Distr.GENERAL

UNCTAD/ECDC/SEU/821 April 1995

ENGLISH ONLY

ENVIRONMENT AND DEVELOPMENT PROSPECTS INTHE WEST BANK AND GAZA STRIP

Study prepared by Dr. Ramzi M. Sansur, UNCTAD consultant*

* This study constitutes the contribution of Dr. Ramzi M. Sansur(Bir-Zeit University, West Bank) to the intersectoral project of the UNCTADsecretariat on "Prospects for sustained development of the Palestinian economyin the West Bank and Gaza Strip". The opinions expressed in this study arethose of the author and do not necessarily reflect those of the UNCTADsecretariat of the United Nations. The designations employed and thepresentation of the material in this document do not imply the expression ofany opinion whatsoever on the part of the Secretariat of the United Nationsconcerning the legal status of any country, territory, city or area, or of itsauthorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries.

GE.95-51402 (E)

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CONTENTS

Page

List of tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5

List of abbreviations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6

Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

Chapter I. Resource endowment and factors affecting the environmentin the West Bank and Gaza Strip . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

A. Main features of the ecosyste m . . . . . . . . . . . . 9

1. Climate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92. Land and topography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93. Mineral resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104. Water resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

(a) Rainfal l . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10(b) Surface water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11(c) Groundwater . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

i. The coastal aquifer . . . . . . . . . . 12ii. The inland aquife r . . . . . . . . . . . 12

5. The ecological system and biodiversit y . . . . . . 12

B. Main factors affecting the environment in thePalestinian territory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

1. Occupation and related practice s . . . . . . . . . 132. Environmental legislation, enforcement and

control mechanisms and institutional framework . . 153. Social attitudes towards the environmen t . . . . . 174. Populatio n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185. Regional environmental conditions . . . . . . . . 19

Chapter II. Environmental conditions in the Palestinian territory . . 21

A. Agricultural practices and the environmen t . . . . . . 21

1. Soil erosio n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212. Pesticide s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223. Fertilizers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234. Irrigatio n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235. Agricultural plasti c . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246. Extension service s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247. Comparative experiences in some neighbouring

countries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25

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CONTENTS (continued )

Page

B. Urbanization and the environmen t . . . . . . . . . . . 25

1. Sewag e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252. Solid waste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26

C. Industrial activities and the environment . . . . . . 28

D. Impact of development on water resource s . . . . . . . 29

E. Deforestation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

F. Marine and coastal environmen t . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

G. Energy consumptio n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

H. Climatic disturbances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

I. Indoor pollutio n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

J. Urban noise pollution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33

Chapter III. Development prospects and the environment in thePalestinian territory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

Introductio n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

A. Housing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

B. Industrial developmen t . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

C. Agricultural developmen t . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

D. Trade: Gaza sea port . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

E. Tourism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37

F. Energ y . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38

G. Transportatio n . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

H. Technology transfer and the environment . . . . . . . 40

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CONTENTS (continued )

Page

Chapter IV. Improving the state of the environment in thePalestinian territory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

A. Sustainable development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

B. Priority areas for environmental action . . . . . . . 43

1. Liquid wast e . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 432. Solid waste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 443. Hazardous waste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 454. Water-resource management . . . . . . . . . . . . 465. Land reclamation and reforestatio n . . . . . . . . 476. Wilderness and recreation areas . . . . . . . . . 477. Environmental law s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 488. Integrated Pest Managemen t . . . . . . . . . . . . 499. Community education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49

10. Clean-up campaign . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

C. Policies to promote environmental conservatio n . . . . 50

1. Community participation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 512. The community’s right to know . . . . . . . . . . 513. Written material and audiovisual aids . . . . . . 514. The greening of government policies . . . . . . . 52

D. Needs and requirement s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

1. Financial and technical . . . . . . . . . . . . . 522. Human resources . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533. Institution buildin g . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54

Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54

Tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

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List of tables

Table 1. West Bank and Gaza Strip: main water sources and estimated levelsof consumption, 1990.

Table 2. West Bank and Gaza Strip: population distribution by region, 1990.

Table 3. West Bank: water resources in selected municipalities, 1993-1994.

Table 4. Gaza Strip: water resources in selected localities, 1993-1994.

Table 5. West Bank: wastewater treatment situation in selectedmunicipalities, 1993-1994.

Table 6. Gaza Strip: wastewater situation in selected localities,1993-1994.

Table 7. West Bank: solid waste situation in selected municipalities,1993-1994.

Table 8. Gaza Strip: solid waste situation in selected localities,1993-1994.

Table 9. List of commonly used pesticides in the Palestinian territory,1992.

Table 10. Partial list of pesticides restricted or banned elsewhere, but usedin the Palestinian territory, 1993.

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List of abbreviations

ANERA American Near East Refugee Aid

BOD biochemical oxygen demand

CBS Israel Central Bureau of Statistics

CEOHS Centre for Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences

CFC chlorofluorocarbon

EDB ethylene dibromide

EPRI Environmental Protection and Research Institute

EST environmentally sound technologies

GDP gross domestic product

GEP Gaza Environment Programme

GIS Geographical Information Systems

IPM Integrated Pest Management

km kilometre

m3 cubic metres

mcm million cubic metres

mm millimetre

NGO non-governmental organizations

OPT occupied Palestinian territory (the terms "occupied territory" or"territory" refer to occupied Palestinian territory)

PLO Palestine Liberation Organization

UNRWA United Nations Relief and Works Agency for Palestinian Refugees in theNear-East

WHO World Health Organization

$ United States dollar

.. Data not available

- Equals zero or negligible

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Preface

(i) As part of the work programme of the UNCTAD secretariat, pursuant toresolution 239 (XXIII) of the Trade and Development Board andresolution 44/174 of the General Assembly, the UNCTAD secretariat initiatedin 1990-1991, the preparation of an in-depth intersectoral project on theeconomy of the West Bank and the Gaza Strip. Part One of the project dealswith a comprehensive assessment of their economic and social situation, themain impediments to sustained growth and development, pressing needs andcorresponding measures for immediate action to promote recovery. Part Twoconstitutes an in-depth analysis of prospects under different scenarios forthe future development of the Palestinian economy. Part Three provides astrategy framework and policy guidelines for the revival and sustained futuredevelopment of the Palestinian economy in the West Bank and Gaza Strip.

(ii) For the implementation of the project, a total of 25 in-depth studieswas initiated at the field level, covering economic and social sectors andissues. Concurrently, and in order to facilitate the technical aspects ofwork on Parts Two and Three of the project, the UNCTAD secretariat alsoprepared an in-depth study of a quantitative framework examining futureoptions and prospects under several scenarios. The summary findings ofPart One of the field studies, in particular an identification of pressingneeds and corresponding feasible measures for immediate action, were presentedto an expert group meeting in May 1992 for further consideration. The reportof that meeting is published separately (UNCTAD/DSD/SEU/2). The secretariat’sstudy of a quantitative framework for analysing future prospects(UNCTAD/ECDC/SEU/6) has recently been published.

(iii) In order to provide a more detailed substantive background to thefindings and recommendations of the expert group meeting, and to enable donorsto further develop their programmes of assistance to the Palestinian people,the first parts of a selected number of the field studies, commissioned withinthe scope of this project, are being published in a special study series onPalestinian economic and social development. The second and third parts ofthe field studies will be subsequently consolidated by the UNCTAD secretariat.

(iv) This study (prepared by UNCTAD consultant Dr. Ramzi Sansur, Bir-ZeitUniversity, West Bank) constitutes the first comprehensive assessment of thecurrent state of the environment in the Palestinian territory (the West Bankand Gaza Strip) and its implications for sustainable economic and socialdevelopment. It is based on a field investigation conducted in early 1993 bythe author, supplemented by data from the few published sources that exist onthe subject. As such, it constitutes an important original source ofinformation on a previously unexplored topic for the use of policy makers,donors and researchers alike.

Chapter I examines those aspects of the resource endowment of thePalestinian territory and other factors that have a direct bearing onenvironmental conditions, in particular, climate, land and topography, mineraland water resources and the ecological system. Other factors influencing theenvironment are also discussed, including the policy and legal framework,social factors and population. Chapter II examines in depth the currentenvironmental situation in the territory as related to agricultural practices,urbanization, industrial activities, water-resource exploitation,

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deforestation, marine environment, energy consumption and other sources ofpollution and environmental disturbances. Chapter III analyses immediatePalestinian development prospects and their environmental dimension, includinghousing, industrial and agricultural development, trade, tourism, energy andtransportation.

This sets the scene for a comprehensive outline in Chapter IV ofpolicies and measures to improve the state of the environment in thePalestinian territory in line with the goals of sustainable developmentespoused by the 1992 Rio Declaration on Environment and Development. ThisChapter constitutes the elements of a forward-looking strategy andaction-oriented programme for the safeguarding and promotion of theenvironment of the Palestinian territory in line with the emerging economicand social development goals of the Palestinian people. With the accordsconcluded between Israel and Palestine in 1993 and 1994, the prospects forameliorating Palestinian environmental conditions and to integrateenvironmental considerations into the planning and implementation ofdevelopment programmes have improved.

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Chapter I

RESOURCE ENDOWMENT AND FACTORS AFFECTING THE ENVIRONMENTIN THE WEST BANK AND GAZA STRIP

A. Main features of the ecosystem

1. Climate

The climate of the West Bank and Gaza Strip is typical of the eastMediterranean region, i.e. hot and dry in summer and relatively cool and wetin winter. Average summer temperatures range from 18 to 38 o C and wintertemperatures from 5 to 10 o C. The rainy season extends from October to April,occasionally starting one month earlier and rarely continuing through May.

The West Bank and Gaza Strip are situated between the higher rainfallregion of Lebanon and the low precipitation region of Egypt. Thus the climatecan vary from arid subtropical in the south to wet subtropical in the north.This explains the wide variation in rainfall according to location. Forexample, the central mountainous region has an average rainfall ranging from400 to 700 millimetres (mm.) The coastal plains receive about 300 mm of rainannually while the semi-coastal plain about 550 mm annually. The JordanValley, which is a semi-arid region below sea level, receives an average ofabout 200 mm rainfall annually. 1 /

Owing to high radiation levels, the evaporation rate ranges from1,900 mm per year in the hilly regions and the Gaza Strip to 2,600 mm in theJordan Valley. These figures have important implications for theconsideration of agricultural projects or the construction of sewage treatmentplants, as will be discussed later.

2. Land and topography

The West Bank and Gaza Strip may be divided into four topographicalzones: the central mountainous or highlands zone; the internal plateau orsemicoastal zone; the Jordan Valley zone; and the coastal zone.

The central highlands zone extends from the northern tip of theWest Bank at Jenin all the way to Hebron in the south, an area ofapproximately 5,000 square kilometres (km), including the eastern and westernslopes with altitudes over 1,000 metres above sea level. This zoneconstitutes the bulk of the Palestinian territory and serves as its watershedarea.

The semicoastal zone is often referred to as the internal plateau and islocated in the northern part of the West Bank extending from Jenin toQalqilya, with an area of about 400 square kilometres and an average altitudeof 200 metres above sea level.

The Jordan Valley zone constitutes an area of about 400 squarekilometres, extending from Bardala in the north to the Dead Sea in the south.Its altitude ranges from 400 metres below sea level at the Dead Sea to about200 metres below sea level in the north.

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The Gaza Strip, located in the southern tip of Palestine, constitutesthe coastal zone of the Palestinian territory, with an area of 367 squarekilometres and an altitude of 0 to 40 metres above sea level.

3. Mineral resources

Stone quarrying and processing are an important industry in theterritory as it exploits the main available mineral resource. Stone isextracted in a variety of ways for construction purposes. The totalproduction of stone and crushed aggregates is estimated at about 31,000 cubicmetres (m 3) and 3.5 million tons per year, respectively. 2 / Stone is mainlycomposed of calcium carbonate and other minor minerals, such as quartz, and isscattered throughout the West Bank.

Sand, an essential element in the construction industry, is excavatedfrom the sand dunes along the Mediterranean shores of the Gaza Strip. No dataare available as to the quantities of sand extracted from the Strip.

In the past, the Dead Sea used to be exploited by the Palestinians forthe extraction of table salt, using the traditional methods of concentratingsalt water in shallow lagoons and extracting salt crystals. At present,Israel and Jordan heavily exploit the Dead Sea for its mineral resources,mainly phosphates, salt, and black mud used for cosmetic and medicinalpurposes. The Dead Sea is an important tourist area and a number of Israelihealth spas have been built on its shore. It is reported that certain skindiseases, such as psoriasis, respond to bathing and sun exposure in thisregion. Prior to 1967, Jordan made a modest attempt to look for petrol andgas in parts of the West Bank but there were no important findings.

4. Water resources

The Palestinians have not had the opportunity to determine the extent oftheir water resources and their use, especially concerning the undergroundaquifers. Nevertheless, underground water resources are the largest potentialsource of water in the occupied territory. As information on water resourceshas long been shrouded with secrecy, scanty data, released by some Israelisources and from previous modest geological surveys undertaken prior to 1967constitute the basis for investigation. 3 / However, the limited andunreliable nature of available information prevents its use in assessing theexact supply of water resources and planning its use, as well as preservingthe sources, particularly the aquifers, especially from the threat ofpollution. Comprehensive hydrological surveys are called for to addressurgently this pressing issue. Table 1 reproduces one estimate of main waterresources and levels of consumption for different uses. The different sourcesof water in the Palestinian territory are briefly outlined as follows:

(a) Rainfall

The estimated yearly rainfall that reaches the ground in Palestine isestimated at 2,800 million cubic metres (mcm). 4 / Losses from run-off,evaporation and transpiration are estimated to total 1950 mcm annually. Thetotal estimated rainfall available for recharging the aquifers is estimated tobe between 625 and 780 mcm annually. Rainfall is limited to the winter seasonand is influenced by the topography of the land. Moisture rising from the

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Mediterranean sea cools as it reaches above the hills of the West Bank,releasing rain mostly on the western slopes of the West Bank. The easternslopes lie in the rain shadow, and thus precipitation there is less. Heavyrainfall occurs only at the highest elevations, such as the hills north ofHebron and south-west of Bethlehem, the Ramallah area and a small area aroundNablus in the north. Run-off occurs in both westerly and easterly directions,thus replenishing the aquifers in both directions.

To slow the surface run-off, Israel has planted trees in a north-southstrip, mostly within its 1967 borders, about 20 km east of the coast. Theintention has been to allow more of the rainwater to run in a westerlydirection and eventually percolate into the coastal aquifers of Israel. Thisappears also to explain why Israel has discouraged Palestinians from growingtrees or reforesting the barren hills of the central West Bank. Trees plantedin the Palestinian territory would reduce the run-off towards Israel, possiblyenriching aquifers in the West Bank.

(b) Surface water

Added to the rainfall is the share of the Palestinian territory from thewaters of the Jordan and Yarmouk rivers and their tributaries, a totalestimated at 320 mcm annually. In addition, water from springs in theWest Bank contribute about 100 mcm annually. The quality of spring water isvariable depending on the location. Springs along the shores of the Dead Seaare considered brackish, though fit for certain types of agriculture.Brackish springs are scattered throughout the region but are found mainly inthe Jordan Valley and the southern parts of the West Bank, closer to the lowerwestern slopes.

Most water from springs is not adequately utilized and may be a goodpotential source of water. Many reasons contribute to this underutilization,such as: restrictions imposed on the use of spring water since 1967;difficult accessibility; low quality for domestic consumption; and absence ofagricultural activity in the vicinity of the springs. Most of these springsdo not have any form of piping or pumping to nearby villages. A number ofNGOs and multilateral organizations have funded projects for piping water fromthe springs to the nearby villages. However, only a few permits have beengranted for this purpose as Israeli authorities have opposed exploitation ofthe springs via piping. Instead, Israel has been willing to connect villagesto the main water network run by the Israeli company, Mekorot. Of course, allwork and connections have to be funded by the concerned village or an externalfunding agency.

The Dead Sea and the Mediterranean sea represent the only sources ofsalt water. The Dead Sea is an inland lake, considered to be the saltiestlake in the world. It receives its water mainly from the river Jordan andfrom springs along its eastern and western shores. It is shrinking in sizeowing to the heavy use of water from the Jordan river by both Israel andJordan, and reduced discharge from springs due to heavy pumping of theaquifers by Israel.

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(c) Groundwater

Underground water remains the main source of water for domestic,agricultural and industrial uses. As mentioned earlier, the exact locationsand extent of the aquifers are still unknown to the Palestinian community.Known aquifers are divided into two main categories:

(i) The coastal aquifer

The coastal aquifer is divided into three subaquifers that overlay eachother at various depths. The lower subaquifer varies in thickness from10 metres close to its eastern boundaries to a depth of 120 metres near thecoast. The middle subaquifer situated near the coast is composed of a numberof smaller aquifers and follows the contours of the geological layerseastward. The uppermost aquifer is located closest to the coastline andextends only a few kilometres eastward. The quality of water from the coastalaquifers varies depending on the geological strata that allow for thepenetration of sea water. In areas where there is heavy pumping of theseaquifers, the salinity of water, as in the Gaza Strip, has dramaticallyincreased over the past 30 years.

(ii) The inland aquifer

The inland aquifers are composed of the following six distinctly knownaquifers:

(a) The lower Cenomanian aquifer is considered to be the largest andmost extensive aquifer, found in both the central and southern parts ofPalestine. It is a deep aquifer constituted of limestone, which explains themoderately high degree of the water’s hardness.

(b) The upper Cenomanian aquifer is located in the Qalqilya region inthe inner semicoastal northern zone. Its water is moderately hard.

(c) The Turonian aquifer is located north of the Tulkarem region of theinner plateau. Although large, it is smaller than the lower Cenomanianaquifer. Its water is also moderately hard.

(d) The Eocene aquifer is located in the north-western part of theinland plateau, and is relatively shallow and affected by precipitation. Itswater is also moderately hard.

(e) The Neogene aquifer is located in the northern part of the JordanValley, with relatively good quality water.

(f) The Pleistocene aquifer is located below the Neogene aquifer, withwater of varying quality. It covers most of the Jordan Valley zone and isheavily utilized for agriculture.

5. The ecological system and biodiversity

Palestine has the largest number of flowering plants of any comparablearea in the world. For example, there are over 1,000 flowering plants withina five-mile radius of Jerusalem. 5 / The ecology of the land is typical of

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the east Mediterranean, with a large diversity of plant communities. Most ofthe plants are native but some have been introduced throughout the territory’slong history. The largest number of plant species introduced was during theperiod of the British mandate, with some plants coming from as far asAustralia. Palestine’s strategic geographic position, at the crossroadsbetween continents, has favoured its exposure to a variety of plant lifebrought in by different travellers and conquerors over the centuries.

The reason for the large plant diversity is the peculiar geography ofhistorical Palestine: the Mediterranean sea and coastline, the mountainousregion, the hot and fertile Jordan Valley, the Dead Sea region that is belowsea level and the Red Sea. Some plant varieties are only found in one regionand not in others. There is also an altitude-related zonation of plantvarieties.

The geographical location of Palestine between Africa, Asia and Europeand the relatively adequate supply of water (at least in the recent past), hadallowed a variety of animal life to inhabit the region. Palestine is animportant station for many migratory birds on their route to and from Africaand Europe. It is imperative that the biodiversity in Palestine be preservedand further encouraged as one of the important aspects of environmentalpreservation specified in the Rio Declaration on the environment. 6 / Thus,certain areas need to be designated as protected zones for the preservation oflocal species of plants and animals, including migratory birds.

B. Main factors affecting the environment in the Palestinian territory

1. Occupation and related practices

Lack of a sovereign authority has prevented Palestinians fromlegislating and establishing rules and regulations for the protection of theenvironment in the West Bank and Gaza Strip. Local environmental protectionhas been lax, and at best has reflected the environmental concerns of thecountry ruling or administering the Palestinian territory. Only recently wasa department for the environment established by the Israeli authorities withlimited power and jurisdiction. Palestinian municipalities and localauthorities continue to suffer from administrative, technical and financialweaknesses, which prevent them from taking meaningful and effective stepsvis-à-vis the environment.

It has been estimated that over 60 per cent of land in the West Bank andGaza Strip had been confiscated for a variety of reasons, to be used for thebuilding of settlements and/or for security and military purposes. 7 / Thisleft little land for the Palestinians to use for their own needs. Inaddition, Israel has exercised full control over water resources, even ifprivately owned.

The building of Israeli settlements in the occupied territory continuedunabated until 1992. Settlements are established in areas that havetraditionally been considered wilderness zones. Some of these areas includethe eastern slopes of the West Bank commonly referred to as the Judean Desertand wilderness areas north west of the Ramallah region in the central part ofthe West Bank. The eastern slopes house a variety of wildlife includingleopards and some rare mammalian species and birds. The only area to escape

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the creeping destruction of wilderness are the natural wild reserves in theEin el-Fashkha spring and the Ein Gidi preserve, both situated along theDead Sea. Even there fires keep breaking out, mainly because of carelesspicnickers, resulting in the destruction of hundreds of dunums of naturalvegetation.

The degradation of the desert area adjacent to the Dead Sea, owing tothe intensive building of military and civilian settlements, is a particularconcern for Palestinians. This area has traditionally, been a winter grazingarea for sheep and goats from throughout the West Bank and a recreation spotfor the local population. In addition, it has a number of archaeological andreligious sites that are neglected. The area is unique in the Middle Eastbecause it is the lowest point on earth, 400 metres below sea level, and hasthe saltiest lake on earth, the Dead Sea.

A large part of the Jordan Valley has been confiscated from Palestinianfarmers for building agricultural settlements. Until recently, thePalestinians used to cultivate about 40,000 dunums and the Israelis about halfthat. The expansion of Israeli settlements there and the rapid pace of theirexpanding agriculture has engulfed the Palestinian agricultural areas makingthem tiny enclaves in the midst of Israeli settlements. In addition, theupper Jordan Valley on the bottom of the eastern slopes of the CentralHighlands Zone, just south of Jiftlic all the way to the settlement of MaaleEphraim , has been confiscated. This area has one of the richest and deepestsoils because of the erosion from the mountains above it. Israeli authoritiesare tapping a number of water wells for their settlement activities in thatzone.

These intensive settlement activities have not been matched with properenvironmental practices. For example, none of the settlements has developed asewage treatment plant. Sewage is usually allowed to run to the nearest wadior valley, even if a Palestinian village is nearby. Sewage from the Israelisettlements on the eastern hills and slopes north of Jerusalem hascontaminated Wadi Al Qilt and its water spring, west of Jericho. The springused to supply fresh drinking and irrigation water for the Palestinian areasup to Jericho, including the refugee camp at Aqbat Jaber at the outskirts ofthe city. It is now risky to use the water from this spring for other thanirrigation purposes. This has created a serious problem for United NationsRelief and Works Agency for Palestine Refugees in the Near-East (UNRWA) thatmanages the camp to the point where they had to look for alternative sourcesof water and had to treat the spring water extensively.

Exploitation of mineral resources is not governed by environmentaland/or health laws. Israelis as well as Palestinians extract mineralresources without any consideration of the environmental effect. Noenvironmental impact studies or future site-redemption plans have beenundertaken. A notable example of Israeli exploitation of mineral resourceswithout regard for the environment and/or the surrounding residential areaswas the Dheishe quarry near Bethlehem. Quarrying has had a detrimental impacton the residents of the Dheishe refugee camp and the village of Ortas. TheIsraeli company managing the quarry did not heed a court order to cease the

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operation and move to another unpopulated area. The operation was shut downonly about two years ago for financial reasons. The site has since been soldto Palestinians but is no longer used as a quarry. Further details of thisissue will be discussed later.

Archaeological sites are scattered throughout the Palestinian territory,especially in the West Bank. No help has been extended to develop some of theexisting sites, especially those that lie beyond the roads used by tourists.Many of these sites belong to Muslims or Christians. In addition, certainarchaeological sites that have been discovered in the process of buildingroads or construction have been covered up. Artifacts found in these sitesare moved to Israeli museums. In one instance in Jerusalem, the ruins oflarge Byzantine and Armenian Christian settlements lying outside the Jerusalemwalls were covered and roads built over them.

Another practice that has scarred the landscape is the unregulated andindiscriminate extraction of large surface rocks for use as retainers formountainsides or as wavebreakers and wharfs along the seashores. Although therocks are used mainly in Israel, the extraction is done by Palestinians withthe approval of the Israeli authorities and without due consideration for theenvironment. The experience of Bir-Zeit University in this regard serves asan example of such a practice. Heavy earth-moving equipment was used on landowned by the University in 1991 and 1992, loosening and removing rocks andboulders under the protection of the Israeli military, but without permissionfrom the University. It took a major effort and many months of a legalstruggle to stop the operation. Such clandestine activity is currently underway in the same district but in areas owned by other villages. This practicehas caused soil erosion, as the removal of the large surface rocks has exposedthe rich virgin soil to weather away under the force of rain and wind.

The uprooting of trees is another practice that Israeli authorities haveresorted to in the Palestinian territory. Most of the uprooted trees arefruit producing, such as olive and citrus trees. The uprooting takes placeunder the pretext of security measures. Hundreds of thousands of trees haveso far been uprooted, thus adversely affecting livelihoods. This practicealso leaves the soil exposed to the forces of nature, including erosion.

The dumping of waste in the Palestinian territory has been another ofthe exploitive environmental practices resorted to by some Israelimunicipalities, such as Jerusalem, as well as by Israeli military authorities.

The relocation of certain polluting industries is yet another practiceharmful to the environment, such as the removal of an agrochemicals plant fromIsrael to Tulkarem. This plant produces agrochemicals through anenvironmentally unacceptable process, thus endangering surrounding lands andvillages.

2. Environmental legislation, enforcement and control mechanismsand institutional framework

As mentioned above, owing to the absence until 1993 of a governmentalbody to protect the environment, no environmental laws have been enacted orenforced in the Palestinian territory.

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An active Palestinian non-governmental institution concerned with theenvironment is the Centre for Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences(CEOHS) at Bir-Zeit University. Its work emphasizes studies on water qualityand possible pollution by organic and inorganic contaminants. Itsenvironmental education programme "Safe Use of Pesticides", aimed at thereduction of pesticide use in the territory, is well known. CEOHS is involvedin environmentally-sound sewage treatment and reuse programmes. It isdistinguished by its sophisticated laboratory that generates relevant data anda competent staff. In addition, it has strong links with the Palestiniancommunities and their relevant institutions. In 1993, CEOHS built a water andwastewater laboratory in the Gaza Strip to serve the entire population. It isrun in conjunction with a sister institution, the Gaza Environment Programme(GEP).

There have been other attempts to form societies or institutions dealingwith the environment in the West Bank and Gaza Strip, but they have notyielded significant results, mostly due to the lack of environmentalprotection professionals. The following is a list of current non-governmentalorganizations that have an active interest in one or more environment-relatedfields:

- Centre For Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences at Bir-Zeit University in the West Bank. CEOHS is involved in researchand services related to environmental contamination such as waterpollution, proper use of pesticides, wastewater treatmenttechnology and reuse and Integrated Pest Management (IPM) amongothers.

- The Community Health Unit, also at Bir-Zeit University, is mainlyinterested in parasitology and solid and liquid wastes.

- The Land and Water Establishment, part of the Arab Studies Societyin Jerusalem, deals with the legal aspects of land use and waterexpropriation.

- The Applied Research Institute in Bethlehem is mainly engaged inGeographical Information Systems (GIS) and in a variety ofenvironmentally related issues.

- Ecological Awareness is an environmental educational programme ofthe Lutheran schools in Jerusalem. This programme offersenvironmental education to high-school students, concentrating onecology.

- The Palestinian Hydrology Group is located in Jerusalem. Its mainactivity is to gather data on the aquifers in the Palestinianterritory.

- Land and the Environment, a recently established non-governmentalorganization, is engaged in environmental education and communityparticipation in municipal projects for cleaning up theenvironment.

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- In the Gaza Strip, the GEP and the Environmental Protection andResearch Institute (EPRI) are new facilities that are underfunded.GEP, in collaboration with CEOHS, has opened a water andwastewater laboratory in Gaza city to serve the entire Gaza Strip.In addition, an educational programme on the safe use ofpesticides is being run jointly by GEP, CEOHS and the Union ofAgricultural Works Committees. EPRI is concentrating on the issueof pesticides.

Needless to say, in view of the long neglect of the environment andowing to budgetary considerations and the growing interest in ecology,increasing importance is accorded to the environmental dimension ofdevelopment activities. An assessment of these institutions’ environmentalactivities is required in order to support and promote those institutions thatare performing meaningful and scientifically sound work. Lacking such anapproach the Palestinians are not likely to benefit from the proliferation ofunproductive institutions which duplicate efforts and waste precious resourcesthat could otherwise be used in economic and social projects.

3. Social attitudes towards the environment

Despite the growing interest in environmental issues, all the dimensionsof the environment have not yet received enough attention from the Palestiniancommunity. In the absence of an indigenous government, there has been nonational programme to raise environmental awareness. Survival - notenvironment - has been the people’s overriding daily concern over the last25 years. It is only when their immediate surroundings are affected thatenvironmental questions are raised. For example, on the issue of the Israeliquarry next to the refugee camp of Dheishe in Bethlehem, the town took theIsraeli company to court in the early 1980s because of the dust and noisepollution that was caused by the work at the quarry. It was recommended tothe court that the company be given 18 months to relocate to an uninhabitedarea. The court ruled in favour of the local population. That, however, didnot follow-up the ruling because of loopholes in military orders thatprevented the execution of civil rulings in the territory against Israel.Eight years later, the quarry was still active, but the owners ceased theiractivities after 1990 because of economic losses. The site was sold toPalestinians but is no longer used as a quarry.

The population again objected to the pollution from a small mineral oilreclamation and reprocessing plant that was relocated from Israel to theWest Bank. It was claimed that the plant released toxic and carcinogenicfumes to the surrounding inhabited area. This plant had previously been ownedby Israelis but was later sold to West Bank Palestinians who moved it to theWest Bank city of Tulkarem, without obtaining a permit from the municipality.The community of Tulkarem also protested, forcing it to relocate to yetanother West Bank location, where again the community is attempting to movethe factory. This plant is primitive and has no pollution control. Theprofit margin for reprocessing used oil is high. Recycling of oil waste is anenvironmentally-sound policy, but the process has to be carried out withmodern machines, which the present owners cannot afford.

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Needless to say, in order to enforce environmental legislation,incentives for businesses have to be provided with rules and regulations,particularly where there is no administration or enforcement capabilities -such as in Palestine. These incentives can be reduced interest loans, grantsand tax deductions, among others. Pollution control has a high capitalinvestment but in the long term pays for itself. The benefits of pollutioncontrol are for the concerned business and environmental conditions, as wellas reduced health expenditures.

There has not yet been any development of heavy Palestinian industriesand so the impact of industry on the environment has been minimal and may bedealt with if environmental protection laws are legislated and enforced. Thismay be one of the most urgent activities of the new Palestinian Authority andthe recently constituted Palestinian Council for the Environment that wouldcurtail possible environmental damage from industrialization and increasedurbanization and related construction. Strong environmental laws formulatedby an environmental authority should go hand-in-hand with economic developmentefforts. The mistakes of others vis-à-vis their environment should not berepeated in developing the Palestinian territory. Environmental laws caneasily be adapted from similar countries to suit the local situation.Enforcement of these laws is the key factor in preserving the environment forpresent and future generations as industrial development and urbanization areexpected to increase their role in economic and social development and in thetransformation of traditional society.

Like in other countries, Palestinian industries will probably try tooperate with minimal environmental protection. Most industries have not setstandards for protecting their environment. They tend to take advantage ofloopholes in municipal or health laws to do the least possible for theenvironment. This is mainly due to their low environmental awareness and lackof knowledge of the overall benefits of environmental protection.

4. Population

There are no accurate population estimates for the West Bank andGaza Strip. Figures from various sources are more or less based on theestimates of the Israel Central Bureau of Statistics (CBS) and so thepopulation is defined as those who are physically present in the territory atany one time. For example, those who are abroad for any reason are notincluded in the population estimates even if they hold identity cards issuedby either the Israeli occupation authorities for the inhabitants of theWest Bank and Gaza Strip or the Israeli Ministry of the Interior for theresidents of east Jerusalem. Hence, the official census underestimates theactual numbers. The actual population does not include those who fled thecountry during wars or others who lost their right to return because of therefusal of Israeli consulates abroad to renew their travel permits. Table 2presents one unofficial estimate of Palestinian population by geographicdistribution in 1990.

The Palestinian population in the West Bank was estimated in 1992 at1,005,600, and that of the Gaza Strip at 676,100, 8 / 47 per cent of whichwas under the age of 15 years and only 3.2 per cent over 65 years. From anenvironmentalist point of view, the younger age distribution of the populationallows easier and more effective environmental education. An education

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programme for farmers on the "Safe and Effective Use of Pesticides", run byCEOHS in the Jordan Valley, has revealed that most of the participatingfarmers were in their twenties. These young farmers have been able to absorband apply the information faster than anticipated. This should be true forother environmental educational programmes if the participants can be properlymotivated.

The rate of population increase in the Palestinian territory is one ofthe highest in the world, ranging from 2.5 to 3.5 per cent - the higher figureis for the Gaza Strip. This high rate of population growth, coupled with apossible return of a certain percentage of Palestinians from the diaspora,will put increasing pressure on available resources. Urbanization is alreadyreducing agricultural land as more houses are being built on farm land. Thissituation has become even more severe as more areas in surrounding towns andvillages have been expropriated or turned into "green zones" by Israel. Suchareas could have been used as urban expansion zones.

Increased population and urbanization will put further demands on watersupply and sanitation. There is already a serious shortage of water in thePalestinian territory (see tables 3 and 4). As mentioned elsewhere, thisshortage is due to the routing of most of the Palestinian water resources toIsrael and its settlement.

Most municipalities are having difficulty disposing of their solid andliquid wastes. Tables 5, 6, 7 and 8 indicate the shortages in manpower andequipment to carry out that task. Waste is disposed of in the most unsanitaryfashion, without due regard for the environment or nearby populated areas.Further increases in population have to be met with innovating technology asthe traditional waste disposal systems are antiquated and ineffective. Suchtechnology is already widely available and readily adaptable for thePalestinian territory. With limited land area and high population density,well-planned environmental strategies and programmes are the only solution toits pollution problems.

5. Regional environmental conditions

The geographical location of the Palestinian territory between Africa,Asia and Europe draws some of their climatic conditions to the territory bythe prevailing winds, and with it the pollution originating in other areas.For example, unconfirmed reports appeared in local Israeli newspapers thatcertain crops were contaminated by radioactivity from the Chernobyl nuclearaccident and the products were alleged to have been sold in the local markets.From late winter until mid-spring, the hot and dry khamasini (sand storms fromthe east) affects the territory. This climate causes health problems,especially upper respiratory tract infections. During the khamasini minoralgal blooms occur in the Mediterranean as the fine dust that is transportedfrom the Sahara carries mineral nutrients with it. The last khamasini storm,in April 1994, caused extensive damage to crops in the Gaza Strip, ripping offthe plastic film that covered the greenhouses, exposing the crops to itsextreme winds. This storm was recorded by the Israeli meteorological serviceas one of the hottest in many years.

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Excessive pumping of the aquifers in both Palestine and Israel isdeteriorating these limited water resources. The most evident is the increasein salination of water in some parts of the Palestinian territory and much ofIsrael.

Marine pollution, both coastal and deep sea, has affected marine life inthe Mediterranean. It is estimated at the local level that the catch is50 per cent of what it used to be 40 to 50 years ago. There is more than onefactor that reduces the Mediterranean biomass, but pollution and overfishingare the primary causes. An oil spill along the shores of the Gaza Strip canaffect the lives and livelihood of its population. The saying that "pollutionknows no boundaries" is easily applied to the Mediterranean, this ecologicallyfragile sea. It has limited circulation and its waters are exchanged with theAtlantic Ocean only once every several hundred years and thus pollution tendsto circulate within this sea.

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Chapter II

ENVIRONMENTAL CONDITIONS IN THE PALESTINIAN TERRITORY

A. Agricultural practices and the environment

Agriculture continues to be the largest sector in terms of itscontribution to GDP. Its share was 23 per cent at the end of the 1980s,declining from a high of 36 per cent in the early 1970s in the West Bank.Prior to 1967, agricultural land was more or less organically treated,i.e. external chemical input was minimal compared to today. In addition, morepeople were involved in agriculture as compared to recent years when farmersopted to work in Israel for various reasons, including more secure and higherincomes, rather than trying to maintain a steady income from agriculture.Since 1991, Israeli restrictions on the movement of Palestinians to Israelhas slowed this trend and could result in serious social and economicrepercussions on the lives of those involved. It has already encouraged alimited "return to the land" of a segment of the population, including manywith little agricultural experience. Thus, a training/rehabilitationprogramme for labourers who intend to engage in agriculture is needed. Thefollowing sections depict the impact on the environment of currentagricultural practices.

1. Soil erosion

The abandonment of agricultural land has led to soil erosion, asterraces, for which the West Bank is well known, started eroding with thecollapse of the stone retaining walls. In some areas, the situation became soserious that entire hillsides lost their topsoil. This has prompted manygrassroots organizations to request foreign aid for land reclamation, i.e. torebuild the stone walls and rehabilitate the land with terraces. Of equalimportance is to induce farmers to return to cultivating the land. This hasbecome more possible as Israel has closed off the Palestinian territory,preventing tens of thousands of people from working in Israel. If thissituation continues and if the industrial sector cannot absorb much of thelabour force, there could eventually be a significant return of labour to therural/agricultural sector as the only option for generating income and forsurvival. Palestinians need to examine this situation closely and, to theextent possible, aim for self-sufficiency in food production and expandingmarkets that are needed for the anticipated increase in agricultural output.

Land reclamation costs about $100 per dunum for previously cultivated butabandoned land. This cost assumes more manual than mechanized labour. Torehabilitate land that was not cultivated and is considered marginal costsaround $180 to 200 per dunum using heavy machinery. 9 / In the late 1970sand early 1980s, the United States Government was interested in bringing heavymachinery to help NGOs to rehabilitate some of the rocky marginal lands butthe Israeli authorities refused the idea. 10 / Many rocky areas can beturned into productive farmland with proper management. Under the exposedrocks lies rich virgin soil. It is important that large-scale projects ofthis type be preceded by environmental impact studies in order to assess anydamage to the environment, such as erosion due to rain and wind.

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2. Pesticides

Current agricultural practices rely heavily on external sources ofinformation to increase production. Palestinian farmers have learned throughcontacts with Israeli agriculture the system of modern intensive agriculturebut, regrettably, without the associated scientific monitoring and extensionservices. This has resulted in excessive use of agrochemicals, specificallypesticides and fertilizers. In 1992, CEOHS estimated the use of pesticides tobe about 7.5 kilogram per dunum per year in open irrigated agriculture and11 kilogram per dunum per year in greenhouses. Such figures are alarming andunnecessary. One of the problems is the lack of information in the Arabiclanguage for farmers on the optimum uses of pesticides and dosages in thefield. The Israeli Ministry of Agriculture has recently begun to translateHebrew labels into Arabic, as the Israeli extension services have demandedthat pesticide containers labelled in Arabic should start appearing on themarket. The CEOHS programme on the "Safe and Effective Use of Pesticides",mentioned earlier, instructed farmers on the safety measures to be used inhandling pesticides, and on how to dose pesticides for a particular pest ordisease. Participants in the programme said that they were using only 25 to35 per cent of what they had previously used, but with the same effects. Thisachievement compares well with the work of other institutions dealing withenvironmental education.

Pesticides are the major environmental hazard in the region. They haveincreased pest resistance to a cocktail of pesticides so that new and moreexpensive pesticides have to be introduced every year. The situation isespecially serious in the Jordan Valley where intensive agriculture ispractised. The assumption that pesticides are adulterated is not backed up bythe studies performed at CEOHS. It is more probable that the reduced efficacyof pesticides is a result of pest resistance, a very serious situation forfarmers that can only be addressed through Integrated Pest Management. Poorstorage conditions is another but less important contributor to lowerpesticide efficiency. It is worth noting that, internationally, few newpesticides have been developed in the past decade because of governmentregulations and the expensive and lengthy procedures needed to test theirtoxicity and efficacy, which runs into several millions of dollars.

Pesticides are also reducing the wildlife, especially birds includingraptors. In Israel and the Palestinian territory, a number of pesticidesbanned in the United States or Europe because of their toxicity to wildlifeare officially registered by the Israeli Ministry of Agriculture. 11 /Israel and the Palestinian territory are heavy users of the pesticide methylbromide, which is implicated in the destruction of the ozone layer, and is40 times more powerful than CFC (chlorofluorocarbon) compounds. Israel is oneof the major international producers of methyl bromide. Table 9 lists thecommonly used pesticides in the Palestinian territory and table 10 thepesticides that are in common use locally but that are banned elsewhere.Pesticides are banned or restricted because they cause a variety of dangeroushealth and environmental effects, such as carcinogenicity, teratogenicity ortoxicity to wildlife, and because they persist in the environment.

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The Israeli Plant Protection Laboratory has found the banned carcinogenicpesticide, ethylene dibromide (EDB), in some water samples in the Gaza Strip.Regrettably, the responsible authorities have taken no notice of these resultsor have opted not to do anything about them. With the amount of pesticidesused in the Palestinian territory, estimated by CEOHS to be between 1,500 and2,000 tons per year, there are fears that some shallow water resources,especially in the coastal region and in the Jordan Valley, may already havebeen contaminated. CEOHS is currently involved in a major survey of thequality of underground water, with special emphasis on contamination bypesticides and other priority organic pollutants.

3. Fertilizers

The impact of the increased use of fertilizers has not yet been studied,but it is clear from the figures obtained recently that fertilizers too areused excessively, especially in irrigated land. The total estimated annualconsumption of fertilizers is about 30,000 tons. The rate of applicationranges between 80 and 160 kilograms per dunum per year depending on the typeof produce, availability of water for irrigation, and if they are used ingreenhouses. These figures are high by any standards.

Initial reports on water quality from areas where agriculture isintensively practised indicate the presence of nitrates in concentrations farabove the WHO recommended limit of 10 mg/litre of nitrates as nitrogen. Thisis especially true for the Gaza Strip where sewage is expected to add to thetotal nitrate input. The situation will be resolved pending water qualitystudies to be done at the CEOHS laboratory in Gaza, which is equipped tohandle water and wastewater samples for chemical and biological assays.

4. Irrigation

Overirrigation is not a significant problem in Palestine. On thecontrary, if more water had been made available to farmers more areas wouldhave been exploited for agriculture. Most farmers interviewed, especially inthe Jordan Valley, complained of limited water availability and claim that50 per cent of the land they exploit is idle because of this. However, moreefficient irrigation methods not only save water but also allow agriculture toexpand. Systems such as drip irrigation are used increasingly. Funding anddevelopment agencies give some assistance to needy farmers to purchase dripirrigation systems.

Drip irrigation is one of the more efficient systems for conservingwater. Although Palestinians are increasingly using this system, their choiceof support and control equipment is still basic. In Israel, drip irrigationsystems have become more efficient and are matched to climatic conditions,soil humidity and crops. In addition, the Israelis use automation to controlthe volume and timing of irrigation and the use of fertilizers. Thesemeasures increase the efficacy of the drip irrigation systems and optimize thecrops’ ability to absorb water and nutrients. The initial investment costsare high, but the savings in terms of water consumption is higher, as is thecrop yield.

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5. Agricultural plastic

Plastic is a significant source of pollution in the Palestinianterritory. The use of plastic in agriculture and for industrial and domesticpurposes is escalating rapidly. The impact of plastic pollution onagriculture has become so serious that intervention is needed soon. Plastichas many benefits for agriculture, has boosted production, and modernagriculture cannot do without it. However, some of the thousands of tons usedannually are finding their way into the soil and the rest is being burnedrather than recycled. Plastic film, as well as plastic pipes used forirrigation (currently being burned), is made of polyethylene which is easy torecycle. Some alarming yet realistic figures indicate that 30 per cent of theplastic film used in agriculture as ground cover or for greenhouses is left inthe field and ploughed, and is thus changing the physical characteristics ofthe soil and reducing productivity because it acts as a barrier to themovement of water and nutrients in the soil. It also acts as a physicalbarrier by preventing roots from penetrating the soil, resulting in unhealthyplants. There are also yearly recorded and unrecorded deaths of sheep andgoats that die from eating plastic film. Low profit margins and employinglabourers to collect the plastic, together with a lack of environmentalawareness, has turned easily solvable problems into major issues. A plasticrecycling programme is urgently needed.

The following estimates, taken from a variety of unpublished sources andpersonal investigations, indicate the amount of plastic used in agriculture inthe Palestinian territory:

- 132 million metres of drip irrigation piping with a life-spanof 7 years, which includes the larger pipes supplying water to thedrip pipes;

- 6,000 tons of plastic ground film with a life-span of oneagricultural season. Around 70 per cent is collected and burnedand the remaining 30 per cent is left on or in the ground;

- 2,000 tons of plastic film to cover greenhouses that has alife-span of 2 years, after which it is collected and burned in theopen.

6. Extension services

Various factors affect the efficient use of water and the excessive useof fertilizers and pesticides, the most important of which is the paucity ofextension services for farmers. Government extension services have beencurtailed since 1967 to the point that they have become ineffective.Palestinian farmers claim this to be part of a policy aimed at reducing therole of Palestinian agriculture and inducing farmers to work as labourers inIsrael.

There has been a virtual end to agricultural research as experimentalstations also were closed over the years, and so no practical demonstrationscould be offered to farmers. The new ideas that farmers learned in Israelwere blindly copied with no evaluation of their suitability to their ownfarming systems or markets and thus resulted in crop damage and financial

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losses. The only advice for farmers came from local merchants who sold arange of agricultural supplies. The merchants obtained their information fromIsraeli suppliers. Thus, limited information was provided to farmers, andonly for products that were marketed.

7. Comparative experiences in some neighbouring countries

The situation in some neighbouring countries is not much better than thatin the Palestinian territory concerning the use of agrochemicals and othermaterials needed for production. For example, the situation in Jordan,Lebanon and Egypt have similar problems with the use of pesticides to thosenoted above. 12 / The situation in Israel, however, is slowly changing nowthat the Ministry of the Environment has begun to put into effect legislationto protect the environment. One important law imposes penalties on farmers ifthey leave agricultural plastic in their fields. There are now incentives toinvestors to recycle such plastic. A new facility was set up for that purposewith credit provided by the Government. Farmers now pay the recyclingindustry to recycle these plastics rather than pay the penalty - anencouraging and environmentally responsible step.

Agricultural production techniques have an impact on the environment andcan "spill over to other sectors of the economy". 13 / This has been truefor the trade of farm produce across countries. It is common for importers toreturn pesticide-contaminated produce to the country of origin. In addition,agricultural production techniques overburden the rural economy as a result ofthe increased financial input in the agricultural sector from agrochemicalsand the investment in new and more pest-resistant crop varieties to overcomethe massive pest assault resulting in pesticide misuse. In the Palestinianterritory, there is evidence that pesticides cost between 25 and 35 per centof the cash input, a comparatively high cost. 14 /

B. Urbanization and the environment

1. Sewage

The built-up areas in the West Bank and Gaza Strip are estimated torepresent about 3.2 per cent of the total land area of the territory, whileroads represent only 0.2 per cent. 15 / The policy followed since 1967 hasbeen to limit building permits within municipal boundaries. In addition,municipal boundaries have been reduced to the minimum. This policy followsthe same lines as adopted in Israel since 1948, whereby building in Arab areaswas severely restricted creating a housing shortage. 16 / Most Israeli Arabcommunities were forced to build vertically much against their tradition tobuild horizontally. The Arab built-up areas in Israel are generallyovercrowded with inadequate services for water supplies, sanitation or evenroads. Although the situation in the Palestinian territory is generallybetter, the restrictions on construction and the confiscation of land hascreated conditions similar to those in the Arab residential areas of Israel.

Unless corrective measures are taken, urbanization in that fashion willpose a further threat to the environment. None of the municipalities has agood plan to deal with its liquid and solid waste. One of the main reasons isthe lack of professionals in the field of sanitation within municipalities, aswell as the difficulty in obtaining permits for waste-disposal sites. Also

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there are very few professionals in environmental engineering and sanitationand most are not placed in suitable jobs. Thus, municipalities have to dependon advice from external consultants who may not have the best interest of thecommunity in mind due to their limited knowledge of the area and itspopulation. This situation has resulted in the improper design of sewagetreatment plants in some municipalities, as has occurred in Gaza City andJabalia in the Gaza Strip. In addition, the municipalities neither haveenough funds for design nor the professional staff to implement publicsanitation projects. Environmental impact analysis in such projects is nearlyabsent as funders rarely demand such information. Only one NGO based in eastJerusalem (ANERA) has recently included environmental impact analysis as acondition for the design and implementation of projects to improve sewagecollection, treatment and the reuse of treated wastewater for irrigation.

Expertise in environmental impact analysis is almost non-existent in theterritory. In addition, local experience in the management of wastewatertreatment plants and the reuse of wastewater for irrigation is lacking. Reuseof wastewater for agriculture promises to be a viable option if scientificallymonitored because treated wastewater is rich in minerals and salts, especiallyin such an arid region where sewage has a high biochemical oxygen demand(BOD), in the range of 700 to 900 mg/litre, due to low per capita waterconsumption. Biochemical oxygen demand is measured in milligrams ofoxygen/litre. The higher the BOD, the more concentrated the sewage, i.e. ithas a high organic content and needs a lot of oxygen for metabolization by theliving biomass in the sewage. High BOD in urban sewage reflects low percapita water consumption. In comparison, there are a few companies that selltreated wastewater to farmers in some parts of Israel. The components of thewastewater are analysed and supplied to the customer so that they may adjustthe level of fertilizers or dilution needed for different types ofagriculture. In addition, wastewater reuse should be supplemented with aneducational programme for the end user to explain the benefits, drawbacks andpossible health hazards associated with wastewater reuse.

Per capita water consumption in the territory varies between 20 and60 litres per day for domestic use alone in different communities, whichare 3 to 4 times less than those in Israel. 17 / Assuming an average percapita water consumption of 40 litres per day for a population of 2 million,the volume of sewage output for the territory would be around 80,000 m 3 perday. The low per capita water consumption raises the BOD level in wastewater,imposing extra demands on sewage treatment plants to reduce it to theacceptable levels of around 30 to 40 mg/litre.

2. Solid waste

Solid waste is another environmental issue which is largely ignored inthe territory and the volume of solid waste generated is underestimated. Mostreports are about solid waste that is collected by towns and cities withinmunicipal boundaries, estimated at 1 to 1.5 kilogram per person per day.These information sources omit the waste that accumulates outside theseboundaries and that which is generated in villages. Even within municipalboundaries, solid waste is not always delivered to garbage containers but tonearby fields, abandoned plots and wadis. It often consists of old householdappliances, abandoned cars and metal items of various origin as well as rubblefrom construction and excavation sites.

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There is no organized system for waste disposal from construction sites.It is found on rural roads (in millions of tons) some of which have beennarrowed because of this "illegal" dumping. It has scarred the once beautifulland of Palestine and has become an eyesore. This form of pollution has to bedealt with by the relevant authorities. One solution is to use the rubblein situ to widen the roads. Proper disposal sites could be found in old orabandoned quarries. The rubble also includes waste from the stone-processingindustry, referred to below.

Municipal waste is usually dumped a few kilometres from towns, either inthe vicinity of another village or in an agreed upon area. The choice of siteis mainly influenced by their proximity to the municipality. Often, whencities expand, dumps appear in the middle of built-up areas. The closure ofmany areas by military authorities has compounded the problem of findingsuitable dumping sites.

Municipal waste is incinerated in most dumps in the open in order toreduce its volume. Incineration is a simple, slow-burning process thatreleases smoke and toxins into the atmosphere as no closed incinerators areused. Very often, smoke from smouldering dumps drifts over residential areas,for example, Ramallah and nearby Beitunia, affecting large areas downwind fromthe dumps.

Burning garbage containers is common in the territory. Those containersare filled faster than the municipality can dispose of them and nearbyresidents burn the garbage to reduce the volume and smell. In most villages,there is no garbage collection and individuals are responsible for dealingwith the garbage as they see fit. Most garbage containers are defective andhave damaged or missing covers. They are breeding grounds for flies andfeeding bins for stray dogs, cats and vermin. Although the municipalities areadvised to seek alternatives to this system, their lack of finances to providemanpower and equipment is a hindrance.

Plastic, especially plastic bags, has polluted the urban and ruralenvironment. Paper bags have mostly been replaced by plastic. Plasticbeverage and medicine bottles are also common. Most of the plastic that iscollected in urban and rural areas is disposed of in garbage dumps where it isburned instead of recycled.

The problem of plastic disposal has to be addressed soon. One solutionis to recycle the plastic, a successful and profitable practice usedelsewhere, including Israel, rather than burning it, which is very costly.There is a worldwide market for recycled plastic and many countries export orimport it because of its relatively low cost. Recycled plastic is anexcellent raw material for many plastic manufacturing processes and reducesthe cost of importing large quantities of the virgin raw material.

Solid waste should be recycled as much as possible and non-recyclablematerial should be incinerated. More on this issue appears below. Afterstudies are conducted and environmental impact analysis performed, solid wastedump sites should be carefully chosen in order to prevent the leakage ofhazardous chemicals to underground water. The bottom of the dump site shouldbe lined with clay and other impermeable material. Leachates are treated likehazardous waste i.e. depending on their composition.

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C. Industrial activities and the environment

Industry’s impact on the environment is minimal in the Palestinianterritory because of its small contribution to the economy and the absence, sofar, of heavy industry. However, building industrial zones close toresidential areas is worrying and is done because of restrictions imposed onmunicipal boundaries so that areas originally meant to be industrial zones areencroached on by houses. Relocating industrial areas, after careful study ofthe proposed sites and their impact on the environment, is a major task forthe Palestinian authorities.

The largest industry in the territory is stone quarrying and processing.In certain districts, the quarries are too close to residential areas. TheDheishe quarry, formerly owned by Israelis and mentioned earlier, and theQalandia quarries, owned by Palestinians, are prime examples. The generationof dust is a major problem that can easily be controlled by spraying waterduring the production of crushed aggregates, a method universally adopted manyyears ago. The use of properly treated and disinfected wastewater fromnearby urban areas is also feasible. But there are no rules or regulations toforce the owners of those quarries to comply with environmental measures.Reducing dust increases production costs, but it is only a small price to payfor improved community health and reduced health expenditures.

Quarrying is not practised with environmental conservation in mind, asthere are no laws that govern this extractive activity. Entire mountains havebeen scarred by both Palestinians and Israelis without any plans forrehabilitating the land. Abandoned quarries could be used for disposing ofwaste from the construction industry, and then planted with trees. Thissolution is both practical and beneficial as these sites can serve recreationareas. As an example, in Japan, where land prices are high, dump sites arefilled and turned into public recreation areas. In other countries, trees areplanted and the whole quarry is rehabilitated.

The stone-processing industry is located in different sites throughoutthe territory. Two of its by-products are stone debris and stone slurry.Most owners prefer to dump the stone rubble in nearby fields and along roads.The stone slurry is also dumped nearby. It is toxic to plants as it clogs thepores in the soil and rapidly kills the plants. Areas where this slurry wasdumped have become barren. It is not clear yet how long it takes for thoseareas to recover, as this type of dumping is recent. The solution to thisproblem lies in providing settling ponds, reusing the water on site anddisposing of the powdery sludge in a suitable, environmentally sound fashion.In the Nablus area, the stone slurry is released in the sewage flowing out ofNablus, which overloads sewage treatment plants with large amounts ofnon-biodegradable and non-incinerating sludge. It also alters the pH of thesewage, causing changes in the biomass and drastically reducing the efficiencyof the treatment process. This was demonstrated in a pilot project carriedout by an NGO in collaboration with CEOHS to treat the Al-Bireh municipalitywastewater.

Air pollution from industrial sources is localized and insignificant.The major sources are vehicles and Israeli industrial activities along thecoast. The latter is treated at the source before it becomes a health risk.

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However, the acid content of this "imported" pollution has not been studied soits possible environmental impact on the Palestinian territory cannot beassessed, but it is likely that it poses no serious health hazards.

D. Impact of development on water resources

Although water resources in the West Bank have been relatively safe fromsewage and other forms of pollution, the situation is changing rapidly. Intests carried out at CEOHS, faecal coliform bacteria were found in some of thesamples analysed from several water resources from the centre of theWest Bank, specifically from some of the Ein Samia wells, east of Ramallah.The contamination, though transitionary, was alarming. The findings served asa warning that water resources are being threatened by pollution and thatserious measures to protect them should be initiated soon. Protection of wellheads is a measure that should be considered by well operators and should helpprotect underground water resources from contamination by preventing sewageseepage within the vicinity of the well.

The situation in the Gaza Strip is far more serious, as preliminaryresults from water quality tests have indicated the presence of nitrates thatare above acceptable levels. It is not clear yet if the nitrates originatedfrom fertilizers or sewage. In addition, faecal coliform bacteria originatingfrom sewage have also been found in some wells. CEOHS is conducting anextensive study of water quality in all of the Palestinian territory,including the Gaza Strip.

Salinity is increasing in many parts of the territory. Again, theGaza Strip is the most affected since it is on the coast, but parts of thenorthern and southern sectors of the West Bank and much of the Jordan Valleyare also experiencing the same trend. A recent analysis by CEOHS of springwater from areas in the Hebron district indicate a high level of conductivityranging from 1,300 to 2,500 micro-siemens. An increase in conductivity isdirectly related to an increase in salinity. As a comparison, the watersupplied to the Ramallah district is excellent, with conductivity levels of500 to 600 micro-siemens. In some parts of the Gaza Strip and the JordanValley, conductivity exceeds the level of 4,000 micro-siemens. Such water istoo salty for irrigating most crops, let alone for drinking.

The increase in water salinity can be attributed to overpumping of theexisting water resources by Israel’s exploitation of Palestinian waterresources. The water table is falling in many parts of the territory leadingto an imbalance between fresh and brackish water in the centre of theterritory. There are pockets of ancient brackish water in some areas,remnants of the inundation of the territory by sea water in previousgeological areas. In coastal areas, sea water is intruding into the coastalaquifer.

Overexploitation of the tributaries of the Jordan river by all theneighbouring countries has been diminished and its importance lessened as asource of fresh water in the sections south of lake Tiberias. In addition,run-off from agricultural areas in the Jordan Valley and to the north hasincreased the salinity of the water and thus limits its use in agriculture.Palestinians have been deprived of using the Jordan river water since the1967 occupation on the pretext that the area lies in a border security zone.

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Thousands of dunums of land have been confiscated from Palestinian farmers forthat reason. At the same time, Israeli settlements have been established inthat region, heavily exploiting the available water resources.

Because Israel has controlled all water resources in the occupiedPalestinian territory (OPT) since 1967, it is responsible to initiate measuresto protect these resources from pollution without depriving the Palestiniansof exploiting them. It has been estimated that over 80 per cent ofPalestinian water goes to Israel and its settlements, and any pollutionthat occurs in these aquifers will affect them too. 18 /

Sewage treatment and proper solid waste disposal are important measuresto protect the limited water resources and appropriate agricultural practicesshould be initiated. Profits from the sale of fertilizers and pesticides maybe beneficial in the short term, but their overuse will cause environmentaldisasters for both the Israelis and the Palestinians.

E. Deforestation

Palestine has not had extensive forests for many hundreds of years andcurrently do not make up more than 0.5 per cent of the total land area.Factors ranging from climate to overgrazing are responsible for deforestation.In marginal land and areas where grazing is prohibited, forests tend tore-establish themselves, though grazing is currently the main problem impedingtheir resurgence. People can assist this natural process by planting treesalthough military laws prohibit Palestinians from planting trees on a widescale, especially forest trees. As mentioned previously, this appears to belinked to the Israeli policy to allow run-off from rainwater to flow westwardto replenish Israeli aquifers.

In addition, Israeli authorities have opposed the planting of trees sothat there will be no legal obstacles to confiscating the land. The presenceof trees slows the legal procedures of confiscation. Since 1967, Israelimilitary authorities have uprooted hundreds of thousands of trees;147,087 trees were uprooted from the beginning of the intifada inDecember 1987 until 1993. 19 /

Thus, another task awaiting the future Palestinian government is anintensive campaign for reforestation. The proper combination of trees shouldbe chosen for each region. These should be native trees that are well adaptedto the local environment. In its bid to reforest parts of Israel, the IsraelLand Administration erred in its choice of some tree species to the extentthat many of these newly forested areas are experiencing massive tree deaths.Such trees included some species of pine and cyprus which are the mostcommonly planted forest trees because of their rapid growth rates, but whichappear to be unsuited to the local climate.

F. Marine and coastal environment

One of the serious ecological disturbances in the eastern Mediterraneansea was associated with the building of the Aswan High Dam. Although the dammay have helped to expand arable land and helped to ward off droughts, it hasadversely affected marine life and the coastal line of the Palestinianterritory. The Nile river, the major fresh water source for the eastern

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Mediterranean region, used to supply most of the nutrients needed for marinelife in that region. It also supplied and replenished sand for the coast ofPalestine and to some extent Lebanon. Gaza, in particular, has suffered mostfrom the dam. Its fishing was seriously affected and the net catch and alsothe size of fish and crustacea were reduced.

Added to this was the erosion of sand from the coasts of Palestine whichis a serious problem for Gaza. Israel has built wavebreakers in many areas tostem the loss of sand, but none was built in the Gaza Strip. The sinking oftwo ships near Gaza City in the Arab-Israeli war of 1967 contributed to sandlosses, because the direction of the waves was diverted. Measures to preserveand allow for the natural replenishment of the sand should be started soon.

Protection of the marine environment from pollution is a priority for theGaza Strip. Properly treated and disinfected sewage will cause little harm tothe marine environment if piped deep into the sea, because the sea dilutes it.A precondition is that it be free from toxic industrial waste. Obviously, thefirst priority is to reuse the treated sewage for agricultural and industrialprojects, assuming that the community will give its consent. Treated sewagemay also be used as cooling water in power-generating plants and then eitherreleased or reused for agriculture and other purposes.

G. Energy consumption

Palestinians have relied almost entirely on Israel for their energyneeds, i.e. electricity and fossil fuel and gas. The supply of differentsources of energy is one of the most critical issues to be dealt with priorto undertaking any programmes to revive socio-economic activities and theirsustained long-term development.

Fuel consumption by vehicles is estimated to range from 200,000 to350,000 m 3 per year. The number of vehicles owned by Palestinians is estimatedat 100,000, or 1 vehicle for every 20 individuals, 20 / a relatively lowfigure compared with many countries. Since the beginning of the intifada, thepurchase of new or old cars has nearly come to a halt. This is mainly due tothe economic impact of the uprising, the declining economic situation as aresult of the Gulf War, and the frequent closure of the territories, all ofwhich had adverse effects on income levels. The insecurity due to the violentatmosphere in the territory and the confiscation of vehicles by the militaryhave added to the problem. The fuel-burning efficiency of older cars is lessthan the new models currently on the market. As of 1993, new cars imported toIsrael must have a catalytic converter to reduce exhaust emissions and mustuse unleaded fuel, which is less toxic to human beings and the environment.

Data on energy consumption for home heating and cooking are notavailable. Electricity needs are estimated at about 150 megawatts. 21 /Over 80 per cent is met by the Israel Electric Corporation. Electricityproduction by Palestinians is marginal and is mostly relegated to villagesthat are not connected to the main Israeli network and that depend on theirown generators. In such areas, electricity is supplied for only a few hours aday. Industry consumes less than 10 per cent of the total electricity supplybecause of its marginal role in the economy. This situation is expected tochange as the Palestinians assume responsibility for their economy and accordpriority to the industrial sector.

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Households use two forms of fuel for cooking or home heating - keroseneand bottled gas. Charcoal and wood are still used, mainly for heating and toa lesser extent for cooking in rural communities. Bottled gas is composed ofa mixture of propane and butane supplied in 4 sizes - bottles of 12, 24, 36and 48 kilograms, the 12-kilogram size being the most popular because of theease of transporting it. Kerosene is mostly used as a home-heating fuel. Theuse of home-heating diesel fuel is marginal and limited to households in urbanareas that have central heating.

Many bakeries rely on used motor oil as a source of fuel to heat theirovens. This is an undesirable practice as most bakeries are located withinresidential areas. Used motor oil is contaminated with toxic heavy metalsfrom engine particles and leaded fuel and contains high levels of organiccontaminants resulting from the burning process. All these contaminants arereleased into the atmosphere in inhabited areas, thus exposing the nearbypopulations to unnecessary high levels of contamination. Used engine oil canbe easily replaced by diesel fuel. In addition, the burners used are simplehome-made devices with a very low fuel efficiency and incomplete burning.

Solar energy for heating water is common and is an inexpensive and cleanenergy source. Solar heaters are manufactured locally and their efficiency isof acceptable standards as compared to their cost. Solar technology has beenadopted from the Israelis. However, the Palestinians have not kept pace withsolar technology developments in Israel. Solar panels developed in Israel aremore efficient than the locally produced panels and use more sophisticated andcostly materials. While Palestinians produce solar collectors of acceptablequality, there is practically no quality control in manufacturing plants.In Israel and elsewhere there are highly specialized institutes engaged,inter alia , in establishing quality standards for almost all manufacturedproducts.

H. Climatic disturbances

The region has had occasional climatic disturbances that have causedsevere damage to infrastructures, agriculture and ecology in general. Forexample, the Palestinian territory had a severe winter in 1991-1992. Whilethis unusually cold and wet winter helped to replenish the aquifers, it causedgreat losses in the agricultural sector. Electricity was interrupted for manyweeks in some localities and all regions suffered. The cold killed most ofthe plants in the Jordan Valley, including the vegetable and banana fields,and the citrus trees were damaged. There was a shortage of fresh producethroughout the territory and prices rose dramatically. This severe weathermay indicate a global change in climate.

Climatic changes exposed the fragility of public utilities and theirinfrastructure. Electricity was interrupted because of broken power lines andpoles. Much of the electricity is supplied through above-the-ground cables.Water-supply networks were also disrupted. Areas with sewage collectionnetworks were filled with storm water as sewers are connected to storm-waterdrainage systems and sewage flooded the streets. The weather also exposed theweakness of the emergency system in dealing with shortages of equipment andpersonnel. Minor landslides and serious soil erosion in many parts of theterritory also occurred. Such climatic changes, even if infrequent, callfor the rehabilitation and development of the physical infrastructure.

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Ecologically, little harm was inflicted by the 1991-1992 winter,except for soil erosion. An interesting development in Israel was that as aconsequence of the heavy rain, the drained Al-Huleh lake and swampy areas wererefilled, almost to the level prior to the draining of the area many decadesago. Before 1948, the Al-Huleh lake provided refuge and feeding grounds formigratory birds. The lake acted as a buffer in balancing the water table inthe region. Plans are under way in Israel to reflood the lake.

I. Indoor pollution

Indoor pollution is most significant in the winter because many homes areheated by unprotected indoor fires, especially in rural areas and poor urbanquarters. In urban areas, home-heating fuels include kerosene and to alimited extent bottled gas and diesel oil. These types of fuel create highlevels of indoor pollution which is more intense when ventilation is reduced.Kerosene and diesel oil in heating stoves and furnaces burn at a lowertemperature and produce carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide, both deadly gases,as well as unburned kerosene and diesel oil. However, heating stoves usingbottled gas are more efficient and burn gases at a higher temperature,producing nitrous oxides in addition to carbon dioxide. Nitrous oxides aretoxic and cause irritation of the mucous membranes. As the industrial sectorbegins to expand, these and other kinds of industrial pollution could posesevere problems to the Palestinian environment.

The burning of wood and charcoal as a home-heating fuel is more popularin rural areas but causes a few deaths every year because it produces highlevels of carbon monoxide in addition to an assortment of burned by-products,some of which are known carcinogens.

Industry has a variety of indoor pollution problems and there are noindustrial hygienists in the territory to offer advice. There are also nolaws to protect workers from undue exposure to pollutants in their workplace.Most factories lack air handling and ventilation systems and thus dusts andvapours remain indoors instead of being exhausted outside. Industrialiststhemselves are not aware of the problem and are equally exposed. For example,excessive noise levels in the weaving and stone-processing factories are farabove acceptable levels as there are no local standards. 22 /

J. Urban noise pollution

Noise pollution has not yet been studied in the Palestinian territory andthere are no data available. Casual observations point to traffic as its maincause, as well as noise from aircraft, including sonic booms. Countries haveintroduced measures to control noise pollution and it should be given seriousattention as society becomes more affluent and begins to enjoy a higherstandard of material goods.

Social and economic development requires programmes for environmentalprotection. Environmental laws need to be legislated along with enforcementmeasures and the mechanisms for their implementation. The desire for economicand social well-being and freedom must not be allowed to take precedence overenvironmental protection. Neglecting this vital element will be more costlyto present and future generations in terms of life, health services, economicwell-being and damage to the environment than the initial cost of protectingit.

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Chapter III

DEVELOPMENT PROSPECTS AND THE ENVIRONMENT IN THE PALESTINIAN TERRITORY

Introduction

The Declaration of Principles and the subsequent accords on thePalestinian self-governing authority, signed between Israel and Palestine,serve as a basis for initiating efforts on the immediate improvement of thesocio-economic situation in the Palestinian territory and planning itssustained long-term development. This empowerment of the Palestinian peopleprovides them with the authority to plan and manage their own economic andsocial goals, strategies and policies. It also will allow them to controltheir natural resource s - a right denied them for well over a quarter of acentury. Environmental aspects are expected to figure prominently in theexploitation of Palestinian natural resources, within the context of theiroverall development efforts.

Empowerment also has demographic implications. It implies thatPalestinians will be able to resettle in their homeland. Accommodating agrowing population, including returnees, needs to be carefully planned inorder to minimize their adverse impact on the environment. This includescarrying out extensive environmental impact analyses for housing, agriculturaland industrial projects in an integrated manner. For example, developing ahousing area calls for comprehensive planning for water and sewage networksand for the proper disposal of sewage and refuse. Work and recreation areasneed to be planned in conjunction with housing projects to preventlong-distance commuting, an important issue in the successful functioning ofcommunities and one that contributes to environmental management andprotection.

People who are comfortable in their surroundings usually have positiveattitudes towards social and environmental factors as they value what theyhave and work hard to preserve it. But people in overcrowded and poorlydeveloped areas tend to have problems that are manifested in their attitudesand behaviour, including tendencies among the young towards criminal acts.Environmental damage in those neighbourhoods is more prominent. Given thehigh percentage of young people in the territory, urban planning needs to takethese points into consideration. The many demands of the younger generation,from schooling to entertainment, are different from the older generations andhence their needs have to be planned for. If not, the community is likely toexperience social unrest and increased crime.

A prominent and welcome development is the prospect of peace in theregion which began with the signing of the Declaration of Principle betweenIsrael and the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO). Peace should promotethe prospects for economic growth, cooperation and prosperity for all and willincrease the movement of people, goods and services, including a rise intourism. Unless carefully planned, these developments will stress naturalresources, the environment and the infrastructure.

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A just and durable peace should bring with it the opening up of theso-called security areas for the improvement of the economic and socialsituation of the Palestinian people and its development. That includes largeareas of the Palestinian territory that have been designated as securityareas, thus preventing their owners from exploiting them, and also includesState-owned land, currently controlled by the Israeli authorities.

The creation of protected wilderness areas, recreation spots and naturalreserves need to be encouraged. Palestinians can learn from other countriesnot to repeat the errors that have led to environmental degradation.

The following paragraphs examine the impact of environmental dimensionson prospects for sustained development. The analysis concentrates on suchvital areas as housing, agriculture, industry, trade, tourism, energy andtransportation that have strong implications for the environment. Theanalysis is based on the assumption that the Palestinians will control theirnatural resources, their economic situation and a population that will grow asPalestinians gradually return from abroad.

A. Housing

There is currently a serious shortage in housing units in both theWest Bank and Gaza Strip. 23 / While local Palestinian housing authoritieshave begun to address the needs of the lower income groups, there are otherproblems such as the lack of reasonably priced land for building andrestriction on licences for building within municipal boundaries which haveshrunk under occupation policies since 1967. This situation is expected toease in areas from which Israeli military and civil authorities withdraw,releasing confiscated land to accommodate housing. Low interest loans,mortgages and grants are needed as well as programmes for low-cost housing.

Housing is a development need that affects the environment, not onlythrough the allocation of space but also through the various industries thatmeet the construction needs and service the housing developments in urban andrural areas. Existing metropolitan areas cannot absorb the rapid increase inthe population so new housing developments and towns have to be built. Thiscannot be done at the expense of prime agricultural land and wilderness areasand should be relegated to marginal land. Environmental conservation shouldbe the overriding consideration when housing is designed. Water supply,sewage and solid waste disposal, as well as recreation facilities, energysupply, communications, roads, retail trade and other services, schools andother requirements that make up a community should be dealt with in housingprogrammes.

B. Industrial development

The development of the industrial sector in the Palestinian territory hasbeen neglected for the past 25 years. It has not assumed its role ofproviding the impetus to economic growth and development. Its share in thegross domestic product (GDP) has remained as low as 8 to 9 per cent. Thecurrent economic situation and future prospects necessitate according priorityto the development of this sector. Given the emergence of an atmosphereconducive to the revival and development of this sector, Palestinian privateenterprise can face this challenge. Emphasis needs to be directed to

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promoting existing industries and concentrating on establishing and expandingnew branches of industries where the sector commands a comparative advantage.Export promotion and import substitution, as well as the promotion ofemployment, serve as criteria for selecting industries. The requisiteinfrastructure will have to be created along with financial aid and investmentto enable the sector to achieve these goals. Similarly, the sector as a wholeneeds to be provided with a well-trained workforce and competent management,as well as research facilities aimed at ensuring efficiency and quality. Theexperience of small economies where the industrial sector has served as theengine of growth and development should be emulated in the Palestinianterritory.

The pursuit of the above objectives has strong implications for theenvironment. The establishment of environmental laws and regulations, alongwith enforcement mechanisms, must accompany industrial development. Such lawsand regulations should be comprehensive, covering both the internal andexternal aspects of the environment.

The application of a number of environmental principles to industrialundertakings needs to be seriously considered. These include the "polluterpays" principle, whereby industry is responsible for disposing of its ownwaste, the introduction of incentives for pollution prevention and recyclingof waste and redemption of exploited areas (such as quarries). These andother principles should be part of the licensing of industrial activities.

As mentioned above, it is important that hazardous or toxic waste be keptaway from the municipal sewerage system. Where possible that waste should betreated on site and rendered harmless before it is released. What cannot betreated on site could be transported to a waste-treatment facility with allcosts borne by the industry concerned. Industry may initially find suchmeasures difficult to adopt but will realize their advantages. Often thisresults in savings to the company through a system of waste recovery andrecycling. One of the best examples of such a system is in Japan where thewaste generated by one industry is used as raw material in another, thusbenefiting the environment and reducing the volume of waste.

C. Agricultural development

Contrary to what has been stated at times - that agriculture will have aminimal role in the Palestinian territory because of anticipated watershortages - this sector has been successfully exploited for many centuries.Agriculture and attachment to land has been the lifeline of generations ofPalestinians and it will continue to retain its place in the future. Whileagriculture is in disarray, the reasons for that can be traced to policies andpractices affecting agricultural output, including the area of land allocated,research and extension programmes, infrastructure, availability of water andnecessary inputs, financial resources, composition of output, access tomarkets, etc. 24 / The present state of this sector and its future role incontributing to the sustained growth and development of the economynecessitate a radical reform programme. The objective should be torehabilitate agriculture and promote its role in the economy with a view tosatisfying local market needs and exploiting external market prospects.

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Current patterns of agricultural production have degraded the environmentand reduced biodiversity and productivity, especially for areas with intensiveirrigated agriculture. Farm production is declining due to the increase inwater and soil salinity and pest damage, even when the most advancedpesticides and increasing amounts of fertilizer are used. Increased emphasismay have to be placed on policies aimed at encouraging farmers, retailers andconsumers to reduce the undesirable environmental impact of production,marketing and consumption. As part of a policy for sustainable agriculture,the nascent Palestinian Authority would be well advised to adopt theIntegrated Pest Management (IPM) on a national scale, which is anenvironmentally friendly system of agricultural production (see chap. 4below). As in other sectors, legislation and regulations governingagriculture, along with enforcement mechanisms, need to be established.

D. Trade: Gaza sea port

The future Palestinian entity should have its own sea port in theGaza Strip. The most logical site is along the shores of Gaza City, but itsappropriate location needs to be mapped out. Ports are a source of pollutionthat emanates from the docking of vessels and from the storage andtransportation of goods. For example, planners may install an oil terminal,which even under the strictest regulatory measures, have oil spills someasures to contain and clean those spills must be adopted. An oil spill andpollution handling unit should be close to the port and supplied with modernequipment to handle accidents.

The ecology of the Mediterranean sea near the Gaza Strip is fragile. Themarine life depends heavily on the nutrients from the river Nile. Manydifferent species have dwindled over the years, as has been reported by Gazafishermen, and some fish species have become rare or disappeared. A port willadd to the stress on the sea life if serious pollution occurs. The shores ofGaza could once again become a tourist attraction. Thus, an oil spill or anyother form of pollution, however insignificant it may appear, will affect bothtourism and fishing.

E. Tourism

There has been an increase in tourism in the Holy Land since 1991. Withthe advent of peace and stability, the Palestinian territory will have much tooffer in tourism and related activities, and will thus contribute to thenational income and become a source of hard currency. 25 / However, thePalestinian territory is not equipped to handle a large influx of touristsbecause of the shortage of hotels, including in east Jerusalem, where mosttourists stay. A few hotels have been renovated and others are buildingadditional floors as restrictions on hotel expansion have been eased. No newPalestinian hotels have been built since 1967 as no construction licences wereissued for Palestinian-owned hotels in east Jerusalem.

Supplementary tourist services also have to be available. Touristfacilities should be built throughout the territory so that the incomegenerated from tourism can be distributed over a wider area. With their richand long history, Palestinians have many tourist attractions to offer.Tourists should not be restricted to visiting only the holy sites in Bethlehemand Jerusalem. Along with developments in touristic services, archaeological

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sites need to be developed to make them accessible to tourists. Such sitesare particularly in need of touristic services and infrastructure, such asroads, water supply, waste disposal, etc.

The increase in the number of tourists visiting the Palestinian territoryand the development of services and an infrastructure will have a significantimpact on the environment. Water supply and sanitation in remote touristsites have to be preceded by environmental impact assessment to minimizedamage to the environment. In certain areas, the number of tourists visitingsites at any one time needs to be regulated to reduce possible negative impacton the environment and wildlife.

The construction of hotels and associated services, especially inmetropolitan areas, needs to be coordinated with the development of water andsanitation services offered by municipalities. Hence, planners in variousfields are expected to take into consideration the increase in tourism, andnot only the Palestinian population, when formulating their development plansand programmes.

F. Energy

Palestinians depend on Israel for over 80 per cent of their electricityand for 100 per cent of their fossil fuel. Self-government will generate alarger portion of electricity locally. While electricity can continue to bepurchased from neighbouring countries, a reasonable level of self-sufficiencyis needed, taking into consideration the strategic nature of energy and itsvarious sources.

Electricity production requires the construction of electricity-generating plants that use fossil fuel. The more efficient plants have steamturbines to run generators, using coal, heavy fuel or natural gas as thesource of energy. Diesel engines, used to run electricity generators, are notas efficient as steam-generating power plants and are used mostly insmall-scale local production.

The supply of energy, including electricity, will entail importing fossilfuel. As mentioned earlier, Israel has been the territory’s sole supplier offuel. While this option may be preserved, a more durable and less costly wayof supplying fuel has to be found. Extending a pipeline from Jordan or Egyptand/or via a Gaza port is a possibility. A number of pipelines from theoil-producing countries of the region pass through Jordan and it may befeasible to extend some to the territory. It is important to diversify thetypes and sources of the energy requirements so as to reduce the risk ofdependency on one type or supplier of fuel. Fuel-storage facilities need tobe built throughout the territory as there are none at present.

The production of electricity has many serious environmental hazards andeffects associated with it. These include:

1. The production of air pollutants in the form of nitric andsulphuric oxides and particulates, as well as other dangerous organiccompounds. There is technology that reduces emissions from smokestacksto internationally acceptable levels. The choice of fuel will influencethe production of some pollutants, such as sulphur-based compounds.

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Fuels vary in their sulphur content. Technology can reduce the sulphurcontent but that process adds to the cost of fuel, which should be passedon to consumers. Pollution-control equipment usually consists ofcyclones, electrostatic precipitators, filters and scrubbers. Optimizingthe burning of fuel over a two-step system helps to reduce some of thepollutants. Thus, it is important for power plants to be equipped withthe latest pollution-control devices. They also should have anenvironmental team to oversee operations and the plant’s compliance tostandards.

2. Power plants need water for cooling. Shore-based plants use seawater for cooling, while land-based plants use either rivers or coolingtowers. Every cooling system has environmental effects. The pumping ofcool sea water, usually in large quantities per hour, and the release ofa warm stream into the sea, is bound to affect the biota. One of thestrategies used to minimize damage to sea life is to pump the water intothe sea after it passes through a number of baffles, thus reducing thenumber of organisms that pass through the cooling system. Warm water isusually allowed to cool in specially built ponds before being releasedinto the sea. Such ponds act as fish-breeding ponds as the warm waterallows for faster growth of warm water-tolerant species. Inland powerplants that use cooler towers to cool the water generate a great deal ofmoisture and may alter or modify the surrounding environment.

Thus, the choice of the technology and the plant site should be coupledwith environmental impact assessment studies prior to the plant’sconstruction. The use of treated wastewater is an attractive choice in lieuof fresh water for cooling the generators.

G. Transportation

The road infrastructure in the Palestinian territory is underdeveloped asthere has been little investment over the past 27 years. Roads that serveIsraeli settlements have been developed and new ones opened that bypassPalestinian urban areas. A future Palestinian entity will have to incurconsiderable amounts of investments in order to improve this sector. Betterroads that are well linked will reduce migration from villages to urban areasand allow for better transportation of people and goods. Building new roadsand upgrading existing ones need to be undertaken, bearing environmentalpreservation in mind.

Improvements in road infrastructure will reflect negatively on theenvironment. Roads may act as barriers to the movement of wildlife and mayalso affect the natural flow of rainwater to underground aquifers. Pollutionfrom vehicles is bound to affect the environment and may seep into theaquifers. Roads are also a major source of air and noise pollution. Theseand other potential damages must be anticipated.

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Some developed countries have taken measures to reduce pollution fromvehicles by using unleaded fuel and catalytic converters. In addition,rainwater draining from heavily used roads should be treated before beingreleased as it contains high levels of toxic pollutants, including heavy metalparticles, fuel, oil and aromatic hydrocarbons.

Road safety is an often missing element in the locally designed roads.Most of the existing roads, even those that have been widened, are dangerousand cause accidents. These and other factors will have a strong implicationfor road infrastructure as the population grows and the volume of trafficincreases between cities and villages. Thus, road safety should beincorporated in all plans to develop and upgrade the road network.

In the plans to develop roadways archaeological sites must be preserved.They are scattered throughout the territory and are the heritage of the past.Careful environmental planning based on sound environmental laws andregulations, coupled with environmental impact assessment studies, canminimize damage caused by development projects. Proper environmental planningas part and parcel of the development process will preserve the beauty of thishistorical land for generations.

H. Technology transfer and the environment

Transfer of technology is an issue often wrought with controversy. Whilemany developing countries opt to copy or import technology from the moreindustrialized societies, such societies often restrict the types oftechnology that can be imported, either through restriction on import permitsor conditions on loans or grants. There are certain criteria that somedeveloped countries impose on developing countries whereby developmentprojects that are "too advanced" are not financed for fear they may imposefinancial and technical hardships on the recipient countries. But thegeneralized concept that most developing countries are unable to absorbadvanced technologies is a fallacy that calls for close re-examination of whatis really occurring in many developing countries. Even the Palestinianterritory, which is at its first stages of development, has possibilities forthe successful transfer of advanced technologies.

Technology transfer and the ability to absorb it should not pose majordifficulties for the Palestinians. Their educational level is generally high,and there are large numbers of professionals engaged locally and worldwide indiverse specializations. With proper training, Palestinians should be able tohandle the most sophisticated technologies, as they do in the diaspora in thecountries in which they reside. The only possible obstacles are limitationson financial resources needed to acquire and/or operate such technologies.

The issue that concerns us here is the use of environmentally soundtechnologies (EST) - an issue that was dealt with in a workshop organized byUNCTAD and the Government of Norway in 1993. 26 / In that workshop, theidea of diffusing information about EST as an alternative to existingenvironmentally damaging technologies was discussed. This would entail thatcurrent or future institutions would have to address this issue and create theproper set-up for the transfer of EST to developing countries. Economicincentives and proper regulations have to be implemented to encourage thistrend. Such incentives and regulations would discourage polluting industries

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from relocating to developing countries. This is especially true for thePalestinian territory as a number of Israeli industries have relocated alongthe green lines and in Israeli settlements. Some of these are knownpolluters, as detailed in previous paragraphs.

In order to avoid the mistakes of the past, training in the skills neededto operate and maintain technologies has to be part and parcel of the transferof such technologies to the Palestinian territory or elsewhere. There areexisting set-ups in the Palestinian territory that would be able to serviceand maintain technologically advanced projects. Regrettably, such set-ups arescattered and are largely ignored by development agencies. It would be wiseto give these worships priority in development aid, mainly through trainingand investment in advanced machinery. Those workshops, together with askilled workforce, can serve as the tools for keeping investments intechnology operational.

The transfer of EST to the Palestinian territory is an investment in thefuture and in a cleaner environment. Environmentally sound technologies arenot necessarily complicated or highly advanced technologies. As mentionedabove, clean recycling industries are needed. Investing in EST for a possiblerecycling industry is an appropriate step towards reducing the volume of solidand liquid waste. Not only will it create jobs, but it will also improve theeconomy and make it possible to use fewer resources and save on wastefulimportation.

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Chapter IV

IMPROVING THE STATE OF THE ENVIRONMENT IN THE PALESTINIAN TERRITORY

A. Sustainable development

Sustainable development is defined as development that maintains itselfwithout excessive external impetus. In the context of the environment,sustainable development is intended to minimize excessive long-term damage tothe environment. The World Commission on Environment and Developmentrecommended that current generations should not adversely affect the needs offuture generations in their quest for economic development. 27 /

The optimal policy approach in achieving sustainable development is toadopt a long-term integrated approach, whereby no development policy isindependent of others. For example, promoting industrial development shouldbe considered in light of its impact on the environment and the health of thepeople, and not just as a potential short-term policy for economic growth. Anintegrated approach looks into the needs of industrial development from landallocation to energy, transportation, labour, raw material and otherresources, waste generation, markets, etc, and integrates these needs in aunified programme. All these needs and their effects on the environment,through environmental impact analysis, should be assessed.

Many of the problems that have characterized the Palestiniansocio-economic scene are briefly examined in previous chapters but need to beaddressed in a concerted manner in view of their interrelationship. Under anumbrella of sustainable development efforts, waste generation, as an example,becomes less of a problem than is currently the case in the Palestinianterritory and other emerging societies. The only problematic waste is toxicand hazardous waste, and even that is solvable. What is defined as waste byone industry may become raw material for another, and for some an industry byitself.

The principle of cost-versus-benefit in development also applies.Developers often tend to ignore this principle for the sake of achievingshort-term benefits from grandiose schemes. This has caused economicdisasters for a number of developing countries, has put them in debt and hasslowed their growth. This policy has also caused environmental deterioration,and, in some instances, environmental damage that would take a great deal ofeffort and funds to correct.

Such unwise short-term policies must be avoided in planning thedevelopment of the Palestinian territory. An integrated approach towardsdevelopment that sustains itself is the safest and most cost-effective way ofachieving development objectives. With such policies development can advancewithout undue stress on the environment. Sustainable development, in all itsdimensions, needs to be integrated as a long-term goal of Palestiniandevelopment efforts. Sizeable external resources are required before thePalestinian economy can become relatively self-sufficient and maintain a

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reasonable level of sustainable development. The years of occupation havedeprived the territory from making optimumal use of its natural and humanresources. An economic and social infrastructure had been neglected for overquarter of a century.

B. Priority areas for environmental action

In a report to the United Nations Conference on Environment andDevelopment, held in Rio de Janeiro in 1992, Palestine outlined areasaffecting the environment that need immediate action and which concur with thefindings of this study. 28 / As mentioned above, in dealing with theseproblems, the principle of an integrated approach towards development willensure environmental sustainability in the long term. As Palestine lacks anadequate socio-economic infrastructure, this principle is a high priority.

Water and waste management should be high on the Palestinianenvironmental agenda because of the existing short- and potentially long-termpollution problems. The environmental problems of water and waste managementin Gaza must take precedence as its situation has become very serious. Thequantity of water available for households has been depleted owing to overexploitation and waste. Its quality has been deteriorating as a result ofsalination. Garbage accumulates everywhere and raw sewage floods the streets.Frequent closure of wells due to salinity or bacterial contamination is thenorm. While the situation in the West Bank is slightly better, as water wellsare deeper and protected by harder geological strata, indicators of seriouspotential pollution are imminent. The solid waste situation in the West Bankis not better than that of Gaza but it is less visible as the population isscattered over a larger area. The following areas with strong environmentalimplication call for concerted action that ensures a sustained process ofdevelopment:

1. Liquid waste

Domestic and, to a limited extent, industrial sewage wastes are currentlya major threat to water and land resources. Integrated plans to establishsewage collection networks together with the construction of modern sewagetreatment plants and plans for re-using the treated wastewater are required.Some municipalities, such as Bethlehem, Beit Jala and Beit Sahur, are buildingsewage collection networks, funded by foreign Governments but there are noimmediate plans to build sewage treatment plants in these areas. Thisdevelopment is the reverse of the integrated approach. The sewage from thesemunicipalities is transferred to other communities. Development aid needs tobe mobilized and allocated through an integrated approach to developmentprogrammes in order to avoid future environmental, health and other problems.

Rural areas, where 35 per cent of the population resides, are largelyignored. Residential construction is increasing, especially in villages wheresome of the residents work abroad and save their income to build homes. Aplan for establishing sewage collection networks, with connections to nearbysewage treatment facilities, should be developed and integrated into housingprogrammes. Establishing separate sewage collection networks and treatmentplants for each city or village is a waste of meagre funds. The twin citiesof Ramallah and Al-Bireh are each building, with external assistance, theirown separate sewage networks and treatment facilities. The Ramallah treatment

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plant is of a low technology design, as dictated by the funders, whileAl-Bireh is building a state-of-the-art plant. Such uncoordinated efforts aredetrimental to future development prospects.

Sewage remains a serious problem in the Gaza Strip as any visitor caneasily see, and is polluting land and marine resources. The occurrence ofgastrointestinal and parasitic diseases is the highest in the territory.Poverty plays a part but there is also a direct correlation between poorsanitation and those diseases. In view of the gravity of the situation andthe increasing threat to health, action cannot await political expedience.Sewage projects have failed in Gaza despite millions of dollars of investment.The causes are many and varied. Development projects are best managed withpeople’s consent and participation. Educational programmes to explain thebenefits of sanitation and other development projects to the community areimportant for the success of such projects.

Regional sewage treatment plants that serve many towns and villages arecheaper to construct, operate and maintain in the long run. The Palestinianterritory is not large enough for many small plants, such as those now beingplanned by some municipalities. A national treated sewage carrier, runningnorth-south in the West Bank, is environmentally sound and can provide safewater for irrigation or some industrial uses, with access available for endusers at a set price. A network of sewage treatment plants could feed intothis carrier. This pipeline could even be extended to the Gaza Strip and/orlinked to a similar system in Israel, if technically feasible and appropriate.Unused treated wastewater may be dumped deep into the sea. There is a similarbut limited treated supply network in parts of Israel that is successful.Users receive regular reports about the quality of this treated wastewater sothat they can blend the correct amount of fertilizers or dilute them withfresh water. In order to achieve this goal, a national plan must beestablished with adequate resources allocated under an efficient and dedicatedmanagement.

2. Solid waste

The best solution for solid waste is first to minimize its volume andsecond to recycle as much of it as possible. This is being practised in manyparts of the world and the Palestinian territory cannot and need not be anexception. Waste minimizing is a complex approach as it deals with varioussectors ranging from producers to consumers, but it is an environmentallycorrect approach. Experts in this field study waste production and formulatenational plans for reducing it. This approach appeals to consumers inindustrialized countries as part of "green" environmental campaigns. Wasteminimization may not yet be a top priority in the territory, but it is anapproach that should be introduced at a certain stage.

Many industries can maintain a profit from recycling. The most difficulttask is to separate the waste into its various components. In some countriesand municipalities abroad, residents are required to sort their garbage.Glass is collected separately, as is paper, plastic, metals and organicmaterial, each of which can be recycled. Organic matter may be composted, or

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incinerated in high-temperature incinerators which is costly, but it is anenvironmentally sound system for reducing the volume of trash with minimal airpollution.

Bearing in mind the needs of a growing population and its expandingmaterial needs, the volume of solid waste will be too big for the existingdumps to handle as they are now overloaded. Hence, a combination of recyclingand high-temperature incineration offers attractive alternatives to thissituation. In addition, there are indications that recycling can generateenough income to compensate for incineration costs. A feasibility studyshould be performed.

Solid waste from the stone-processing industries and from constructionand demolition sites can also be recycled into crushed aggregates. There area few small-scale operators who are successful in this area. In the past,stone-crushing equipment was loaded onto trucks and moved to constructionsites where existing stone walls and excavated stones were crushed in situ.More sophisticated and portable stone-crushing machinery is available.

Organic material from domestic and agricultural wastes, and possiblysludge, can be composted and reused as organic fertilizer. This process iscurrently being used in many countries on a local and not a national basis.Many firms are ready to sell such services to developing countries.Composting is essentially a simple natural process. The bulk of the costs areincurred mainly when transporting the organic material to the composting sitesand then to the buyer. Environmental regulation should govern this industryto prevent the introduction of dangerous or hazardous waste into the compost.

The recycling industry can be profitable especially if it receives somefinancial and tax incentives to get it on its feet. It is an environmentallyand economically sound integrated solution to the accumulation of solid wastein a territory with a small land area, such as the West Bank and Gaza Strip.Waste management in the Palestinian territory has to be dealt withscientifically as the simplistic approaches have failed. Barring aprofessional approach, everyone will suffer economically and socially anddumps will encroach further on urban areas.

3. Hazardous waste

The United States’ Environmental Protection Authority defines hazardouswaste as any solid, liquid, gas, etc., that can ignite, is corrosive, and thatcan react and become toxic. 29 / It can originate in households, industry,or from military activities. Such waste should be collected separately as thepotential for leaching into underground aquifers or soil can cause serioushealth problems over the short and long term. With rapid increases expectedin industrial activities in the territory to make up for the negligence ofthis sector over the past quarter of a century, the possibility of a rapidrise in the level of hazardous waste is high.

The creation of a hazardous waste-treatment facility should be part andparcel of increased industrial development for the future. Theinternalization of its operating costs should be at the industry level via aspecial fee or tax as most of the waste is generated by industry and certain

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businesses. In addition, hazardous waste could be treated on site and ifrendered harmless, can enter sewage networks. Waste that cannot be treated onsite should be shipped to the waste-treatment facility.

Hazardous waste-treatment technologies have become advanced enough tohandle most types of waste, with the exception of radioactive waste.Radioactive waste from hospitals and research laboratories may be safelystored and transported under special arrangements to places havingsophisticated radioactive waste-treatment facilities. In any case, given itsstage of development and standard of living, the Palestinian territory is notexpected to generate much of this type of waste. The risk of nuclear wastefrom more advanced economies in the region should be minimized. Carefullydesigned agreements accompanied by sufficient safeguards and appropriatemechanisms need to be established at both the national and regional levels toensure the proper use of this resource for peaceful purposes and avoid therisks for the present and future generations in a region as small as theMiddle East.

4. Water-resource management

Water-resource management cannot be achieved on a national scale becausewater resources are still under Israeli control. Under self-government,whereby water resources will gradually come under Palestinian control, plansfor managing such resources should become a priority.

Water, especially in this region, must be considered as a commodity andshould follow pricing policies commensurate with its supply and demand.Provision of subsidies tend to distort resource allocation and waste, as hasbeen witnessed in the past. As such, future policies should not overlooksubsidies for water use. Given the strategic nature of the commodity,privately owned wells need to be under the control of a water-resourcemanagement entity, which could be an integral part of an environmentalauthority. Such a water authority exists in the West Bank but its power hasbeen curtailed in the past.

Water conservation and protection measures necessitate the establishmentof a national water authority. The aquifers must be allowed to be rechargedthrough various measures. These include watershed protection areas,artificial recharge, diversion of storm water run-off, reforestation, etc.

Water-resource management in the Gaza Strip, like so many other issues,is an urgent problem. Gaza is short on fresh water for drinking, agricultureand industry. The aquifers are deteriorating and salinity is increasing asmore sea water seeps in to make up for the increased pumping that results fromincreased demand. The role of the Israeli settlements in water consumptionand the pumping of underground water before it flows to Gaza will foilwater-conservation efforts.

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The West Bank, however, has ample water resources. Information on theexact quantity and extent of the aquifers is held by the Israeli authorities.However, the West Bank could provide Gaza with fresh water, since it is partof the same political entity and the same people. This could be done via apipeline to Gaza that follows a proposed land route that would link these twoparts of the Palestinian territory.

Bringing water to Gaza from other sources, such as the river Nile,Turkey, etc., appears to be neither feasible nor probable at this stage. Suchplans, if approved, will take years to execute. Thus, the only alternative isthat Palestinians in the West Bank provide their kin in the Gaza Strip withfresh water. This scheme will allow for the gradual natural recharge of theaquifers in Gaza assuming that excessive pumping is moderated by the Gazans.

5. Land reclamation and reforestation

Parcels of land in the hilly regions of the Palestinian territory have tobe reterraced and reclaimed for agriculture. Until the early part of thiscentury, most of this land was cultivated. The terraces have deterioratedsince, soil has eroded and the land is again uncultivated. Land reclamationis being practised, mostly on personal initiatives. It provides employmentand a source of income. The results have been impressive. A number offunding NGOs and grass-roots organizations have been involved in landreclamation on a small scale, but the operations have stopped because of lackof funds.

Reforestation is another topic that has to be addressed in the nearfuture. Reforestation cannot be undertaken as present laws prohibit suchactivity and must wait for control of the land and natural resources.Reforestation has many positive effects which include the replenishment ofgroundwater, the conservation and enrichment of the soil and increasedprecipitation as well as weather moderation. Clouds passing over forestedareas deposit more rain as forests cool the land and induce precipitation.

6. Wilderness and recreation areas

The creation of wilderness and recreation areas have to be immediatetasks for the emerging Palestinian entity. National parks, wilderness areasand natural reserves are important elements for conserving precious fauna andflora for which the Palestinian territory is famous. Recreation areas need tobe created for the people to enjoy the beauty of the land.

The preservation and development of archaeological sites could also beincluded in such schemes. Archaeological sites have been plundered owing tothe lack of laws and regulations for the protection and development of thenational Palestinian heritage. The 25 years of occupation have beenparticularly damaging to this unique symbol of Palestinian identity.

Conservation of the shoreline in the Gaza Strip deserves attention. Asmentioned earlier, the shoreline is eroding and wavebreakers have to beconstructed to stem the loss of the shoreline and conserve and replenish sand.The development of the Gaza coast, with emphasis on environmental protectionas the prime target, is a priority area for action. The preservation of

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marine life requires legislation, which is particularly necessary for fishingso as to regulate and maintain its sustainability in light of a reduced catchbecause of the dams that were built on the Nile, and improper fishingpractices.

7. Environmental laws

Environmental laws are essential for the protection of the environment,as is the creation of a powerful, well-staffed and well-funded environmentalprotection agency to monitor the enactment of those laws. Lacking this, theenvironment in the Palestinian homeland will continue to deteriorate,especially with the growth of the population, demographic movement andmaterial progress.

The following is a sample of areas that require environmental laws earlyin the development of the Palestinian entity. While the nature and scope oflaws and regulations vary from one country to another, they should all reflectthe various stages of socio-economic development and resource endowments.Accordingly, the details of such laws in the Palestinian territory must ofnecessity be based on the local conditions and requirements, including settingpollution standards and types of contaminant:

- Clean air regulations: to regulate the emission of air pollutantsfrom various sources, in particular from industrial and householdactivities.

- Clean water regulations: to establish standards and control thedischarge of pollutants into fresh-water systems.

- Marine protection regulations: to identify wastes, establishstandards and regulate waste disposal at sea. A special regulationis required to prevent the deposit of hazardous wastes into theDead Sea.

- Occupational health and safety regulations: identify risks,establish standards and control workers’ exposure to hazards andhazardous substances in the workplace.

- Resource conservation and recovery regulations: identify resourcesin need of conservation, establish standards and control measurespertaining to hazardous waste generation, storage, transportation,treatment and disposal.

- Safe drinking-water regulations: establish quality standards forwater and distribution networks, identify contaminants andrigorously control the level of contaminants in drinking water.

- Mining and site-remediation regulations: establish standards andregulate environmental aspects of mining and remediation andrehabilitation of such sites.

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- Waste-recycling regulations: identify types of waste in water thatcan be recycled, and set standards and procedures for wastewaterreuse.

- Food and drug safety regulations: identify contaminants, establishstandards and procedures aimed at regulating and controllingcontaminants and additives in food, beverages and drugs.

8. Integrated Pest Management

In order to break the endless cycle of using pesticides as the only meansof fighting pests, many industrialized and developing countries haveestablished Integrated Pest Management (IPM) schemes for their agriculture.As indicated earlier, IPM is an approach that ensures sustainable agriculture,using chemicals as a last resort. It is not entirely organic agriculture ascertain quantities of pesticides and fertilizers may be discriminately used.IPM has succeeded in many countries and is being promoted by manyorganizations, including the United Nations. It has positive economic, healthand environmental consequences. In addition, it reduces reliance on foreignexternal inputs to sustain agriculture. There are plans by CEOHS to use IPMfor Palestinian agriculture in order to bring a balance back to nature. Itwas mentioned before that excessive use of pesticides is altering theenvironment and reducing biodiversity. IPM is an excellent solution for suchproblems.

9. Community education

Environmental education is one of the urgent areas for action by theemerging Palestinian authority. The curricula of schools and colleges andtraining programmes at the community level need to be developed andimplemented. Such efforts should be aimed at reminding the population oftheir ancient traditions of preserving the land and all its resources.Environmental education especially needs to be promoted at the grass-rootslevel to ensure community participation and achieve environmentalconservation. The following is a sample of some proposed areas that could beemphasized in a community environmental education programme:

(a) Safe and effective use of pesticides

Programmes on the safe and effective use of pesticides offered by CEOHShave been successful and could be expanded to include all of the Palestinianterritory. The population targeted in such a programme might include farmers,women and children.

(b) Reuse of wastewater

If treated wastewater is intended for reuse, an educational programmeneeds to be tailored for the end users explaining the advantages anddisadvantages of this water source. Wastewater reuse is important forconserving the limited water resources in the Middle East. The Palestinianpopulation is not keen on this idea because they fear for their health, a fearthat is exacerbated as some farmers downhill from sewage outflows use rawsewage, a totally unacceptable practice that causes localized health problems.

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The people are also under the impression that with every litre of treatedsewage water they use, Israel withdraws one litre of fresh water from theirresources for its own use. Thus, under improved and stable conditions theidea of wastewater reuse has to be promoted through a national campaign.

(c) Anti smoking campaign

Surveys of smoking habits done by CEOHS indicate that 60 to 70 per centof the population smoke from an early age. Women are no exception with asmoking rate of 40 to 50 per cent. A public awareness campaign on the healthrisks of smoking is needed with regulations to control the sale of cigarettes,advertising tobacco products and restricting smoking in public places and theworkplace.

(d) Environmental conservation

Protection of the natural beauty of the land and the local environmentneeds to be part of the school curricula. Students learn about othercountries’ programmes for environmental and nature conservation, but not theirown. This is a result of distortions under prolonged occupation. Aneducational campaign in this area need not be restricted to schools but shouldbe popularized throughout the society at various levels and should reinstillin every citizen the love of nature and the need to conserve it as a means forsurvival through sustained economic and social development.

10. Clean-up campaign

The Palestinian territory desperately needs a clean-up campaign given thewidespread negligence over a period of more than a quarter of a century. Thesituation is particularly alarming in the Gaza Strip and its refugeecommunities. Environmental protection needs, inter alia , urgent action toremove the accumulation of solid waste during this period. Communityparticipation is essential to the success of such a programme. Communitieshave been mobilized on a small scale to clean the streets of Ramallah and thestreets and shorelines of Gaza. Together with environmental education, suchprogrammes could make a modest contribution. Environmental education andcommunity participation will not only help in cleaning up, but will alsoprevent further contamination.

C. Policies to promote environmental conservation

The struggle for survival has been a preoccupation of the Palestiniansbecause of the harsh atmosphere and unbearable living conditions confrontingthem on a daily basis for a generation. Environment issues have not assumedtop priority for the average citizen. In order to effect changes in attitudestowards environmental conservation, they would need, both individually andcollectively, to feel that peace and stability become part of theirenvironment. Environmental conservation is a state of mind and once such anorientation is achieved compliance with it becomes a simple affair. Hence,prospects for peace and changes in the daily life of the people wouldaccelerate the trend towards environmental conservation. Prevailing policies

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have not allowed community action towards environmental preservations.Despite some attempts at promoting the issue of environment and itsconservation, these have not taken root in the attitude of the majority.People’s involvement in environmental matters is best achieved throughlong-term programmes accompanied by a conducive atmosphere. Hence, peace mustbe promoted and encouraged for the benefit of all aspects of life, least ofwhich is the environment. In no way should this be interpreted that no actiontowards environmental conservation can be promoted under the presentcircumstances. The following are some ideas that may help promoteenvironmental conservation and awareness and could be part of an environmentaleducation campaign within the community’s overall education programme:

1. Community participation

Community participation is the bulwark of environmental action. Anenvironmental action plan must include community groups and grass-rootsorganizations to ensure compliance. Authorities in any future Palestinianentity are well advised to promote and nurture environmental grass-rootsorganizations that are mostly lacking, and some are aligned to certainpolitical groups, weakening their credibility and popular basis.

In industrialized countries, community participation and public hearingson proposed environmental laws, regulations and plans are routine. Theirinvolvement helps legislators to refine action plans and often to lobbyagainst pressures of interest groups. Community participation giveslegislators a better understanding of needs and attitudes and wins theirbacking on environmental issues.

Various societies have been successful in promoting "area adoption"programmes to encourage the conservation and rehabilitation of natural areas.People adopt an area and contribute to its repair and conservation throughdonations or free labour. This idea is worth considering for the Palestinianterritory that has been subject to environmental abuse.

2. The community’s right to know

It is important for governments to observe and promote their communities’right to know its position on issues, including the environment, that affecttheir daily lives. Ignoring issues such as the environment is likely todiscourage legislators from passing laws in favour of certain power groups andalso prevents public scrutiny of periodic reviews of existing and/or olderlegislation.

3. Written material and audiovisual aids

Written material in the form of books, pamphlets and brochures, as wellas videos on the nature and environment of the Palestinian territory, willassist in the campaign for environmental conservation. What little materialdoes exist has been published by the occupation authorities with their owninterests in mind. This has come under the campaign that promotes the naturalareas and archaeological sites of the Palestinian territory as part of Israel.

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In fact, official maps of Israel, issued by various Israeli ministries, haveshown the Palestinian territory as part of Israel; and in some recent mapsmost of the Palestinian villages are not even listed, although Israelisettlements are. Therefore, the emerging Palestinian authority shouldinitiate plans now to prepare their own material, with maps, on archaeologicalsites, natural reserves, wildlife, recreation and tourist facilities. Thatmaterial will also promote local and foreign tourism, which is a reliablesource of employment and income.

4. The greening of government policies

Policies on certain issues, such as the cost of water for agriculture,are often poorly designed and have a negative impact on the environment. Inneighbouring countries and to some extent in the territory itself, the priceof water for agricultural purposes has been set far below its actual cost.This has resulted in the wasteful use of water which has adversely affectedthe aquifers and water quality and has led to the seeping of brackish and saltwater. Those policies need to be reviewed and appropriate enforcementmeasures and mechanisms established to avoid the abuse of these policies andensure their implementation. This should be accompanied by a campaignprogramme aimed at educating the population on the conservation and use ofwater resources.

D. Needs and requirements

1. Financial and technical

As a newly emerging society, the Palestinian entity must build up itsphysical and institutional infrastructures, develop its economy, and improveits standard of living. For these and other efforts to succeed, sizeableinvestments are needed at both the public- and private-sector levels in thefirst few years of the emergence of Palestinian empowerment in order to ensurea rapid pace of growth and development. The years of occupation have deprivedthe Palestinian population from using their financial and human resources forbuilding their own society. The heralding of peace that has recently dawnedin the region has signalled the emergence of regional tranquillity that willallow the mobilization of resources, particularly from the capital surpluscountries of the region. Coupled with the enterprising nature of thePalestinians, such resources will be a further cementing factor for a durablepeace in the region.

In its Palestine Development Programmes, Palestine has estimatedinvestment needs to total more than $12 billion for the period 1994-2000. Theactual needs until the year 2010 may not exceed this figure, as demonstratedby an in-depth study undertaken by the UNCTAD secretariat. 30 /

The suggestions for environmental plans given earlier call forsubstantial amounts of investment to realize this goal. Domestic andinternational technical expertise is also needed to help put practicalenvironmental plans into action. Financial and technical resources are neededin the following areas: water-resource management, liquid and solid waste

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management including recycling and reuse, management of parks and naturalreserves, agricultural, rural and urban development, transport andcommunications development, geological, hydrological and geographical surveys,environmental education programmes, and establishment and enforcement ofenvironmental laws.

Development in all those areas has to be planned with the sustainabilityof the environment as the directing force. The spirit of the Rio Declarationof 1992 is environmental sustainability. For Palestine to achieve this goal,the integrated development approach, mentioned earlier, is truly in the spiritof the Declaration.

Various financial and technical resources can be tapped in undertakingaction in the above areas and achieving the goals envisaged in developmentprogrammes. A number of countries have already pledged financial assistanceas an investment in peace. The amounts were short of Palestinian expectationsbut they are a beginning. Other resources have not yet been tapped orexplored. The latest and most relevant of them is the Global EnvironmentalFacility, established in 1990 under the auspices of the World Bank, theUnited Nations Development Programme and the United Nations EnvironmentProgramme, and its activities are expected to start soon. Its aim is to helpdeveloping countries finance a number of environmental projects. Palestinianswould be wise to tap this resource once it becomes operational and theircircumstances permit.

2. Human resources

Although Palestinians have high rates of literacy and hold universitydegrees, there is a shortage in trained personnel and professionals in certainsectors, especially the environment. Specialties in water-resourcemanagement, waste management, waste recycling and reuse, sanitation, parksmanagement, environmental monitoring and a host of other environmental-relateddisciplines are almost absent, at least in the territory itself. Theenvironment has been ignored and employment opportunities for specialists aredim.

In light of prospects for development, this situation needs to becorrected. Specialization in various environmental areas has become anecessity. University and technical education programmes with emphasis onsemi-arid regions may have to be developed. Some multilateral organizationshave brought in experts to train municipal staff and others in areas relatedto environmental management and services. The effectiveness of theseprogrammes has not been reviewed. What is really needed is to designeducational and training programmes in light of existing environmentalconditions and needs, and to work from there to improve and develop theenvironment and the management skills of the personnel.

Section D above listed some areas that are in need of technical andfinancial assistance and where there are shortages of trained personnel andinstitutions. Specialized educational and technical training programmes couldcover the following fields: water quality, water management, solid waste

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management including waste disposal sites, waste minimization, wasterecycling, composting, management of sewage, waste treatment plant operationand management, hazardous waste management, air pollution, food safety andsanitation, food quality control, ecology, pharmacognosy as related tobiodiversity, environmental law, marine law, environmental management of parksand natural reserves, coastal management, environmental toxicology,environmental health, environmental engineering, occupational health andsafety, industrial hygiene, agricultural extension, soil management,irrigation, biological control, Integrated Pest Management, pesticide use andagrochemicals, agricultural pests and plant pathology, environmentalremediation, forestry, saline agriculture, aquifer remediation, environmentaleducation, environmental chemistry, environmental laboratory management,environmental laboratory technicians, environmental monitoring, wildlife,epidemiology and Environmental Impact Assessment.

3. Institution building

For an emerging Palestinian entity, environmental institutions need to beestablished and developed. Other countries’ experiences as regardsenvironmental institutions can serve as examples.

The name of the environmental agency or its legal status may differ invarious countries but the functions are more or less the same. Somedeveloping countries tend to give environmental agencies the status of aministry to give it more authority and legal jurisdiction. However,government environmental concerns and activities are only recent and manygovernments have not found the optimal legal set-up for their environmentaldepartments. Occasionally, they find that there is either a conflict ofinterests among previously established departments and newly created ones oroverlapping duties. All these obstacles are eventually resolved. It is,nevertheless, advisable to avoid a proliferation of institutions and conflictsof purpose.

In the case of the Palestinian territory, the retention of the variousdepartments from previous regimes may initially create some conflicts ofpurpose when a new institution is being planned. For example, there isalready a water department but a water authority is also being planned. It isnot clear whether these two entities will be separate bodies or whether theywill be part of or under the authority of an environmental entity. Thus, theset-up of the legal framework under which environmental activities can begrouped has to be studied by legal experts.

Notes

1/ Efraim, O. and E. Efrat, Geography of Israel , Israel UniversitiesPress, Jerusalem, 1978.

2/ Centre for Engineering and Planning (CEP), The environment in theoccupied Palestinian territory: a preliminary report , 1990.

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3/ See Schwartz, J., "Israel water sector study: past achievements,current problems and future options", Report prepared for the World Bank,Tel Aviv, 1990; Dillman, J.D., "Water rights in the occupied territories", inJournal of Palestine Studies , vol. XIX, No. 1, Issues 73, Autumn, 1989;Kally, E., "Extension of Israel’s national water system as a function ofartificial rainfall prospects", in: Water Resources Research , vol. 10, No. 5,October 1974; Kahan, D., Agriculture and water resources in the West Bank andGaza (1967-1987) , The West Bank Data Base Project, Jerusalem, 1987; andUnited Nations Committee on the Exercise of the Inalienable Right of thePalestinian People, Water resources of the occupied Palestinian territory ,New York, United Nations, 1992.

4/ United Nations, "Israeli land and water practices and policies in theoccupied Palestinian and other Arab territories" (A/46/263; E/1991/88),June 1991.

5/ Polunin, O. and A. Huxly, Flowers of the Mediterranean , London, Chottoand Windus Ltd., 1965.

6/ United Nations, Report of the United Nations Conference on Environmentand Development , Rio de Janeiro, 1992 (A/CONF.151/26 (Vols. I and III)).

7/ UNCTAD, "Report of the Secretary-General on assistance to thePalestinian people" (TD/B/39(1)/4).

8/ Israel Central Bureau of Statistics, Statistical Abstract of Israel ,CBS, Jerusalem, 1992.

9/ Union of Agricultural Work Committees, Internal files, 1993.

10/ Personal communication, United States Consulate, Jerusalem, 1993.

11/ Israeli List of Registered Pesticides , 1992, Ministry of Agriculture,Division of Pesticides, Department of Plant Protection and Inspection,Bet Dagan, 1992.

12/ UNESCWA, "Proceedings of the Regional Seminar: The Use of Pesticideson Fruit & Vegetable Crops", 4-6 October 1993, Amman, Jordan.

13/ UNCTAD, "The environmental effects of agricultural production, andrelated measures" (UNCTAD/COM/42), 1994.

14/ CEOHS, 1994, unpublished data.

15/ Centre for Engineering and Planning, Masterplanning the state ofPalestine: suggested guidelines for comprehensive development , CEP, Ramallah,1992.

16/ See Khalidi, R., The Arab economy in Israel , London, Croom Helm, 1988(chap. 1).

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17/ CEOHS unpublished data.

18/ United Nations "Israeli land and water ...", op. cit. (A/46/263).

19/ Arab Studies Society, Land Research Unit, Jerusalem, 1992.

20/ CBS, "Statistical Abstract ... 1991", op. cit.

21/ CEOHS unpublished data and field sources.

22/ CEOHS unpublished data.

23/ UNCTAD. "Construction and housing in the West Bank and Gaza Strip",1994, (UNCTAD/ECDC/SEU/4).

24/ UNCTAD, "The agricultural sector of the West Bank and theGaza Strip", 1993 (UNCTAD/DSD/SEU/Misc.5).

25/ See UNCTAD, "The tourism sector and related services in thePalestinian territory under Israeli occupation", 1991 (UNCTAD/RDP/SEU/7); andUNCTAD, "Developments in the services sector in the West Bank and Gaza Strip,1967-1990", 1994 (UNCTAD/ECDC/SEU/7).

26/ UNCTAD, "Report of the workshop on the transfer and development ofenvironmentally sound technologies (EST)" (UNCTAD/ITD/TEC/13), 1993.

27/ United Nations, "Report of the United Nations Conference...",op. cit. (A/CONF.151/26).

28/ Palestine, "The environment in the occupied Palestinian territory",Report to the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, 1992.

29/ Congressional Research Service, Summaries of environmental lawsadministered by the EPA , 1993.

30/ UNCTAD, "Prospects for sustained development of the Palestinianeconomy in the West Bank and Gaza Strip, 1990-2010: A quantitativeframework", 1994 (UNCTAD/ECDC/SEU/6).

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Table 1

West Bank and Gaza Strip: main water sources andestimated levels of consumption, 1990

Use Source Total consumption(million m 3)

Domestic and industrial Artesian wells 45.0

Springs 3.5

Cisterns 1.5

Mekorot a / 9.0

Subtotal 59.0

Irrigation Artesian wells 90.0

Shallow wells 9.0

Springs 55.0

Run-off and wadis 5.0

Subtotal 159.0

Total 218.0

Source : Adapted from: Masterplanning the state of Palestine , Centre forEngineering and Planning, Ramallah, 1992.

a/ The Israeli water company.

- 58 -

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- 59 -

Table 3

West Bank: water resources in selected municipalities, 1993-1994

DISTRICT/municipality

Population Area(dunums) a /

Waterwellsowned

Welloutput

(m3/day)

Totalconsumption b /

(m3/day)

BETHLEHEM

Beit Jala 12 000 3 750 - - ..

Beit Sahur 11 000 2 500 - - ..

Bethlehem 37 000 4 000 1 4 500 20 000 c /

HEBRON

Beit Ummar 10 000 1 800 - - 500

Halhul 16 000 2 700 - - 1 000

Hebron 120 000 25 000 2 1 000 6 700

JENIN

Jenin 31 400 6 800 1 1 600 2 560

Yaabad 14 000 5 150 1 360 600

JERICHO

Jericho 15 000 6 000 1 d/ 14 400 14 400 d /

NABLUS

Nablus 125 000 12 750 2 1 000 6 700

RAMALLAH

Al-Bireh 30 000 7 200 - - ..

Beitunia 8 000 4 000 - - 650

Bir-Zeit 5 000 2 000 - - 400

Ramallah 29 600 17 000 4 8 500 13 000 e /

TULKAREM

Anabta 9 500 1 705 3 760 760

Qalqilya 30 000 4 500 2 3 900 3 900

Salfit 8 000 3 230 2 640 960

Tulkarem 55 000 5 000 3 6 000 6 000

Sources : Field survey data, Mekorot, the Israeli water company, andmunicipalities.

a/ 1 Dunum = 1/4 acr e = 1 hectare.

b/ Water supplied by Mekorot, the Israeli water company, in addition tothat from Palestinian-owned water wells.

c/ Including Beit Jala and Beit Sahur.

d/ Occasionally supplemented by Mekorot; figure includes water forirrigation.

e/ Including Al-Bireh.

- 60 -

Table 4

Gaza Strip: water resources in selected localities, 1993-1994

Locality Population Area(dunums)

Waterwellsowned

Welloutput

(m3/day)

Totalconsumption a /

(m3/day)

Gaza City andBeach Camp

300 000 36 000 17 55 000 ..

Jabalia 100 000 11 331 6 11 850 ..

Beit Lahia 18 000 8 000 4 3 000 ..

Beit Hanoun 14 000 6 155 2 1 500 ..

Rafah 95 000 11 000 4 9 600 ..

Khan YunisDistrict

120 000 25 000 6 13 560 3 000

Deir-El-Balah 35 000 11 000 5 5 480 ..

Abasan 14 500 17 500 3 500 1 200

Khuza’a 4 500 4 000 2 800 600

Bani Suhaila 14 000 9 000 2 600 900

Khan YunisCamp

41 000 3 500 1 1 600 ..

Nuseirat Camp 45 000 9 000 3 .. 3 000

Bureij Camp 22 000 3 000 9 .. 1 700

Maghazi 14 000 2 500 4 .. 1 700

Sources : Field survey data, Mekorot, the Israeli water company, andmunicipalities.

a/ Water supplied by Mekorot, the Israeli water company, in addition tothat from Palestinian-owned water wells.

- 61 -

Table 5

West Bank: wastewater treatment situation in selected municipalities1993-1994

DISTRICT/municipality

Waterworksstaff

Percentagepopulationcovered by

network

Treatmentfacility

Disposal site ormethod

BETHLEHEM

Bethlehem 100 - a / - Wadi

HEBRON

Beit UmmarHalhulHebron

22

22

..

..60

..

..Oxidation pond

CesspoolsCesspools

Wadi

JENIN

JeninYaabad

215

50..

Oxidation pond..

IrrigationCesspools

JERICHO

Jericho 3 .. .. Cesspools

NABLUS

Nablus 167 85 .. Cesspools

RAMALLAH

Al-BirehBeituniaBir-ZeitRamallah

-74

154

60....70

.. b /

.. b /

..Aerated

lagoons b /

WadiCesspoolsCesspools

Wadi

TULKAREM

AnabtaQalqilya

SalfitTulkarem

58

519

..80

..50

..

..

..Oxidation pond

CesspoolsVia Israeli

networkCesspools

Via Israelinetwork

Sources : Field survey data and CEOHS files.

a/ Network under construction.

b/ Plans for extending the network and building treatment facilities areunder way.

- 62 -

Table 6

Gaza Strip: wastewater situation in selected localities, 1993-1994

Locality Waterworksstaff

Percentagepopulationcovered by

network

Treatmentfacility

Disposal siteor method

Gaza City andBeach Camp

26 85 Aeration andstabilizationponds

Wadi Gaza andinto the sea

Jabalia 18 70 Oxidationponds a /

Sand dunes

Beit Lahia 7 15 - Sand dunes

Beit Hanoun 4 .. - Outsidemunicipalborders

Rafah 21 20 Oxidationponds b /

Pumped to thesea

Kahn Yunis 23 30 - Cesspools

Deir-El-Balah 5 .. - Wadi

Abasan 6 - - Cesspools

Khuza’a 2 - - Cesspools

Bani Suhaila 3 - - Cesspools

Kahn Yunis Camp .. - - Cesspools

Nuseirat Camp 1 - - Cesspools

Bureij Camp 2 - - Cesspools

Maghazi Camp 3 - - Cesspools

Sources : Field survey data and CEOHS files.

a/ Expansion of the network is under consideration.

b/ Expansion of the network is under way and upgrading of the treatmentfacility is under consideration.

- 63 -

Table 7

West Bank: solid waste situation in selected municipalities,1993-1994

DISTRICT/Municipality Refuse(tons/day)

Number ofsanitationpersonnel

Number ofvehicles

BETHLEHEM

Beit JalaBeit SahurBethlehem

212075

181625

223

HEBRON

Beit UmmarHalhulHebron

156

125

24

80

116

JENIN

JeninYaabad

706

675

21

JERICHO

Jericho 4 3 2

NABLUS

Nablus 140 162 8

RAMALLAH

Al-BirehBeituniaBir-ZeitRamallah

50131050

3075

47

4113

TULKAREM

AnabtaQalqilyaSalfitTulkarem

320

620

634

937

1425

Sources : Field survey data and CEOHS files.

- 64 -

Table 8

Gaza Strip: solid waste situation in selected localities, 1993-1994

Locality Refuse(tons/day)

Number ofsanitationpersonnel

Number ofvehicles

Gaza City and Beach Camp 400 230 36

Jabalia 50 122 5

Beit Lahia 10 10 2

Beit Hanoun 10 8 3

Rafah 46 41 5

Khan Yunis 60 37 4

Deir-El-Balah 20 23 3

Abasan 5 3 2

Khuza’a 5 4 -

Bani Suhaila 10 10 2

Khan Yunis Camp 10 43 1

Nuseirat Camp 40 45 3

Bureij Camp 10 40 1

Maghazi Camp 10 19 2

Sources : Field survey data and CEOHS files.

- 65 -

Table 9

List of commonly used pesticides in the Palestinian territory, 1992

1. 2,4-D2. Aldicarb3. Amitraz4. Atrazine5. Azinphos, ethyl6. Azinphos, methyl7. Azocyclotin8. Benomyl9. Benzthiazuron

10. Bifenthrin11. Bromacil12. Buprofezin13. Carbaryl14. Carbamate15. Carbendazim16. Carbosulfan17. Chinomethionat18. Chlorfluazuron19. Chlormequat20. Chlorobenzilate21. Chloropyriphos, ethyl22. Chlorothalonil23. Chlorthaldimethyl24. Clofetezine25. Copper hydroxide26. Copper oxychloride27. Coumatetralyl28. Cyanamide, calcium29. Cymoxanil30. Cypermethrin31. DDT32. Deltamethrin33. Diazinon34. Dichlofluanid35. Dichlorvos36. Dicofol37. Dimethoate38. Diquat39. Diuron40. Endosulfan41. Ethephon42. Fenaminophos43. Fenarimol44. Fenitrothion45. Fenpropathrine46. Fluazifop

47. Fluoroacetamide48. Fluosilicate, sodium49. Fluotrimazole50. Fluvalinate51. Glufosinate, ammonium52. Glyphosate53. Hesaconazole54. Iprodione55. Lambda cyhalothrin56. Lindane57. Linuron58. Malathion59. Mancozeb60. Maneb61. Metaldehyde62. Metam, sodium63. Methamidophos64. Methomyl65. Methyl bromide66. Metiram67. Metribuzin68. N-Meta-tolyl phthalmic acid69. Myclobutanil70. Oxadiazon71. Oxydemeton, methyl72. Oxyfluorfen73. Paraquat74. Parathion, ethyl75. Parathion, methyl76. Phosethyl-al77. Phosphamidon78. Pirimicarb79. Prometryn80. Propamocarb81. Propargite82. Propeneb83. Propyzamide84. Pyrazophos85. Quinomethionate86. Simazine87. Sulphur88. T.C.M.T.B.89. Triadimefon90. Triadimenol91. Tebuconazole92. Vincilozolin

Sources : Field survey data and CEOHS files

- 66 -

Table 10

Partial list of pesticides restricted or banned elsewhere, but used inthe Palestinian territory, 1993

No. Common name Brand name Type

1. 2,4-D Alber-super Aryloxyalkanoic acid

2. 2,4,5-T Sylvoxone Aryloxyalkanoic acid

3. Aldicarb Temik Carbamoyloxime

4. Amitraz Mitac, Taktic Amidine

5. Azinphos, ethyl Guthion OP a/

6. Azinphos, methyl Cotonion OP

7. Azocyclotin Peropal Organotin

8. Benomyl Benlate, Tersan Benzimidazole

9. Bromoxynil Brominal, Buctril Hydroxybenzonitrile

10. Carbaryl Ravyon Methylcarbamate

11. Chlorobenzilate Akar, Folbex Benzilate

12. Coumatetralyl Racumin Coumarin anticoagulant

13. Cypermethrin Barricade, Stockade Pyrethoid

14. DDT Gesarol, Neocid OC b/

15. Diazinon Diazital, Basudin OP

16. Dichlorvos Dedevap OP

17. Dicofol Acarin OC

18. Dimethoate Perfekthion OP

19. Endosulfan Thionex OC

20. Ethylene dibromide (EDB) Dowfume 85 (discontinued) Halogenated Hydrocarbon F

21. Fenamiphos Nemacur OP

22. Fluoroacetamide Rosh R Fluoroacetamide

23. Glyphosate Round Up Phosphonic acid

24. Lindane Gamma-col, Gammasan OC

25. Malathion Malathion, Cythion OP

26. Mancozeb Dithane M-45 Ethylenebis

27. Maneb Dithane M-22 Ethylenebis

28. Metaldehyde Ariotox Heterocyclic organic compound

29. Metam, sodium Vapam Methyl-isothiocyanate

30. Methamidophos Monitor OP

31. Methomyl Lannate Carbamoyloxime

32. Methyl bromide Dowfume MC2 Alkyl halide

33. Metiram Polyram Ethylenebis

34. Oxydemeton-methyl Metasystox R OP

35. Oxyfluorfen Goal Diphenyl ether

36. Paraquat Gramaxone, Dextrone Bipyridyl

37. Parathion, ethyl/methyl Folidol, Bladan OP

38. Phosphamidom Dimecron OP

39. Sodium fluosilicate Sefsan Inorganic fluoride

Sources : Field survey data and CEOHS files.

a/ OP, organophosphorous

b/ OC, organochlorine

- 67 -

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