecial groups, descriptions of archaeological sites or geographicalsettings).

Graphic outlines of literary structure (including such items aspoetry, chiasm, repetition, epistolary form).

Definition or brief discussions of technical or theological termsand issues.

Insightful quotations that are not integrated into the running textbut are relevant to the passage under discussion.

Notes on the history of interpretation (Augustine on the GoodSamaritan, Luther on James, Stendahl on Romans, etc.).

Line drawings, photographs, and other illustrations relevant forunderstanding the historical context or interpretive significanceof the text.

Presentation and discussion of works of fine art that have interpreted a Scripture passage.

xvi How to Use This Commentary

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Each Sidebar is printed in color and is referenced at the appropriate place in the Commentary or Connections section with acolor-coded title that directs the reader to the relevant Sidebar. Inaddition, helpful icons appear in the Sidebars, which provide thereader with visual cues to the type of material that is explained ineach Sidebar. Throughout the commentary, these four distincthyperlinks provide useful links in an easily recognizable design.

Alpha & Omega LanguageThis icon identifies the information as a language-based tool thatoffers further exploration of the Scripture selection. This couldinclude syntactical information, word studies, popular or addi-tional uses of the word(s) in question, additional contexts in whichthe term appears, and the history of the terms translation. All non-English terms are transliterated into the appropriate Englishcharacters.

Culture/ContextThis icon introduces further comment on contextual or culturaldetails that shed light on the Scripture selection. Describing theplace and time to which a Scripture passage refers is often vital tothe task of biblical interpretation. Sidebar items introduced withthis icon could include geographical, historical, political, social,topographical, or economic information. Here, the reader may findan excerpt of an ancient text or inscription that sheds light on thetext. Or one may find a description of some element of ancientreligion such as Baalism in Canaan or the Hero cult in the MysteryReligions of the Greco-Roman world.

InterpretationSidebars that appear under this icon serve a general interpretivefunction in terms of both historical and contemporary renderings.Under this heading, the reader might find a selection from classicor contemporary literature that illuminates the Scripture text or asignificant quotation from a famous sermon that addresses thepassage. Insights are drawn from various sources, including literature, worship, theater, church history, and sociology.

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Additional Resources StudyHere, the reader finds a convenient list of useful resources forfurther investigation of the selected Scripture text, includingbooks, journals, websites, special collections, organizations, andsocieties. Specialized discussions of works not often associatedwith biblical studies may also appear here.

Additional Features

Each volume also includes a basic Bibliography on the biblicalbook under study. Other bibliographies on selected issues are oftenincluded that point the reader to other helpful resources.

Notes at the end of each chapter provide full documentation ofsources used and contain additional discussions of related matters.

Abbreviations used in each volume are explained in a list ofabbreviations found after the Table of Contents.

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Several thorough indexes enable the reader to locate informationquickly. These indexes include:

An Index of Sidebars groups content from the special-interestboxes by category (maps, fine art, photographs, drawings, etc.).

An Index of Scriptures lists citations to particular biblical texts.

An Index of Topics lists alphabetically the major subjects, names,topics, and locations referenced or discussed in the volume.

An Index of Modern Authors organizes contemporary authorswhose works are cited in the volume.

xviii How to Use This Commentary

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Foreword

Writing a commentary is rarely a lone endeavor, and this one is nodifferent. I owe much to my many conversation partners who havewritten articles, monographs, and commentaries before me. Each inher or his own way has helped me to see clearer, redirected my ener-gies, and challenged me to explicate my own positions more clearly.Reading this commentary will reveal their many names and theircontributions to my study. More immediately, I want to thank theeditorial board of the Smyth and Helwys Commentary Series forextending an invitation to me to write in this series. When AlanCulpepper (who is also my dean at McAfee School of Theology) ini-tially asked me to write on Ephesians, I had begun to look again atthe Pauline corpus, especially Galatians, and to rethink some con-sensus opinions concerning Paul. A special thank you goes to Alanfor his initial confidence in me and continued encouragement andassistance throughout the project. Additionally, two separate sabbat-ical leaves in fall 2006 and fall 2009, granted me by MercerUniversity, greatly helped me to complete this project.

The vast majority of the commentary was written during my five-year pastorate of St. Marys Christian Methodist Episcopal Church,Elberton, Georgia. The prayers and regular encouragement of themembers of St. Marys boosted my spirits on more than one occasion.Many of the major ideas in this commentary found their way intosermons, Bible studies, and discussions during Sunday school at St.Marys. I also taught a Bible study at Smoke Rise Baptist Church,Stone Mountain, Georgia, where many of my ideas were wellreceived. These congregational settings provided opportunities to seeif some of my ideas made sense to laypeople.

I am also indebted to the Reverend Otis Tate, now a retired pastorin the Georgia North Region of the C. M. E. Church, and theReverend Robert Hodo, senior pastor of New Morning Light BaptistChurch, Conley, Georgia (an Atlanta suburb), for their readings ofdifferent drafts of the commentary for clarity and applicability. Bothfound the comments helpful in their respective ministry settings.This has been most encouraging. Moreover, three seminars onEphesians taught at McAfee in dialogue with my MDiv studentshelped me to see the need to discard some ideas and sharpen others.

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They, too, have made contributions to the commentary. From allthese partners I have learned much. Finally, I am most appreciativeof the careful reading that Alan Culpepper gave this manuscript.His close scrutiny has enhanced this study in innumerable ways,and I am grateful for it. I must take full credit, however, for anyshortcomings herein.

I also owe much to my student assistants at the McAfee School ofTheology who typed most of the first draft so that I might turn myattentions elsewhere. They are (in alphabetical order) MargaretBartholomew, Priscilla Bryant, Jacqueline Dowdy, CaTrice Glenn,Charles Hawes, Greg Paulson, and Hope Sims Sutton. Moreover,several libraries have been invaluable to me in my research: SwilleyLibrary, Mercer University; Bulow Theological Library, ColumbiaTheological Seminary; Pitts Theological Library, Candler School ofTheology, Emory University, all in Atlanta, Georgia; and theGraduate Theological Union Library, Berkeley, California.

I dedicate this work with fond memories (and a deep sense ofloss) to the memory of Professor Graham N. Stanton, late LadyMargaret Professor of Divinity at Cambridge University. ProfessorStanton supervised my PhD thesis at Kings College London,University of London, where he held the New Testament chair formany years. Graham was a mentor, an adviser, and a friend in equalvalue and always provided wise counsel. He had an uncanny abilityto relate to international students where they were without losinghimself in the process, perhaps because he (a very proud NewZealander!) had been an international student himself. In my firstfour months at Kings, he began every tutorial asking me how I wasadjusting to life in the United Kingdom. It was good to know thatmy supervisor cared about more than my thesis. Thus, it is onlyfitting that I dedicate this work to him. I have no words to expresshow I felt when he told me that mine would be the first book sodedicated.

Graham had doctoral graduates in over twenty countries, and Iwas blessed to be one of them. He personified the phrase a scholarand a gentleman, and his Christian faith was never in doubt. Ihave striven to be the same type of caring yet rigorous teacher formy students that Graham was for me. While I admittedly havefallen short, I still strive toward that mark. I was happy to have senthim the penultimate draft but saddened that he did not live to seethe final product.

2 Foreword


Translations from the Septuaginta (ed. A. Rahlfs) and the GreekNew Testament, 4th rev. ed. (ed. B. Aland et al.) are my own unlessstated otherwise.

3Foreword


Introduction toEphesians

The book of Ephesians was written to persuade its original readershipthat an ethnically inclusive church based on religious affiliation andfaithfulness was part of Gods plan and that both Jew and Gentilewere equal partners in the new religious commonwealth. Moreover,following Christs model, the book espoused virtues and relationshipsthat would ensure harmony and peace within the Christian Church.

Before engaging in a verse-by-verse examination of the book ofEphesians, it is necessary to begin with a discussion of the primaryissues surrounding the composition of the book. They are (1) author-ship, (2) date and context, (3) genre, and (4) theological concerns.[First-century CE Roman Empire]

First-century CE Roman EmpireThe Romans saw themselves as the heirs to classical Greek culture, thus the term Greco-Roman. They spread theirculture chiefly by means of conquest. Within the Roman Empire it became standard for religions and philosophies to

borrow readily from one another. It should not be surprising that Pauline Christianity also borrowed from other movements.However, Paul consciously redefined the terms and concepts in light of the Christian witness of faith. The ease of travel viaroad and sea, the lack of civil disturbances for much of the first Christian century, the presence of both Hellenistic Greek andLatin as international languages and some familiarity with Judaism by non-Jews helped fledgling Christianity to spread quicklythroughout the Empire.


A. Authorship

Tradition has ascribed the authorship of the book of Ephesians tothe Apostle Paul, agreeing with the attestations of the book itself(e.g., 1:1; 3:1). There are also many parallels with other books inthe Pauline corpus. Many modern commentators have foundreasons to affirm this tradition. F. F. Bruce referred to Ephesians asthe quintessence of Paulinism. By this he meant that Ephesianscontains all the major Pauline themes and re-expresses them for anew context: a predominantly Gentile Church.1 For M. Barth andBruce, among others, a decisive argument is the strong thematicsimilarity between Galatians and Ephesians. For example, bothbooks discuss the place of the Gentiles in Israel, and both arguethat salvation is by grace through faith and not works. Moreover,both books argue that Paul received his apostolic commission bydivine revelation (Gal 1:11-16 and Eph 3:3-10).2

The similarities with other letters in the Pauline corpus areunmistakable. Many have recognized the strong similaritiesbetween Colossians and Ephesians. At least a quarter of the wordsfound in Colossians are also in Ephesians. Indeed, there are strong

parallels between Ephesians 1:7 and Colossians1:14; Ephesians 2:5 and Colossians 2:13;Ephesians 3:2 and Colossians 1:25; Ephesians3:9 and Colossians 1:26; Ephesians 4:16 andColossians 2:19; Ephesians 6:21-22 andColossians 4:7-8. The most striking parallel isthe household rules where the same topics areaddressed in the same order employing similarwording (Eph 5:216:9 and Col 3:184:1).[Galatians 1:15-17; Ephesians 3:3, 6-10]

Colossians is not the only book with whichEphesians shares common themes or wording.Another is Romans. Both books address theinclusion of the Gentiles (Romans 3 andEphesians 23), discuss Pauls ministry to theGentiles (e.g., Rom 11:13 and Eph 3:1), andespouse that reconciliation comes through

Christ Jesus (Rom 5:11 and Eph 2:16). Finally, both proclaim theinternational scope of Gods plan of salvation (Rom 11:25-26 andEph 3:9-15). Such features have convinced many that Paul wroteEphesians.

6 Introduction

Galatians 1:15-17; Ephesians 3:3, 6-10Galatians 1:15-17, NASBBut when He who had set me apart,

even from my mothers womb, and called methrough His grace, was pleased to reveal His Sonin me, that I might preach Him among theGentiles, I did not immediately consult with fleshand blood, nor did I go up to Jerusalem to thosewho were apostles before me; but I went away toArabia, and returned once more to Damascus.

Ephesians 3:3, 6-10, NASB[T]hat by revelation there was made known tome the mystery, as I wrote before in brief. To bespecific, that the Gentiles are fellow-heirs andfellow-members of the body, and fellow-partakersof the promise in Christ through the gospel, ofwhich I was made a minister, according to the giftof Gods grace which was given to me accordingto the working of His power.


However, not everyone has been convinced by these similarities.Many have noted that Ephesians has long sentences with multipleclauses and continuously expresses itself in seemingly unendinggenitive clauses. Moreover, there is only one question in Ephesians,whereas questions are more frequent in the undisputed Paulineletters. Furthermore, the Church is a multi-ethnic, empire-widephenomenon in Ephesians, while in the undisputed Pauline lettersit generally refers to local congregations.3 Along those same lines,in the undisputed Pauline letters Paul himself is the founder of thecongregations; in Ephesians, it is the apostles and early Christianprophets (2:20). In addition, Ephesians has a larger role for Christthan one finds elsewhere in Paul, and all but Galatians of the undisputed lettersRomans, 1 and 2 Corinthians, 1 Thessalonians, Galatians, Philippians, Philemonend withgreetings.4 Finally, there is little missionary zeal in Ephesians.5

A. T. Lincoln, who originally believed Ephesians to be anauthentic letter of Paul, wrote, Most decisive against Paul asauthor . . . is its dependence on Colossians and its use of otherPauline letters, particularly Romans.6 He noted that over a quarterof the words found in Colossians are in Ephesians, and one passagehas twenty-nine consecutive words verbatim. Main blocks of mate-rial are in the same sequence. Lincoln argued that a follower of Paulused Colossians as a model for writing Ephesians. DatingEphesians between 80 and 90 CE, he concluded, The employmentof key terms from Colossians with different connotations inEphesians suggests a process of reflection has produced . . . a newcontext.7 I concur and shall attempt to develop this line ofthought further in the commentary.

These and other dissimilarities between Ephesians, on one side,and undisputed letters such as Romans, Galatians, and Philippians,on the other, present credible arguments against Pauline author-ship. In order to counter those arguments, some have presentedexplanations that recognize the similarities while also being sensi-tive to the dissimilarities. J. Muddiman, for example, is one of thelatest to argue that Ephesians is a composite work with a Paulinecore and later deutero-Pauline expansions. He argues thatEphesians contains Pauls lost letter to the Laodiceans, saying thatthe letter . . . combines in almost equal proportions Pauline andnon-Pauline vocabulary, style, forms, settings, purposes and the-ology.8 In this way, he hopes to explain why Ephesians contains

7Introduction


some passages that sound so Pauline and yet others that appear tobe secondary reflections.

According to Muddiman, there were three types of pseudepig-raphy in Greco-Roman society, each based on intention:innocent (or nave), which employs the names of great worthiesto gain acceptance and adherence (e.g., 1 and 2 Peter, James, Jude);imitative, a careful, respectful interpretation based on authenticwritings; fraudulent (or subversive), an attempt to discredit andreplace genuine writings. He says that Ephesians falls into the imi-tative category. Muddiman argues that Christian congregationsbegun in Colossae, Hierapolis, and Laodicea by Pauls associateEpaphras were not known by Paul. The purpose of Ephesians wasto create a suitably impressive work which could eventually bebundled with Colossians and Philemon in order to place PaulsAsian letters on a single scroll.9 Although clearly a most intriguingargument, it is without a shred of concrete evidence to support it.For example, let us grant that Ephesians is a careful and respectfulinterpretation of Paul. Where is the letter to the Laodiceans thatwould substantiate Muddimans thesis? How does one ascertainfrom our Ephesians what the content of the letter to theLaodiceans might have been? Finally, the book of Colossians men-tions the letter to the Laodiceans. Colossians itself is a disputedletter. These questions adequately demonstrate the problems withMuddimans thesis. Furthermore, the presence of concatenatingprepositional phrases throughout the book of Ephesians indicatesone unified work, not two.

Ben Witherington III offers a third argument. Following Mouleand Reiche, he describes Colossians, Ephesians, Philippians, andPhilemon as captivity epistles. However, Witherington advancesthe argument along new methodological lines. He argues that allfour books are Pauline and that all four display elements of Asiaticrhetorical techniques. Furthermore, Ephesians is not a letter but ahomily and also an example of epideictic rhetoric. The book wasnot written to solve problems but to provide theological informa-tion and moral guidance. Witherington argues that Paul useddifferent rhetorical techniques in different contexts in order toconform to social norms in different locales and that Ephesiansmost reflects this (Asiatic) style precisely because it is basically a cir-cular epideictic homily with only the bare minimum of epistolaryelements added so that it could be sent as a written document.10

8 Introduction


While all sides of the debate have their pluses and minuses, I think that Ephesians is deutero-Pauline. Determinative for me isthe writing style. When one objectively examines the Greek ofEphesians, with an agenda neither to uphold the tradition nor toquestion it, one finds a mode of writing unlike any other in theNew Testament. Romans, Galatians, and Philippians, to name afew, come directly to the point and require a position to be taken.Ephesians, on the other hand, adds prepositional phrase uponprepositional phrase. It is as if the author attempts to persuade hisreaders by the rhetoric alone aside from its content. Furthermore,there is a clear development of theological concepts, such as a moreuniversal concept of the Christian community, a more universalunderstanding of the work of Christ, and an emphasis on the apos-tles as founders of the Church. Given the fact that Paul said thatthose who were apostles before him added nothing to him (Gal2:1-10), it is unlikely he would sing their praises in a book thatemphasizes the inclusion of the Gentiles in the elect community.These elements persuade me that a follower of Paul wroteEphesians sometime after the death of the Apostle. Moreover, thebook was written during a time when the Church was predomi-nantly Gentile and its indebtedness to Judaism had come intoquestion. This socio-historical context required a new interpreta-tion of the Apostle Paul to the Gentiles to meet the demands of anew situation. Thus, for the aforementioned reasons, this commen-tary works on the position that Ephesians is deutero-Pauline.Furthermore, the author gives the argument from a Jewish perspec-tive. For example, standard anti-Gentile arguments are constantlypresented (e.g., 4:17-19), and the author consistently refers toGentiles in the second person (e.g., 2:11-13). It is possible thatEphesians was sent to a congregation in transition from a Jewishmajority to a non-Jewish majority.

For many, the question of authorship and canonicity are insepa-rable: a canonical criterion for many is that a book has been writtenby an apostolic figure or a colleague of an apostolic figure. Theearly church made these attestations at a time of doctrinal uncer-tainty. The early church attempted to ensure respect for theirfavorite book/books by seeking an apostolic personage to attach tothem. In some cases, certain books themselves asserted their apos-tolic origins. If done respectfully, such attestations can transmit to

9Introduction


later generations valuable insights into the divine-human relation-ship.

Religious piety is necessary for a healthy, complete spiritual life,but even piety can be misplaced. For example, if Paul wrote a letterto a family member but did not refer to his mission or his religiousfaith or draw upon either in some way, what are the chances thatthis letter would or should be included in the canon? Except in themost conservative and/or traditional Christian circles, such a letterwould not be included in the canon because it would not bedeemed either inspired or relevant. Inspiration, not authorship, isthe primary and major canonical criterion. While it might not havebeen so for the church fathers, it should be so for us. ThroughoutChristian history, the Church Universal has affirmed Ephesiansplace in the canon by its repeated and continued use in liturgy,sermons, religious instruction, and theological discourse. It isinspired. Thus, it is not who wrote it, but Who inspired it thatshould be of greatest importance to the pious reader, and that shallbe the focus of this commentary. [The Roman Province of Asia]

10 Introduction

The Roman Province of AsiaThe Roman province of Asia saw quite a bit of Christian missionary activity. The Pauline mission worked extensively inthe Lycus River Valley. Christian tradition tells us that Paul had an extensive ministry in Colossae, Laodicea and

Ephesus; 1 Peter and also Johns Apocalypse address Christians in Asia, also. These three very different traditions tells us thatAsia was fertile ground for Christian missionaries.


B. Context and Date

1. ContextI have argued that Ephesians is deutero-Pauline and that the bookwas written when the congregation(s) for which it was written was(were) predominantly Gentile. It was written respectfully and drewfrom other books ascribed to the Apostle Paul. Within this context,the link to Judaism seemed unnecessary to some Christians.Ephesians attempted to correct that perspective.

There are three main positions concerning the context andrationale for the writing of Ephesians. The first is that Paul wroteEphesians to a mixed congregation that included both Jews andnon-Jews in order to affirm the connection with Judaism and toencourage the congregation to overcome ethnic tensions and live inharmony. The second is that Ephesians is a general letter written toa predominantly Gentile congregation. Its purpose was to serve asan introductory letter for the collection of Pauls letters. The JewishChristian-Gentile Christian tensions are no longer relevant in thispredominantly Gentile congregation. The letteris deutero-Pauline. The third position arguesthat Ephesians is not a general letter and it waswritten by Paul to new converts to explain tothem their connection to Judaism. [Catholic(General) Epistles]

F. F. Bruce argues that Ephesians comes fromPaul and addresses a mixed Jewish-Gentile con-gregation. According to Bruce, Paul exhorts anethnically mixed congregation to disdain racialbigotry and to embrace ethnic diversity as ablessing from God. Ephesians shows how thenew, united community . . . is the harbinger andinstrument of the cosmic reconciliation yet to be realized.11

I agree with Bruces sociological conclusions but disagree on theauthorship question for the reasons mentioned earlier. Additionally,the household codes were written to demonstrate to the commu-nity what it meant to live harmoniously within this new Christianhousehold.

E. J. Goodspeed, followed by Knox, Mitton, and others, arguedthat Ephesians was a general letter written in the latter part of thefirst century, influenced by Colossians; it was somehow connectedwith the collection of Pauls letters, probably as an introduction to

11Introduction

Catholic (General) EpistlesNormally, this refers to letters sent to anumber of churches or to the Church

Universal. These letters are distinct from letterssent to a single church or to an individual. Theyincluded some or all of the following for variousscholars: Colossians, Ephesians, Hebrews,James, 1-2 Peter, 1-3 John and Jude. Originally,this designation referred to both canonical andnon-canonical writings and did not question theapostolic authenticity of a given writing.According to Eusebius, it denoted a specific col-lection (usually James, 12 Peter, 13 John andJude) of canonical writings separate from thePauline collection (H. E. 2.23.24-25).


them.12 Ephesians was probably written by a resident of the LycusValley who was inspired by the writing of Luke-Acts.13 C. L.Mitton argued that the dissemination of Acts created an interest inPaul that led to the collection of Pauls letters. Perhaps inspired byPauls speech in Ephesus (Acts 20:18-35), the author of Ephesianscomposed it with the blessing of Tychicus. J. Knox added thatOnesimus, a second-century bishop in Ephesus (see Ign. Eph. 1.3),collected the letters. While this understanding of Ephesians hasbeen widely influential, it is not without its faults.14

Goodspeeds hypothesis, as with Muddimans, cannot be corrob-orated by any extant evidence. Its influence lies in its ability topersuade like-minded people. Goodspeeds hypothesis rests on theassumption that Paul was a relatively unknown figure in the earlyChristian movement prior to the publication of Acts. While this ispossible, it is equally possible that news of a new convert who for-merly and fervently persecuted the Christian movement might be afrequently repeated story within early Christianity and that suchnews might spread rather quickly. Moreover, many scholars haveargued that Paul is the central figure of Acts 1428 because he waswell known. However, this knowledge was by reputation only.15

Furthermore, Pauls ministry in Palestine, Arabia, Syria, andRoman Asia would have contributed to his being known in theeastern Mediterranean region. Indeed, the greetings at the end ofmany of Pauls letters attest to the mobility of Paul and his col-leagues. Finally, Paul wrote to the Roman church, a congregationthat did not know him personally, to discuss his beliefs, and somehave argued that his reputation preceded him (Rom 1:8-15). Inany event, he does not have to tell them who he is. Thus, for thesereasons, Goodspeeds hypothesis is inadequate.

In my opinion, a better proposal would be that someone in Paulschurches initiated the collection of Pauls letters as a means of sub-stantiating Pauls legacy over against the pillar apostles. Atapproximately the same time, Acts was published and helped tocement Pauls place as a leader in the growth and development ofthe faith. The Paul of Acts, however, is not the Paul of the letters.Pauls theology simply is not in Acts. More likely, Paul was knownin many Christian circles for his missionary activities; however, hisletters and their accompanying theology were not as extensivelyknown. This explains Pauls popularity in Christian circles outsidehis congregations as well as Pauls role in Acts, yet the non-Pauline

12 Introduction


theology in Acts.16 P. Vielhauer demonstrated quite thoroughlythat the theology of Paul is only marginally found in Acts.17

Moreover, much contemporary Protestant New Testament schol-arship has a pro-Paul bias. Eusebius designated certain NT booksas general, or catholic, epistles in Ecclesiastical History 2.Subsequent lists generally include such writings as Colossians,Ephesians, Hebrews, James, 1 and 2 Peter, James, Jude, and oftenthe Revelation to John. These letters, supposedly, were aimed at thewider Christian community. Duane Watson provides an examplethat illustrates my case well. Watson writes that James, 12 Peter,13 John, and Jude constitute the catholic epistles. The distinctiveelement of these works is that they were not sent to local churchesor to an individual as were the letters of Paul. However, Watsoncontradicts himself almost immediately when he writes, Although2 John addresses a local congregation and 3 John addresses an indi-vidual, these letters were so closely associated with 1 John that theywere included along with it within the Catholic Letters.18 It is notthe collection but the labeling of the collection that constitutes theproblem. The designation Catholic/General Epistles is antiquatedand should be discarded because it is unnecessary and erroneouslylabels these writings.

Such a label is unfortunate and inappropriate in several addi-tional ways. First and foremost, NT scholarship does not havesufficient knowledge of first-century Christianity to ascertain thegeneral milieu of the movement and, thus, what would constitute awork with a broad enough appeal to designate it general. Second,in what sense are these books general? If they were truly general,we could expect them to be more uniform. They are not. In fact, inmany ways they are mutually exclusive. For example, whileHebrews exhorts its readers not to return to Judaism, Jamesexclaims the value of keeping the Jewish law; while Jude discussesconflicts within Christianity, 1 Peter details external social pressureson Christians to denounce the faith. While we know little aboutthe social setting of Hebrews, 2 Peter, James, and Jude, we knowmuch about the life setting of 1 Peter: it was written in the lastquarter of the first Christian century to Christians sufferingregional repression in Pontus, Galatia, Cappadocia, Asia, andBithynia. One can find these places on a map between the BlackSea and the Mediterranean Sea. How would one explain the verydifferent contents of the other so-called general epistles? Finally,

13Introduction


these books are also decidedly more clearly Jewish than the rest ofthe epistolary writings.

It is unfair to designate these works as catholic epistles because(1) Paul did not write them, (2) more is not known of their orig-inal life setting, and/or (3) they are more Jewish. In labeling themthis way, we lose sight of their individual value as Christian wit-nesses and create a canon within the canon in Pauls writings,writings that appeal to many twenty-first-century theological per-spectives. Our lack of knowledge should not cause us to lose sightof each of these writings as works that gave different messages todifferent Christian groups whomever and wherever they mighthave been. This commentary will take the perspective thatEphesians is not a general letter and contains a message for agroup of Christians in a specific locale. More cannot be said.

Other problems exist with Goodspeeds hypothesis. He alsoassumed without proving that a more general letter would notspeak to a specific situation. This is a post-Enlightenment, Westernassumption that appeals to persons from a similar life setting. Infact, Ephesians might well speak to a specific situation in which acongregation sees itself more and more separate from Judaism insti-tutionally but deeply indebted to it religiously. In such a context,an author might imitate Paul by incorporating key themes fromseveral of Pauls letters. Such a letter would be more general thanmost of Pauls letters by its very nature.

The central issue, or issues, might easily be overlooked becausethey appear to be simply another topic borrowed from one of Paulsletters. Such is the case with Ephesians. The book of Ephesiansexpands extensively upon two topics from its template, Colossians.The first is the inclusion of the Gentiles in the household of faithin Ephesians 2:11-22. The passage represents a development uponits parallels in authentic Pauline letters. The second is the house-hold rules in 5:216:9. This passage also develops the parallelcomments in Colossians far beyond the original. Both expansionswould speak to social issues within a mixed community and woulddetail the socio-religious milieu of the Christian Church, a majortheme in the book of Ephesians.

Nils Dahl and Henry Chadwick take a different position. Dahlargues that Paul wrote Ephesians to provide new converts instruc-tion on the meaning of baptism: its brings them into Gods electcommunity and reminds them of the ethical demands of that com-

14 Introduction


munity. Christians are a new people composed of persons from avariety of ethnic groups, breaking down former barriers anddestroying old stereotypes.19 Dahl is eminently correct about thepurpose of Ephesians. Moreover, the forthcoming commentary will develop the sociological and theological dimensions that heidentified.

Chadwick argued that Ephesians is an apologetic against thosewho said that Christianity is new. The Romans viewed new move-ments suspiciously and feared these movements might lead toanti-Roman activities. Ancient traditions were honored becausethey had withstood the test of time. Ephesians, according toChadwick, argues that Christianity is ancient, is rooted in Judaism,and is the fulfillment of the ancient divine plan. Thus, Gentilesshould recognize that their salvation has been a reality since thedawn of time.20

Ephesians does not argue for the antiquity of Christianity withinJudaism. Rather, it argues that Jewish and Gentile Christiansshould live together harmoniously as children of God. To whatdegree Ephesians is apologetic can be debated, but it is clear thatthe household codes would have functioned in this way to non-Christians. This commentary will identify other parallels withGreco-Roman writings on various topics in Ephesians.

2. DateBruce, recognizing that his position was conjectural, stated thatTychicus might have passed through Ephesus en route to the LycusValley and showed the letter to the Ephesians, and that they madea copy of it. When the Pauline corpus was collected, since it camefrom the church at Ephesus, the letter was associated with thatchurch. He dates the letter c. 60 CE.21

Muddiman dates the letter c. 54 due to its relationship, for him,to Philemon and Colossians. He also sees parallels in 1 Peter andRevelation, two other books whose provenance was Roman Asia.22

In both Ephesians and Revelation, the church is described as thebride of Christ and the Christian life as warfare. Additionally, bothinsist on continuing Jewish ways of worship and biblical interpreta-tion. He should also have added that both have strong concepts ofpredestination (see Eph 1:4; Rev 13:8; 17:8).

Both 1 Peter and Ephesians, writes Muddiman, open with aliturgical blessing (1 Pet 35; Eph 1:3-10), speak of the Church asa temple and Christ as its foundation (1 Pet 2:2-6; Eph 2:18-22),

15Introduction


relate Christs death to salvation (1 Pet 1:18-19; Eph 2:18), pro-claim the supremacy of Christ (1 Pet 3:22; Eph 1:20), havehousehold codes (1 Pet 2:183:17; Eph 5:226:9),23 and end withan exhortation to Christian warfare (1 Pet 5:8-9; Eph 6:10-17).The letter has a fourfold purpose of (1) offering encouragementand ethical exhortation, (2) celebrating Gods salvation throughChrist, (3) preserving and transmitting Pauls thought, and (4)establishing a literary legacy for the church of Ephesus. Though Iagree in general, this last purpose would make more sense ifEphesians were deutero-Pauline since there is no record of Pauldoing this for another congregation.

E. Best dates the book between 6090 CE, but closer to 90 sinceIgnatius is the earliest known person to quote it. The book waswritten to Christians probably living in Roman Asia. It is a generalletter, but it was probably intended for a restricted area like AsiaMinor.24 Ephesians also has an anti-Gnostic polemic, using termslater in vogue among Gnostics. The book is concerned with theunity of Jews and Gentiles as equals within the Church. Thegeneral nature of the address (to the saints) and the conclusion

16 Introduction

Egypt, Arabia, Palestine, and SyriaPauls missionary activities began in the eastern part of the Roman Empire. Nothing save Pauls own comments in passing isknown of that work (see Gal 12). One reason for this is that no letters to those Christian communities have survived. Indeed,Pauls letters made letter-writing a Christian practice and popularized the Apostle to the Gentiles throughout Christian history. Ofcourse, Pauls often brilliant prose helped a great deal, too.


(to the brothers) lends credence to his argu-ment concerning the general nature of the letter,Best argues. On the other hand, they couldsimply be terms of endearment. Furthermore,the debate concerning the genesis, nature, andgrowth of Gnosticism and also the argumentsfor Gnosticism as a second-century develop-ment are strong. [1 Peter 1:3-5; Ephesians 1:3-4, 7-8a]

Lincoln states that Ephesians was writtenbetween 8090 to Pauline churches in westernAsia Minor. The crisis of Pauls death created aleadership vacuum. These predominantlyGentile congregations would need to bereminded of Pauls suffering because of his min-istry to the Gentiles and what they owed to it.Pauls death left the community without anauthority figure and might have created a loss ofcohesion among the Pauline churches.Ephesians reminded these congregations of their place in theChurch Universal, the need for unity, and the importance of con-tinuing and maintaining the apostolic tradition. Moreover, hope inthe parousia was also fading: Gentile Christians . . . would haveneeded reminding of the Churchs place in Gods purpose inhistory which had previously included his election of Israel (cf.2.11-22).26

Goodspeed argued that this Jew-Gentile tension had long sincepassed when Ephesians was written. The existence of JewishChristians well into the second century CE refutes Goodspeedshypothesis. While the content of their doctrine and practices isopen to debate, their existence is not. At least two groups existed,the Ebionites and the Nazoreans. Church fathers Justin Martyr,Hegesippus, Irenaeus, and others mentioned them.27 If they werein the church in the second century, it is conceivable that they werethere in the first. Therefore, to argue that the issue of the place ofIsrael in Gods divine plan was settled within the first-centuryChristian community is not historically sound.28 The real problemis that we do not know where these Jewish Christians were. Theseparation from the synagogue did not occur simultaneously every-where. When the church became totally Gentile, interest in thehistory of Jewish Christianity also waned.29

17Introduction

1 Peter 1:3-5; Ephesians 1:3-4, 7-8a1 Peter 1:3-5Blessed be the God and Father of our

Lord Jesus Christ, who according to His greatmercy has caused us to be born again to a livinghope through the resurrection of Jesus Christfrom the dead, to an imperishable and undefiledinheritance and (it) will not fade away, reserved inheaven for you who are protected by the power ofGod through faith for a salvation ready to berevealed in the last time.

Ephesians 1:3-4, 7-8aBlessed be the God and Father of our Lord JesusChrist, who blessed us with every spiritualblessing in the heavenlies in Christ, just as Hechose us in Him before the foundation of theworld so that we might be holy and blamelessbefore Him. In Him we have redemption throughHis blood, the forgiveness of our trespasses,according to the riches of His grace, which Helavished on us.


At the same time, Ephesians incorporates categories of Greco-Roman social mores and redefines social relationships in light of itsunderstanding of the demands of the gospel. For example, house-hold rules and virtue-vice lists were commonplace in Greco-Romansociety, especially among the Stoics who perfected them.Household codes sought to establish proper human relations;virtue-vice lists identified proper human behavior. Both motifs arefound in the New Testament.30 Colossians and Ephesians promi-nently employ standard Greco-Roman household codes in order topresent Christian values in ways that both Christians and non-Christians could easily understand and appropriate. Also, theywould serve as an apologia to relate the Christian movement posi-tively to the wider society. In this sense, Lincoln correctlyunderstands Ephesians as a social theology of some sort.

How then would the absence of Pauls letters lead to their collec-tion? Is it unrealistic to believe that someone within the Paulinecircle collected the letters in order to substantiate the value of thePauline mission to the Gentiles? Would not a disciple of Paul be amore likely candidate to collect the letters as a means of presentingPauls side of the story against the witness of the pillar apostlesand their disciples? These are more credible arguments for the col-lection of Pauls letters based on the available evidence.

Many scholars assume that there were only two missions, one tothe Jews and one to the Gentiles, one law-abiding and one law-free.However, this perspective represents an oversimplification of thedata. Acts reflects a form of Gentile Christianity that is simultane-ously neither pro-Paul/anti-Peter nor pro-Peter/anti-Paul. It is aGentile Christianity that keeps parts of the Law but not all of it.Acts has found a way to maintain a connection with Jewish reli-giosity while still appealing to non-Jews. Yet, we cannot assumethat every region of the Christian community made this transitionat the same time or in the same way. It is quite possible that othercommunities continued to struggle with this issue into the secondcentury CE, especially given the existence of Jewish Christians whoheld to a less developed Christology.

Most topics in Ephesians have their parallels in Colossians.However, Ephesians 2:11-22 expands the relationship betweenJews and Gentiles in the covenant community far beyond what onefinds in Colossians 3:11-13. Further, the household codes inEphesians 5:216:9 exceed the parallels in Colossians 3:184:1.

18 Introduction


Ephesians 2:11-22 attempts to articulate what the Jewish legacymeans for this new, culturally integrated Christian community. AsM. J. Smith notes, The author of Ephesians . . . documents thefusion of two ethnic groups under one economical salvific plan,which results in a united church as one body with Christ as itshead.31 Second, the household rules in Ephesians 5:216:9 gobeyond what one finds in Colossians 3:184:1. The rules addressthe sociological demands of theological truths. Those truths arethat Christians should constitute a unified harmonious communityof faith (Eph 2:11-22; see also 3:144:1). Ephesians 3:15:2 dis-cusses communal concord. Ephesians 5:216:9 spells out what thatmeans in households. Both discussions were extremely importantin conveying to the original readers what Christian harmony andconcord meant in the wider Christian community (2:11-22) andalso in individual homes (5:216:9).

Prejudice against Jews was always a possibility in antiquity.Periodically, anti-Jewish bigotry would arise with little instigation.Two examples come to mind: Philos embassy to the EmperorGaius and Marcions rejection of the God of the Hebrew Bible(HB). Philos embassy to Gaius was not preceded by a decade ofpressure on Alexandrian Jews. Rather, the negative stereotypes weredormant and arose under a given set of circumstances. Simmeringtensions came to the surface, and Jews found themselves underduress. Similarly, there is no extant evidence that Marcion rejectedthe God of the HB after a long period of theological reflection.Rather, it appears that Marcion simply reflectedto an extreme what was considered a normalview of Judaism and Jews. [Religious Apologetics]

There were many reasons for this social devel-opment. Many considered Jews superstitiousbecause of their Sabbath day observance andalso misanthropic because of their refusal tohave table fellowship with non-Jews.32 Moreover, Jews in manycities did not pay local taxes but sent a temple tax to the temple inJerusalem. At the same time, they enjoyed all the social and culturalbenefits of their non-Jewish neighbors who paid taxes. Finally,Gentile was never a Jewish term of endearment toward non-Jews.These things would not have made Jews popular with their non-Jewish neighbors. Thus, prejudice against Jews was an endemic partof Roman society, and Christians from non-Jewish backgrounds

19Introduction

Religious ApologeticsReligious apologetics in this period hadthree purposes: to defend and explain the

tradition to outsiders; to do so in terms and waysthat outsiders could understand; and to gain, atworse, a measure of respect for the tradition, or,at best, to gain converts.


might naturally want to dissociate themselves from Judaism alto-gether. Ephesians argued that such a fragmented perspective istotally unacceptable.33 Christ has destroyed these social barriersand has created a community where Christian identity supersedesall else.

The household rules, on the other hand, would assure allChristians that some social norms would not be changed. Whilethe household rules have a Christian perspective, we shall see laterthat they are not significantly different from what well-known

figures contemporary to Paul were writing. Ephesians addsdoing so out of ones devotion to Christ. While Colossianshas this same admonition, it is much stronger in Ephesians.[Pauline Letters]

What then can be said about the setting, date, andcontext of Ephesians? One should start with what is know-

able. Ephesians is an expansion and a development of Colossians.The book is deutero-Pauline and is a respectful attempt to re-present Pauls thought for a new, post-Pauline situation andemploys Colossians primarily for this purpose. Ephesians alsoemploys other books in the Pauline corpus, but its strongest affini-ties are with Colossians. Ephesians, however, contains a muchstronger comment on the need to integrate Jewish and non-JewishChristians into one new ethnic community (Eph 2:11-22) and alsospells out the implications of the household codes in more detail(Eph 5:216:9). Why would the author of Ephesians feel the needto write a letter so close to Colossians and yet expand on it incertain places and sprinkle tidbits from other Pauline letters? Theauthor wrote Ephesians probably because his original audience hadnot incorporated into their lives certain teachings of Colossians asfully as he would have wanted. He writes a second time and con-

centrates on the areas that need their attention. I fullyrealize that this is a mere hypothesis. I believe,however, that this hypothesis moves the discussion inthe right direction. [Monotheism]

This commentary will take the approach that thesetwo topics constitute the primary concerns ofEphesians and will read the book from this perspective.While it is clear that what is unique is not always

central, at the very least we can say that it was important to theauthor of Ephesians. That fact alone requires that it receive special

20 Introduction

Pauline LettersThe parts of a Paulineletter: (1) salutation,

(2) thanksgiving, (3) body of theletter, (4) closing comment, and (5) conclusion.

MonotheismIn Greco-Roman society, manyphilosophers and religious

thinkers began to move towardmonotheism in that they believed thatone supreme god ruled in the heavens inthe same way the emperor ruled onEarth.


attention. I date Ephesians in the last quarter of the first Christiancentury.

C. Genre

The question of genre is a minor issue for Ephesians. If Paul wroteit, he meant it to be read as a letter. If he did not, the author clearlyand intentionally employs Pauls letters as its model. Aune correctlywrites, The letter was one of the more flexible of ancient literaryforms. Almost any kind of written text could be framed by formalepistolary features and regarded as a letter.34 Indeed, withEphesians the content is more important than the form. If thebook were a theological treatise, its message would be the same.

The typical Pauline letter has five parts: (1) a salutation, (2) athanksgiving, (3) the body of the letter, (4) closing comments, and(5) a conclusion. Ephesians clearly has many of these features. Ithas a salutation (1:1-2), a thanksgiving (1:3-23), the main body(2:16:9), closing comments (6:10-20), and a concluding post-script (6:21-24). As with some Pauline letters, a member of the

21Introduction

Cappadocia and Galatia


mission team is mentioned by name (cf. 6:21and Rom 16:21). The body of the letter maybe divided into an extended thanksgiving(1:33:21), a parenesis (4:16:9), concludingcomments (6:10-20), and a postscript (6:21-24). The extended thanksgiving reiter-ates major themes found in Pauls letters(salvation through Christ by faith, the unityof Jews and Gentiles, Pauls commission to theGentiles, etc.). The parenesis begins with a

section on Christian unity that echoes 2:16-18, and it then goes onto restate themes found in other works attributed to Paul(4:15:20). Then follow the household codes from a Christian per-spective (5:216:9). [Determinism]

D. Theological Concepts

1. GodThe concept of God in the book of Ephesians is a diverse but well-integrated perspective. It has two major foci: Father and Savior.God has a traditional role of patriarch common to the first-centuryMediterranean world. First and foremost, God is the source of lifefor all living creatures in heaven and on Earth. He is the one fromwhom every family in heaven and on Earth is named (3:15 [AT]).As such, God provides a divine template for his children to emulate(4:24; 5:1, 8-9; cf. 6:4, 7-9). Furthermore, God the Father is supe-rior to all, and a divine pantheistic immanence is omnipresent(4:6). Similarly, divine patriarchy undergirds the image of God asan enthroned king (2:6; 5:5). Many in the empire saw the Romanemperor as the patriarch of the domain. Ephesians might have pro-vided a conscious alternative to the imperial model. In any event,the concept would not be foreign to the initial readers ofEphesians. Finally, God is the Father of our Lord Jesus Christ(1:3). By means of Christs faithful obedience to the Father, theChurch Universal has come into being. This multi-ethnic churchhas been predestined and purified (1:4) for service to God (e.g.,2:10; 3:14; cf. 3:20-21; 5:19-20).

This brings us to the concept of God-as-Savior. By this time, theso-called mystery religions, such as the Isis cult, had garneredsome degree of success in the Roman Empire. The majority of

22 Introduction

DeterminismAnd he opened his mouth and spoke blas-phemies against God, to blaspheme his

name and his tabernacle, that is, those who live inheaven. And it was given to him to make war againstthe saints and to conquer them; and authority overevery tribe and people and tongue and nation wasgiven to him. And all who live on Earth will worshiphim, whose name has not been written in the bookof life of the Lamb who has been slain from the foun-dation of the world. (Rev 13:6-8)


these religions came from the eastern regions of the Mediterranean,were more personal than traditional Roman religion, and promisedtheir devotees some form of existence beyond death: the deitysaved the faithful from death. Christianity, as espoused inEphesians, meets all these criteria and could have been perceived asanother mystery cult (e.g., Eph 1:9; 3:2-5; cf. 1:17; 3:10-12;5:17). Ephesians clearly incorporates the language. More impor-tant, the mystery referred to in Ephesians consistently hassoteriological aims: God reveals Godself as one whose intent andpurpose is to save women and men from sin and to adopt them(e.g., 1:4-9). This is most significant because in Roman societyadoption could occur at any age and carried with it the full privi-leges of a biological heir.35 Along these same lines, Ephesiansfrequently employs economic terms to describe salvation (e.g., 1:7-8, 14, 15; 2:7; 3:6, 8, 16). Thus, Ephesians 1:14 and 3:6 referto salvation as an inheritance. In this way, God-as-Father and God-as-Savior are integrally related in Ephesians.

Moreover, not only is God a savior in Ephesians; his plan of sal-vation has also been predetermined (1:4-5; cf. 1:20-21; 2:4-8).Determinism, or predestination, was a common feature in firstcentury CE Roman society. Within Judaism, it reached its zenith inJewish apocalypticism. Jewish concepts of predestination wouldhave been reinforced by astrology and Roman Stoicism, the pre-ferred philosophy of the Roman intelligentsia. Stoicism had alsomanifested itself in various aspects of folk philosophy and religion.In its various forms, determinism usually has two basic concerns: toaffirm without question or doubt the complete sovereignty of Godand also to assure devotees of a given movement the immutableeventuality of their success, salvation, and/or vindication. ForEphesians, Gods plan from the foundation of the world (1:4; cf.Rev 13:8; 17:8) has been to create a people, through Christ Jesus,that was pure (1:4), multi-ethnic (3:6), and unified in every way(4:4-6). At once Ephesians affirms the Jewish heritage, the pro-priety of its continuity and fulfillment within a predominantlyGentile church, and the inevitability of the churchs salvation. In sodoing, the book assures its original audience of their propriety andultimate salvation. This salvation manifests itself in numerousblessings and gifts (e.g., 1:3-5, 18; 2:4-10; 3:16; 4:24; 5:23-24).

Finally, Gods roles as Father and Savior are divine benefactions.The ancient Mediterranean world functioned on a reciprocity

23Introduction


system. After a gift was given by a benefactor, thebeneficiary gave something in return. For example,for liberating a city from a tyrant (benefaction), thefreed city (the beneficiary) might inaugurate annualgames and name them after its liberator (benefactor).[T]he return gift then became an incentive for morebenefactions, and so the cycle continued.36 [O GodWho Shaped Creation] [God as Enthroned King]

2. ChristChrist is the one who connects the plan of God with thepeople of God. Through Christ, God the Father bestowsblessings on humanity, adopts the faithful for a soteriolog-ical inheritance, reveals Gods will, and unites Jew andGentile into one faithful community. [Christ in Community]

First and foremost, Christ is the means of salvation inEphesians. Christians become the Fathers children and heirs

through Christ (e.g., 1:5, 7; 2:13; 6; cf. 3:17; 5:2). Christ bringsthe Fathers will into fruition through his death and resurrection(1:7; 2:3). Ephesians perceives this as an act of grace (1:13; 4:7). Inaddition, Christs work is integral to the creation of the ChurchUniversal. In Ephesians, the Church refers to the international

24 Introduction

O God Who Shaped CreationO God who shaped creation atearths chaotic dawn,

Your word of power was spoken,And lo! The dark was gone!You framed us in your image,You brought us into birth,You blessed our infant footstepsAnd shared your splendored earth.

William W. Reid, Jr (1987)

God as Enthroned KingGod as an enthroned king would have been afamiliar image and concept to most people living in

1st-C. CE Roman society. Since the emperor sat on a throne,non-Jews often depicted the highest god sitting on a thronein the heavens. The OT image of God as king would havebeen reinforced by this widespread concept.

King. c. 123035. North Italian; Lombardy or the Veneto. Limestone (pietra diAurisina, province of Trieste). The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York, NY.

(Credit: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Art Resource, NY)

Christ in CommunityChrist joins the earthlyChristian community and

the heavenly community inEphesians. Christ functions in thesame way throughout the NT: herepresents the will of God to thepeople of God (e.g., John 10:30;Rev 19:13).


movement, not merely particular congregations. The Church isalso an interracial movement that brings together various ethniccommunities into one. Ephesians says our peace comes throughChrist (2:14). This peace should be contrasted with the tensionsbetween Jews and Gentiles common outside the Church. Anti-Jewish sentiments persisted in the ancient world. Some non-JewishChristians would be extremely reluctant to disavow their sociallyacceptable anti-Jewish bigotry. [On Bigotry] It is for this reason thatpeace within the Christian community was significant.37

Christ does not simply bring peace to this enmity; hereplaces it with a harmonious, holy community planned bythe Father from the foundation of the world (1:4). Themagnitude of such a development would not go unnoticedby the intended readers. It would challenge old stereotypesand prejudices on both sides. The aim was to create a livingtemple with Christ as its foundation (2:21-22). Similarly,Christ dwells within faithful Christians (see 3:17; 5:23-24). Allthese images were meant to convey the intimate relationshipbetween Christ and the Church.

Institutional Christianity has its roots in this soil. As head andfoundation, Christ provides an example for Christians to follow. Itis in this light that the household rules (e.g., 5:21, 23, 32; 6:5-6)should be read. The rules should be obeyed out of reverence forChrist. Indeed, if Christ truly dwells within each faithful Christian,this must be made manifest in human action. Finally, God theFather equips the Church for its life and ministry through Christ.As the head, foundation, and inner guide, Christ receives from theFather gifts that he passes on to the Church. Specifically, there areapostles, prophets, evangelists, pastors, and teachers. Their purposeis the edification of the Church in love and unity (4:11-16).

3. The Holy SpiritThe pneumatology of Ephesians ably complements the two pre-ceding doctrines. The Holy Spirit seals believers and thus ensurestheir inheritance-salvation (1:13). The Spirit facilitates access toGod (2:18) and creates through the Church a living temple of God(2:22). The Spirit strengthens the inner person (3:16; cf. 4:23;5:18) and also promotes unity within the Church. This relatesdirectly to the ecclesiology of Ephesians: the Church always refersto the international fellowship of Christians, which Ephesians envi-sions as one unified body of believers (4:3-4; 6:18). [Communal Unity]

25Introduction

On BigotryIn vain do we confrontthe established preju-

dices with reality: they areunshakeable.

A. Heller, Toward a Sociology ofKnowledge of Everyday Life, CulturalHermeneutics 3 (1975):10.


Finally, the author of Ephesians describes the Christianlifestyle in terms of warfare. Within this context, thesword of the Spirit is mentioned in connection withthe word of God (6:17). Revelation 19:13-21 hassimilar imagery. Lincoln correctly notes that the Spiritgives the sword its power and penetration.38

Concurring, Best writes that the Spirit either suppliesor empowers the sword and gives strength toChristians.39 [The Holy Spirit]

4. The ChurchSince the author envisions a new multi-ethnic group,the Church is always the Church Universal (e.g.,1:22; 3:10). This is extremely important given thatprejudice against Jews was always dormant, at the veryleast, in Greco-Roman society. The Christian Church

is a new ethnic groupthat is qualitatively betterthan its diverse predeces-sors (see Eph 1:1) andreplaces the old ordersdivided humanity.40

The Church andChrist are inseparable forEphesians. Ephesiansemploys four images todescribe the Church.Each demonstrates theintimate relationshipbetween Christ and theChurch. The first is thebody of Christ. Thisimage recurs ten times inEphesians (1:23; 2:16;3:6; 4:4, 12, 16 [twice];5:23, 29, 30). Ephesians

expands on Romans 12:5, 1 Corinthians 12:12, and Colossians1:18, 24 and 2:19. Given the close affinity between Ephesians andColossians, Colossians is probably the primary source for thisimagery. With this image, Ephesians exhorts its readers to remain

26 Introduction

Communal UnityRomans 12:5So we, though many, are one

body in Christ, and individually membersone of another.

1 Corinthians 12:12For just as the body is one and hasmany members of the body, thoughmany, are one body, so it is with Christ.

Colossians 1:18He (Christ) is the head of the body, thechurch; he is the beginning, the first-born from the dead, that in everything hemight be preeminent.

(RSV)

The Holy SpiritThe Christian concept of the Holy Spirit owes much to the OT traditionwhere God Almighty often sent his Spirit to prophets or other righteous

persons. For example, 1 Kgs 22:24 reads, How did the Spirit of the LORD go fromme to speak to you? When the Spirit went from one person to another, it was a

sign that the first personhad lost favor with GodAlmighty. The dovebecame the principalimage of the Holy Spirit formany early Christiansbecause of the descent ofthe Spirit at the time of thebaptism of Jesus by Johnthe Baptizer (e.g., Matt3:16).

Corrado Giaquinto (17031764).The Holy Spirit. c. 1750. Oil oncanvas. (Credit: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5f/Giaquinto%2C_Corrado_-_The_Holy_Spirit_-_1750s.PNG)


faithful to Christ as Christ was to God. The Church shouldembody Christ and constitute Christs presence in the world.Christs lordship is understood in the sense ofboth rule and determinative source of origin(4.15,16; 5.23).41 [The Word of God]

Second, the Church is an extension of Christ(1:22-23; 5:23): Christians and Christ areinseparable. Just as a head directs the humanbody, so too does Christ direct the Christianbody. While parallels to 1 Corinthians 12:12-31and Romans 12:12 are evident, Stoicism also provided a parallel.Stoicism, an optimistic and deterministic pantheism, taught thatlogos orthos was the hegemonikon, the guiding principle of orderli-ness in the universe. Each person had a piece of logos in her or himthat should govern human action. Moreover, Stoicisms influencewas so pervasive that everyday people employed Stoic concepts,ideas, and motifs without knowing it.42 Such an influential motifin society in general could only reinforce Ephesians teachings onthe relationship between Christ and the Church.

Third, the Church is the bride of Christ (Eph 5:21-33; cf. Rev19:6-9). This image also conveyed the intimate relationshipbetween Christ and the Church. They are mutually responsible toone another. While the Church owes its allegiance to Christ, Christhas made the supreme sacrifice for the Church. This is not a casualrelationship between professional colleagues. It is one between two entities who define each other (see also 2 Cor 11:2; cf. Rev19:1-10). In the HB, Israel was the bride of Yahweh (e.g., Ezek16:8-14; Hos 2:2-3; cf. Jer 31:32 where baal could be translatedhusband). Ephesians continues this tradition with a distinctlyChristian modification: Christ replaces Yahweh; the Churchreplaces Israel. [Exodus 19:5-6]

Finally, the Church is the temple of God in Ephesians (2:21-22).In most ancient Mediterranean cultures, the temple was wheretheir national deity resided on Earth. In the firstcentury CE, the Jewish people believed thatYahweh resided in the Temple in Jerusalem.Ephesians now argues that God resides not in abuilding but in a people (cf. 2 Cor 5:14-17).While this is not institutionalization of the

27Introduction

The Word of GodEphesians 6:17Take the helmet of salvation and the

sword of the Spirit, which is the word of God.

Revelation 19:13And clothed with a robe dipped in blood and hisname is called The Word of God.

Exodus 19:5-6Now then, if you will obey my voice andkeep my covenant, then you shall be my

own possession among all the peoples, for all theEarth is mine; and you will be a kingdom of priestsand a holy nation to me. (Exod 19:5-6)


Church per se, it is an early stage and a develop-ment beyond what one finds in Paul. [Roots ofCatholicism]

Given the preceding images of the Church,the remaining emphases should come as no sur-prise. First of all, Christians are faithful and pure(1:1; 3:8). Through death, Christ has made the Church holy, splendid, without blemish(5:25-27). Given the close relationship betweenChrist and the Church discussed above,depicting Christianity in this way should not be

unexpected. This coheres with the communitys sense of its callingand election. Lincoln correctly notes that this is Gods initiative:In the opening eulogy the variety of terms employed for Godselecting purposes is impressive.43 He correctly notes that chose,

predestined, proposed, and appointed arefound throughout Ephesians 1:3-4. In this way,Ephesians depicts the Christian community asone selected by God and predestined for great-ness. [The Churchs One Foundation]

Ephesians stressed the need for unity in theChurch (2:14-18; 4:4-6). The Church is unifiedin one body. It comes from the one God whohas created a single faith and a single anointingof the Holy Spirit based on their solitary elec-tion (4:4-6). Salvation is found only in the oneChurch.

The Church as a universal entity does notmean Ephesians could not be directed to a localcongregation or a group of churches in a givenregion. The ideal Church is used by the author

as a norm for which to strive. Paul himself does the same thingwhen he makes an appeal based on the norm for all Christians:For God is not (a god) of disorder but of peace as in all thechurches of the saints (1 Cor 14:33).

5. EthicsEphesians espouses an ethical lifestyle based predominantly on thecardinal Christian virtues of love, holiness, and truthfulness. It alsomandated household rules to establish the proper interpersonal

28 Introduction

Roots of CatholicismMany NT scholars point to the roots ofearly Catholicism in the ecclesiology of

the book of Ephesians. For such scholars, thiswas an unfortunate occurrence and the RomanCatholic Church is a regrettable development.Two points: (1) one finds this evaluation almostentirely among Protestant scholars; (2) congrega-tional polities and denominationalism are notwithout their faults either. The roots ofCatholicism might well be found here inEphesians, but so is the affirmation for Christianunity.

The Churchs One FoundationThe churchs one foundation is JesusChrist her Lord;

She is his new creation by water and the Word.From heaven he came and sought her to be hisholy bride;with his own blood he bought her, and for her lifehe died.

Elect from every nation, yet one oer all the earth;her charter of salvation, one Lord, one faith, onebirth;one holy name she blesses, partakes one holyfood,and to one hope she presses, with every graceendued.

Samuel J. Stone (1866)


relationships and other characteristics to support the virtues, suchas humility, gentleness, and patience in 4:2.

Love (agap ) is at the foundation of all Christian behavior forEphesians. For example, Christians should be tolerant with oneanother through love (4:2), speak truthfully to one another in love(4:15), and grow together in love (3:17; 4:16). Indeed, God chosethe Church in love (1:4). Christ provided the supreme sacrifice forthe Church (5:25). This sacrificial love is . . . the distinguishingmark of Christian existence.44 Moreover, Lincoln correctly arguesthat this love comes from God. It is embodied in Christ and medi-ated by the Spirit and is the power withinChristians that empowers self-giving love, expectingnothing in return.45 [Benefactions]

Holiness (hagios), the second ethical norm, mustbe made manifest in their lives. It is their reason forbeing (1:4; 2:21; 4:24; 5:25-27). Often Ephesiansasserts that Christians are holy. Such assertions arepart hyperbole and part exhortation in order tomotivate Christians to strive toward that high ideal.46 Lincolnnotes two overlapping areas with regard to holiness: speech andsexual behavior. First, negative language destroys concord withinthe elect community.47 In that light, discussing sexual sins couldlead to unfortunate tolerance of their practice and eventually toones exclusion from the kingdom (see 5:5). The Christian lifestylemust now conform to their Christian identity as children of light(5:8).48

Truthfulness (altheia), the third cardinal virtue, recursthroughout the book of Ephesians. In 1:13, it refers to theChristian message; in 4:24, it relates to the creation of the newperson made in Gods likeness; in 4:15, 25 and 6:14, it refers tospeaking sincerely and accurately; in 4:21, truth resides in Jesus.Truthfulness, therefore, is of the very nature of God, Gods intentfor the world, Christ, and the Christian fellowship for the book ofEphesians. All three virtues, love, holiness, and truthfulness, indi-vidually and collectively contributed positively to the ongoing lifeof the Christian Church. These three main virtues are often pre-sented in tandem with one another and/or other virtues andoutstanding characteristics, which shall be noted in due course.

The household rules (see Eph 5:216:9) were standard ways ofexpressing the nature of social relationships. The family lay at the

29Introduction

BenefactionsHow blessed and marvelous arethe gifts of God, beloved. Life in

immortality, splendor in righteousness, truthin boldness, faith in confidence, discipline inholiness; all these are in our understanding.(Clement of Rome, 1 Corinthians 35, trans.Bettenson)


foundation of Roman society. The entire empire was considered afamily with the emperor as the imperial father. The home reflectedthis to a large degree. In this sense, the household rules inEphesians constituted something of a Christian apologia. Theywould have demonstrated to non-Christians how much Christianswere similar to the rest of Roman society. It also would have given

Christians a feeling of contact and continuity with thebroader society. [John 8:32] However, the Christianhousehold rules have a di

Ephesians - Thomas B. Slater

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Transcript of Ephesians - Thomas B. Slater