EnvironmentalEnvironmentalStrategies for CitiesStrategies for Cities

A Framework for Urban Environmental Planning and

Management

Course on Urban and City Management, Goa, 9-21 January 2000

““Sustainable Cities”Sustainable Cities”

Cities that, as they develop,– meet the social and economic needs of the

present population– while balancing broader environmental and

energy concerns now and in the future As nature of environmental problems

changes with city development– capacity for environmental governance also

grows– environmental institution building sustained

over time

New Policy Framework New Policy Framework NeededNeeded

more strategic in nature, linking interventions to environmental outcomes

more focused on market incentives and service pricing than regulations

more flexible in matching political and natural boundaries

more visionary regarding role of private sector

more oriented towards need of citizens and involving them in solutions

Environmental Management Environmental Management Strategies for CitiesStrategies for Cities The broad question:

– Cities -- opportunity or crisis? The basic questions:

– Is there an urban environmental crisis? Whose environment?

– What is the nature and extent of urban environmental degradation?

– What are the underlying causes?– What options exist to improve the urban

environment?– How to choose among and implement options?

Urban EnvironmentUrban Environment

Pressure (Growth) Factors– Population– Poverty– Economic Activity

wastes & emissions resource use & degradation

Enabling/Disenabling Factors– Awareness– Regulations & Pricing Policies– Property Rights/Land Use– Institutional Failures

political and ecosystem boundaries don’t coincide

The Challenge of Urban The Challenge of Urban Environmental ManagementEnvironmental Management To safeguard the health, productivity and

quality of life of urban populations:– in the face of rapid urbanization and economic

growth– resulting from their interactions with the physical

(built) and natural environments that surround them– and from changes in those environments induced by

human activities To build sustainable cities

– balancing the 3 Es -- Economics, Equity, Environment

Approaches to Sustainable Approaches to Sustainable DevelopmentDevelopment

Economic

Equity Environmental

Efficiency Growth Stability

Poverty Consultation/ Empowerment Culture/Heritage

Biodiversity/Resilience Natural Resources Pollution

*Int

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quity

*Tar

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*Inter-generational equity*Popular participation

*Valuation

*Internalization

Priority Environmental Priority Environmental Issues Facing CitiesIssues Facing Cities

Protecting human health from environmental threats through a variety of interventions– Providing basic environmental services

to protect health, especially for the poor– Identifying and implementing integrated

approaches to urban air quality and watershed management

» pollution, resource depletion or degradation

– Dealing with environmental disasters Emerging global environmental

challenges such as climate change

Variability in Urban Variability in Urban Environmental ProblemsEnvironmental Problems

Unique natural features of urban areas (ecosystem setting)

Dynamics of the urbanization process -- pace and intensity

Diverse spatial dimensions of the problems

Levels of income and economic development

Range and roles of local stakeholders

Complexity of Urban and Complexity of Urban and Regional EcosystemsRegional Ecosystems

Coastal regions Arid regions Humid tropical regions Cold regions Mountainous regions

Multiple combinations of these ecological features

Spatial Scale of UrbanSpatial Scale of UrbanEnvironmental ProblemsEnvironmental Problems

ShelterWater StorageOnsite SanitationGarbage StorageStoveVentilation

Substandard HousingLack of WaterNo SanitationDisease VectorsIndoor Air Pollution

Piped WaterSewerageGarbage CollectionDrainageStreets/Lanes

Industrial ParksRoadsInterceptorsTreatment PlantsOutfallsLandfills

Substandard HousingLack of WaterNo SanitationDisease VectorsIndoor Air Pollution

Traffic CongestionAccidentsAmbient Air PollutionToxic Dumps

HighwaysWater SourcesPower Plants

Water PollutionEcological Areas Lost

Acid RainGlobal WarmingOzone Layer

Household/Workplace

Community Metropolitan Area

Region Continent/Planet

SpatialScale

Key Infrastructure and Services

CharacteristicProblems

Urbanization in Developing Urbanization in Developing CountriesCountries

Within a decade the world will be half urban

In the developing world:- urban population will double, adding 700

million new city dwellers- 1 of every 4 persons will live in cities

greater than 500,000 population- 1 in every 10 persons will live in cities

greater than 10 million population

1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010

0

500

1000

1500

2000

2500

3000

Urban Population (millions)

1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010

Year

>10M

5-10M

1-5M

0.5-1M

<0.5M

Urban Population in Developing CountriesUrban Population in Developing Countriesby City Size Class, 1950-2010by City Size Class, 1950-2010

1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010

0

100

200

300

400

500

600

700

Number of Cities

1950 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 2010

Year

>10M

5-10M

1-5M

0.5-1M

Number of Large Cities in Developing CountriesNumber of Large Cities in Developing Countriesby City Size Class, 1950-2010by City Size Class, 1950-2010

Economic/Environmental Economic/Environmental Typology of CitiesTypology of Cities

Access to basicservices

Lower-incomecountries

(<$650/cap)

Lower-middle-income countries($650-2,500/cap)

Upper-middle-income countries

($2,500-6,500/cap)

Upper-incomecountries

(>$6,500/cap)

⟨ Water supplyand sanitation

Low coverage andquality, especially forurban poor

Low access forurban poor

Generallyacceptable watersupply, reasonablesewerage

Good; concern withtrace substances

⟨ Drainage Low coverage;frequent flooding

Inadequate;frequent flooding

Reasonable Good

⟨ Solid wastecollection

Low coverage,especially for urbanpoor

Inadequate Reasonable Good

Typology...Typology...

Urban Pollution Lower-incomecountries

(<$650/cap)

Lower-middle-income countries($650-2,500/cap)

Upper-middle-income countries

($2,500-6,500/cap)

Upper-incomecountries

(>$6,500/cap)

⟨ Water pollution Problems frominadequatesanitation and rawdomestic sewage

Severe problemsfrom untreatedmunicipal discharges

Severe problemsfrom poorly treatedM&I discharges

High levels oftreatment; concernwith amenity valuesand toxics

⟨ Air pollution Severe problems insome cities usingsoft coal; indoorexposure for poor

Severe problems insome cities from softcoal use and/orvehicle emissions

Severe problems inmany cities from softcoal use and/orvehicle emissions

Problems in somecities from vehicleemissions; healthpriority

⟨ Solid wastedisposal

Open dumping ofmixed wastes

Mostly uncontrolledlandfills, mixedwastes

Semi-controlledlandfills

Controlled landfills,incineration,resource recovery

⟨ Hazardouswastemanagement

Non-existentcapacity

Severe problems,little capacity

Severe problems,growing capacity

Moving fromremediation toprevention

Typology...Typology...

ProblemsLower-income

countries(<$650/cap)

Lower-middle-income countries($650-2,500/cap)

Upper-middle-income countries

($2,500-6,500/cap)

Upper-incomecountries

(>$6,500/cap)

Resourcelosses

⟨ Landmanagement

Uncontrolled landdevelopment anduse; pressure fromsquatter settlements

Ineffective land uscontrols

Some environmentalzoning practiced

Environmentalzoningcommonplace

Environmentalhazards

⟨ Natural andman-madehazards

Recurrent disasterswith severe damageand loss of life

Recurrent disasterswith damage andloss of life

High risk fromindustrial disasters

Good emergencyresponse capacity

Critical Policy Linkages for Urban Critical Policy Linkages for Urban Environmental ManagementEnvironmental Management

Urban EnvironmentalManagement Issue

UnderlyingCauses

Relevant PolicyReforms

Access to basic services:

⟨ Serviced land and shelter Poorly functioning urban landand housing markets;Highly regulated prices;Lack of affordable housing forthe poor

Reform property rights;Develop mortgage financing;Introduce affordable standardsand target subsidies to thepoor;Reduce unneeded regulations,government interventions andindiscriminate subsidies

⟨ Water supply, sanitation,drainage, solid wastecollection, transport

Supply side dominated bygovernment monopoly;Prices highly regulated;Heavy subsidies

Introduce pricing and demandmanagement;Reduce subsidies;Move toward decentralization,privatization, participation

Critical Policy Linkages...Critical Policy Linkages...Urban Environmental

Management IssueUnderlying

CausesRelevant Policy

Reforms

Pollution from urban wastesand emissions:

⟨ Water pollution Uncontrolled municipal andindustrial discharges;Excessive water use and wastegeneration;Failure to link water quantityand quality issues

Introduce water pricing andeffluent charges;Subsidize sewage treatment;Strengthen regulations andcapacity for monitoring andenforcement;Prepare comprehensive basinplans

⟨ Energy use, industrialemissions and air pollution

- ambient air pollution - indoor air pollution

Increased Motorization andtransport congestion;Energy supply side dominatedby government monopoly;Heavy energy subsidies;Household and cottageindustry use of low quality fuels

Introduce energy and fuelpricing;Reduce automobile subsidies,fuel subsidies;Integrate transport and landuse planning;Promote clean technologies,fuel substitution, vehiclemaintenance

⟨ Solid and hazardous wastemanagement

Poor municipal ;management;Lack of disposal facilities;Inadequate regulation andenforcement

Introduce regulations, licensingand charges;Stimulate waste minimization;Strengthen municipalmanagement and operations;Privatize disposal operations

Critical Policy Linkages...Critical Policy Linkages...Urban Environmental

Management IssueUnderlying

CausesRelevant Policy

Reforms

Resource losses:

⟨ Ground water depletion Unsustainable extractionlinked to unclear propertyrights and perception as freeresource

Clarify property rights;Introduce extraction charges

⟨ Land and ecosystemdegradation

Low-income settlement“pushed” onto fragile lands bylack of access to affordableserviced land;Lack of controls overdamaging economic activities

Coordinate land development;Remove artificial shortages ofland;Develop sustainable uses ofsensitive areas;Monitor and enforce land usecontrols

⟨ Loss of cultural and historicproperty

Lack of property rights,regulations, enforcement,maintenance;Failure to reflect social valuesin land prices

Introduce tax incentives forpreservation;Use redevelopment planning,zoning and building codes;Develop property rights

Critical Policy Linkages...Critical Policy Linkages...Urban Environmental

Management IssueUnderlying

CausesRelevant Policy

Reforms

Environmental hazards:

⟨ Natural hazards(e.g., floods, hurricanes,earthquakes, landslides)

⟨ Man-made hazards

(e.g., chemical spills,industrial accidents, chronicexposure)

Poorly functioning landmarkets;Ineffective land policies;Poor construction practices

Inadequate regulation andenforcement;Low income settlementsalongside hazardous activities

Enable land markets;Provide disincentives tooccupation of high-risk areas,incentives for using disaster-resistant constructiontechniques;Introduce and enforceenvironmental zoning;Formulate urban disasterpreparedness plans andstrengthen response capacity

Key Policy MessagesKey Policy Messages

Mobilize public support and participation Look for “win-win” situations Assess tradeoffs carefully Use incentives whenever possible Strengthen local institutional capacity Encourage public-private partnerships Close knowledge gap “Think globally, act locally” -- that is, plan

strategically

Priority ActionsPriority Actions1 Emphasize 3 environmental problem

areas common to all cities:

improve management of local environmental infrastructure and services for which cities are directly responsible

correct external policies (national and subnational) that introduce distortions in cities

form cooperative arrangements for dealing with environmental spillovers that cities cause

Priority ActionsPriority Actions

2 Stress “win-win” situations strengthen general urban management to

improve the urban environment and reduce health risks, especially for the urban poor who are without basic services and who form a broad-based constituency

better pricing of environmental resources and services is an essential element of better operational management

Priority ActionsPriority Actions

3 Look for allies to build capacity for better environmental governance: deal with urban spillovers through

- cooperation with neighboring municipalities and metropolitan, regional and sector authorities

- water-basin and air-basin management coordination mechanisms and regional approaches to pollution management

build coalitions with CBOs and NGOs for effective participation in improving services for urban poor

Priority ActionsPriority Actions

4 Avoid excessive reliance on integration and regulation as approaches to urban environmental management: look for instruments and incentives that will

- change behavior- relieve conflicts- encourage cooperative arrangements

Priority ActionsPriority Actions

5 Start building up the needed institutions -- the complexity of environmental problems grows with city size and economic development, but so too should the capacity to respond focus on the simple, immediate priority

interventions that can succeed and will lay the groundwork for solving future environmental problems

give priority to sustained strengthening of incipient urban institutions

Key StakeholdersKey Stakeholders Those whose interests are affected problems, strategies,

plans– concerned residents and community groups, especially the urban poor– private and informal sector enterprises– politicians

Those who control relevant implementation instruments– politicians– environmental protection agencies– planning agencies– sector agencies (public and parastatal)

Those who possess relevant information and knowledge– NGOs– scientific and engineering community– news media– external support agencies

Key Stakeholder InvolvementKey Stakeholder Involvement

Each of these stakeholders will have different– roles– concerns– expectations

Therefore, effective solutions require:– participation– consensus building– difficult political and economic tradeoffs

Formulating Environmental Formulating Environmental Strategies for CitiesStrategies for Cities

Be city specific Determine local environmental priorities Develop an urban environmental

management strategy Formulate issue-specific action plans Implement and consolidate strategies

and action plans

Phase 1: Informed Phase 1: Informed ConsultationConsultation

Carry out rapid environmental assessment and prepare urban environmental profile

Build consensus on issues and priorities through informed consultation

Get political commitment

Phase 2: Formulate Strategy Phase 2: Formulate Strategy and Action Planand Action Plan Urban Environmental Management Strategy

(EMS)– negotiate issue-specific strategies for priority problems– set long-term environmental objectives– agree on phased implementation of targets

Urban Environmental Action Plan (EAP)– formulate actor-specific action plans that cut across

issues– develop capital investment program– agree institutional strengthening actions and policy

reforms

Phase 3: Implement and Phase 3: Implement and Consolidate EMS/EAPConsolidate EMS/EAP

Concentrate on priority investments

Initiate institutional and policy reforms on the critical path

Establish sustainable basis for achieving phased targets– capacity for routine strategic planning– monitoring and evaluation

Sustainable Cities Program:Sustainable Cities Program:Environmental Planning and Environmental Planning and Management ProcessManagement Process

Clarify environmental issues to be addressed

Involve those whose cooperation is needed

Set Priorities

Negotiate Issue-specific strategies

Coordinate overall management strategy

Agree on environmental action plans

Initiate priority projects and programs

Strengthen EPM capacities

Assessment and start-up

Strategy and action planning

Follow-up and consolidation

3 Sources of Tension3 Sources of Tension(False Dichotomies)(False Dichotomies)

“Integrated” versus “sector specific” approaches

“Analysis” versus “process”

“Centralization” versus “decentralization”

The Track Record (1)The Track Record (1) Tried and proven approaches

– USEPA Comparative Risk Assessment in US cities and counties + USAID supported cities

– EU Sustainable Cities Program– ICLEI - Local Agenda 21– UNCHS/SCP - Sustainable Cities Programme

Bank experience– UMP/MEIP/MEDCITIES– Rapid Environmental Assessment &

EMS/EAP– Strategic Sanitation Planning in Africa– Strategic Solid Waste Planning in LAC & Asia

The Track Record (2)The Track Record (2) Variations on a theme

– Metropolitan areas(eg, Colombo Environmental Improvement Project)

– Urban river basins(eg, Guarapiranga Basin in Sao Paulo)

– Urban air sheds(eg, URBAIR, LAC Clean Air Initiative)

– Intermediate and small cities(eg, Mexico “100 Cities” Projects)

– Sectoral strategic planning(eg, Philippines SWEEP Project - MSWM)