Water Pollution. Water Pollution Overview Types, Sources, Effects, Management.
Environmental Effects (Seawater Pollution)
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Environmental Effects (Seawater Pollution) Because petrochemical plants in Singapore are gathered on Jurong Island, local seawater has a relatively high pollution level compared to other locations around the island. Evidence According to the paper, Corrosion of Potential Heat-Exchanger Materials in Singapore Seawater, Potentiodynamic polarization tests revealed the seawater around Singapore’s Jurong Island appears to be more aggressive with respect to pitting corrosion than standard artificial seawater. Preliminary data from a mock-up heat exchanger confirmed the susceptibility of the high grade stainless steels to crevice corrosion in Singapore Seawater. For high levels of pitting to take place, it is due to a combination of high concentration of chloride present in the water and high temperatures. http://www.corrosionist.com/Pitting_Crevice_Corrosion.htm ) Quality Criteria for Water, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, July 1976, presence of chlorine is extremely detrimental to sea life. Effects of chlorine on fish and aquatic organisms Total chlorin e (in mg/L) Effect 0.006 Kills trout fry in two days. 0.01 Recommended maximum for all fish and aquatic life. 0.01 Kills Chinook Salmon and Coho Salmon. 0.01- 0.05 Oysters have difficulty pumping water through their bodies. 0.02 Maximum Brook and Brown Trout can withstand. 0.05 Maximum amount that can be tolerated by young Pacific Salmon in the ocean. 0.1 Kills most marine plankton. 0.25 Only the hardiest fish can survive. 0.37 Maximum fish can tolerate. 1.0 Kills oysters. Industrial waste products such as Polychlorinated biphenyl will also be pumped into the waters. PCBs are mixtures of up to 209 individual chlorinated compounds and have been used as coolants and lubricants in transformers, capacitors, and other electrical equipment because they don't burn easily and are good insulators. In the paper Persistent organic pollutants in moss as bioindicators of atmospheric pollution in Singapore, Moss samples were collected from the island of Singapore and analysed for a range of Organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) and Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). Although all compounds analysed have been banned from use in Singapore, they were detected in all samples collected. Endocrine-disrupting chemicals can interfere with human and animal metabolic, growth and reproductive hormones. The chemicals, which rarely degrade naturally, often reach the upper levels of the food chain. Several animal species, especially marine mammals, suffer from exposure to the chemicals. Environmental Effects (Land Reclamation) Biggest damage is done by land reclamation is to coral reef community. Hard coral form the framework of a coral reef and they take many years to grow to a moderate size. Their constant removal will lead to an irreparable reduction, which if not controlled, will eventually cause the death of those reefs. (A Guide to the Coral Reef Life of Singapore) The reef flats of many islands e.g. Pulau Sudong, Pulau Hantu and Kusu Island were reclaimed right up to the reef slope. Many of the coral reef organisms were smothered by the reclamation. Since 1986, most coral reefs in Singapore have lost up to 65% of their live coral cover (Chou 2006, 2008). As can be seen from the Figure 1., there was an existing coral reef community in the areas which was destroyed by the extensive land reclamation to get the amount of land area that we have now (Fig. 2). (Grew from original size of 9.91 km² (seven islets combined) to a current total land area of more than 30 km². Estimates predict that 2 km² will be added by the time reclamation is complete.) This shows the extensive destruction of coral reefs and inflicting serious damage on the aquatic ecosystem. Sedimentation rates ranged from 3-6mg/sq-cm/day in 1979. In 1994, these rates increased to 5-45mg/sq-cm/day due to extensive land reclamation projects. Land reclamation, dredging of shipping channels and dumping of earth spoils, have increased the sediment load. The high turbidity of our waters restrict light penetration and reef life ends at a depth of only 12m, marking the lower growth limit for hermatypic corals (http://coralreef.nus.edu.sg/). Surveys since 1986 indicated that live coral cover decreased by up to 20% on some reefs. Fig 1. (1997 Map) Fig 2. (Now) Environmental Effects (Air Pollution) Due to the installation of petrochemical and power plants around Jurong Island, the air has also been polluted by its toxic wastes. Toxic waste includes heavy metals, especially in carbon-based compounds: Evidence For Singapore’s Country Reports, test were done in the vicinity of Jurong Island to investigate the concentration of metals and other carbon-based compounds in the area. Samples were taken every two weeks. Results obtained showed that there was definite amounts of pollutants in the waters, the highest being Sulphur (with an averaged mass concentration of ~1.7 μg/m3.) accounting for over 50% of the total mass of the measured 18 elements. Soil biology and chemistry can be seriously damaged by acid rain. Some microbes are unable to tolerate changes to low pHs and are killed due to the denaturing of their enzymes (Rodhe, H., et al. The global distribution of acidifying wet deposition. Environmental Science and Technology. vlo. 36, no. 20 (October) p. 4382-8). Acid rain is especially harmful to aquatic ecosystems, as streams, ponds, and leaks on acidic or neutral bedrock are extremely sensitive to acidic deposition. Acid rain leaches heavy metals from bedrock, and these metals often poison fish and other aquatic species. Many species of organisms are only suited to certain levels of PH, anything Activities (Jurong Islands) Petrochemical Industry Jurong Island is now home to over 94 leading petroleum, petrochemical, specialty chemical and supporting companies. The total investments these companies have made in fixed assets on Jurong Island now exceeds S$31billion. ( http://www.jtc.gov.sg/portfolio/jurongisland/fastfacts/history/pa ges/index.aspx ) This means that there is heavy concentration of petrochemical industry in the area and has as of yet exhibited no signs of slowing down. Singapore has declared that it is determined to further develop the hub as can be seen from the ongoing land reclamation and the fact that Singapore sees “Jurong Island embody[ing] Singapore's stature as a Global Chemicals Hub to take us into the next century.” ( http://www.jtc.gov.sg/portfolio/jurongisland/fastfacts/history/pa ges/index.aspx ) One can therefore assume that the problem will only intensify due to further concentrated industrial activities. Activities (Sentosa) Tourism o Sentosa is home to a myriad of tourist attractions. According to Marianne Chong’s Physical Geography, “Sentosa is an island resort that offers visitors exciting experiences”, form its vivid re- enactments of Singapore’s history with “life-size figures, audio- visual and special sound-effects” to satisfying nature lovers with the Butterfly Park and Insect Kingdom to thrilling adventurers with adventure theme parks such as VolcanoLand as well as the Underwater World, which is Asia’s biggest tropical oceanarium. o All these various attractions pull in thousands of tourists each Coral Destruction (Sentosa) o Land reclamation poses the greatest threat to native marine life surrounding the island o Demand for facilities stemming from Sentosa’s primary industry of Tourism results in construction operations and land reclamation that may intrude on the coral pavement o Careless divers have also been known to damage corals or forcibly remove them from their habitat. o These operations cause the destruction of the coral pavement that serves features endangered species like Holothuria leucospilota, Ateratis floridus, Cymodocea serulata etc. (Ng & Wee ed., 1994) o Consequently, this poses a massive threat to the native marine ecosystem, affecting fish species dependent on the corals to survive, such as clown fish. (Ng & Wee ed., 1994) Pre-existing Industries of large environmental loads such as oil refining and chemical plants are located in a place remote from a residential area or offshore to reduce the negative impacts that the petrochemical industry might have human health. In this case, this policy is implemented by concentrating industrial activities on Jurong Island. In 2002, the “Singapore Green Plan 2012” was formulated setting forth targets for the next ten years. The Plan presents a blueprint for environmental policy with 2012 as the target year. It includes numerical targets such as (1) to raise the recycling rate for all wastes from 44% to 60%, (2) to convert 25% of power plant fuels to natural gas, (3) to meet 25% of water demand by desalination and recycling of wastewater, and (4) to introduce advanced environmental technology for the environmental management of industry. Shortcomings Singapore, with economic development as an important national policy, is also taking flexible environmental measures that relax environmental control within certain frameworks, in order to prevent environmental control from stagnating industrial activity. There is however an obvious inconsistency. Although Singapore claims that “when revising environmental legislation and wastewater standards, the authorities concerned frequently consult with the industry involved from the drafting stage. With the consent of the industry, the authorities proceed with the revision.” Yet there is still definite levels of pollution noted in the environment and since Singapore has been placing industrial growth as one of its biggest priorities, it is even more likely that in order to prevent “stagnating industrial activity”, Singapore will be even more lax about environmental measures. One obvious damning evidence is the amount of PCB found in the moss samples. Suggested Jurong Islands Runoff channels may be diverted to areas other than the sea. Constant monitoring of operation site to prevent leaching of waste to the sea. Utilization of control measures such as mulch and straw to limit or prevent runoff. Appropriate disposal of construction waste to limit mixing with runoff, and stricter enforcement of regulations pertaining to said disposal to ensure that companies do not adversely affect environment for financial gain. Enforcement of strict regulations to prevent littering near the sea area during the operation phase. Installation of filters so as to regulate sedimentation. Sentosa Transplantation of important forest species to other places. Relocation of affected marine life forms to a suitable site. Measures taken in engineering design to ensure welfare of remaining life forms will not be compromised. Amend construction methods so as to ensure that intrusion into the coral/seagrass MEASURES Littering (Sentosa) o Plastic is a major source of garbage. For the past 5 years it has accounted for 38% of all the garbage. Plastic does not degrade easily, and can float great distances. (Environmentální vzdûlávací program Nadaãního fondu Prague Post) o Litter can harm or kill wildlife. Plastic litter can choke or suffocate birds and marine life o Sentosa is one of Southeast Asia’s most attractive spots for tourism. In 1985, the tourist density was 427.0 per sq km and there was an average of 1429 visitors per day, outstripping Phuket’s 946, who came in second place. (Resources and Environment in Asia’s Marine Sector) o This would definitely result in much higher rates of litter and inappropriate waste disposal that would affect the marine organisms. Water pollution would also result from urban and agricultural runoff that would lower oxygen levels in estuaries, sounds, and gulfs, harming fish and shellfish stocks.
description
Environmental Effects (Air Pollution) Due to the installation of petrochemical and power plants around Jurong Island, the air has also been polluted by its toxic wastes. Toxic waste includes heavy metals, especially in carbon-based compounds: Evidence - PowerPoint PPT Presentation
Transcript of Environmental Effects (Seawater Pollution)
Environmental Effects (Seawater Pollution) Because petrochemical plants in Singapore are gathered on Jurong Island, local seawater has a relatively high pollution level
compared to other locations around the island.
Evidence According to the paper, Corrosion of Potential Heat-Exchanger Materials in Singapore Seawater, Potentiodynamic polarization
tests revealed the seawater around Singapore’s Jurong Island appears to be more aggressive with respect to pitting corrosion than standard artificial seawater.
Preliminary data from a mock-up heat exchanger confirmed the susceptibility of the high grade stainless steels to crevice corrosion in Singapore Seawater.
For high levels of pitting to take place, it is due to a combination of high concentration of chloride present in the water and high temperatures. (http://www.corrosionist.com/Pitting_Crevice_Corrosion.htm)
According Quality Criteria for Water, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, July 1976, presence of chlorine
is extremely detrimental to sea life. Effects of chlorine on fish and aquatic organisms
Total chlorine (in mg/L)
Effect
0.006 Kills trout fry in two days.
0.01 Recommended maximum for all fish and aquatic life.
0.01 Kills Chinook Salmon and Coho Salmon.
0.01-0.05 Oysters have difficulty pumping water through their bodies.
0.02 Maximum Brook and Brown Trout can withstand.
0.05 Maximum amount that can be tolerated by young Pacific Salmon in the ocean.
0.1 Kills most marine plankton.
0.25 Only the hardiest fish can survive.
0.37 Maximum fish can tolerate.
1.0 Kills oysters.
Industrial waste products such as Polychlorinated biphenyl will also be pumped into the waters. PCBs are mixtures of up to 209 individual chlorinated compounds and have been used as coolants and lubricants in transformers, capacitors, and other electrical equipment because they don't burn easily and are good insulators.
In the paper Persistent organic pollutants in moss as bioindicators of atmospheric pollution in Singapore, Moss samples were collected from the island of Singapore and analysed for a range of Organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) and Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). Although all compounds analysed have been banned from use in Singapore, they were detected in all samples collected.
Endocrine-disrupting chemicals can interfere with human and animal metabolic, growth and reproductive hormones. The chemicals, which rarely degrade naturally, often reach the upper levels of the food chain. Several animal species, especially marine mammals, suffer from exposure to the chemicals.
Environmental Effects (Land Reclamation) Biggest damage is done by land reclamation is to coral reef community. Hard coral form the framework of a coral reef and
they take many years to grow to a moderate size. Their constant removal will lead to an irreparable reduction, which if not controlled, will eventually cause the death of those reefs. (A Guide to the Coral Reef Life of Singapore)
The reef flats of many islands e.g. Pulau Sudong, Pulau Hantu and Kusu Island were reclaimed right up to the reef slope. Many of the coral reef organisms were smothered by the reclamation.
Since 1986, most coral reefs in Singapore have lost up to 65% of their live coral cover (Chou 2006, 2008).
As can be seen from the Figure 1., there was an existing coral reef community in the areas which was destroyed by the extensive land reclamation to get the amount of land area that we have now (Fig. 2). (Grew from original size of 9.91 km² (seven islets combined) to a current total land area of more than 30 km². Estimates predict that 2 km² will be added by the time reclamation is complete.) This shows the extensive destruction of coral reefs and inflicting serious damage on the aquatic ecosystem.
Sedimentation rates ranged from 3-6mg/sq-cm/day in 1979. In 1994, these rates increased to 5-45mg/sq-cm/day due to extensive land reclamation projects. Land reclamation, dredging of shipping channels and dumping of earth spoils, have increased the sediment load. The high turbidity of our waters restrict light penetration and reef life ends at a depth of only 12m, marking the lower growth limit for hermatypic corals (http://coralreef.nus.edu.sg/).
Surveys since 1986 indicated that live coral cover decreased by up to 20% on some reefs.
Fig 1. (1997 Map)
Fig 2. (Now)
Environmental Effects (Air Pollution) Due to the installation of petrochemical and power plants around Jurong Island, the air has also been
polluted by its toxic wastes. Toxic waste includes heavy metals, especially in carbon-based compounds:
Evidence For Singapore’s Country Reports, test were done in the vicinity of Jurong Island to investigate the concentration of
metals and other carbon-based compounds in the area. Samples were taken every two weeks.
Results obtained showed that there was definite amounts of pollutants in the waters, the highest being Sulphur (with an averaged mass concentration of ~1.7 μg/m3.) accounting for over 50% of the total mass of the measured 18 elements.
Soil biology and chemistry can be seriously damaged by acid rain. Some microbes are unable to tolerate changes to low pHs and are killed due to the denaturing of their enzymes (Rodhe, H., et al. The global distribution of acidifying wet deposition. Environmental Science and Technology. vlo. 36, no. 20 (October) p. 4382-8).
Acid rain is especially harmful to aquatic ecosystems, as streams, ponds, and leaks on acidic or neutral bedrock are extremely sensitive to acidic deposition. Acid rain leaches heavy metals from bedrock, and these metals often poison fish and other aquatic species.
Many species of organisms are only suited to certain levels of PH, anything beyond that they die. E.g. Saltwater fish prefer an alkaline pH of 8.0 or above. Freshwater fish thrive in a range lower than that, somewhere between 5.5 and 7.5, depending on the specific species. Drastic changes to the Ph would inadvertently cause the whole marine community to suffer. (http://freshaquarium.about.com/cs/waterchemsitry/a/waterph.htm)
Activities (Jurong Islands)Petrochemical Industry Jurong Island is now home to over 94 leading petroleum, petrochemical, specialty chemical
and supporting companies. The total investments these companies have made in fixed assets on Jurong Island now exceeds S$31billion. (http://www.jtc.gov.sg/portfolio/jurongisland/fastfacts/history/pages/index.aspx)
This means that there is heavy concentration of petrochemical industry in the area and has as of yet exhibited no signs of slowing down.
Singapore has declared that it is determined to further develop the hub as can be seen from the ongoing land reclamation and the fact that Singapore sees “Jurong Island embody[ing] Singapore's stature as a Global Chemicals Hub to take us into the next century.” (http://www.jtc.gov.sg/portfolio/jurongisland/fastfacts/history/pages/index.aspx)
One can therefore assume that the problem will only intensify due to further concentrated industrial activities.
Activities (Sentosa)Tourism o Sentosa is home to a myriad of tourist attractions. According to Marianne Chong’s Physical
Geography, “Sentosa is an island resort that offers visitors exciting experiences”, form its vivid re-enactments of Singapore’s history with “life-size figures, audio-visual and special sound-effects” to satisfying nature lovers with the Butterfly Park and Insect Kingdom to thrilling adventurers with adventure theme parks such as VolcanoLand as well as the Underwater World, which is Asia’s biggest tropical oceanarium.
o All these various attractions pull in thousands of tourists each year to Singapore but unfortunately they unwittingly have adverse effects on the environment.
Coral Destruction (Sentosa) o Land reclamation poses the greatest threat to native marine life surrounding the island
o Demand for facilities stemming from Sentosa’s primary industry of Tourism results in construction operations and land reclamation that may intrude on the coral pavement
o Careless divers have also been known to damage corals or forcibly remove them from their habitat.
o These operations cause the destruction of the coral pavement that serves features endangered species like Holothuria leucospilota, Ateratis floridus, Cymodocea serulata etc. (Ng & Wee ed., 1994)
o Consequently, this poses a massive threat to the native marine ecosystem, affecting fish species dependent on the corals to survive, such as clown fish. (Ng & Wee ed., 1994)
Pre-existing
Industries of large environmental loads such as oil refining and chemical plants are located in a place remote from a residential area or offshore to reduce the negative impacts that the petrochemical industry might have human health. In this case, this policy is implemented by concentrating industrial activities on Jurong Island.
In 2002, the “Singapore Green Plan 2012” was formulated setting forth targets for the next ten years. The Plan presents a blueprint for environmental policy with 2012 as the target year. It includes numerical targets such as (1) to raise the recycling rate for all wastes from 44% to 60%, (2) to convert 25% of power plant fuels to natural gas, (3) to meet 25% of water demand by desalination and recycling of wastewater, and (4) to introduce advanced environmental technology for the environmental management of industry.
Shortcomings
Singapore, with economic development as an important national policy, is also taking flexible environmental measures that relax environmental control within certain frameworks, in order to prevent environmental control from stagnating industrial activity.
There is however an obvious inconsistency. Although Singapore claims that “when revising environmental legislation and wastewater standards, the authorities concerned frequently consult with the industry involved from the drafting stage. With the consent of the industry, the authorities proceed with the revision.” Yet there is still definite levels of pollution noted in the environment and since Singapore has been placing industrial growth as one of its biggest priorities, it is even more likely that in order to prevent “stagnating industrial activity”, Singapore will be even more lax about environmental measures. One obvious damning evidence is the amount of PCB found in the moss samples.
SuggestedJurong Islands
Runoff channels may be diverted to areas other than the sea. Constant monitoring of operation site to prevent leaching of waste to the sea. Utilization of control measures such as mulch and straw to limit or prevent runoff. Appropriate disposal of construction waste to limit mixing with runoff, and stricter enforcement of regulations pertaining
to said disposal to ensure that companies do not adversely affect environment for financial gain. Enforcement of strict regulations to prevent littering near the sea area during the operation phase. Installation of filters so as to regulate sedimentation.
Sentosa
Transplantation of important forest species to other places. Relocation of affected marine life forms to a suitable site. Measures taken in engineering design to ensure welfare of
remaining life forms will not be compromised. Amend construction methods so as to ensure that intrusion into the coral/seagrass pavement is limited and closely
monitored. Ensure that site of developments do not overlap or significantly affect important ecological sites on islands (e.g. coral
pavements). Ecological significance of land elevated to a main consideration during selection of construction site.
MEASURES
Littering (Sentosa) o Plastic is a major source of garbage. For the past 5
years it has accounted for 38% of all the garbage. Plastic does not degrade easily, and can float great distances. (Environmentální vzdûlávací program Nadaãního fondu Prague Post)
o Litter can harm or kill wildlife. Plastic litter can choke or suffocate birds and marine life
o Sentosa is one of Southeast Asia’s most attractive spots for tourism. In 1985, the tourist density was 427.0 per sq km and there was an average of 1429 visitors per day, outstripping Phuket’s 946, who came in second place. (Resources and Environment in Asia’s Marine Sector)
o This would definitely result in much higher rates of litter and inappropriate waste disposal that would affect the marine organisms. Water pollution would also result from urban and agricultural runoff that would lower oxygen levels in estuaries, sounds, and gulfs, harming fish and shellfish stocks.
