19011

Examensarbete 15 hpOktober 2019

Entrepreneurship, Capabilities and Natural Capital A strong sustainability approach for well-being

improvement of indigenous women in Guatemala

Marije Eileen Poort

Teknisk- naturvetenskaplig fakultet UTH-enheten Besöksadress: Ångströmlaboratoriet Lägerhyddsvägen 1 Hus 4, Plan 0 Postadress: Box 536 751 21 Uppsala Telefon: 018 – 471 30 03 Telefax: 018 – 471 30 00 Hemsida: http://www.teknat.uu.se/student

Abstract

Entrepreneurship, Capabilities and Natural Capital. Astrong sustainability approach for well-beingimprovement of indigenous women in GuatemalaMarije Eileen Poort

The World Tourism Organization identifies improving linkages and opportunities in the tourism sector as a key area in the field of sustainable economic development. Swisscontact’s project Empodera aims at the improvement of well-being of indigenous women and youth via economic development. The main challenge of this project is seen in the weak entrepreneurial networks and lack of collaboration. This thesis is written as part Empodera and focuses on the linkages between the entrepreneurial indigenous women and the tourism sector in Alta Verapaz, Guatemala and the entrepreneurial opportunities for well-being improvement. The strong sustainability approach and the capability approach form the theoretical framework of this thesis. A social network analysis on all three levels of sustainable development is used to understand how the indigenous women are connected to the tourism activities in the area, to information and support and to natural capital. Two focus groups are conducted to identify entrepreneurial opportunities and well-being needs. The results show a weak formal social-economic network, the indigenous women are not involved in the tourism activities in Alta Verapaz. The women have a very strong social-ecological network and use natural resources for their entrepreneurial activities. The focus groups show that the women mostly need a richer social network, creativity, self-confidence and organisation for both well-being improvement and entrepreneurial development. To enable the women to be entrepreneurial active, the focus should thus lie on developing these aspects rather than on official skill development.

19011Examinator: Ulrika Persson-FischierÄmnesgranskare: Göran LindströmHandledare: Ulrika Persson-Fischier

Table of contents 1. Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 1

1.1 Importance of the study .................................................................................................... 2

2. The theoretical framework .............................................................................................................. 3

2.1 Sustainable development .................................................................................................. 3

2.1.1 Weak sustainability and Strong Sustainability ................................................................... 3

2.1.2 Critical Natural Capital ........................................................................................................ 4

2.2 Sustainable development and well-being ......................................................................... 5

2.2.1. The capability approach and natural capital ..................................................................... 6

2.2.2 Tourism, natural capital and well-being ............................................................................. 7

2.2.3 The role of entrepreneurship for human development ..................................................... 8

2.3 Social Network Theory ...................................................................................................... 9

2.3.1 Social networks, capabilities and natural capital ............................................................. 10

2.3.2 Collaboration within social networks ............................................................................... 11

2.4 Interconnectedness of concepts ..................................................................................... 12

3. Methods ........................................................................................................................................ 13

3.1 Participatory research ..................................................................................................... 13

3.2 Mixed methods ................................................................................................................ 13

3.3 Operationalisation ........................................................................................................... 15

4. Results ........................................................................................................................................... 19

4.1 The network of the women and their connectedness .................................................... 19

4.2 The entrepreneurial opportunities in the region ............................................................ 24

4.3 Well-being, tourism entrepreneurship and natural capital ............................................ 25

5. Conclusion & Discussion ................................................................................................................ 29

5.1 Conclusion ....................................................................................................................... 29

5.2 Discussion ........................................................................................................................ 30

6. Literature ....................................................................................................................................... 32

Appendices ............................................................................................................................................ 36

Appendix 1 - Capabilities Nussbaum ..................................................................................... 36

Appendix 2 - Answers Effectuation exercise ......................................................................... 37

Appendix 3 - Business ideas focus groups ............................................................................. 41

1

1. Introduction When the time arose to start thinking about a thesis topic, I had many ideas on what to

investigate. One thing was for sure and that is that I wanted to focus on the two most important

factors in sustainable destination development: collaboration and communication. In every

course I took and every group work I did, these two factors turned out to be central. For a

destination to develop in a sustainable way stakeholders need to work together, development

needs to be inclusive and information needs to be clear and accessible. Another thing I was sure

about it that I wanted to do my research from a strong sustainability perspective. This means

that for tourism development both the environmental and the social threshold need to be taken

into account. As I did the entrepreneurship for destination development track, I also wanted to

implement entrepreneurship. This brought me to the question: “How can collaboration between

tourism enterprises enhance sustainable destination development?”.

Not far before that, the sustainable tourism development consultant of Swisscontact

gave a guest lecture. I liked this lecture, so I wrote to her. Then everything went very quickly

and I was introduced to a project on entrepreneurship and tourism in Guatemala. 8,7% of

Guatemalans live under the poverty line (Worldbank, 2014) and many of them are indigenous

people (Lykes, 1997). Swisscontact started the project Empodera to reduce the poverty in a

particular area of Guatemala: Alta Verapaz. The project focuses on enhancing entrepreneurship

for economic growth and tourism is one of the sectors which the NGO has identified as an

accelerator. The target groups are indigenous women and indigenous youth in Alta Verapaz

(Swisscontact 2018a, Swisscontact 2018b)1. This brought a whole new dimension to my

research question.

This research is conducted as part of the project and creates greater understanding of the

entrepreneurial situation in connection with tourism. Through sustainable tourism development

Swisscontact wants to enhance the livelihood of the community. The NGO works from the

triple bottom line approach, where the three pillars of sustainability are of equal importance. As

I wrote before, I take a strong sustainability approach though, which argues that development

can only take place within the boundaries of the natural environment.

In one of Swisscontact´s reports the challenge of the project Empodera is mainly seen

in the weak entrepreneurial networks and a lack of collaboration (Swisscontact, 2018b). That

is why an analysis of the connections between the entrepreneurial activities in Alta Verapaz and

the local indigenous entrepreneurial women needs to be made. I will use the social network

analysis in order to do this. Swisscontact applied this method in Rwanda and Nigeria and wants

to develop it further in other projects. This small-scale analysis is thus as a pilot for other

projects as well. The results of the SNA will function as a base for discussion together with the

indigenous women. Where do they see opportunities? What kind of business ideas can be

developed? And what do they think they need in order to do this? Since the thesis works from

the strong sustainability approach, the importance of the natural capital and the social well-

being will be integrated.

In order to conduct this research, I have formulated the following research questions:

1 Internal documents (not public accessible)

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1. How are the organised entrepreneurial indigenous women connected to the natural

capital and the tourism sector in Alta Verapaz?

2. Which tourism entrepreneurial possibilities for the indigenous women in Tactic and

Chamelco can be identified within the realm of the natural capital?

3. On which levels does the well-being need to be developed and which role does natural

capital and entrepreneurship play in this?

1.1 Importance of the study

As this research is part of the project Empodera, it first and foremost contributes to the

objectives of this project. The research is an overlap of the three components of the project,

namely labour market insertion (component 1), entrepreneurship development (component 2)

and empowerment of indigenous women (component 3). The social network analysis enhances

the understanding of the connections between entrepreneurial indigenous women and the

tourism sector in Alta Verapaz. This will help to identify business opportunities and needs on

which Swisscontact can act in the first project component. Overall, the research aims at

contributing to component three.

In general terms, this research contributes to the field of sustainable destination

development in several ways. The core of the project lies in sustainable economic development.

The World Tourism Organization identifies “improving linkages and opportunities in the

tourism sector” as a key area in this field (2018, p. 31). Analysing the tourism value chain is

seen as a way to create a better understanding of the impact of tourism on a local level. This

thesis works in line with this, by using a social network analysis to visualise the ties between

the indigenous women and the tourism sector.

In the literature the importance of development and empowerment of indigenous people

is often emphasized. Lyon (2013) for example writes that the indigenous communities hardly

benefit from tourism, even though it is the second largest source of income in Guatemala.

Kumar De (2013) mentions that the indigenous women play an important role when it comes

to protecting natural resources. It is thus crucial to involve these women in sustainable

development. “Tourism, especially nature-based, is expected to provide women more freedom

and opportunities to work, develop self-respect, better education and attain a higher standard of

living by contributing to family income” (Kumar De, 2013, p. 312). He further writes that

tourism can also have a role in reshaping gender roles and that tourism businesses are seen as

beneficial for indigenous women. In this sense, (the development of) entrepreneurship can be a

tool for the empowerment of the indigenous women. Which is in line with the third component

of the project Empodera. To be able to enhance entrepreneurship in tourism, it is needed to get

an understanding of the access that women have to this market and, as I argue, the access they

have to natural capital.

Buzinde, Shockley, Andereck, Dee and Frank (2017) argue that research on the role of

entrepreneurship in sustainable development is scarce. Viswanathan, Echambadi, Venugopal

and Sridharan (2014), particularly mention the lack of research in the field of entrepreneurship

and poverty. This thesis thus responds to a research need as well. As this research aims at

finding the needs for entrepreneurship together with the local indigenous women, it follows a

recent change in literature on poverty by seeing the poor communities as partners in value

chains (Olabisi, Kwesiga, Juma, Tang, 2017).

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2. The theoretical framework In this chapter I will explain the different theories and concepts that form the framework in

which my research takes place. Firstly, I describe strong sustainability and the concept natural

capital. This forms the base on which this thesis is built. Then I outline the concept of well-

being via the capability approach and I illustrate how this is connected to the concept of natural

capital. Since this research is part of the project Empodera, I also briefly touch upon the role of

tourism and entrepreneurship for well-being. Lastly, I describe the social network theory, its

connection to well-being and natural capital and the role of collaboration.

2.1 Sustainable development

Sustainable development is defined by the Brundtland Commission in 1987: “Sustainable

development is development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the

ability of future generations to meet their own needs” (WCED, p. 41). A sustainable world thus

implies that human beings should take responsibility not only for themselves but also for the

people that come after them. This is called intragenerational justice (Dedeurwaerdere, 2014).

Sustainability is more complex than this though. Not only do we have to focus on the justice

between people of different generations, sustainability implies justice between people of the

same generation as well: the intragenerational justice (Dedeurwaerdere, 2014). Dedeurwaerdere

(2014) writes that in general sustainability is about justice in the realm of socio-ecological

relationships. He claims that “we should aim to preserve the possibility of all present and future

generations to make their own choices in their aspiration to an accomplished and just life” (p.

29).

In sustainable development three pillars are distinguished: the ecological pillar, the

social pillar and the economic pillar. All three are intertwined and contribute to sustainability.

Roughly three models of sustainability, dependent on the extent of overlap of the three pillars,

can be identified. The Micky Mouse model shows a non-sustainable approach, where the three

pillars mostly work separately from each other and the focus mainly lies on the economy. The

Triple Bottom Line shows a weak sustainability approach, sustainability only exists where the

three pillars overlap. This is the take of many countries around the world still now. It is about

minimizing impacts by focusing on reducing and recycling. Lastly the strong sustainability

model can be identified, where social and economic development only takes place within the

planetary boundaries (United Nations Environment Program & World Tourism Organization,

2005). In this thesis I will work from the strong sustainability perspective. In the next section I

therefore explain the concept more.

2.1.1 Weak sustainability and Strong Sustainability

On what scale sustainability should be interpreted and implemented is an ongoing debate. Some

scholars and policy makers work from the weak sustainability perspective whilst others work

from the strong sustainability perspective. The view on natural capital is central in this debate.

Natural capital is that capital created by nature and contains all the natural resources on earth.

Weak sustainability followers believe that natural capital can be substituted by

manufactured capital. Human made capital is seen as something that contributes to well-being

on the same level as natural capital. In weak sustainability it is argued that technology can

compensate the environmental losses. Natural resources therefore can be used until they are

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exhausted (Ekins et al, 2003; Ang & Van Passel, 2012; Dedeurwaerdere, 2014; Pelenc & Ballet,

2015). In strong sustainability most natural resources are seen as irreplaceable. Manufactured

capital thus cannot compensate the loss of natural capital (Ekins et al., 2003; Millenium

Ecosystems Assessment, 2003; Ang & Van Passel, 2012; Dedeurwaerdere, 2014; Pelenc &

Ballet, 2015). Pelenc and Ballet (2015) outline in a more detailed way what strong sustainability

implies. They argue that there is a strong difference between natural capital and manufactured

capital. Besides the irreplaceability they mention the ‘threshold phenomenon’, which means

that ecosystems can stop functioning if a certain threshold is transcended. If natural capital is

overused it can disappear, while manufactured capital can be decreased and increased. In

addition, Pelenc and Ballet (2015) mention the multifunctionality of natural capital. Whereas

manufactured capital mostly serves one purpose, natural capital can serve for example

biological, economic and recreational purposes at the same time. Finally they emphasise the

uncertainty of the importance of natural capital, as we do not know how most natural systems

work. Ekins et al. (2003) argue in the same way: “Manufactured capital is fundamentally

different from environmental resources, since it is human made and reproducible versus it is

limited in supply and non-reproducible/irreversible” (p. 168). Strong sustainability does not

argue that all natural capital needs to be saved, and that technology can never play a role in

sustainability though (Pelenc & Ballet, 2015).

Connecting this to sustainable development, we thus need to protect natural capital in

order to achieve a sustainable present and future (Dedeurwaerdere, 2014). If we want to enable

people to meet their needs and to ensure their freedom of choice, the adoption of the strong

sustainability is needed.

2.1.2 Critical Natural Capital

Above I have explained the notions of weak and strong sustainability and the role of natural

capital. In this section I go deeper into the concept of critical natural capital and what role it

plays for human well-being.

“Critical natural capital is that natural capital responsible for important environmental

functions and cannot be substituted in the provision of these functions by manufactured capital”

(Ekins et al., 2003, p. 169). Critical natural capital is of vital importance for the functioning of

natural systems which are of main influence on human well-being (Pelenc & Ballet, 2015). It

can be argued that from a strong sustainability perspective all natural capital is seen as critical

or at least as potential critical.

Natural capital exists out of ecosystems and these ecosystems provide humans with

services from which they benefit. The different ecosystem services have been categorised in

many ways and can roughly be distinguished as follows: Firstly, ecosystems exists out of

regulating services. This is for example the regulation of air quality and climate, as well as the

protection of floods. Secondly, the provisioning or production service can be identified.

Ecosystems provide humans with materials and food and water. Cultural or information

services provide humans with space for recreation, spirituality and aesthetics. Lastly, the

support services are categorised. These maintain the other ecosystem services and are the

internal functioning within ecosystems (Ekins et al., 2003; Millenium Ecosystems Assessment,

2003; Polishchuck & Rauschmayer, 2012; Pelenc & Ballet, 2015).

De Groot, Van der Perk, Chiesura and Van Vliet (2003) identify two perspectives on

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the criticality of natural capital. The eco-centric perspective focuses on the regulation and

supportive services. The ecosystems are important for ensuring the health of the environment.

The anthropocentric perspective focuses on the production and information functions of natural

capital. These are services that contribute directly to human well-being (De Groot et al., 2003;

Pelenc & Ballet, 2015). These perspectives influence the criticality that is ascribed to natural

capital. De Groot et al. (2003) define this criticality with the notion of importance. Criticality

can also be based on the degree of threat. Natural capital thus can be seen as critical without it

being threatened, only because of its prescribed importance.

Some natural capital is seen as critical because it has a vital function for life on earth,

other natural capital will be seen as critical because of the social, cultural or economic value it

has for humans. If connected to the three dimensions of sustainability, different values can be

distinguished. On the ecological level natural capital has conservation values, since it supports

life. In addition it is important because of its fragility, its contribution to biodiversity or its

uniqueness. On the social level natural capital can be seen as critical because of its importance

for health, its contribution to education or for example its spiritual value. On the economic level

natural capital can have value for production and consumption (De Groot et al., 2003; Ekins et

al., 2003). Natural capital can of course have different values of different dimensions at the

same time because as argued before, it often is multifunctional. “The definition of the critical

level of natural capital will depend both on the scientific understanding of the complex

dynamics of coupled socio-ecological systems and on the broader social debate on value-laden

goals and objectives” (Dedeurwaerdere, 2014). What is important to keep in mind is that this

importance and these values are discussed from the view of human beings. In this discussion

the value of critical natural capital for non-human beings is left out (De Groot et al., 2003).

2.2 Sustainable development and well-being

As I have showed earlier, the definition of sustainability states that we take care for the current

generation and the future generations, we make sure that we treat the earth in such a way so that

current people can have a good life and future people have an existence on the earth as well

with the freedom to live their life as they want. The current generations should not destroy

certain aspects of life which make future generations capable of making their own choices

(WCED, 1987; Dedeurwaerdere, 2014). The section above shows how (critical) natural capital

is vital for sustainability and for both human survival and human well-being. It thus can be

argued that (critical) natural capital plays a major role in human development. Different kinds

of capital complement each other in producing human well-being (Pelenc & Ballet, 2015). Or

as Dedeurwaerdere (2014) puts it: “The possibility of other members of the present generation,

and of future generations, to acquire a certain level of autonomy of choice can be understood

in terms of a combination of natural capital and human capital” (p. 30).

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This figure (figure 1) created by

Ekins et al. (2003, p. 172) shows how

(critical) natural capital and human well-

being are intertwined. Humans will only

be capable of creating well-being if the

natural capital is sustained. It also shows

how human well-being influences natural

capital and thus how important it is to find

sustainable ways towards well-being.

Pelenc & Ballet (2015) argue that the

interconnectedness of natural capital and

human well-being cannot only be

identified using factual knowledge. The

values and thus the interpretation of the

importance of capital from the view of

different stakeholders should be taken

into account too. I want to follow their

argumentation that the capability

approach (CA) can be a good tool for this.

Figure 1. Interconnectedness natural capital and well-being

2.2.1. The capability approach and natural capital

The capability approach is a theoretical framework within human development. The approach

focuses on the opportunities at hand for humans and is an alternative for the GDP approach for

measuring development. The capability approach draws upon sustainability and it sees the

freedom of choice and quality of life as main aspects in development of human well-being

(Nussbaum, 2011; Polishchuck & Rauschmayer, 2012; Pelenc & Ballet, 2015). “Capabilities

are the answers to the question: What is this person able to do and to be? They are the freedoms

or opportunities created by a combination of personal abilities and the political, social and

economic environment” (Nussbaum, 2011, p. 20). A capability means that someone is free from

a constraint to achieve certain doings and beings, such as participating in society or being

educated (Polishchuck & Rauschmayer, 2012; Peeters, Dirix & Sterckx, 2013).

According to Nussbaum (2011) the central capabilities are needed to reach human

dignity. She asks the question: “What does a life worthy of human dignity require?” (p. 31). In

this light she has established a threshold, which are the central capabilities of which she argues

are needed to reach the bare minimum of human dignity or well-being. Since poverty is seen as

a lack of capabilities to live a good life in the capability approach, this threshold can be seen as

the poverty line. The central capabilities are distinctive, they thus should all be met. It is not

possible to balance the non-existence of one central capability out with more from another. The

central capabilities that Nussbaum (2011) has distinguished are as follows: Life, Bodily health,

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Bodily integrity, Senses, imagination and thought, Emotions, Practical reason, Affiliation,

Other species, Play and Control over ones environment (see appendix 1 for a more extensive

description).

I follow the argumentation of Polishchuck and Rauschmayer (2012) that ecosystem

services should be implemented in the capability approach. The approach is a way to assess

well-being and, as shown in the above paragraph, natural capital and human well-being are

interconnected. The provisioning, regulating and cultural ecosystem services (of natural capital)

make goods and services available for humans in order to reach capabilities. To reach these

capabilities, conversion factors are needed. Conversion factors exist on three levels, namely

personal (one’s own abilities), social (e.g. social norms) and environmental. The regulating and

cultural ecosystem services fall under the last mentioned factor, and thus are conversion factors

too. Natural capital creates the environment in which capabilities can take place (Polishchuck

& Rauschmayer, 2012). Lastly, ecosystem services have an indirect influence on capabilities.

The purification of air for example impacts the overall health in the long-term, which in turn

affects capabilities.

Peeters, Dirix and Sterckx (2013) state that the freedom of choice that is central to the

approach should be limited if this freedom leads to unsustainable practices. “That is, a high

quality of life ought to be ensured while sustaining the carrying capacity of the ecosphere

through respecting its biophysical constraints” (Peeters, Dirix & Streckx, 2013, p. 64). Within

human development it thus should be recognised and taken into account that freedom of choice

has an effect on ecosystem services (Millenium Ecosystem Assessment, 2003; Polishchuck &

Rauschmayer, 2012). As shown before in figure 1, human well-being and natural capital are

interconnected. Thus if human development and freedom of choice lead to the decline of natural

capital, it indirectly leads to the decline of human well-being as well.

2.2.2 Tourism, natural capital and well-being

Natural capital provides resources and spaces for tourism to take place. Partale and Partale

(2019) put forward that ‘natural and sociocultural resources’ are the main drivers for tourism.

This includes tangible and intangible heritage such as traditions, architecture and landscapes.

The dependence of tourism on natural capital is, besides it being vital for human well-being,

another reason to protect this natural capital.

Overall, tourism is seen as a means to reach the sustainability goals set by the United

Nations in 2015 (UNWTO, ITC & EIF, 2017; World Tourism Organization, 2018). For many

developing countries, the tourism sector contributes highly to the national economy and is a

main provider of jobs. Especially for the most vulnerable in societies, namely women and youth

(UNWTO, ITC & EIF, 2017). The World Tourism Organization (UNWTO) calls tourism a

catalyst for positive change (2018). In the report ‘Tourism for Development – Volume I: Key

Areas for Action’, five pillars of sustainable tourism development are distinguished: sustainable

economic growth; social inclusiveness, employment and poverty reduction; resource efficiency,

environmental protection and climate change; cultural values, diversity and heritage and mutual

understanding, peace and security. Every pillar connects to several sustainable development

goals, which shows the importance that tourism has in sustainable development. Tourism can

have a negative impact on the environment and sometimes creates social issues (Saarinen, 2006;

World Tourism Organization, 2018). However, when developed in a sustainable way, tourism

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can be a tool for preservation and conservation of natural areas and create value around natural

heritage. Simultaneously, it can enhance the economic and social well-being of people around

the world. Sustainable tourism is “tourism that takes full account of its future economic, social

and environmental impacts, addressing the needs of visitors, the industry, the environment and

host communities” (World Tourism Organization, 2018, par 3).

The project of Swisscontact in Alta Verapaz, Guatemala focuses on the (economic)

empowerment of the indigenous local youth and women. Tourism is one of the sectors with

which they want to accelerate this (Swisscontact, 2018b). Nyaupane and Poudel (2011)

emphasize the importance of tourism for indigenous women. “Tourism, especially nature-

based, is expected to provide women more freedom and opportunities to work, develop self-

respect, better education and attain a higher standard of living by contributing to family income”

(p. 312). The UNWTO highlights the connection between tourism and human development in

general; it states that human development is at the core of the sustainable development goals in

the 2030 Agenda and the five pillars of sustainable tourism development (World Tourism

Organization, 2018). The development goals aim to enrich human lives, and focus on the

opportunities and choices people have. It is thus about quality of life. This is in line with the

earlier mentioned capability approach of Nussbaum (2011), which also states that human

development should focus on freedom of choice and human dignity.

Kumar De (2013) and Nyaupane and Poudel (2011) emphasize that indigenous

communities are more vulnerable for natural capital losses, since these communities mostly

rely on the natural environment and its resources. Their livelihood depends on natural capital

and therefore they are more negatively affected by environmental losses. In addition, Nyaupane

and Poudel (2011) bring forward that poverty can reduce conservation efforts. This is another

argument to enhance well-being. Tourism can play a role in this, by linking the local goods and

services to the tourism market (Nyaupane & Poudel, 2011). This is what I in this research aim

for as well. Saarinen (2006) and Page (2015) see a major role for communities in tourism

development. Involving the community and taking their needs into account can effectively

contribute to well-being and the protection of natural capital. Tourism development thus needs

to be approached from a strong sustainability perspective, where the boundaries of the natural

environment are the boundaries for tourism growth.

2.2.3 The role of entrepreneurship for human development

The project ‘Empodera’ focuses on enhancing entrepreneurship in Alta Verapaz and thereby

developing the local economy in the region and empowering the local indigenous people

(Swisscontact, 2018b). Entrepreneurship is seen as a way towards better livelihoods, especially

for indigenous communities and in rural areas (Lordkipanidze, Brezet, & Backman, 2005;

Hindle & Moroz, 2010; Olabisi, Kwesiga, Juma, & Tang, 2017). Entrepreneurship thus can

have a major role in sustainable (tourism) development. Lordkipanidze et al. (2005) write that

entrepreneurship can help local communities into using the local resources they have for the

tourism market. “However, to achieve its true potential, care needs to be taken to conserve the

rural heritage, biodiversity, landscapes and the local culture” (p. 788). In addition, Crnogaj,

Rebernik, Hojnik and Gomezelj (2014) emphasize the role of entrepreneurship in tourism and

argue that tourism is highly dependent on entrepreneurship.

In general entrepreneurship is characterized by initiative, risk taking and profit

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orientation. The concept implies the creation of new enterprises (Margolis, 2014; Angulo-

Guerrero, Pérez-Moreno & Abad-Guerrero, 2017). Or as Viswanathan, Echambadi, Venugopal

& Sridharan (2014) put it, “entrepreneurship is defined as the pursuit of unexploited or

underexploited business opportunities” (p. 214). Two types of entrepreneurship are

distinguished, namely opportunity entrepreneurship and necessity entrepreneurship. The first

type exists when entrepreneurial activities start out of choice. The entrepreneur sees an

opportunity to start a business even if there are other employment options. Necessity

entrepreneurship entails those enterprises that started out of necessity. The entrepreneur did not

have another choice and the entrepreneurial activities are merely a way to survive (Margolis,

2014; Angulo-Guerreo et al., 2017; Mrozewski & Kratzer, 2017). The literature defines another

type of entrepreneurship, which falls under the necessity type. It is called subsistence

entrepreneurship (Viswanathan et al., 2014). These entrepreneurial activities take place in the

poorest levels of society and are mostly about survival.

Swisscontact works with the above mentioned types as well. The NGO identifies the

following five types of enterprises, which they have based on the report The Missing Middles

from Dalberg (Hornberger & Chau, 2018):

1. Growth enterprises

2. Niche enterprises

3. Traditional enterprises

4. Livelihood sustaining enterprises

5. Subsistence entrepreneurs (Crescini, 2019)2.

Most of the projects, including Empodera, work with the latter two: Livelihood sustaining

enterprises and Subsistence entrepreneurs. These are mostly necessity based, as mentioned

above. The difference is that livelihood entrepreneurs mainly have access to the market whereas

subsistence entrepreneurs lack this access (Crescini, 2019). The idea of Swisscontact is to move

beyond the support of NGO’s and to link the subsistence entrepreneurs with the (tourism)

sector. To develop entrepreneurship Swisscontact works with four approaches: skills

development, inclusive entrepreneurship promotion, business solutions for development

constraint and building entrepreneurial ecosystems (Crescini, 2019). The focus of this thesis is

on the second approach, as the aim is to find entrepreneurship opportunities within the tourism

sector in Alta Verapaz. To be able to identify these opportunities the social network analysis

method will be used. In the following section the underlying ideas of this approach will be

outlined.

2.3 Social Network Theory

In order to find the answer on the first research question a social network analysis will be

performed. Before explaining what this method implies, I will briefly explain the underlying

theory of this method. I will also outline the connection with social networks and the

sustainability aspects as mentioned above.

Social network analysis is based on the social network theory. In this theory, networks

are social structures composed out of connections between actors. The focus lies on these

connections or relationships between the different actors in the network. Actors can represent

individuals, groups, organizations and businesses. In the theory the actors are often called

2 Internal powerpoint presentation (not public accessible)

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nodes. The connections, also called ties, can differ as well. Some ties are family based, others

are business based, some are more important than the other, some represent interactions and

other movements. In the end the theory implies that an actor can enhance its success via its

network. This means that a network with rich connections benefits an individual or business

(Gonzales & Parrott, 2012; Viren, Vogt, Kline, Rummel, & Tsao, 2015; Casanueva, Gallego,

& García-Sánchez, 2016; Salpeteur, Calvet-Mir, Diaz-Reviriego, & Reyes-García, 2017).

This richness is also known as social capital. “Social capital consists of the stock of

active connections among people […] that bind the members of human networks and

communities and make cooperative action possible” (Viren et al., 2015, p. 111). In this sense,

a social network shows the social capital of individuals and groups. It shows into what extent a

single person for example has access to the resources in the network (Chang, 2018). I would

add that in a social network, several types of capital exist. In light of the strong sustainability

approach I want to add the natural capital as an important factor in networks.

Social networks play a role in tourism as well. Within a tourism destination many

different actors are involved and are connected with each other in several ways (Viren et al.,

2015). Tourism destinations are thus social networks. Social network theory is also useful in

facing sustainability challenges. Gonzales and Parrott (2012) point out that in this light the focus

could lie on the ties between humans and nature. They name the interactions between the natural

environment and humans, for example via the use of resources for tourism, social-ecological

systems. A social-ecological network can give insight into these social-ecological systems.

2.3.1 Social networks, capabilities and natural capital

In this thesis I focus on networks on the ecological, social and economic level. The emphasis

lies on the connections of entrepreneurial indigenous women with other actors. On the

economic level I look at the ties between these women and the actors in the tourism value chain

in Alta Verapaz. On the social level I am interested in which informational and supportive ties

the women have with different actors in the value chain (their social capital). Lastly, I also look

at the connections of the indigenous women with the natural environment, both for their

economic activities and for their general well-being.

I believe this is important, since natural capital influences this well-being. As I

mentioned earlier, this happens through the various functions and conversion factors of the

different ecosystem services of natural capital. Provisional ecosystem services provide humans

with raw material, which can be used to produce goods to sell. In this case to the businesses in

the tourism value chain for example (Millenium Ecosystems Assessment, 2003; Polishchuck &

Rauschmayer, 2012). Natural capital is thus the source of the value chain and the women can

add value to the materials the natural capital provides.

Besides the different ties the entrepreneurial indigenous women have within the value

chain, I also look at the perceived importance of these ties. On the environmental level this

means that I can analyse the criticality of the natural capital for the indigenous women since,

as mentioned earlier, the criticality of natural capital can be based on the importance people

ascribe to it (De Groot et al., 2003).

The capability approach is integrated into the analysis of the social networks within the

different levels. On the economic level, and thus the connections of the women with other actors

in the tourism value chain, the capability of having control over ones environment applies. The

capability of senses, imagination and thoughts is directly influenced by the informational and

11

support ties on the social level and the ties with the cultural ecosystem services on the

environmental level. Capabilities such as bodily integrity, practical reason and affiliation are

influenced by the empowerment of the women, which can be established by creating better

connections in the network. Lastly, bodily health and other species are reinforced through

connections with natural capital.

Coming back to the research of Polishchuck and Rauschmayer (2012), other arguments

can be made for integrating the capabilities approach in the framework of social network theory.

As earlier said, capabilities are affected by goods and services which are converted through

personal, social and environmental conversion factors. Informational connections in a network

for example enhance a woman’s personal knowledge which she needs to use a good or service.

Stronger ties between the entrepreneurial women and the actors in the tourism value chain can

indirectly change social practices and gender roles, which also enable the women to use goods

and services to reach their capabilities. Identifying the role and importance of the natural

environment for the women’s (economic) activities, will create understanding of which natural

capital is critical and therefore needs protection. A healthy natural environment and ecosystem

services enable the women to use goods and services to create capabilities.

2.3.2 Collaboration within social networks

Social networks are built on collaboration between different actors. From the collaboration

perspective, development is seen as a social process between stakeholders where solutions are

found through dynamic interactions and where decisions are made together (Jamal & Getz,

1995; Heape & Liburd, 2018; Jennings, 2018; Leifer & Meinel, 2018). Liburd and Edwards

(2018) argue collaboration differs from cooperation, since the latter only implies a ‘division of

labour’ (p. 274). In collaboration the group process is important and everyone works together

towards a common goal, although the outcomes are not predetermined (Jennings, 2018; Leifer

& Meinel, 2018, Liburd, 2018). Jennings (2018) argues that meaning making between

stakeholders is at the core of the collaboration process. “Collaboration offers a dynamic and

flexible process for incorporating the often diverse views of multiple and interdependent

stakeholders, such that changes can be made to the planning process as situations evolve. In

environmentally and culturally sensitive destinations, this is a valuable aid for incorporating the

results of cumulative impact studies and of changing political and social conditions” (Jamal &

Getz, 1995, p. 195).

Since Alta Verapaz is a sensitive area, environmental, social and political wise,

collaboration seems important in the tourism development in the region. As Graci (2013) states,

it is seen as an important aspect for developing tourism in a sustainable way. The World

Tourism Organization (2018) and the Agenda 2030 of the UN (Sustainable development goals

knowledge platform, n.d.) recognise this as well. Partnerships as ‘collaborative efforts’ are

mentioned as vital for the accomplishment of the sustainable development goals, especially in

developing countries (as Guatemala) (World Tourism Organization, 2018). Collaborations

between stakeholders on many levels, for example between public and private actors, are

encouraged by SDG 17 and in focus in sustainable tourism development (Sustainable

development goals knowledge platform, n.d; MBaiwa, Stronza & Kreuter, 2011; World

Tourism Organization, 2018). Collaboration in sustainable tourism development strives for

12

benefits for all stakeholders, including the natural environment and local communities (Graci,

2013). The social network of the indigenous women can thus be enriched via better

collaborations and partnerships with other stakeholders (actors) in the tourism value chain. The

well-being of the women can be enhanced and tourism in Alta Verapaz can simultaneously

develop in a more sustainable way.

2.4 Interconnectedness of concepts

What can be concluded taken all of the above, it that sustainable (tourism) development is a

complex concept existing out of an interconnected web of other concepts such as critical natural

capital, ecosystem services, capabilities, collaboration and entrepreneurship.

Economic and human development cannot be seen separately from the ecological world.

When economic development takes place or the well-being of people grows, it will influence

the natural capital. As I have emphasised, this natural capital has a great impact on human well-

being and economic development as well. This means that if economic and human development

impact the natural capital too much in a negative way, the economic and human development

will in the end decline.

The project Empodera aims to enhance the well-being of the indigenous communities

in Alta Verapaz through entrepreneurship development. Following the above, entrepreneurship

and tourism development should take place within the boundaries of the ecological world. This

means it should not exhaust the (critical) natural resources and destroy ecosystems. A balance

needs to be found, in which all three pillars can mutual benefit and where economic and human

development could even positively impact the natural capital. For example, when

entrepreneurship empowers the indigenous women, they can play a larger role in the protection

of the natural environment (Nyaupane & Poudel, 2011).

The well-being of the local indigenous women can be developed by helping them to use

local resources in the tourism market (Lordkipanidze et al., 2005). Resources in the broader

sense are ecosystem services but as well information, support and collaboration with other

actors in the value chain. Following the argumentation of the social network theory, better

access to and more connections with these resources means more social capital and more

benefits for the individual.

Therefore this thesis focuses on mapping out the connections of the entrepreneurial

indigenous women with other actors in the tourism value chain. This will not only be done by

looking at the network on the economic level, but by implementing the connections on the

social and environmental level as well. This is done using the method of social network

analysis, which I further explain in the following chapter.

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3. Methods With the last chapter above I highlighted the importance of social networks and collaboration

in sustainable tourism development. The concept of participation lies at the heart of the

collaboration process. Therefore I did not only want to make collaboration a part of this study,

but I wanted to integrate it in my own research too. Especially as I was participating in the

developmental project of Swisscontact myself. This is in line with Jennings (2018), who states

that collaboration is of major importance in research on sustainable development. Therefore I

followed the line of the participatory research methods.

3.1 Participatory research

Höckert (2015) writes that development projects have shifted from working on the ‘other’,

towards working with the ‘other’. She states that it is time for research to do the same. The

participatory research paradigm follows this line of argumentation. Participatory research is

about doing research with (or for) the stakeholders involved (Koster, Baccar & Lemelin, 2012;

Delyser & Sui, 2014; Höckert, 2015). It is based on collaboration and partnerships (Coughlin,

Smith & Fernandez, 2017; Jennings, 2018), and therefore in line with the 17th Sustainable

Development Goal in the UN Agenda 2030. In participatory research the people who would

normally be the subjects of the study are now actively engaged in the research process, and all

parties involved benefit (in one way or another) from the research being done (Lykes, 1997;

Koster et al., 2012; Delyser & Sui, 2014; Coughlin et al., 2017).

Participatory research has its downsides as well. It can be a time consuming and difficult

process (St. Denis, 2014). This was something to bear in mind, as my time to write this thesis

was limited. Due to this limited time, I only used participatory methods for a part of the

research. Also, my study was not totally participatory since the stakeholders were not involved

in preparing the research questions or in analysing the data. I explain this further in the next

paragraph.

3.2 Mixed methods

To answer all the research questions as stated at the start of this thesis, I used a mixed methods

model. The first research question is answered via the social network analysis method. As

mentioned in the theory section, with the social network analysis ties between different actors

in a network can be identified. Together with Jaime Vargas, a colleague at Swisscontact that

worked with social network analysis before, I created a questionnaire. This provided me with

both statistical (background) information and the information needed to form the network

visualisation. I used https://www.kobotoolbox.org/ to collect the data. Via the Kobo app on a

mobile device the respondents could answer the questions, also without a connection to mobile

data or wi-fi.

The businesses in the tourism value chain were found using a stakeholder analysis,

following the definitions I created preliminary to the data collection (see also operationalisation

paragraph). I contacted the three alliances of the tourism sector in Alta Verapaz, called Alianza

Viviente Verapaz, Comité de Autogestión Turística de Alta Verapaz (CAT) and Gremial de

Hoteleros de Alta Verapaz. Since Alta Verapaz consists out of 17 municipalities and the focus

of this study lies on the entrepreneurial indigenous women in Tactic and Chamelco, only the

14

businesses located in the municipalities of

Coban, Chamelco, San Pedro Carchá,

Santa Cruz. San Cristóbal and Tactic were

contacted (Figure 2). Eventually 24

businesses replied to the survey. As also

stated in the operationalisation, this

research focuses on the entrepreneurial

indigenous women in Tactic and

Chamelco who are organised in an

association, cooperative or grupo de

ahorro. The different groups were

identified and contacted. Via this way I

was able to get to the individual women for

the survey. Eventually 118 women

answered the survey. Based on the answers

on the survey a social network map was

created using the online program Kumu.io. Figure 2. Map of municipalities in the department Alta Verapaz

(Swisscontact n.d.)

The social network analysis formed a base to discuss the opportunities for and the needs of the

indigenous women. The connections that exist between the women and the natural environment

have also been discussed, as well as the view of the women on their development of well-being.

This second part of the study can be identified as participatory.

To be more specific, it is called deliberative. From the perspective of deliberative

research, in line with the participatory paradigm, the process of gaining and generating

knowledge is not objective and neutral. In the deliberative approach the opinions of the

respondents and the experts are both of importance in decision making. Outcomes can be

negotiated and the emphasis lies on communication (Raymond et al., 2014). I believe that

deliberation is the right approach for this second part of the study, since the focus lies on

discussing opportunities, needs and well-being. These are value-loaden and subjective

practices.

Not only do I believe that the participatory method has been a good choice for my

research because of the collaboration aspect and the focus on benefits for the local community.

Conducting research in a participatory way has been beneficial for me as well, since I did not

know much about Guatemala in general and Alta Verapaz in particular. In addition, I did not

speak Spanish on a sufficient level nor did I master a Mayan language. Working with local

people took away the language barrier, as well did form an environment of recognition and

trust. Lastly, it has helped me to interpret the data in a better way

I used the qualitative method of focus groups to collect the data. Focus groups are

conversations between respondents, who discuss the topics brought forward by a moderator

(Della Porta, 2014). I conducted two focus groups, one in Tactic and one in Chamelco. Of each

women’s group I visited for the social network analysis, two women were invited to represent

the women of their community. 11 organised entrepreneurial indigenous women came to the

focus group in Tacti and 6 women came to the focus group in Chamelco. I conducted the focus

15

groups with three other interns of Swisscontact, who are from the area. All of them spoke a

local Mayan language and Spanish. They were mainly in charge of managing the focus groups

and explaining the tasks. I served as an observer, took notes and presented some findings to the

women.

The women were divided into groups consisting out of at least one representative of

each women’s group. So everyone had to work with someone they usually do not work together

with. The focus groups were divided into two sessions. The first session was about identifying

entrepreneurial opportunities. Firstly, I presented the findings of the social network analysis.

Then I let the women do an effectuation exercise, in which they needed to write down who they

are, what they know and who they know in a short amount of time. Effectuation is a theory on

entrepreneurial thinking and action, wherein businesses are developed based on the available

resources (knowledge, skills, network, finance) (Read, Sarasvathy, Dew & Wiltbank, 2017). It

is about working with what you have and taking small steps. I believed this way of thinking

would simplify the process of coming up with business ideas. Because some of the women

could not write, the other three interns helped with this task. Based on these answers, the women

were asked to create a business idea and to identify the skills and other needs necessary to

develop this idea (within the framework of tourism). All the groups created a poster and

presented their ideas afterwards.

The second session was about identifying capabilities. Again, I firstly gave a brief

introduction to the idea of capabilities and presented some outcomes of the social network

analysis. Then the women were asked to list the capabilities that need to be developed according

to them, why these need to be developed and which personal, social and environmental factors

are necessary to develop these capabilities.

3.3 Operationalisation

To perform the social network analysis and the rest of the research, some core concepts needed

to be clearly defined. Below I have stated the definitions as used in this study.

• Natural Capital:

Capital created by nature, the natural environment and its ecosystems. This includes:

Water, flora (wild fruits, vegetables, herbs, plants, trees (wood)), natural land,

agricultural land, wild animals and domesticated animals.

• Organised Indigenous Entrepreneurial Women:

Indigenous women: Indigenous Maya women living in the department Alta Verapaz. I

have chosen to focus on the women that are a member of cooperatives, associations or

grupo de ahorros located in Tactic and Chamelco, two municipalities in the department

Alta Verapaz.

Organised: Those women that are a member of an association, cooperative or grupo de

ahorro. I chose to focus on organised women, because they already have a base of

economic activity. These women often already have the skills to work further with,

which makes them easier to work with for Swisscontact.

Entrepreneurial: When talking about entrepreneurs in this research, two groups as

defined by Swisscontact are meant. The ‘Subsistence Plus’ entrepreneurs are indigenous

women (and youth) with an entrepreneurial activity with the ability to grow beyond self-

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employment. The second group are cooperative entrepreneurs. This group also consists

out of self-employed indigenous women (and youth), but have a high readiness to

engage in joint entrepreneurial activities (Swisscontact, 2018b, p. 8).

• Tourism sector:

Businesses in the tourism value chain in Alta Verapaz that are a member of the tourism

service provider alliances: Aliansa Viviente Verapaz, Comité de Autogestión Turística

de Alta Verapaz (CAT) and Gremial de Hoteleros de Alta Verapaz. The tourism sector

is divided into subsectors (based on Viren, Vogt, Kline, Rummel & Tsao, 2015):

- Accommodations (hotels, hostels etc.)

- Food services (restaurants, café’s)

- Retail (souvenir shops)

- Services (tour guides, transport)

- Craftmanship (knitting, other art or creative pieces)

As mentioned in the paragraph on SNA theory, the aim of a social network analysis is to identify

the nodes and the ties in a network. Nodes represent individuals or groups. In this research it

can represent natural capital, a single indigenous female entrepreneur (self-employed), an

association, cooperative or grupo de ahorro (which exist out of a group of self-employed) and

other businesses. These nodes are also called actors. The natural capital is in this sense a passive

actor, since it cannot speak for itself. Active actors are:

• Self-Employed: The organised entrepreneurial indigenous women (who have an

economic activity).

• Association: An informal organisation existing out of indigenous entrepreneurial

women that organised themselves (around the same economic activity).

• Cooperative: A formal organisation (created under the general law of cooperatives)

existing out of indigenous entrepreneurial women that organised themselves (around the

same economic activity).

• Grupo de Ahorro: An informal financial organisation existing out of indigenous

entrepreneurial women that organised themselves.

• Businesses: Those businesses active in the tourism value chain. These can be further

separated in:

- Micro Business with 1-10 employees

- Small business with 11-40 employees

- Medium business with 41-60 employees

(Definitions of Banco Centroamericano de Integración Económica, as stated in

Centro De Investigaciones Económicas Nacionales, 2010)

The active actors have different roles in the tourism markets. To distinguish between these roles

I have created the following definitions:

• Producer/supplier of raw material: a person or business that produces and/or supplies

raw material for/to the tourism value chain. Food: coffee, tea, cacao, fruits, vegetables,

grains, spices etc. Textile: dying cotton, supplying textile etc. Industrial players:

17

processes industrial materials to supply to the tourism market (most likely have

international suppliers, which I leave out in this SNA).

• Processor of raw material: a person or business that processes raw material and adds

value to products for the tourism value chain. These can be further separated in

handicrafts: creation of handicrafts using natural fabrics, resources and threats (shirts,

jewellery, art, candles etc.). Physical care: soap, body lotion, shampoo, make-up to sell

to the tourism market. Food: processes raw food material into (end-)products, such as

sauces, tortilla etc.

(The definition raw material in this thesis is as follows: every material that can be

transformed into an end-product and/or that can have value added to it).

• Middlemen: a person or business that buys goods from the processors and sells it to the

end-seller

• End-seller of goods: a person or business that sells the processed goods to the tourism

market.

• Supplier of services: a person or business that sells services to the tourism market.

Services are:

- Tour operator: single guides selling their services to a tour business or directly to

tourists. Tour agencies selling their tours to tourists.

- Transport: single persons who sell transport services to a tour business or directly to

tourists (e.g. shuttles). Tour agencies selling transport services to tourists.

- Accommodation: self-employed selling their services such as cleaning or cooking

to accommodation suppliers. Hotels, hostels, B&B etc. that sell their services to

tourists.

- Gastronomy: self-employed selling their services such as cooking or waitressing to

gastronomy suppliers. Restaurants and cafes selling their services to tourists.

Other than the actors, ties are a second part of the social network analysis. As explained earlier,

ties are the connections between the nodes/actors. In this research I looked at two different types

of relations. Firstly I mapped out the connections in the tourism value chain, focusing on supply

and demand. Secondly I looked at the ties between the ecosystem services and the organised

entrepreneurial indigenous women. Since this is more on a perception level, it forms another

network.

• Ties in the value chain

Supply and demand: In general the organised indigenous women are the suppliers to the

tourism value chain, and the other actors are the demand in the tourism value chain.

Within the value chain the different actors can be suppliers or demanders as well though.

These ties include the natural capital as a supplier for economic activities and thus as

well the other actors as demanders of the natural capital.

Support and information: These ties show if and how the indigenous women are

supported by the tourism value chain or by other actors.

• Social-Ecological ties

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These ties are the connections between the natural capital and the indigenous women.

Based on the literature on strong sustainability and capabilities, I have distinguished the

following possible connections (which fall under one of the three ecosystem services):

o Social (Cultural/informational)

o Cultural (Cultural/informational)

o Spiritual (Cultural/informational)

o Health (Regulation)

o Protection (Regulation)

o Production (Provision)

o Consumption (Provision)

All the ties can be important or not important, as perceived by the actor itself. In the

questionnaire the respondents needed to rate every connection (which they stated they have) as

hardly important, important or very important. Both the businesses and the organised

entrepreneurial indigenous women were asked for the importance of certain connection for their

business activities. The indigenous women were asked for the importance of the social-

ecological ties for their well-being.

19

4. Results In this chapter I will outline the results of the research and analyse the findings according to the

theoretical framework. I have divided this chapter into three sections, based on the three

research questions mentioned in the start of this thesis. Firstly, I will describe the data that was

collected via the survey and social network analysis. Then I will outline the entrepreneurial

opportunities that were identified by the women themselves, and their needs to develop these

ideas. Lastly, I will describe the capabilities and needs of the women selected in the focus

groups. Not only will I outline the results, but I will simultaneously analyse and reflect upon

the data.

4.1 The network of the women and their connectedness

Via the survey I collected both general statistical data and data for creating the social network

map. In this data the indigenous women and the tourism businesses in Alta Verapaz are

included. The general statistical data about the 118 investigated women shows that the women

are economical active in the same sector and market. 60% of them are processors of raw

material and 20% are end-sellers. The majority of the women are active in the same place in

the value chain. Two third of the women produce handicrafts, and only a small percentage

produces hygienic products such as soap or shampoo. Another question in the survey is from

whom the women buy and to whom the women sell. 60% of the women says to buy their

products from other businesses, which are mostly small local shops (tiendas and comerciales).

Other local women and the markets are also important places for the women to buy their

materials for their economic activity. In some cases the women get the materials they need to

produce their products from the association they are a member of.

If you look at to whom the women sell, 89% says they do this to local people. Only 14%

of the women say they also sell directly to tourists. This is related to a group of weavers that

are located in a local zoo, which attracts national tourists. Another 6% says they sell to a

souvenir/tourist shop. This can be connected to an association called ‘Ixoq Aj Kemool’, which

has a business relationship with a shop in Antigua. In general I would say the women are active

in the same market, which mostly consists out of local customers. The survey also makes clear

that the majority of the women use natural resources for their economic activities, ‘flours and

plants’ are the main natural recourse used because most of the women are weavers for which

they use natural threads. Water and natural land is also an often used natural resource. As

mentioned earlier in this thesis, the livelihood of indigenous communities depends on a high

level on natural capital. This is what the results of this research shows as well, 93% of the

women say they use natural capital for their economic activity.

For additional data, businesses active in the tourism sector were included in the research

as well. The majority of the businesses identify themselves as service providers in the value

chain. To find out if and how the enterprises are connected to the women investigated in this

research I included the question ‘from whom do you buy your products or services?’. 13 of the

24 businesses say they buy from local indigenous women. Looking a bit further into it, the data

shows that many of these local women are a member of a cooperative called ‘Té Chirrepeco’.

This is a community owned tea plantation, active in the tourism sector as well. The majority of

the answers show that the businesses mainly buy their products from other businesses. The

businesses that buy from the local women, mainly buy handicrafts or food products. 50% of the

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investigated enterprises say they would like to buy more products or services from the women.

When asked to specify which, they answer handicrafts, food, hygienic products or guide

services. When asked why they would not buy products or services from local women, they

give bad quality as reason. The businesses thus mainly ask for products the investigated women

are already producing.

Still, when looking at the social network map (figure 3), it becomes clear that the

investigated women are not connected with the tourism sector in Alta Verapaz. They are not

benefiting from the economic tourism activities that are going on in their region. Instead they

mostly stay within the locality of their village or municipality. This is in line with what Lyon

(2013) has written, the indigenous communities in Guatemala hardly benefit from tourism. The

network map reflects the kind of entrepreneurship the women are active in as well. Most of

them fall under the subsistence entrepreneur definition, which means they do not have access

to the (tourism) market. The investigated women are economical wise connected to the group

they are a member of, which is shown by the separate groups; the different women groups are

not connected with each other. Only the groups Tactiquenas Bat’z, Vecinas Activas, Tejedoras

Guachpac, Asociación Nukem and Ixoq Aj Kemool are shown as connected in this map. This

is because some women in Tactic are a member of several groups. This does not mean that the

groups work together though.

Figure 3. Social network map on connections with value chain. The network is created with the online tool ‘kumu’

(www.kumu.io). This map represents the organised entrepreneurial women, which are the nodes flagged with colours, and the

tourism businesses, the unflagged nodes in the middle. The map is created based on three questions. Both the women and the

businesses where asked ‘from which group/alliance are you a member?’, the legend shows all the women groups. The map

21

shows as well the question ‘I buy my products from’, asked to the businesses. The last question shown is ‘I sell my products

to’, which was asked to the women. Left out of this map is the answer ‘to locals’.

Besides the connectedness of the women with the tourism sector, I also used the survey to find

out more about the social capital. In this I focused on the access to information and support for

the economic activities. 57% of the women say they do not receive information about where to

buy or sell their products. Even more women (62%) say they do not receive information about

how and where to receive support. If the women receive this information, the channels are

mostly informal. They receive the information from the association or financial group they are

a member of, from family or from other women. When asked what kind of support the women

receive, again the majority (58%) says not to receive any kind of support. The women who get

support say it is help with skill development or financial support. Mostly the association or

financial group gives the support, a couple of times family and official institutes are mentioned

as well, but this is not often.

The social capital on the level of information and support is thus lacking for these

women. They do not seem to have access to information or support which could help them in

their economic activities. When the women do have access to information and support, they

mostly receive it from informal actors. The social capital is thus very informal, and their

connectedness to formal channels is lacking (figure 4). Furthermore, the women groups are not

connected with each other, which I also addressed earlier. They all seem to work separately,

there is no collaboration between the groups.

A third level which was included in the social network analysis, is the level of environment.

This level is about the connectedness of the women with natural capital and the importance of

these connections. As said earlier, via (perceived) importance the criticality of natural capital

can be identified. Figure 5 Shows a very dense network of the women with the natural capital.

The connections can be ranked as followed:

1. The natural environment provides me with food and water (88%)

2. Natural capital creates clean air and natural medicines (86%)

3. The natural environment provides materials to create products for my economic

activity (78%)

4. Natural capital provides me with spaces to socialise (74%)

5. I am spiritually connected to nature (69%)

6. The natural environment provides me with a safe space to live (65%)

7. Nature plays a role in my culture (56%)

What becomes clear out of this data is that the provisioning ecosystem systems are mostly

identified as an important connection for the women’s lives. The two most important

connections, are the basic provisional and regulating needs people have. The third connection

again makes clear that the women see that natural resources play an important role in their

economic activity. Natural capital seems also important for the women to have a social life.

When asked about the importance of these connections with natural capital for their life

and well-being in general, the majority of the women say all are very important. That all the

connections are identified as important by the majority of the women also underlines the

multifunctionality of natural capital. In addition, I added the question if the women think the

22

natural environment needs to be protected and if they think the local community plays a role in

this. The majority of the women said yes to this question. This is in line with what Kumar De

(2013) wrote. Indigenous women play an important role when it comes to protecting natural

resources, the women in this research can have this role as well.

Figure 4. Social network map social capital. This map (www.kumu.io) only applies to the organised entrepreneurial women.

Again the women are grouped based on which women’s group they are a member of. The colours represent the type of support

they receive. Also included are the questions from who they receive information on where to buy and sell products and on

where and how to receive support for their economic activity, with green meaning they do not receive any support.

23

Figure 5. Network map natural capital. The above map (www.kumu.io) shows how the investigated women are connected to

natural capital. The legend represents all the different answers the women could give, which are based on the three different

ecosystem services (provisioning, regulating and cultural).

The social network analysis has shaped a clear picture of the connectedness of the investigated

organised entrepreneurial indigenous women in Tactic and Chamelco. On the economic level

it shows that the women are not connected to the tourism sector and are active within the same

economic activity and market. On the social level it shows that the formal social capital is weak,

for information and support the women seem to be dependent on their informal network. Plus,

the women groups are not collaborating with each other. On the environmental level the data

shows a very strong connectedness with natural capital and a high ascribed importance to all

types of ecosystem services. These insights shape a framework in which Swisscontact could

develop the entrepreneurial opportunities (within the tourism sector) for the indigenous women

in the region of Alta Verapaz.

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4.2 The entrepreneurial opportunities in the region

The second research question is about identifying entrepreneurial opportunities for the women,

and their needs to develop their ideas. The data outlined in the previous section and the answers

to the effectuation exercise (appendix 2), formed the base of creating new business ideas (within

the framework of tourism).

The effectuation exercise shows that similar personal traits and skills have been

identified by the women. They see themselves most often as a worker, weaver, woman and

mother. Other more important traits seem to be being a leader, humbleness, being affiliated,

being active in participation and honesty. The mostly identified skills have to do with weaving

and embroidery, work in the house (wash, cook, iron) or agricultural work. There is thus some

overlap in identification of the women that were participating in the focus groups. When asked

about which people they know, the women roughly answer in two categories: informal contacts

and formal contacts. They for example know the other women of the groups, family, friends or

neighbours. Other than in the survey, the women name several official organisations such as

COCODES, Prodenorte, SOSEP or Acodiab. Some women are thus aware of the existence of

these formal organisations. Lastly, the women were asked about their access to natural

resources. Most identify to have access to land, water, trees, vegetables, animals and

(medicinal) plants. These natural resources thus seem to be important.

The data shows, in addition to the social network analysis information, that the women

do not have a great variety of skills or a broad network. This comes forward out of their business

ideas as well, which are as follows (see also appendix 3)

Table 1. Business ideas created by the indigenous women

Tactic Chamelco

“Vestimenta de traje tipico” “Servicio de plantado de cortes tipicos”

“Feria de Tejido Tactiquenas” “Asociación mujeres Bordadoras”

“Granja de Mujeres” “Granja Chamelco”

“Mujeres Agricultaros” “Asociacion Ixq Aj Awiel”

“Restaurant de mujeres Indigenas”

“Tienda de Artesenías”

In both focus groups, similar ideas have been developed. The businesses or have to do

with agriculture, such as the granjas (farms), or with weaving. This is no surprise looking at the

answers of the effectuation exercise or at the data of the social network analysis. Since the

women do not have a rich network (neither on the economic nor on the social level), it is logical

that most of them develop similar ideas. They mostly move around in the same social network

and they are not connected to businesses, and thus do not come in contact with outsiders that

much. Also, it makes clear that these women are mostly necessity based entrepreneurs and not

opportunity based entrepreneurs. The women do not seem to have many opportunities and with

that it is hard to identify new opportunities.

Also, when giving the instructions it was stated that the women should think of ideas

within the framework of the data given and the tourism sector. Some ideas fit in this framework.

For example, the fairy could attract new visitors, a restaurant could attract tourists that already

25

come to the area, an own handicraft shop could have tourist as customers. These ideas though

are all focused on the traditional way of weaving and cooking. The question is if tourist who

visit this area are interested in this type of product or service. This is something that cannot be

answered with this research. Other ideas are not connected to the tourism sector, it thus seems

that the awareness of (opportunities in) this market is small.

Interesting is to see that with some of these entrepreneurial ideas the women step away

from the role of processor of raw material in the value chain. With having a restaurant they

move to the role of service providers for example. By creating their own tienda, they do not

only produce products but also become the sellers of these products. This would give the women

more power over their own products and service and it might give them a better or stronger

place in the value chain which could also enable the ability to create more collaborative

partnerships.

After creating the ideas, the women were asked to list skills and other needs necessary

for developing their entrepreneurial ideas. Important skills mentioned by the women are: self-

confidence, losing fear, creativity, knowledge on entrepreneurship and specific activities and

the ability to diversify products. Other needs are: organisation, a physical place, marketing,

finances/economic support, new ideas and trained staff. These answers reflect well the answers

they have given to the effectuation exercise. They do recognise themselves that there is not

much variety in their skills, since they ask for more creativity and diversification of products.

Also, they mention to need organisation. This is an interesting insight, because it follows up on

the data collected via the social network analysis which shows the women groups are not

connected with each other. Organisation of the women groups within the same area could

strengthen their position in the economic and social network, and via collaborative efforts give

access to more resources (economic, social and natural).

4.3 Well-being, tourism entrepreneurship and natural capital

The last research question focuses on the more general subject of well-being. Which capabilities

do the women identify themselves as underdeveloped and which personal, social and

environmental factors are needed to make this better. The women identified several capabilities

that are lacking in their lives:

• 2: Bodily health

• 3: Bodily integrity

• 6: Practical reason

• 7: Affiliation

• 8: Other species

• 9: Play

• 10: Control over one’s environment

Taking the answers of both focus groups together, the capabilities most mentioned are number

6, 7 and 9. Which in the focus groups were simplified to: being able to contemplate, being able

to participate in social interaction and being able to laugh and play. The women were also asked

why these capabilities need to be developed. Capability 6 and 7 are mostly seen as necessary

for entrepreneurship. The women for example said that practical reason and affiliation will give

them access to more opportunities, which is in line with the social network theory. Furthermore,

26

these capabilities are seen as needed to start an own business, to learn new things and earn more

money (to support the family). An important answer is ‘to get loose from family support’, which

resembles the weak (formal) social network the women have. The capabilities need to be

developed in order to create a bigger network, which in return will benefit the women social

and economic wise.

Then the women identified needs to develop the mentioned capabilities:

Table 2. Personal, Social and Environmental needs for capability development

Capability Personal Social Environmental

2 Eat healthy

Exercise

Rest

Personal hygiene

Self-confidence

Education on healthy food

Hygienic places

Terrain

Organic products

3 Have faith in God / /

6 Self-confidence

The opportunity to think

Empower women’s rights

Have respect for our spouse

Keep our values

Leadership

Sexual education

7 Self-confidence

Speak Spanish

Speak in public

Innovation

Empowerment

Clean nature

8 Handling our garbage Environmental education

Social norms

Take care of our

forests

9 Sane mental state Recreate

Stress relieve

More creative activity

(devote) Time

Massages

Parks

Safe spaces

10 Personal initiative

Entrepreneurship

Lose our fear

Leadership positions

Involvement in other

activities

Coordination of the group

Especially on the personal and social level, the women were capable of identifying needs in

order to develop the different capabilities. Something that comes forward several times is that

they think they need self-confidence and lose their fear. This seems to be an important trait,

since it was also brought up as a need for entrepreneurship. The women thus need this personal

trait in order to develop capabilities which can support entrepreneurial activity and at the same

they need it for entrepreneurship itself. Other needs that come forward are leadership and

empowerment. I would say this is linked to self-confidence (being able to claim such a role),

27

but it also makes clear that on the social level women need to be given the chance to take more

power and being more involved in various activities.

This links to their answers on the effectuation exercise. The skills they mention resemble

the work the women do in the house or on the land. The women do not seem to get around that

much. As the social network analysis showed, the social-economic network of the women is

weak. They do not have many connections with others outside of the women group they are a

member of, with businesses or with official (support) institutions. As the social network theory

says, a rick network is beneficial for an individual. This research can confirm this, since it is

clear that the women have a weak network and have the need to develop their well-being on

multiple points. The network and needs for entrepreneurship and capabilities are indeed all

connected.

It was hardest to identify needs on the environmental level. Maybe because it feels more

abstract and further away, but also the social-environmental network of the women is very

strong. Possibly, the women do not feel that the environment can add something to the state of

their well-being, since it is already such a big part of their lives. Another remark is that several

answers are not necessarily needs. I think this shows that the task was not easy, and that some

women therefore interpreted the question differently.

What is interesting is that the women in both groups point out capability 9 as in need

for development. Especially if you see the reason why: they want to be more creative. This

creativity is needed in order to create entrepreneurial ideas. So to help the women develop their

entrepreneurship, attention should be given to the deeper layers of well-being. It is about giving

the women the opportunity to socialise and to relax and to really have time for themselves. This

comes clearly forward out of their answers. The women should be given the opportunity to do

sports, games, to sing, to dance, to discuss. This is connected to capability 2: being able to live

a healthy life. When talking about this, the women pointed out it is not as normal for them to

exercise, while this of course could also be a way to relax and play and by playing and laughing

the women would contribute to a healthy life. The focus should thus not only lie on the more

formal way of skill development, but also on the deeper layer of processes that enable people

to be creative (in order to let entrepreneurship be a way to enhance the well-being): free time,

relaxing, being in nature, doing various activities. It is said a couple of times by the women,

‘we need a sane mental state’. Which is also connected to the personal need of ‘being able to

think’ for capability 6. Another important factor to develop capabilities is the natural capital.

Natural capital creates a healthy environment and provides spaces to contemplate, to socialize,

to play and laugh, to do sports, to meditate, to relax, to recreate etc.

The goal of the project Empodera, sustainable economic development (via linkages with

the tourism sector), can only take place if the well-being in its totality is addressed. The women

for example say they want to be able to contemplate (capability 6). For this they need

empowerment, knowledge, education and time. It is a two way street. Entrepreneurship can lead

to empowerment, can enhance capabilities, but for entrepreneurship to happen, other

capabilities need to be developed first or simultaneously. It reinforces each other. As said

before, people need goods and services to reach capabilities. But if the personal skills, society

or environment, which enable the use of goods and services, are lacking, these goods and

services are of no use. A business or entrepreneurial activities (in the tourism sector) can be

seen as a ‘good or service’, that can enable the women to develop their well-being. Since it will

28

help them earning money, it will give them something of their own, independency, a broader

network etc. But they need to have the conversion factors to put this ‘good/service’ into use. So

they need safe spaces, they need knowledge, they need more creativity and self-confidence, and

they need a healthy natural environment for this to take place.

In addition, a richer network can create the opportunities or environment the women

need to enable capabilities. Access to more information and support can enhance a woman’s

personal knowledge or skill set, which then could enable her to for example innovate her

entrepreneurial activity. So the women’s network can contribute to convert the goods and

services in order to reach a capability.

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5. Conclusion & Discussion

5.1 Conclusion

This research focused on enhancing the well-being of indigenous women in Alta Verapaz and

is part of the project ´Empodera´ of Swisscontact in Cobán. The research is conducted from the

strong sustainability perspective, and addresses the topics at hand from the three levels of

sustainability. On the economic level I have looked into the entrepreneurial activities of the

indigenous women in Tactic and Chamelco and their connectedness with the tourism value

chain. Furthermore, I have asked the women to create entrepreneurial ideas. On the social level,

I focused on the social capital of the women through their connectedness with information and

support organizations. I also looked into the capabilities the women said they need to develop

and the needs they have to do this. On the environmental level I have made clear which natural

capital seems to be critical according to the women, based on the importance of connections. It

is important to notice that all three levels are intertwined, as also mentioned in the theoretical

section of this thesis.

The results show that the investigated women have a weak social-economic network.

They are not connected to the tourism value chain in Alta Verapaz and mostly do not have

access to information or support (from formal institutions) for their economic activities. Their

social-ecological network is very strong though. The majority of the women report to have more

than two connections with the natural environment and that these connections are very

important for their lives and well-being in general. Highly ranked is the role of natural capital

for their economic activities. The results of the social network analysis also come forward in

the entrepreneurial ideas. Most of the ideas are something the women are already doing now

and thus not very original or innovative. This follows logically from the analysis that show the

women have a poor social-economic network. When asked what the women need to develop

these entrepreneurial ideas, the answers were mostly: creativity, product diversification, self-

confidence and organisation.

Lastly, I let the women identify the capabilities that are (according to them)

underdeveloped. The identification both reflects the data that was collected via the social

network analysis and the focus group sessions on identifying entrepreneurial opportunities. The

capabilities mostly mentioned by the women were ‘practical reason’, ‘affiliation’ and ‘play’.

When asked why these capabilities are in need of development, the women answered they need

these capabilities to be (more) entrepreneurial active, to get access to opportunities and to

become economical independent. This goes back to the weak social-economic network of the

women and for example their distance from the tourism value chain. A richer network and

collaboration with the tourism market and with each other, could open up more entrepreneurial

possibilities for the women. I also asked the women to state the needs on the personal, social

and environmental level to develop the identified underdeveloped capabilities. Again, self-

confidence is an often given answer. Also being creative/active in various activities seems to

be seen as important. The answers given via the effectuation exercise show that the women are

mostly active within the house or do agricultural activities. To enable the women to be

entrepreneurial active, they seem to need to get loose from these same activities. They need

help with creativity and relaxation for example, and thus not per se only official skill

30

development. A richer (social) network wherein the women operate, could create an

environment that enables the women to be more entrepreneurial active.

Natural capital plays an important role in the well-being of the women. Care needs to

be taken with the development of this region, and it seems it is important to involve the natural

environment in the development. The women have access to natural resources, so in order to

develop their entrepreneurial ideas natural capital can be used as a ‘good or service’.

Entrepreneurship can have the role as a ‘good or service’ to enhance the women’s capabilities,

but for this to happen other ‘goods and services’ need to be developed simultaneously. The

women seem to need time and space to enhance their creativity, they need knowledge, a clear

mind and self-confidence. A better connectedness and more involvement (for example within

the tourism sector) could play a role in this.

5.2 Discussion

For this research I followed several academic viewpoints on sustainability and human and

economic development. The theoretical framework demonstrated that all these factors are

intertwined (see also figure 1). This underlines the strong sustainability perspective, wherein

social and economic development can only take place within the boundaries of the natural

environment. For this reason Polishchuck and Rauschmayer (2012) argue that the role of

ecosystem services should be acknowledged in the capability approach. In addition, Pelenc &

Ballet (2015) state that the importance ascribed to these services (and thus natural capital) are

a major factor in human development. Since the project Empodera aims for economic and social

development, I have implemented these ideas in my research.

The results of this research show that the women are strongly connected to natural

capital. This underlines the importance for well-being, and it shows that the natural capital

should be taken into account when working on social and economic development. Not only

because the investigated women identify the role of the ecosystems for their basic needs (such

as air to breath and food to eat), also because for many women the natural capital has a role for

their economic activity and social life. What has to be acknowledged is despite the strong

connectedness with natural capital, the well-being of the investigated women lacks. Thus

natural capital alone will not improve the well-being of these women.

The strongest need the women have is development of the social level. Which is clearly

shown by the identified underdeveloped capabilities: practical reason, affiliation and play.

Natural capital plays a role in all three capabilities. It can provide the women with a place to

contemplate, to socialise and to relax and recreate. Other factors need to change first though, in

order to enable the women to use the natural capital in this way.

The needs the women have on a social level resemble the entrepreneurial ideas and their

needs to develop entrepreneurship. Being able to contemplate, to be social and to play and laugh

are important for creativity. Which is a need the women identify. Creativity in turn is needed

for entrepreneurship. Developing the capabilities the women identified as lacking could

automatically help them with entrepreneurial development. Another important finding is that

the social-economic network of the women is poor and that connections with the tourism value

chain do not exist. As said before, tourism is seen as an accelerator for sustainable development

(World Tourism Organization, 2018). Creating linkages with the tourism sector in Alta Verapaz

31

could benefit the women in that area. It will also broaden their social network, which is

beneficial for both individuals and businesses (Gonzales & Parrott, 2012).

Lastly, the network of the women could be enriched by creating collaborations between

the different women’s groups. This could also enhance the chances of collaborations with the

tourism sector. For sustainable development to exist, collaboration is vital (Grasi, 2013; World

Tourism Organization, 2018). This collaborations can give the women a place in the tourism

value chain, which will enhance their economic position. It will also give them a stronger voice

and the ability to steer the development of tourism in the area. By working together, they can

form a strong group representative for women in the area. This automatically fulfils one of the

needs the women have: more leadership positions.

Several factors are of influence of the results of this research. The most important factor is

language. I conducted this research in Alta Verapaz, a department in Guatemala. The official

language in this country is Spanish, a language I hardly spoke when I arrived. The majority of

the people living in the area are Mayan, and thus mainly speak a Mayan language. What has to

be kept in mind is that this has influenced the collection of the data and the interpretation of the

data. My English was namely translated into Spanish and two Mayan languages by the other

interns/volunteers and vice versa.

What possibly has influenced the data as well, is the simplification of the theoretical

frameworks when applied in the focus groups. For example, I changed the capability

‘affiliation’ into ‘being able to socialise’. This to make it better understandable for the women.

Also, the focus groups were led by one of the other interns (speaking the Mayan language of

that place). They sometimes interpreted the theories in a slightly different way, and thus

explained the exercises differently as well. Also, it is discussable whether the effectuation

exercise was the right way to develop entrepreneurial ideas, since the women are mostly

necessity based entrepreneurs.

The data in this thesis is not generalisable, since it is focused specifically on the women

in a certain department of a certain country. It is conducted for the project Empodera, and was

thus never meant for generalisation. It reflects certain theoretical ideas though and it is an

attempt to implement the role of ecosystem services in the assessment of capabilities.

Furthermore, this research is an attempt to implement all three levels of sustainable

development in an investigation and to emphasize the interconnectedness of these levels.

Future research could be a follow up social network analysis, which includes more

businesses and more women in the department. This will give better insights into the situation

on the level of tourism and economic activity. Furthermore, future research can focus more on

the participatory discussions. More focus groups can be conducted in order to identify

entrepreneurial opportunities and capabilities in need of development. Other focus groups could

include various stakeholders, such as the tourism businesses. Lastly, the view of tourists is not

taken into account in this research. What their interests are product and service wise, could

contribute to a better entrepreneurship development of the indigenous women in Alta Verapaz.

32

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Appendices

Appendix 1 - Capabilities Nussbaum

1. Life. Being able to live to the end of a human life of normal length; not dying

prematurely, or before one’s life is so reduced as to be not worth living.

2. Bodily health. Being able to have good health, including reproductive health; to be

adequately nourished; to have adequate shelter.

3. Bodily integrity. Being able to move freely from place to place; to be secure against

violent assault, including sexual assault and domestic violence; having opportunities for

sexual satisfaction and for choice in matters of reproduction.

4. Senses, imagination, and thought. Being able to use the senses, to imagine, think, and

reason—and to do these things in a “truly human” way, a way informed and cultivated by an

adequate education, including, but by no means limited to, literacy and basic mathematical

and scientific training. Being able to use imagination and thought in connection with

experiencing and producing works and events of one’s own choice, religious, literary,

musical, and so forth. Being able to use one’s mind in ways protected by guarantees of

freedom of expression with respect to both political and artistic speech, and freedom of

religious exercise. Being able to have pleasurable experiences and to avoid nonbeneficial

pain.

5. Emotions. Being able to have attachments to things and people outside ourselves; to love

those who love and care for us, to grieve at their absence; in general, to love, to grieve, to

experience longing, gratitude, and justified anger. Not having one’s emotional development

blighted by fear and anxiety. (Supporting this capability means supporting forms of human

association that can be shown to be crucial in their development.) (p. 33)

6. Practical reason. Being able to form a conception of the good and to engage in critical

reflection about the planning of one’s life. (This entails protection for the liberty of

conscience and religious observance.)

7. Affiliation. (A) Being able to live with and toward others, to recognize and show concern

for other human beings, to engage in various forms of social interaction; to be able to imagine

the situation of another. (Protecting this capability means protecting institutions that constitute

and nourish such forms of affiliation, and also protecting the freedom of assembly and

political speech.) (B) Having the social bases of self-respect and non-humiliation; being able

to be treated as a dignified being whose worth is equal to that of others. This entails

provisions of non-discrimination on the basis of race, sex, sexual orientation, ethnicity, caste,

religion, national origin.

8. Other species. Being able to live with concern for and in relation to animals, plants, and

the world of nature.

9. Play. Being able to laugh, to play, to enjoy recreational activities.

10. Control over one’s environment. (A) Political. Being able to participate effectively in

political choices that govern one’s life; having the right of political participation, protections

of free speech and association. (B) Material. Being able to hold property (both land and

movable goods), and having property rights on an equal basis with others; having the right to

seek employment on an equal basis with others; having the freedom from unwarranted search

and seizure. In work, being able to work as a human being, exercising practical reason and

entering into meaningful relationships of mutual recognition with other workers.

(Nussbaum, 2013, p. 34).

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Appendix 2 - Answers Effectuation exercise

Who am I?

• Housewife (3)

• Weaver woman (8)

• Entrepreneur woman

• With business initiative

• Independent

• I am at women’s association

• Leader (2)

• Grocery store owner

• Agriculturist

• Woman (3)

• Worker (3)

• Mother (6)

• Smiling woman

• Food seller

• Happy

• Affiliated (2)

• Humble (could mean not privileged) (2)

• Honest (2)

• Strong

• Generous

• Active in participation (2)

• Food cook

• House worker

• Clothes washer

• Solidarity

• Family protector

• Seller

• Cheerful (2)

• Empowered woman

• I like to share

• Daughter of God

• Friendly

• Full of virtues

• Animator

• Share

• Talk

• Person

What do I know?

• Take care of children (3)

• Walk

• Cook (4)

• Wash

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• Iron (2)

• Raise chickens

• Machine sewing

• Embroider (6)

• Weaver (7)

• I am a merchant

• I am a land cultivator

• Agriculturalist

• Domestic jobs

• Sell (4)

• Sew (4)

• Vegetable sowing

• Make soap

• Dance

• Make earrings, bracelets and necklaces

• Raise birds

• Elaboration of huipiles (3)

• Huipil weaver (2)

• Speak Poqomchi (3)

• Speack Quekchi, Poqomchi and Spanish

• Control taker

• Animator

• Quality products (2)

• Innovator

• Teach to weaver

• Learn

• Sell in other municipalities

• Get the family ahead

• Work

• Elaborate shirts for men

• Help

• Educate disabled children

• Earn money

• Make scarfs

• Make tablecloths

• Work in the fields

Who do I know?

• Because there is a group, what I want to learn is to be in a group association

• I want help in everything the women need

• I know doña Julia

• Tactiqueñas of Baatz

• Saving groups (4)

• I know the members of Coop. Ixoq.

• I have only known friends that help me by buying my products

• I have sent products around Guatemala to different municipalities

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• Friends and acquaintances from different municipalities that have bought huipiles

• Lic. Flavio (2)

• Members (5)

• Comercial Rosalia (2)

• Agropecuaria Tactic

• Buyers from Antigua

• Administrative accountant

• Church group

• Ingecop, Inacop

• ACODIAB

• SOSEP

• Tienda Vanesa

• My parents

• Friends (3)

• Close people

• Cousins

• Brothers

• Association group

• My neighbors (3)

• Sisters

• My children

• My group

• Accountant

• Family

• Professional people

• Healthy mind

• Norma

• Sisters in law

• Prodenoite (2)

• COCODES

• Community leaders

• Alicia, group member

• Women from Asoix (2)

• F.H.

• Dulce, women group

• Doña Norma Tiul (2)

• Church pastor

• Doctor from the health center

To which natural resources do I have access to?

• Forest (3)

• Water (8)

• Air

• Vegetables (4)

• Cooking supplies

• Tress (9)

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• Plants (2)

• Food

• Fruits (2)

• Land (6)

• Rivers, sources (2)

• Drinking water (5)

• Animals (6)

• Water sources

• Spices

• Flowers

• House (2)

• Farm

• Paddock

• Drainer

• Agriculture

• Rain

• Domestic animals

• Herbs

• Ornamental plants

• Medicinal plants

• Mountain

• Place

• Sacred places

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Appendix 3 - Business ideas focus groups

42