ENVIRONMENTALBIOTECHNOLOGYBasic Concepts and Applications

ENVIRONMENTALBIOTECHNOLOGYBasic Concepts and Applications

I.K. International Pvt. Ltd.New Delhi • Mumbai • Bangalore

Indu Shekhar ThakurAssociate Professor

School of Environmental SciencesJNU, New Delhi

Published by

I.K. International Pvt. Ltd.

S-25, Green Park Extension

Uphaar Cinema Market

New Delhi 110 016 (India)

E-mail: ik_in@vsnl.net

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E-mail: ik_bang@vsnl.net

ISBN 81-88237-52-3

© 2006 I.K. International Pvt. Ltd.

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or used in any form, electronic ormechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrievalsystem, without written permission from the publisher.

Published by Krishan Makhijani for I.K. International Pvt. Ltd., S-25, Green Park Extension,Uphaar Cinema Market, New Delhi 110 016. Printed by Rekha Printers Pvt. Ltd., OkhlaIndustrial Area, Phase II, New Delhi 110 020.

Preface

Environmental biotechnology is a vast and rapidly growing field with increasingrelevance for sustainable development through environmental protection andproduction of biomaterials. It has revolutionized the understanding of basic lifesustaining processes, identification and exploitation of biomolecules, and its usein dealing with environmental problems. Biotechnological approaches can beapplied to assess and maintain the well-being of the ecosystem, transform pollut-ants into harmless substances, generate biodegradable material from renewablesources, and develop environmentally safe manufacturing and disposal processes.

This book deals with an overview of the evolution of environment as also itsbasic components i.e. atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere and biosphere, andthe role of biophysical factors in ecosystem processes. Environmental perturba-tion in the form of air, water and soil pollution and global environmental problemsdue to natural and human activities are also dealt with in this book. The enormousamount of natural and xenobiotic compounds are added to the environment everyday and there are possibilities of identifying technology not only for removal oftoxic xenobiotic compounds from the environment but also the conversion andproduction of valuable products. Basic degradation methods of natural andxenobiotic compounds are also covered in the book. Important biotechnologicalprinciples and processes for production of valuable products are a special featureof the book.

The book is based on the postgraduate syllabus of EnvironmentalBiotechnology/Environmental Sciences as per the UGC guidelines. It will also behelpful for the students of B.Sc. (Environmental Biotechnology) as part of theenvironmental science or bioscience programme, and postgraduate studentsopting for Biotechnology-related biodegradation and waste treatment course.

Finally, I wish to express my gratitude to my students at Jawaharlal NehruUniversity, New Delhi, for their help and support during the preparation of thisbook. Due credit also goes to my family members for their continuous encourage-ment.

Author

Contents

Preface v

1. Introduction 11.1 Background 1

1.2 Environmental Biotechnology 2

1.3 History of Environmental Biotechnology 2

1.4 Environmental Chemistry 3

1.5 Natural Chemical Compounds 6

1.6 Atmospheric Pollutants 7

1.7 Water Contamination 7

1.8 Solid Wastes 8

1.9 Hazardous Wastes 9

1.10 Why do we need Biotechnology? 9

1.11 Microbial Interactions in the Ecosystem 10

1.12 Molecular Biology and Genetic Engineering 11

1.13 Novel Biocatalysts and Biomaterials 13

1.14 Lignocellulosic Residues 14

1.15 Biofuel and Fossil Fuels 14

1.16 Biomining and Bioleaching 15

1.17 Bioremediation 15

1.18 Biosensors in Bioprocessing 17

2. Environment and Ecosystem Processes 192.1 Origin of Earth 19

2.2 The Atmosphere 22

2.3 Origin of Life 23

2.4 Chemistry of Life 24

2.5 Energy Transfer Devices of Life 28

2.6 Sources of Variation 28

2.7 Organization of Life 28

2.8 Ecosystems 30

2.9 Major Ecosystems 37

2.10 Biological Magnification 39

2.11 Microbial association with Pollutants 39

3. Environmental Resources: Air, Water and Soil 413.1 The Atmosphere: Air as Resource 42

3.2 Characteristics of Atmospheric Gases 43

3.3 Sun Heats the Earth 44

3.4 Atmospheric Circulation 46

3.5 Air Masses 51

3.6 Hydrosphere-water Resource 53

3.7 Lithosphere: The Soil as Resource 59

4. Environmental Perturbation: Air, Water and Soil Pollution 67

4.1 Sources of Pollution 67

4.2 Air Pollution 68

4.3 Sources of Air Pollution 70

4.4 Classification of Air Pollutants 70

4.5 Air Pollution Monitoring 74

4.6 Water Pollution 76

4.7 Eutrophication 83

4.8 Water Quality: Pollutant Monitoring 84

4.9 Soil and Solid Waste Pollution 85

4.10 Soil Erosion 91

4.11 Types of Water Erosion 94

4.12 Wind Erosion 95

4.13 Erosion by Sun 95

4.14 Salination 96

5. Global Environmental Problems: Atmosphere and Environmental Issues 975.1 The Greenhouse Effect 97

5.2 Ozone Depletion 103

5.3 Ultraviolet Radiation 111

5.4 Acid Rain 112

6. Structural and Functional Dynamics of Microbial Life 1176.1 Microbial Diversity 117

6.2 Microbial Activity and Growth 124

6.3 Microbial Community Profiling 125

6.4 Molecular Basis of Microbial Community Profiling 128

6.5 Limitations of Genetic Fingerprint Techniques 133

6.6 Biosensors 134

6.7 Bioreporter 138

6.8 Microchips 140

6.9 Microscopy in Environmental Application 143

viii u Contents

7. Air Pollution and Its Control 1457.1 Indoor Air Pollution Control 145

7.2 Outdoor Air Pollution Control 146

7.3 Particulate Emission Control 146

7.4 Control of Gaseous Emissions 153

7.5 Control of Pollutant from Vehicles 173

8. Water Pollution and Its Control 1758.1 Primary Treatment 175

8.2 Secondary Treatment 180

8.3 Tertiary or Alternative Treatment 198

9. Solid Waste and Soil Pollution Management 2109.1 Waste Monitoring 211

9.2 Management of Solid Waste 212

9.3 Treatment and Disposal of Non-Hazardous Solid Waste 214

9.4 Medical Solid Waste Management 217

9.5 Processing and Disposal of Medical Wastes 218

9.6 Evaluation of the Medical Waste Management System 219

9.7 General Remedial Measures for Medical Waste Management 220

9.8 Hazardous Waste Management 221

9.9 Hazardous Waste Treatment Process 221

9.10 Soil Pollution 223

9.11 Soil Erosion 224

9.12 Soil Conservation 224

9.13 Early Control of Erosion 226

9.14 Potential Emergency Control Methods 227

9.15 Objectives of Emergency Control Measures 229

10. Degradation of Lignocellulose Compounds 23310.1 Structure of Lignocellulose 234

10.2 Microorganisms in Lignocellulose Degradation 236

10.3 Degradation of Lignocellulose 236

10.4 Modular Structure of Cellulases and Xylanases 245

10.5 Directed Evolution of Enzyme Catalysts 246

10.6 The Cellulose Binding Domains of Cellulases 247

10.7 Prospects of Bioconversion and Bioutilisation of Effluent 249

10.8 Prospects of Genetic Engineering in Bioconversion 253

10.9 Solid State Fermentation 255

10.10 Downstream Processing 259

11. Degradation of Xenobiotic Compounds 26111.1 Xenobiotic Compounds in the Environment 261

11.2 Persistent Compounds 263

Contents u ix

11.3 Chemical Properties Influencing Biodegradability 263

11.4 Developing the Microorganism 264

11.5 In Vivo Recruitment of Microorganism for Biodegradation 266

11.6 Degradation Mechanisms 266

11.7 Genetics and Evolution for Biodegradation 267

11.8 Biodegradation of Xenobiotic Compounds 268

11.9 Characteristics of Aerobic Microorganisms for Degradation of Organic

Pollutants 269

11.10 Degradation of Xenobiotic Compounds 270

11.11 Conclusion 288

12. Bioabsorption of Metals 28912.1 Heavy Metals 290

12.2 Microorganisms and Metal Absorption 290

12.3 Limitations of Bioabsorption 293

12.4 Mechanisms of Bacterial Metal Resistance 294

12.5 Factors Effecting Bioabsorption 296

12.6 Bioreactors and Bioabsorption 297

12.7 Phytoremediation 299

12.8 Mechanism of Bioabsorption and Bioaccumulation in Specific Metals 302

13. Bioremediation 30913.1 Microorganisms in Bioremediation 311

13.2 Bioremediation by Microorganisms 313

13.3 Bioremediation Technologies 314

13.4 Measuring Bioremediation in the Field 317

13.5 Bioremediation Processes and Technologies 319

13.6 Monitoring the Efficacy of Bioremediation 321

14. Biofertilizers and Biopesticides 32414.1 Biofertilisers in Agroecosystem 325

14.2 Pesticides 326

14.3 Biopesticides 326

14.4 Advantages of Biopesticides 327

14.5 Genetic Transformation 328

14.6 Advantages of Biopesticides 328

14.7 Microbial and Antimicrobial Pesticides 329

14.8 Characteristics of Pesticides 329

15. Composting 335

15.1 Composting 335

15.2 Types of Composting 336

15.3 Materials for Composting 337

15.4 Composting Process 337

15.5 Physicochemical Characteristics of the Environment 338

x u Contents

15.6 Decomposition Stages in Composting 339

15.7 Composting Systems 340

15.8 Methods for Composting 342

15.9 Vermicomposting 343

16. Bio-Polymers and Bio-Plastics 34716.1 Bio-Polymers and Bio-Plastics 349

16.2 Types of Bio-Polymers 351

16.3 Preparation of Bio-Polymers and Bio-Plastics 352

16.4 Properties and Practical Applications of PHA 356

16.5 Economics of PHA Production 357

16.6 The Dark Side of Bio-Plastics 358

16.7 Sustainable Development and Biopolymers and Bio-Plastics 358

17. Bioleaching 35917.1 History 359

17.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of Bioleaching 360

17.3 Microorganisms used 360

17.4 Biochemistry 361

17.5 Extraction from Mixture 362

17.6 Types of Bioleaching 363

17.7 Methods for Bioleaching 363

17.8 Metal Precipitation 365

18. Biomethanation 36718.1 Anaerobic Treatment for Biogas Generation 367

18.2 Microbiology and Biochemistry 368

18.3 Interactions between the Various Microbial Groups 369

18.4 Factors Affecting Biogas Production 370

18.5 Problems in Biomethanation 372

18.6 Operational Stability of Biomethanation Technology (BT) 372

18.7 Design of Digester and Distribution of Anaerobic Microorganisms 373

18.8 Kinetics of Anaerobic Fermentation 373

18.9 Use of Spent Slurry 374

18.10 Biomethanation Process in Industries 374

18.11 Prospects and Potential of Biomethanation Technology from MSW 374

18.12 Merits of Biomethanation Process from MSW 375

18.13 Biomass Gasification 375

19. Biofuel and Biodiesel 377

19.1 Advantages of Biodiesel 377

19.2 Evaluation of the Toxicity of Biofuel 379

19.3 Preparation of Biodiesel or Biofuel 380

19.4 Production of Biofuel 380

Contents u xi

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