EnvironmentAotearoa 2019SummaryNew Zealand’s Environmental Reporting Series

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CitationMinistry for the Environment & Stats NZ (2019). New Zealand’s Environmental Reporting Series: Environment Aotearoa 2019 Summary. Available from www.mfe.govt.nz and www.stats.govt.nz.

Published in April 2019 by Ministry for the Environment and Stats NZ Publication number: ME 1417

ISSN: 2382-0179 (online) ISSN: 2463-3038 (print) ISBN: 978-1-98-857921-4 (online) ISBN: 978-1-98-857922-1 (print)

Cover photo: Ministry for the Environment

Contents

Aotearoa New Zealand 04About this summary report 04A focus on what matters 04

Theme 1 Our ecosystems and biodiversity 06 Issue1 Ournativeplants,animals,andecosystemsareunderthreat 07

Theme 2 How we use our land 10 Issue2 Changestothevegetationonourlandaredegradingthesoilandwater 11 Issue3 Urbangrowthisreducingversatilelandandnativebiodiversity 13

Theme 3 Pollution from our activities 14 Issue4 Ourwaterwaysarepollutedinfarmingareas 15 Issue5 Ourenvironmentispollutedinurbanareas 17

Theme 4 How we use our freshwater and marine resources 20 Issue6 Takingwaterchangesflowswhichaffectsourfreshwaterecosystems 21 Issue7 Thewaywefishisaffectingthehealthofouroceanenvironment 23

Theme 5 Our changing climate 26 Issue8 NewZealandhashighgreenhousegasemissionsperperson 27 Issue9 ClimatechangeisalreadyaffectingAotearoaNewZealand 28

Understanding our environment 30

03

8. New Zealand has high greenhouse gas emissions per person.

9. Climate change is already affecting Aotearoa New Zealand.

7. The way we fish is affecting the health of our ocean environment.

4. Our waterways are polluted in farming areas.

3. Urban growth is reducing versatile land and native biodiversity.

5. Our environment is polluted in urban areas.

2. Changes to the vegetation on our land are degrading the soil and water.

1. Our native plants, animals, and ecosystems are under threat.

HOW WE LIVE AND MAKE A LIVING THINGS WE VALUE

The way we interact with our

environment affects the things

we value.

Climate change intensifies the effects of all other issues.

Forestry Fishing Farming Transport

Building & constructionWaste disposalEnergy

5. Our changing climate

3. Pollution from our activities

1. Our ecosystems and biodiversity

2. How we use our land

4. How we use our freshwater and marine resources

All issues affect ecosystem health.

6. Taking water changes flows which affects our freshwater ecosystems.

Nature Culture Recreation Stability

EconomyHealth Identity

Aotearoa New ZealandOurlandandseaareuniqueandveryspecial,havingevolvedsodistinctlyandseparatelyfromtherestoftheworld.Fromthetimeourancestorsfirststeppedontoitsshores,thelandofthelongwhitecloudhasprovidednourishment,protection,andresourcestoitsinhabitants.Peoplehavebecomepartoftheenvironmentandshapedit,modifyingthelandtogrowfood,buildinghouses,andestablishingsettlements,roads,andinfrastructure.

TherelationshipandconnectionNewZealandershavewiththeenvironmentgoeswellbeyondthegoodsandserviceswereceivefromit,likefood,fuel,andcleanwater.Ourenvironmentiswherewestand,ourtūrangawaewae–wherewelive,learn,workandearnaliving,play,andsocialise.Itisourhomeandouridentity,andthefoundationofournationalcultureandtradition.

ForMāoriastangatawhenua–peopleoftheland–thatconnectionisindivisiblefromthehealthofPapatūānuku,theEarthMother.

TeaoMāori(theMāoriworldview)hasanimportantplaceinenvironmentalreportinginNewZealand.Itensurestheuniqueconnectionoftangatawhenuaisrespectedandbringsawayofthinkingthathelpsusallseeourselves asapartof,notapartfrom,theenvironment.

Thechangeswehavemade(andcontinuetomake)tothisrichlandscapearehavingprofoundeffectsonourenvironment.Somepartsofourenvironmentareingoodshape,otherslessso.Howwegoforwardfromhereisuptousall.

About this summary report

ThissummaryisanoverviewofEnvironment Aotearoa 2019,whichispartoftheMinistryfortheEnvironmentand StatsNZ’slegislatedenvironmentalreportingprogramme.Everysixmonthsweproduceareportfocusedonadifferent‘domain’–air,freshwater,marine,atmosphereandclimate,andland.Everythreeyearsweproducea‘synthesis’report–bringingtogetherthedataandfindingsfromacrossthedomainreportstohelpusstepinsideandviewourenvironmentasawhole,inallitscomplexity.

Environment Aotearoa 2019 usesfivethemestolookintoninepriorityissues–thosethatmattermosttothecurrentstateofourenvironment.

An 'issue' is a change in the state of the environment that is (partly) caused by human activities (pressures) and has consequences (impacts).

Parliamentary Commissioner for the Environment

Whilenotsuggestinganyresponses(whichareoutofscopeunderthereport’sgoverninglegislation),Environment Aotearoa 2019 providesevidencetoenableanopenandhonestconversationaboutwhatwehave,whatweare atriskoflosing,andwherewecanmakechanges.

Forthefullpictureonthehealthofourenvironmentandmoredetailoneachissue,seeEnvironment Aotearoa 2019.

Throughoutthissummaryreport,you’llseereferencesandlinkstovariousenvironmentalindicators.Thesearemetricsthathelpusassessthestateoftheenvironment.EachindicatorthatappearsinEnvironment Aotearoa 2019 hasanaccompanyingwebpageandadatasetthatisfreetoaccess.

A focus on what matters Environment Aotearoa 2019 presentsthemostimportantissuesthataffectthehealthofourenvironmenttoday.

Fourcriteriawereestablishedtohelpdescribethesense ofsignificanceandurgencyoftheissue:

Spatial extent and scale –howmuchofNewZealandisaffectedbytheissue?

Magnitude of change –istheissueincreasinginscaleand/ordistribution, oraccelerating?

Irreversibility and lasting effects of change –howhardisittofix?

Scale of effect on culture, recreation, health, and economy–howmuchdoesitaffectthethingswevalue?

Anindependentpanelofscientistsverifiedtheselectionprocesstoensurethecriteriawereappropriatelyappliedtotheissues.TherelevanceofthenineissuestomātaurangaMāori,kaitiakitanga,andotherculturalvalueswasalsoconsideredbyMāoriresearchersandpractitioners.

Thepriorityissuespresentedherearenotanexhaustivelistofallthepressuresourenvironmentfaces.Somehaveanimpactontheenvironmentbutarenotfeaturedhereastheydonotrankashighlyagainstthecriteriaasotherissues.Miningforexample,isnotincludedbecauseofitslocalisednature.

Asanissueisdefinedasachangeinthestateoftheenvironment,someenvironmentalproblemsarenotincludedsuchasplasticwastewhichisconsidered asapressure.

04 Environment Aotearoa 2019 Summary NewZealand’sEnvironmentalReportingSeries

Environment Aotearoa 2019 themes and issuesThe themes and issues in this report show how the way we live and make a living affects our environment and the things we value.

8. New Zealand has high greenhouse gas emissions per person.

9. Climate change is already affecting Aotearoa New Zealand.

7. The way we fish is affecting the health of our ocean environment.

4. Our waterways are polluted in farming areas.

3. Urban growth is reducing versatile land and native biodiversity.

5. Our environment is polluted in urban areas.

2. Changes to the vegetation on our land are degrading the soil and water.

1. Our native plants, animals, and ecosystems are under threat.

HOW WE LIVE AND MAKE A LIVING THINGS WE VALUE

The way we interact with our

environment affects the things

we value.

Climate change intensifies the effects of all other issues.

Forestry Fishing Farming Transport

Building & constructionWaste disposalEnergy

5. Our changing climate

3. Pollution from our activities

1. Our ecosystems and biodiversity

2. How we use our land

4. How we use our freshwater and marine resources

All issues affect ecosystem health.

6. Taking water changes flows which affects our freshwater ecosystems.

Nature Culture Recreation Stability

EconomyHealth Identity

05

TH E M E 1

Our ecosystems and biodiversityThe biodiversity of Aotearoa New Zealand is essential to our culture, identity, and well-being. The whole variety of native plants, animals, microorganisms, and the ecosystems they create, is unique to New Zealand and irreplaceable.

OurnativeplantsandanimalsareunderpressurefromalltheissuesidentifiedinEnvironment Aotearoa 2019, includingclimatechange,sedimentation,andurbandevelopment.Whencombinedwiththesignificantpressurefromintroducedspecies,thisformsasetof‘compoundingpressures’thatcanintensifytheeffectsofindividualpressuresonanimalandplantcommunities.

Inthistheme,wereportonthestateofourbiodiversity,consideringthelossandrisktospeciesandecosystemsacrossland,freshwater,andmarineenvironments.

TH E M E 1

Our ecosystems and biodiversity

Photo credit: iStock

06 Environment Aotearoa 2019 Summary NewZealand’sEnvironmentalReportingSeries

Our native plants, animals, and ecosystems are under threatOur unique native biodiversity is under significant pressure from introduced species, pollution, physical changes to our landscapes and coast, harvesting of wild species, and other factors. Almost 4,000 of our native species are currently threatened with or at risk of extinction.

What is happening?ThebiodiversityofAotearoaNewZealandisuniqueandvulnerabletochangeswemaketotheenvironment.Manyofthespeciesfoundherearefoundnowhereelseintheworld.

Ourbiodiversityhasdeclinedsignificantly.Atleast 75animalandplantspecieshavebecomeextinctsince humansarrivedinNewZealand.Marine,freshwater, andlandecosystemsallhavespeciesatrisk:90percentofseabirds,76percentoffreshwaterfish,84percentofreptiles,and46percentofvascularplantsarecurrentlythreatenedwithoratriskofextinction.

Theextinctionriskhasworsenedfor86speciesinthe past15years.Theconservationstatushasimprovedfor 26speciesinthepast10years,butmorethanhalfrequireactivemanagementtostaythatway.Kākāpōisoneexample.

Forasmallcountry,wehaveaverydiverserangeofuniqueecosystems.Somearenaturallyrare(therewereonlyafewevenbeforepeoplearrived,likevolcanicdunes)andothersarealsouncommoninternationally(likebraidedrivers).Manyofournativeecosystemshavebeenclearedorextensivelyaltered,andthistrendcontinuestoday.

Why is it like this?Peoplehavechangedthelandscapeandintroducednewspecies.Farmingandurbanexpansionhavecausedforeststobeclearedandwetlandstobedrained.Intheprocess,habitatsandspecieshavebeenlost.Farmingandurbanexpansionalsocreatepollution,suchasexcessnutrients(likenitrogen)andsediment,whichcandegradeecosystemsandharmorganisms.Takingwaterdegradesourfreshwaterecosystems(seeIssue6),whilecommercialfishingaltersmarineecosystemsandcanaccidentallykillthreatenedspecies(seeIssue7).

Introducedspeciesthreatenournativespeciesthroughcompetition,predation,anddiseases.Non-nativeplantspeciesnowoutnumbernativeshere,andstoats,possums,andratswerepresentonmorethan94percentofNewZealandlandin2014.

Newdiseasesalsoposethreats:myrtlerust,adiseasethatkillsnativeplantslikemānuka,pōhutukawa,andrātā,madeittoourshoresin2017.

Climatechangeisalreadyimpactingsomespeciesbychangingwheretheyarefoundorcreatingconditionswhereinvasivepestslikewaspscanlive(seeIssue9).

I S S U E 1

07O

ur ecosystems and biodiversity

Newandupdatedenvironmentalindicators usedinEnvironment Aotearoa 2019:

� Conservation status of indigenous freshwater species

� Conservation status of indigenous land species

� Conservation status of indigenous marine species

� Lake water quality � River water quality: macroinvertebrate

community index

Existingenvironmentalindicatorsusedin Environment Aotearoa 2019:

� Active sand dune extent � Cultural health index for freshwater bodies � Freshwater pests � Lake submerged plant index � Land cover � Land pests � Marine non-indigenous species � Predicted pre-human vegetation � Rare ecosystems � Wetland extent

What are the consequences?

Healthyecosystemsprovideimportantfunctionsthatbenefitusandoursociety.Nativeforests,forexample,regulatetheclimate(bystoringcarbon),preventerosion,andcreatenectarforhoneyproduction.Naturalwetlandsalsoprovideimportantecosystemservices(benefitswereceivefromnature)suchaspurifyingwaterbyfilteringoutnutrientsandsediments,regulatingwaterflowduringstorms,andstoringcarbonaspeat.Degradedhabitatsandalossofspeciescanmakeecosystemslessresilienttootherchangesandleadtofurtherdeclinesinbiodiversity.

Degradationofourecosystemsandalossofbiodiversitycanalsoimpactourabilitytoconnectwithandusetheenvironment.Nativebiodiversityprovidesmahingakai(foodprovisioning)andmaterialsforotherpurposeslikeraranga(weaving)androngoā(medicinaluses).Italsoprovidesimportantindicators(likethetimingandintensityofflowering)forkaitiaki,aswellasbeingessentialformaintainingandpassingknowledgefromonegeneration toanother.

Losingbiodiversityaffectsoursenseofbelongingandconnection.Wecallourselves‘Kiwis’andproudlyusethesilverfern(ponga)asanationalsymbol,soouridentitysufferswhenweexperiencedamagedorlostnative speciesandecosystems.Recreationopportunitiesand theconnectionswehavetonaturearealsoaffected.

08 Environment Aotearoa 2019 Summary NewZealand’sEnvironmentalReportingSeries

REGULATING SERVICESSUPPORTING SERVICES

CULTURAL SERVICES

Water Wood and fibre

Food Medicines

ECOSYSTEM HEALTHMeasuring the overall condition of our ecosystems is more than counting the number of different species. Ecosystems are complex and made of many interacting biological and physical components that can all be affected by environmental changes.

CULTURAL VALUEA healthy ecosystem enables tangata whenua to connect with the environment and each other. It provides sustenance and materials for cultural practices and expressions like waiata, karakia, and wairua.

PROVISIONING SERVICES

Water purification

The transitional habitats between landand water have many important functions.

Disease control

Climate stabilisation

Organic matter

Soil

Biomass Decomposition releases nutrients that are taken up again by plants.

Nutrient cycling

Soil formation

Flood mitigation

Erosion control

Photosynthesis

Air purification

Plant pollination

Cultural identity and expression

Species conservation and education

Mental and physical health

Recreation and tourism

BIODIVERSITYDiverse plant and animal

communities stabilise ecosystems and make them

more resilient.

Food web

Riparian zone

EcosystemsA healthy ecosystem provides many benefits (services) that are essential for native plants and animals as well as our own well-being.

09

How we use our land

TH E M E 2

The changes we have made to our land have significantly altered the wider environment. This theme highlights two specific types of physical changes we humans have made to the world around us:

1. What we have removed:Cuttingdownnativeforests,drainingwetlands,andclearinglandforfarminganddevelopmenthaveacceleratedournaturallyhigh ratesofsoilloss.Thishasalsodegradedarange ofecosystemservicesprovidedbynativevegetation.

2. What we have built:Human-madestructuresandhardsurfacesaffectthenaturalsystemswerelyon.Thereisaparticularfocusinthisissueonthespreadofurbanareasoverversatileland(whichcanbeusedformanypurposes,includingfarming)andscarcehigh-classsoils.

Photo credit: Photonewzeland

10 Environment Aotearoa 2019 Summary NewZealand’sEnvironmentalReportingSeries

Changes to the vegetation on our land are degrading the soil and waterLogging native forests, draining wetlands, and clearing land have degraded a range of benefits provided by native vegetation, accelerated our naturally high rates of soil loss, and affected our waterways.

What is happening?SincehumanarrivalinNewZealandwe’veshaped ourphysicalsurroundings.Nativevegetationhasbeenextensivelyclearedsothatthenativeforeststhatoncecoveredabout80percentofthecountry,nowonlycoveralittleoveronequarterofNewZealand.TenpercentofNewZealandwasoncecoveredbywetlands–90percentoftheseoriginalwetlandshavenowbeendrained.

In2012,justoverhalfofourlandhadamodifiedlandcoverlikeurbanareasandnon-native(exotic)vegetation.Exoticgrassland(pasture)isnowthelargestsingletypeoflandcoverandaccountsforabout40percentofourtotallandarea.Exotic(plantation)forestcoversabout8percentofthecountry,concentratedinthecentralNorthIsland.

Thelossofnativevegetationhascontinuedinrecentyears,withmorethan70,000hectareslostbetween1996and2012throughconversiontopasture,plantationforestry,andurbanareas.Wetlandareashavealsocontinuedtoshrink,withatleast1,247hectareslostbetween2001 and2016.

Why is it like this?Theconversionofnativevegetationtopastureandplantationforestryhassupportedthewayweliveandprovidedourlivelihoods.In2016,agriculturecontributed4.2percentofourgrossdomesticproduct(GDP)andemployedmorethan122,000people,whileforestrycontributedover$1.7billiontooureconomyandemployed over6,000people.Ourgrowingpopulationalsodrivesurbanexpansion.

What are the consequences?

Whennativeforests,shrublands,andwetlandsarelost,welosethewiderangeofbenefits(ecosystemservices)theyprovide.Thesebenefitsincluderegulatingtheflowofwaterinriversandstreams,recreation,storingcarbon,purifyingwater,andprovidinghabitatsfornativespecies.Thebenefitswegetfromsimplybeinginnature,thoughnotmeasuredorquantified,couldalsobelost.

LossofnativevegetationhasacceleratedNewZealand’snaturallyhighratesoferosionandsoilloss.Amodelofsoilerosionshowsthat44percentofthesoilthatentersourriverseachyearislikelytocomefromlandcoveredinpasture.Oncetheyareestablished,plantationforestsretainsoilinthesamewayasnativeforests,butharvestingbyclear-fellingexposesanddisturbsthesoil,whichcanthenbevulnerabletoerosionforuptosixyearsafterharvest.

Theeconomiclossesassociatedwithsoilerosionandlandslidesareestimatedtobeatleast$250–300millionayear.Increasederosionandsoillosscanalsoincreasesedimentinourrivers,lakes,andcoastalenvironments.Toomuchsedimentcansmotherfreshwaterandmarinehabitats,inhibitthegrowthofaquaticplantsandanimals,andincreasetheriskoffloodingintownsandcities.

Whenecosystemsandbiodiversityhavebeendegraded,thereisacorrespondingeffectontheextent,quality, andaccesstocustomaryresources,likekaimoana.

I S S U E 2

UpdatedenvironmentalindicatorusedinEnvironment Aotearoa 2019:

� Highly erodible land

Existingenvironmentalindicatorsusedin Environment Aotearoa 2019:

� Estimated long-term soil erosion � Land cover � Wetland extent

11H

ow w

e use our land

Increased run-off Removing vegetation, compacting soil, and paving land all increase run-off that carries sediment and pollutants into waterways.

Farming livestock leads to run-offLand compaction by livestock and removal of riparian vegetation increase run-off. Pasture is now the most extensive land cover in New Zealand.

Unprotected soil is more susceptible to erosionDuring clear-felling, soil is exposed, erosion increases as does the amount of sediment entering our waterways.

THE PROCESS OF EROSIONWater, wind, or ice can move sediment into rivers and streams.

Nutrients and soilare washed off.

Compacted soil

Soil without cover

Grass intercepts less rain than trees and bushes.

CLIMATE CHANGEExtreme rainfall is likely to become more frequent, increasing erosion risk, especially in areas with steep slopes and loose soils, and lacking woody vegetation.

Reclaiming land

Forestry

Urban expansion

Sediment entering waterways

Loss of productive soil

Draining of wetlands

Loss of ecosystem health and services

Construction

THREAT TO FRESHWATER AND MARINE HABITATSNative forests, shrubland, and wetlands regulate water flows and help with flood control and drought recovery, store carbon, and purify water. Excess sediment reduces the growth of plants, damages fish gills, and can smother riverbed and seabed ecosystems.

Increased flood risksLoss of native vegetation from a catchment increases the risk of floods in towns and cities downstream.

Degradation of land, waterways, and marine environmentsReduces aesthetic value and cultural and recreational use.

CONSEQUENCES

Farming

The changing way we use our landReplacing native vegetation with exotic forest, grasslands, or urban areas can increase erosion and degrade land, freshwater, and marine environments.

12 Environment Aotearoa 2019 Summary NewZealand’sEnvironmentalReportingSeries

Urban growth is reducing versatile land and native biodiversityGrowth of urban centres has led to land fragmentation and threatens the limited supply of versatile land near Auckland and other regional centres.

What is happening?MostNewZealandersliveincities.Accordingto2018populationestimates,86percentofusliveinurbanareas.Urbanareasmakeupasmallproportionofourtotallandarea,onlyabout0.85percent(approximately228,000hectares)in2012.Mosturbancentreshavedeveloped onourbestland–oftenfertilefloodplainsnearthecoast–withnativeforestsbeingcutdownandwetlandsdrained(seeIssue2).

Oururbanareasarespreading–theareaofurbanlandincreasedby10percentbetween1996and2012,especiallyaroundAuckland,Waikato,andCanterbury.Between1990and2008,29percentofnewurbanareaswereon‘versatile’land.Thistypeoflandoftenhasthebest,or‘high-class’,soilsandhasmanyagriculturaluses (likegrowingfood),butrepresentsjustover5percent ofNewZealand’sland.

Thefringesofoururbanareasareincreasinglybeingfragmented–brokenintosmallerlandparcels–andsoldaslifestyleblocks.Thenumberoflifestyleblockshasincreasedsharplyinrecentdecades,withanaverageof5,800newblocksayearsince1998.A2013studyfoundthat35percentofAuckland’sversatilelandwasusedaslifestyleblocks.

Why is it like this?Urbanexpansionismostlydrivenbypopulationgrowth.Between2008and2018ourpopulationincreasedby 14.7percent.Growthisexpectedtocontinue,withthehighestratesinTauranga,Auckland,andHamilton,andlowerratesinWellingtonandDunedin.

What are the consequences?

Ourversatilelandandhigh-classsoilsaregraduallybeinglosttourbangrowth,makingthemunavailableforgrowingfood.

Thelossofversatilelandishappeningatthesametimeasourfoodproductionsystemisunderpressuretoincreaseproductionwithoutincreasingitseffectontheenvironment.Thislosscanforcegrowersontomoremarginallandthatisnaturallylessproductiveandrequiresmoreinputs,likefertiliser.

Urbangrowthchangesthelandcoverdramatically– andoftenreducesnativehabitatsandbiodiversity. InNewZealand,nativelandcoveraccountsforlessthan 2percentoflandinurbancentresandonly10percent ontheurban-ruralboundary.

Also,manyoftheplantsandanimalspeoplebringwiththemtocitiescanbeharmfultonativebiodiversity.Forexample,catscanhuntnativeanimals,andnon-nativeplantsingardensandurbanplantingscanbecomeproblematicweedsiftheyspreadtonativeareas.

I S S U E 3

Existingenvironmentalindicatorusedin Environment Aotearoa 2019:

� Land cover

13H

ow w

e use our land

Pollution from our activities

TH E M E 3

Our environment is polluted when substances or kinds of energy (noise, light, heat) enter it and cause harm.

Somepollutantsdirectlyaffectourhealth.Pathogens(disease-causingmicroorganismslikethebacteriaCampylobacter)indrinkingwatercancauseillness,and veryfineparticlesintheaircancauselungandheartproblems.Otherpollutantsposethreatstothehealth ofplants,animals,andecosystems,likeplasticwaste intheoceanorexcessnutrientsinourwaterways.

Pollutionalsoaffectsourconnectionstonature.Artificiallightfromtownsandcitiesreducesourviewofthenightsky,andmurkystreamsspoilourenjoymentoftheseenvironments.

Mostpollutioncomesfromhumanactivities,suchasindustry,agriculture,powergeneration,homeheating,andtransport,butsomecomesfromnaturaleventslikevolcaniceruptions.Oftenpollutionhasamixofsources.Waterways,forexample,cancontaindisease-causingbacteriafromhumanoranimalfaeces,nutrientsfromfarmrun-offandurbanareas,andheavymetalsfromvehiclewear(copperfrombrakepadsandzincfromtyres).

Thisthemefocusesontwokindsofpollution–pollution ofwaterwaysfromfarmingandpollutioninurbanareas.

Photo credit: Ministry for the Environment

14 Environment Aotearoa 2019 Summary NewZealand’sEnvironmentalReportingSeries

Our waterways are polluted in farming areasWaterways in farming areas are polluted by excess nutrients, pathogens, and sediment. This threatens our freshwater ecosystems and cultural values, and may make our water unsafe for drinking and recreation.

What is happening?Infarmingareas,waterpollutionaffectsalmostallriversandmanyaquifers.Somelakesandestuariesmayalsobeaffected.Comparedtocatchmentsdominatedbynativevegetation,waterwaysinareasofpastoralfarminghavemarkedlyhigherlevelsofpollutionbyexcessnutrients (likenitrogen),sediment,andpathogens.

Recentmeasurementsshowthatwaterqualityhasbeenimprovingatsomeplaces,butworseningatothers.Itcanbedifficulttounderstandexactlywhatiscausingthechangesinwaterqualitybecausewatercatchmentscancontainamixofdifferenttypesoffarmsandlanduses,andtheeffectsofnaturalvariationsinclimateandtheconnectionsbetweenriversandgroundwaterarealsopoorlyunderstood.

Why is it like this?Inlessthan1,000yearsNewZealandhaschangedfromanunpopulatedgroupofislandscoveredwithdenseforest,toanintenselyfarmedcountry.Settingupourfarmsinvolvedclearingnativevegetationanddrainingwetlands,whichhavedramaticallyaffectedhowoursoilsandwaterfunction.

Morerecentlytherehasbeenasignificantshiftfromsheepandbeeffarmingintodairyfarming,mostnotablyinCanterbury,Otago,andSouthland.Thenationaldairyherdincreasedby70percentbetween1994and2017,whilenumbersofsheepandbeefcattledeclined.Thisshiftisimportantbecausecattleexcretemorenitrogenperanimalthansheep(cowsproducemoreurineandtheurinehasahighernitrogenconcentration).

Wearealsousingourfarmlandmoreintensivelynowthanafewdecadesago.Thenumberofcattleperhectarehasincreasedinsomepartsofthecountry,achangethatcanmakeitmorelikelythatpollutantswillleachintowaterways.Theamountofnitrogenappliedinfertiliserhasalsoincreasedmorethansix-foldacrossthecountrysince1990.

What are the consequences?

Ourecosystemscanbeseriouslyimpactedbywaterpollution.For2013–17,71percentofriverlengthinpastoralfarmingareashadmodellednitrogenlevelsthatcouldaffectthegrowthofsensitiveaquaticspecies.Highernutrientlevelsmayalsocauseexcessalgalgrowth(orblooms),whichdegradestheecosystemsandcanmakewaterwaysandcoastalenvironmentsunfitforrecreationalandculturaluses.

Waterpollutionbypathogensfromlivestockdungalsohasriskstohumanhealth,includinggastrointestinalillness.Computermodelsestimatethat82percentoftheriverlengthinpastoralfarmingareaswasnotsuitableforactivitiessuchasswimming,basedonthepredictedaverageCampylobacterinfectionriskduringtheperiod2013–17.

Waterpollutiondegradesculturalvaluessuchasmauriandwairuaofwaterways,andimpactsthecustomarypracticesassociatedwithmahingakaiandkaitiakitanga(guardianship).Whenwaterwaysarepolluteditcanalsoaffectthemana(prestige)associatedwithaniwiorhapū.

I S S U E 4

Newandupdatedenvironmentalindicators usedinEnvironment Aotearoa 2019:

� Coastal and estuarine water quality � Groundwater quality � Lake water quality � Livestock numbers � Nitrate leaching from livestock � Nitrogen and phosphorus in fertilisers � River water quality: clarity and turbidity � River water quality: Escherichia coli � River water quality: macroinvertebrate

community index � River water quality: nitrogen � River water quality: phosphorus

Existingenvironmentalindicatorsusedin Environment Aotearoa 2019:

� Agricultural and horticultural land use � Cultural health index for freshwater bodies

15Pollution from

our activities

Very high concentrations of some forms of nitrogen

affect aquatic species.

More animals per hectareHigh stocking rates and vehicles driven on the land cause soil compaction, increasing the likelihood of polluting run-off into streams.

More fertiliserThe amount of nitrogen applied in fertiliser has increased. Fertilisers like nitrogen and phosphorus can pollute waterways.

More irrigated landThe amount of irrigated land has increased. Taking more water for irrigation reduces river flows and affects species and habitats.

CHANGES TO OUR USE OF LAND IN THE PAST THREE DECADES

EFFECTS ON HUMAN HEALTHPathogens in livestock faeces can enter waterways and cause rapid outbreaks of illness. Infection by Campylobacter is the most frequently notified disease in New Zealand, and peaks in spring and summer.

Algal blooms

EFFECTS ON CULTURAL VALUESChanges in water quality can significantly affect the binding force between physical and spiritual elements and wairua (spirituality, connections to atua) of waterways.

Less sheep, more cowsCattle numbers have increased, especially dairy cattle. Cows produce more urine with a higher nitrogen concentration than sheep.

Excess nutrientsExcess sediment

Harmful to aquatic species

Reduced water flows

IMPACTS ON WATERWAYSAlgal blooms can reduce a river's dissolved oxygen, stop light entering the water, and change the composition of plant and animal species that live in the waterway.

Higher temperatures

More pathogens

Unsafe for swimming Unsafe for drinkingDegraded mahinga kai (food gathering)

Decline of iwi and hapū relationships with the environment

Today

Before

Intensified farmingRecent intensification of farming has increased the risks of water pollution.

16 Environment Aotearoa 2019 Summary NewZealand’sEnvironmentalReportingSeries

I S S U E 5

Our environment is polluted in urban areas Some of our cities and towns have polluted air, land, and water. This comes from home heating, vehicle use, industry, and disposal of waste, wastewater, and stormwater. Pollution affects ecosystems, health, and use of nature.

What is happening?Manydifferentpollutantsareproducedinurbancentreswheremost(86percent)NewZealanderslive(seeIssue3).Thepollutantsvaryintypeandamount,fromplacetoplace,andovertime.

Ourairqualityisgoodinmostplacesandatmosttimesoftheyear.However,levelsoftinyparticlesintheairthatarebadforourhealthcanexceedairqualitystandards,especiallyincoolermonthsbecauseofemissionsfromhomeheating.

Urbanwaterwayscontainmanyofthesamepollutantsfoundinfarmingareas–excessnutrients(suchasnitrogen),sediment,andpathogens–buttheirlevelsaretypicallyevenhigherinourcitiesandtowns.Urbanwaterways canalsocontainotherpollutants,likeheavymetals.

Recentmeasurementsshowthaturbanpollutionhaslessenedinmanyplaces.Airparticulatematter(PM10)levelsdecreasedin17of39monitoredareasinwinterbetween2007and2016.Wherechangesinwaterqualitycouldbedetectedbetween2008and2017,themajorityofurbanriverwatermonitoringsiteshadimprovingtrendsfornutrientsandsediment.ThetrendsforE. coliweremixed,withsomesitesgettingbetterandsomegettingworse.

Lessinformationisavailableaboutothertypesofurbanpollution.Monitoringnetworksdonotyetcoverallourcitiesandtowns.Dataisnotavailabletoassesstrendsinlightpollution,noisepollution,odours,orpollutioninurbansoil,land,orcoastalwaters.

Why is it like this?Inurbanareas,burningwoodandcoalforhomeheatinginwinterarethemainsourcesofparticulatematterintheair.Emissionsfromvehiclesandindustryalsocontributetoairpollutioninsomeplaces.Thisincludesparticulatematterandcarbondioxidefromcars,andnitrogenoxidesandothergasesfromindustries.

Pollutantsenterurbanwaterwaysthroughthestormwaterandwastewaternetworks.Stormwaterisrainwaterplusanypollutantsitpicksuponthelandsurface,likenutrients,pathogens,sediment,orheavymetalsfromthewearofroadsurfaces,tyres,andbrakepads.Wastewateristhewaterthathasbeenusedinhousesandbusinesses,whichcancontainnutrients,pathogens,andmanychemicalsusedinindustrialanddomesticactivities.

17Pollution from

our activities

Air pollution

SOURCES OF URBAN POLLUTION

Soil pollution

Water pollution

NutrientsPathogensSedimentHeavy metals

Air particulate matterGaseous pollutantsHeavy metals Air particulate matter

Gaseous pollutantsHeavy metals

Air particulate matter

EFFECTS ON CULTURAL VALUESDegraded mahinga kai and kaimoana limit traditional food for daily consumption and significant events, reducing the mana of individuals, whānau, and hapū, and their capacity to express hospitality.

EFFECTS ON HUMAN HEALTH

Pesticides, pharmaceuticals, personal care products, and other substances are not all removed by treatment plants.

Strokes

Diabetes

Gastro-intestinal illness

Premature death

AsthmaCoughingShortness of breath

Home heating

Burning wood and coal for home heating during cooler months is the main source of particulate matter in the air in our cities and towns. Burning treated timber is the primary source of arsenic in urban air.

Transport

Vehicle emissions contribute to poor air quality. Abrasion of road surfaces, tyres, and brake pads release small particles, including heavy metals into the environment. Petroleum spills and leaks contaminate land, soil, and water.

Industry and manufacturingPollutants from industry vary depending on the type of industry. Burning fuels for processes or electricity pollutes the air while storage or disposal of waste can contaminate soil and waterways.

Wastewater and stormwater Wastewater and stormwater enter urban streams through leaky pipes, illegal connections, and consented overflows during storms. Rainwater carries pollutants through the stormwater system into the waterways.

EFFECTS ON AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMSHigh concentrations of nitrate-nitrogen or ammonia can be toxic to aquatic species. Heavy metals can accumulate in food sources like fish and shellfish, making them unsafe to eat.

Harmful to aquatic species

Turbidity

Pathogens

Algal blooms

Contaminated drinking water

Degraded food

Unsafe for swimming

Urban pollutionUrban areas are sources of pollutants that affect ecosystems and our health. The type and amount can vary from place to place and over time.

18 Environment Aotearoa 2019 Summary NewZealand’sEnvironmentalReportingSeries

What are the consequences?

Airpollutioncanhavehealthimpactsincluding shortnessofbreath,asthma,heartattack,stroke, andevenprematuredeath.

Waterpollutioncanaffectbothhumanandecosystemhealth.Computermodelsestimatethat94percentoftheriverlengthinurbanareasisnotsuitableforactivitiessuchasswimming,basedonthepredictedaverageCampylobacterinfectionriskbetween2013and2017.

Themodelsalsoshowthat94percentofriverlengthinurbanareashasnitrogenlevelsthatmayaffectthegrowthofsensitiveaquaticspecies.Theelevatedlevelsofnutrientsinurbanstreamsalsoincreasethelikelihoodofexcessivealgalgrowth.

Pollutioninurbanareasimpactsthemauriofecosystemsandaffectsvaluesliketheconditionofmahingakaiandkaimoana(traditionalfoods),recreation(swimming,wakaama),andoranga(healthandwell-being)ofMāori.

Limitedknowledgeofthefullrangeofpollutants,theirextent,andtheircumulativeeffects,makesitchallenging tofullyunderstandtheimpactsofurbanpollution.

Newandupdatedenvironmentalindicators usedEnvironment Aotearoa 2019:

� Coastal and estuarine water quality � Heavy metal load in coastal and estuarine

sediment � River water quality: clarity and turbidity � River water quality: Escherichia coli � River water quality: nitrogen � River water quality: phosphorus

Existingenvironmentalindicatorsusedin Environment Aotearoa 2019:

� Air pollutant emissions � Artificial night sky brightness � Carbon monoxide concentrations � Ground-level ozone concentrations � Health impacts of PM10

� Land cover � Nitrogen dioxide concentrations � PM2.5 concentrations � PM₁₀ concentrations � Sulphur dioxide concentrations � Urban stream water quality

19Pollution from

our activities

How we use our freshwater and marine resources

TH E M E 4

Natural resources are essential for our modern way of life and we use them in an astounding number of ways. Some resources regenerate naturally but others, like fossil fuels, are not easily replaced. If we take too much from the environment, the use of a resource becomes unsustainable. This can affect natural systems and deny future generations the same opportunities and benefits from nature that we enjoy today.

Thisthemeexaminestwoactivitieswhereouruseofanaturalresourceisaffectinghowtheenvironmentfunctions,andchangingourrelationshipwithit:

1. Taking water from rivers, lakes, and aquifers:Usingwaterforagriculture,hydroelectricgeneration,anddomesticpurposescanhavesignificanteffectsonourwaterways.Here,welookathowtakingwaterisaffectingourwaterwaysandourrelationshipswiththem.

2. Fishing:Wefishforcommercialgain,forfood,recreation,andaspartofourcultureinteaoMāori.Fishingandgatheringseafoodarewidespreadincoastalareasandinourexclusiveeconomiczone,andcanhavelong-lastingeffects.

Photo credit: Nature’s Pic Images

20 Environment Aotearoa 2019 Summary NewZealand’sEnvironmentalReportingSeries

Taking water changes flows which affects our freshwater ecosystemsUsing freshwater for hydroelectric generation, irrigation, domestic, and other purposes changes the water flows in rivers and aquifers. This affects freshwater ecosystems and the ways we relate to and use our waterways.

What is happening?Theuseoffreshwatersupportsoureconomyandwayoflife.Werelyonsurfacewaterandgroundwater(takenfromaquifers)fordrinking,domestic,andindustrialuses,andirrigationfromthesesourcesisvitalforfarming.AlthoughNewZealandhasplentyoffreshwater,wearealsoheavyusers.In2014,NewZealandhadthesecondhighestvolumeofwatertakeperpersonofOECDcountries.

Consents(permits)totakewateraremanagedbyregionalauthorities,whichallocatewaterforparticularuses.Individualconsentstotakewaterhavespecifiedconditions,suchashowmuchwatercanbetaken,fromwhere,atwhatrate,andatwhattimes.

Nationally,asidefromhydroelectricity(whichgenerallydoesn’tconsumewaterbutdoesalterriverflows),mostoftheconsentedwaterallocationwasforirrigation(51percentinthe2013/14year).Householdconsumptionmadeup14percent,andindustrialusemadeup13percent.TakingwaterforirrigationhappensnationwidebutonalargescalemainlyinCanterburyandOtago.About100hydropowersitesnationwideprovided55–60percentofourelectricityin2017,lesseningourdependenceonfossilfuels.

Why is it like this?Thedemandforfreshwaterforirrigationhasincreasedmarkedly.ThishasbeendrivenbyaneardoublingofNewZealand’sirrigatedagriculturallandareabetween2002and2017,mostnotablyinCanterbury.Thisreflectsanationwideshiftfromsheepandbeeffarmingtodairyfarming,andanincreaseinthenumberofanimalsperhectareinsomepartsofthecountry(seeIssue4).

What are the consequences?

Theconsequencesoftakingwateraremainlyrelatedtochangesinriverflows.Lowriverflowsreducethehabitatforfreshwaterfishandotherspeciesthatprovidefoodforotherspeciesandforpeople.Nativefishsuchasthetaongawhitebaitspeciesinangaandtuna(eels)arevulnerablebecausetheyneedtomovebetweentheseaandfreshwaterduringtheirlifecycleanddamsandculvertscanblockthesemigration.Takingwatercanalsoreducetheflowsandnumberofchannelsinbraidedrivers,whichaffectssomethreatenedbirdslikewrybillandkakī.

Withreducedorlessvariableflows,thetemperatureandtheconcentrationofnutrientsandpathogensinawaterwaycanalsoincreaseandmakethemmoresusceptibletoalgalblooms.Thesechangescandegradefreshwaterecosystemsandmakewaterwaysunfitforrecreationalandculturaluses.

UpdatedenvironmentalindicatorusedinEnvironment Aotearoa 2019:

� Irrigated land

Existingenvironmentalindicatorsusedin Environment Aotearoa 2019:

� Consented freshwater takes � Cultural health index for freshwater bodies � Groundwater physical stocks � Selected barriers to freshwater fish in

Hawke’s Bay

I S S U E 6

21H

ow w

e use our freshwater and m

arine resources

Increased temperature

Creates algal bloom

Reduced oxygen

Degraded ecosystem

Reduced flows

Barriers to migration

Loss of sediment transport

CLIMATE CHANGEis projected to reduce flows in some rivers but increase flows in others. This will affect the frequency of droughts and floods in different parts of the country.

Aquifer

Salt water intrusionExtracting groundwater can cause salt water to move into aquifers that are near the coast. This makes groundwater unfit for irrigation and drinking.

Water table declineSome rivers are recharged by aquifers and some aquifers are recharged by rivers. Taking water from aquifers can reduce the water flow in rivers and vice versa.

Water table

Irrigation is a major consented use of ground and surface water.

CONSENTED WATER TAKERegional authorities allocate water for hydroelectric generation, irrigation, drinking water, industrial, and other uses.

EFFECTS OF LOW FLOWSMost hydro-generation does not use up water, but dams change the river flow and ecology downstream.

Shrinking habitatRivers become less dynamic and have fewer channels.

Reduced biodiversityMany of our native freshwater fish and birds are threatened with or at risk of extinction.

Reduced water availabilityWetlands dry out and less water is available.

Less variability in flowsChanging the natural cycles of flooding and sediment supply affects habitats, migration, spawning, and food supply of some aquatic species.

Well

CULTURAL VALUEDecreased water flows reduce the mauri of the environment and the ability of tangata whenua to exercise kaitiakitanga of wetlands, rivers, and lakes.

Effects of taking waterTaking water for irrigation, drinking, and hydroelectricity generation reduces the flow of water and its variability.

22 Environment Aotearoa 2019 Summary NewZealand’sEnvironmentalReportingSeries

The way we fish is affecting the health of our ocean environmentHarvesting marine species affects the health of the marine environment and its social, cultural, and economic value to us. Fishing could change the relationship that future generations have with the sea and how they use its resources.

What is happening?Asbefittinganislandcountry,manyNewZealanders haveastrongconnectiontothesea.Formany,thatconnectionisthroughfishing–foremployment, enjoyment,orculturalconnections.

Commercialfishingandthepressuresassociatedwithithavereducedinthelastdecade,andmost(97percent)commerciallycaughtfishcomefromstocksthatareconsideredtobemanagedsustainably.In201716percentofroutinelyassessedstockswereoverfishedand10stocksareconsideredcollapsed.

Animalsthatarecaughtunintentionallyarecalledbycatch.BycatchofprotectedspecieslikeHector’sandMāuidolphins,furseals,sealions,andseabirdshasreduced, butstillhasaseriouseffectbecausemanyofthesespeciesarealreadythreatened.

Trawlingtheseafloorwithlargenetsordredgestocatchfishandspecieslikescallopsandoystersarethemostdestructivefishingmethodsandcausedamagetotheseabed.Theareatrawledandthenumberoftowshavedecreasedoverthepast15to20years,butstillcoveralargearea,andsomeareashavebeentrawledeveryyearforthepast27years.Between1990and2016trawlingoccurredoverapproximately28percentoftheseabedwherethewaterdepthwaslessthan200meters,and 40percentwheredepthwas200–400meters.

Why is it like this?Fishingvesselsarenowlargerandmorepowerful,andusewidertrawlsandlongerlinesthanwhentrawlingfirststartedmorethan100yearsago.Asmallnumberofboatstodaycanhavethesameimpactasalargerfleetwouldhavehadinpreviousdecades.

Pastactivities,likehuntingseals,arestillhavinganeffectonmarinemammals,seabirds,andotherspecies.Somespecies,particularlythosewithlonglifespansorlowfertility,recoverslowlyfromdisturbance.

Otherenvironmentalpressuresinteractwithfishingtoincreaseourimpactonthemarineenvironment.Excesssedimentandnutrientsfromrivers,urbanpollutionincludingheavymetals,plasticpollution,introducedpredators,lossofhabitats,andawarmingandacidifyingoceanallcombinetoputpressureonthemarineenvironment.Whencombinedandactingsimultaneously,thesepressuresmayhavemoreseriousimpactsthatarecomplexandhardtopredict.

I S S U E 7

23H

ow w

e use our freshwater and m

arine resources

What are the consequences?

Fishingaffectsthewholemarineecosystem.Fishstocksaremanagedindividuallyanddonotaccountforinteractionsbetweendifferentstocksorthebroadermarineenvironment.Becausewedon'tknowthecumulativeeffectsoffishingonthemarineenvironment,itisunclearifthecurrentlevelsoffishingaresustainableorwherethetippingpointsare.

Removingfishalsochangesfoodchains,affectingspeciesthatdependonfishforfood(likeseabirdsandmarinemammals),orthatareeatenbythem.

Seabedtrawlingchangesthephysicalstructureoftheseabedandwedon'tknowhowlongittakestofullyrecover.

Anyaccidentalcaptureofaprotectedspeciesisanissue.Forexample,thenumberofMāuidolphinscaughthasdeclinedinrecentyears,butthisisacriticallyendangeredanimaland in2015/16thereareonlyanestimated63animalsleft.

Overfishingcanleadtolossoflivelihoods.Forcommercialfishers,depletedfishstockscouldmeancatchinglessorhavingtogooutfurthertocatchfish.

Overfishingremovesopportunitiestoharvestkaimoana.Thelossofbiodiversityerodesthemauriofthemarineenvironmentandimpactskeyvaluessuchasahikāroa,mana,manaakitanga(actsofgivingandcaringfor),andwhanaungatanga(communityrelationshipsandnetworks).

NewZealand’smarineenvironmentfacesincreasingpressuresfromactivitiesbesidesfishing.Thisincludestheeffectsofexcesssedimentandnutrientsfromrivers,plasticpollution,lossofhabitats,andclimatechange.Thesemultipleandsimultaneouspressuresmayhavefar-reachingandhard-to-predicteffectsonmarinespeciesandhabitats.

Existingenvironmentalindicatorsusedin Environment Aotearoa 2019:

� Bycatch of fish and invertebrates � Bycatch of protected species: Hector’s and

Māui dolphins � Bycatch of protected species: seabirds � Bycatch of protected species: sea lion

and fur seal � State of fish stocks

24 Environment Aotearoa 2019 Summary NewZealand’sEnvironmentalReportingSeries

Sedimentation Pollution

Marine ecosystem health

CLIMATE CHANGEhas direct impacts on ecosystems and worsens the effects of other pressures.

More resilientHigher biodiversity

More resilientHigher biodiversity

Severely impactedLower biodiversity

Decreasing biodiversity

IMPACT ON VALUESLosing biodiversity from the sea erodes mauri and takes away opportunities to express kaitiakitanga. Declining mahinga kai limit the ability of tangata whenua to put kaimoana on the table for the whānau and significant events and occasions.

Less marine biodiversity means there are less fish or shellfish to harvest commercially or as part of recreation.

Mahinga kaiFood gathering

Mauri Life force

KaitiakitangaCare

PRESSURESMultiple pressures acting together have complex and poorly understood effects on marine species and habitats.

Use of natural resources Climate change effectsPhysical changes Pollutants from land

Excess sediment

Erosion

CO2

Heavy metalsExcess nutrients

Pathogens

Run-off

Damage to seabedReduced fish numbers

Trawling

One pressureHealthy ecosystems are more likely to recover when affected by a single pressure. Cumulative pressures

Multiple pressures to an ecosystem can cause severe impacts to biodiversity and the functions of the ecosystem.

Ocean warming

Ocean acidification

makes it harder for organisms with calcium

carbonate shells like pāua, mussels, and oysters to

build shells.

may change species distributions.

Deepwater coral can take decades to recover

from trawling.

Cumulative pressures on the marine environmentLife in the ocean is degraded when there are multiple pressures on the environment. Some of these pressures are illustrated below.

25

Our changing climate

TH E M E 5

Greenhouse gas emissions are causing significant changes to Earth’s oceans, atmosphere, and climate. We expect these changes to be very long-lasting – some will be irreversible.

Wearealreadyseeingchangesinourclimateandmarineenvironment,andtheseareexpectedtobecomemoresevere.ThesechangesreachacrossthelengthandbreadthofAotearoaNewZealand,withsomeregionaldifferences.Asanislandnationwithalargemarinezone,longcoastline,andaneconomybasedmainlyonprimaryproductionandinternationaltourism,wearevulnerabletotheimpactsofclimatechange.

Thisthemelooksattwoclimatechangeissues:1. HowouractivitiesinNewZealandarecontributing

toglobalincreasesingreenhousegases.2. Howchangesintheclimatearealreadyaffectingour

environment,andhowtheywillaffectourlivesnow andintothefuture.

Photo credit: Alan Blacklock, NIWA

26 Environment Aotearoa 2019 Summary NewZealand’sEnvironmentalReportingSeries

New Zealand has high greenhouse gas emissions per personOur per-person rate of greenhouse gas emissions is one of the highest for an industrialised country. Most of our emissions in 2016 came from livestock and road transport.

What is happening?Globalgreenhousegasemissionshaveincreaseddramaticallyandareatarecordhigh.Asaconsequence,globaltemperatureshavealreadyincreasedbyabout 1degreeCelsiusabovepre-industriallevels.Suchrates ofchangefarexceedanypastnaturalratesofchange.

NewZealandmakesasmallcontributiontoglobalemissions,butwehavehighemissionsperpersonwhencomparedinternationally.In2015,NewZealandemitted17.5tonnesofcarbondioxideequivalentgreenhouse gasesperperson,whichwashigherthanallbutfiveofthe43AnnexI(industrialised)countries.Agricultureisresponsiblefornearlyhalfofourgrossgreenhousegasemissions,whichreflectsagriculture’seconomicimportance,followedbyroadtransport,whichenablesmovementofgoodsandservicesonourroads.

Althoughourglobalcontributionissmall(0.17percent ofgrossglobalgreenhousegasemissionsin2013),thecontributionofsmallnationslikeNewZealandisimportant.Ourgrossgreenhousegasemissionshaveincreasedby 20percentsince1990,buthavebeenrelativelysteadyinthepastdecade,despiteincreasesinpopulationandGDP.Thismeansouremissionsperpersonarelowernowthan10yearsago.Similarly,ouremissionsperunitofgrossdomesticproductsince1990are43percentlower,butstillhighinternationally–thefourthhighestintheOECDin2016.

Ourlargercitiestendtohavehighlevelsofblackcarbon(alsoknownassoot),oneofthemostimportantcontributorstoglobalwarming.

AccordingtotheInternationalPanelonClimateChange,ouremissionsarereversibleifwemakethatchoiceasasociety.Evensmallreductionsingreenhousegasconcentrationswillreducethechangesthatourgrandchildrenandtheirdescendantswillexperience.

Why is it like this?Ourhighemissionsperpersonarepartlyduetothelargeproportionofmethaneandnitrousoxidefromagriculture.Thesegaseswarmouratmospheremorestronglythancarbondioxide(CO2),andincreaseourper-person CO2-equivalentgreenhousegasemissions.

RoadvehiclesareourmainsourceofCO2emissions.WehavethehighestrateofcarownershipintheOECD,andourcarsareoldcomparedtootherOECDcountries.Thisraisesper-personemissionsbecauseoldercarstendtousemorefuelforeachkilometretravelledandemitmoreblackcarbon.

What are the consequences?

Therateofwarmingisunprecedented,andmaybefasterthansomeorganismsandecosystemscanadaptto.Theimpactsofthesechangesarealreadybeingfeltglobally,forexampleicesheetsandArcticseaiceareshrinking.ClimatechangeisalreadyaffectingAotearoaNewZealand(seeIssue9).

Theissuesdescribedinthereportaremadeworseinsomewaybyclimatechange.Climatechangewilladdanotherlayerofstressonourecosystems,makingitharderforthemtorecoverfromotherimpactslikepollutionorseabedtrawling.Inturn,thiswilldecreasethebenefitswegetfromnatureandundermineourconnectiontothenaturalenvironment.

Ourhighrateofper-personemissionscomparedwith otherindustrialisedcountriesalsocarriesareputational riskbecauseinternationaltradeandtourismarestronglylinkedtoourenvironmentalcredentials.

I S S U E 8

UpdatedenvironmentalindicatorusedinEnvironment Aotearoa 2019:

� New Zealand’s greenhouse gas emissions

Existingenvironmentalindicatorsusedin Environment Aotearoa 2019:

� Black carbon concentrations � Global greenhouse gas emissions

27O

ur changing climate

Climate change is already affecting Aotearoa New ZealandChanges to our climate are already being felt in our land, freshwater, and marine environments. We can expect further wide-ranging consequences for our culture, economy, infrastructure, coasts, and native species.

What is happening?NewZealandisalreadybeingaffectedbyclimatechangeandmanysignificantchangesinourclimatearebeingseenacrossthecountry.

Theseincludehigherlandandseatemperatures,sea-levelrise(14–22centimetresinthelastcentury),oceanacidification,moresunshine,andmeltingglaciers(ourglaciershavelost25percentoftheiriceinthepast40years).Somelocationsareexperiencingdriersoils,alteredprecipitationpatterns,fewerfrostdays,andmorewarmdays.Extremewindhasdecreasedatsomelocations.Mostplaceshaveseennochangeinextremerainfallsince1960,butstudiesindicatethatbecauseofclimatechange,somefloodanddroughteventswereworsethantheywouldhavebeen orhadahigherlikelihoodofhappening.

Manyoftheimpactsofclimatechangeareirreversibleonahumantimescale,andsomeimpacts,likeerosionfromextremerainfallorspeciesextinction,cannotbereversedatall.Stoppingfurtheremissionswillnotreturnustoanormalclimatebecausecarbondioxideremainsintheatmosphereforcenturiestomillennia.Aslongasgreenhousegasconcentrationsremainelevated,theriskfromextremeeventslikeheatwaves,droughts,andstormswillbeelevated.

Why is it like this?Carbondioxideandothergreenhousegasesarebuildingupintheatmosphereandcausingchangestotheglobalclimate.

NewZealandmakesasmallcontributiontoglobalemissions,butwehavehighemissionsperpersonbecauseofmethaneandnitrousoxideemissionsfromagriculture,ourhighrateofcarownership,andouragingvehiclefleet(seeIssue8).

What are the consequences?

TheeffectsthatarealreadybeingfeltinNewZealand areexpectedtointensifyinthecomingdecades.Althoughgoodinformationonthecumulativeandcascadingeffectsthatclimatechangewillhaveonoureconomic,social,andculturalwell-beingisstilllacking,wecanbesurethatnearlyallaspectsoflifeinNewZealandwillbeaffected.

Climatechangewillaffectthethingswevalue.ManyculturallyimportantsitessuchasearlyMāoriandEuropeanarchaeologicalsites,aswellasmaraeandurupā(burialsites),arelocatedinareasthatarevulnerabletofloodingorerosion.Assitesarelost,soistheintergenerationalconnectiontotheseplaces,alongwiththeknowledgeandunderstandingofthoseconnections.Also,changingenvironmentalconditionsmaycausesomespeciesto movetootherareas,whileothersmaybelost.

Climatechangewillaffectwherewelive.Sea-levelrisewillputpropertyatrisk,andsomeplacesmaybecomeuninsurable.Floodingandheatwavescouldimpactourinfrastructure,includingthetransportation,communication,andpowernetworksthatourmodernliferelieson.

Climatechangewillaffecthowwelive.Itwillaffect whatwegrowandwhere,throughwarmertemperatures,changedprecipitationpatterns,moreintenseandfrequentdroughts,andintenserainfall,butalsomoregrowingdays.Awarmingandacidifyingoceanwillaffectthefishwecatchandharvest,whilemoreextremefireconditionsandpestscouldchangethelandscapeandhowweuseit.

I S S U E 9

Existingenvironmentalindicatorsusedin Environment Aotearoa 2019:

� Annual glacier ice volumes � Coastal sea-level rise � Extreme wind � Frost and warm days � National temperature time series � Oceanic sea-surface temperature � Ocean acidification � Rainfall intensity � Soil moisture and drought � Sunshine hours

28 Environment Aotearoa 2019 Summary NewZealand’sEnvironmentalReportingSeries

Auckland

Northland

Warming land

+ 1°CAverage temperature increase, 1909–2016

Warming sea

+ 0.7°CAverage sea-surface temperature increase around New Zealand,1909–2009

Rising sea levels

+ 14-22 cmVarying sea-level rise around New Zealand, 1916–2016

Increasing ocean acidity

+ 7%Increase in acidity off Otago coast, 1998–2016

Climate change affects our environment

directly and intensifies the effects of other

pressures.

CHANGES ARE ALREADY AFFECTING NEW ZEALAND

Melting glaciersGlaciers in Southern Alps decreased 25% in ice volume, 1977–2016.

Changing distributionWarmer temperatures played a role in shifting the range of two wētā species in Taranaki.

Pests increaseWarm, dry springs are linked with more wasps near Nelson.

FloodSea-level rise caused more flooding during storm, 2011.

NelsonNelson Lakes to Pelorus Bridge

Otago Peninsula

Taranaki

DroughtThe 2012–13 drought was one of the most extreme in recent history and affected the entire North Island and the west coast of the South Island. Climate change made it more likely to happen.

Shifting seasonsHapū and whānau-based fishers observe changes in the seasons, which affect harvest times.

FloodFlooding from the highest high tide, 2016.

Warming seasIncreasing sea-surface temperatures were a factor in the reduced survival of yellow-eyed penguin.

Impacts of climate changeRelatively small changes in our climate can have big effects on our ecosystems.

Note: Data for this illustration is from Mattern et al (2017) and this report.

29

Understanding our environmentOurenvironmentiscomplexandmulti-dimensional,andchangesintheenvironmentcanhavemultiplecausesandhappenatdifferentrates.Thetimeittakesfortheeffectsofachangetoshowcanalsobesignificant,whichmakesestablishingacauseharder.

Eachplaceisalsodistinctbecauseoftheenvironmentalconditionsandthepeoplewholivethere–whattheydo,howtheymakealiving,whattheyvalue,andwhattheywanttoachieve.Alloftheseareimportantandhave effectsonthehealthoftheirlocalenvironment.

Goodprogresshasbeenmadeonunderstandingparticularaspectsofourenvironmentbutmanysignificantgapsinourknowledgeremain.ThesearehighlightedthroughoutEnvironment Aotearoa 2019andincludehowtheenvironmentfunctionsasawholesystem,thecumulativeimpactsofmultiplepressures,regionalvariations,andwheretippingpoints(whenchangebecomesirreversible)mayexist. Moreworkisneededtoaddressthesechallenges.

Environmentaldataandknowledgecurrentlycomefrommanysources,includingscientificdata,computermodels,monitoringdata,culturalmonitoringsystems,andcitizenscience.Findinggoodwaystodrawonallofthesesourceswillprovidetherichestpictureofourenvironment.

Collectingandanalysingdata,andexploringscientificknowledge,taketimeandmoney.TakingopportunitiestoalignoureffortsacrosstheknowledgeandreportingsystemwouldenableNewZealandtobebetterequippedtounderstandtheeffectouractionsarehavingontheenvironment,aswellasdecidingwhatourresponseto thatunderstandingshouldbe.

Photo credit: photonewzealand

30 Environment Aotearoa 2019 Summary NewZealand’sEnvironmentalReportingSeries