Entrepreneurship: A Challenging, Fruitful Domain for ...culturalkeys.us/ck/Entrepreneurship- A...

Entrepreneurship:AChallenging,FruitfulDomainforEthnography

ElizabethK.BriodyandAlexStewartBackgroundtotheThemedArticles

Agroupofseniorscholars,ledbyDerekLidow,plannedandconvenedaglobalconferencecalledExpandingUnderstandingofBusinessCreation:AddingMoreEthnographyintotheResearchMix,heldatPrincetonUniversity,August1-3,2017.SponsoredbytheEwingMarionKauffmanFoundationandPrincetonUniversity’sKellerCenter,theconferencesoughtto

bringtogetheranthropologists,sociologists,andentrepreneurshipresearcherswithfundingagenciestodiscusshowbesttostimulateandsupportnewresearchtocollectandanalyzedetailedobservationsandinformationonhowstart-upteamsreacttoandimplementnewfirmsinrealtime(https://www.princetonkauffman2017.com/about,accessedOctober6,2019).

Theconferencewaspredicatedontheconceptthatformalinterviewsandadministrativedatabasestypicallyusedbyentrepreneurshipresearcherscouldnotfurnishin-depthdetailonteamdynamicsandbusinessinteractionsthatcouldbederivedfromethnographicmethods.Bringingresearchersfrommultipledisciplinestogethertoshareviewsandinsightshadthepotentialtoleadtofuture

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researchcollaborations.Lidow’s(2017)articleintheJournalofBusinessAnthropologyunderscoresthesemotivations.

Bothofus(StewartandBriody)weremembersoftheorganizingcommittee.StewartmoderatedasessionontheusevalueofethnographywhileBriody’ssessionfocusedonentrepreneurshipdoneethnographically.Othersessionsemphasizedrisksandopportunitiesforemployingobservationaldata,mixedmethodsapproaches,andfoundationandagencyperspectivesonethnographicstudiesinentrepreneurship,amongothers.Fiveofthesixpaperspublishedamongthesethemedarticleswerepresentedattheconference,withasixthincludedatalaterdate.Ourintroductoryarticleforthesethemedpapers1)exploreskeyliteratureandmethodologicalapproachesusedinentrepreneurshipstudiesbyanthropologists,2)providesanoverviewofeachofthearticles,3)identifiesemergingpatternsaboutboththeresearchersandtheirstudyparticipantsincontext,and4)advocatesforthevalueofunderstandingentrepreneurshipincontext.

AnthropologicalStudiesandMethodsinEntrepreneurialResearch

Anthropologicalwritingsonentrepreneurshipandfamilyfirmshavefocusedon“small-scalesocietieswithdistinctivetraditionsandvalues”(RosaandCaulkins,2013,p.98).Thereareexceptions,suchasYanagisako(2002).Anthropologicalwritings—again,withexceptions(MarcusandHall,1991)—havealsofocusedonsmallenterprises,asweseefromthesurveysbyStewart(1990;1991;2003;2014).Theliteratureisrichwithexamplesatcollectivelevels,suchasethnicdiasporas(Oxfeld,1993),indigenousartsbusinesses(Meisch,2002),industryclusters(Blim,1990;Yanagisako,2002),andestablishedfamilyfirms(Kondo,1990).RosaandCaulkins(2013,p.101)arguethatthesewritingsadvance“themes…thatcouldprofitablybedevelopedfurtherbyentrepreneurshipresearchers.”

Nevertheless,largelymissinginthecorpusofanthropologicalworksisresearchatthelevelofnewventures.Herearetwodemonstrations.First,AppendixAlists100recentdoctoraldissertationsonentrepreneurship,usingthemodalanthropologicalmethodofethnography.(Ofthe100,32areinanthropology,15insociology,andoneinethnomusicology.)Onlythreeofthesedissertations—twoinanthropology—focusastheirunitofobservationoranalysisononeormorenewventures.Second,theHumanRelationsAreaFiles(HRAF)isamassiveindexattheparagraphlevelofmorethan600,000pagesofethnographicmaterials(EmberandEmber,2009;http://ehrafworldcultures.yale.edu/ehrafe/;seeBrettell,2009,forreasonsitisnotcurrentlyinfashion).WecanfindonlyoneHRAF-basedpublicationonentrepreneurship(CaulkinsandPeters,2002),anditsunitsofanalysisareethnicgroups.

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Perhapsthereasonfortheselacunaeisanthropologists’hostilitytobusiness(StewartandAldrich,2015).Nevertheless,anthropologicalstudiesoforganizationsareextensive,asdemonstratedbytheoverviewsbyJordanandCaulkins(2013),Wright(1994),andZickarandCarter(2010).Thesestudiesofferuniqueinsightsintotheworldsoforganizationalstrategists—meaning,allorganizationalactorsintheirvariouscontexts.Forexample,Riles’work(2011)onback-officelawyersinglobalderivativestradingexemplifiesapointmadebySmith(2001:220)thattheseethnographiesshow“howroutinejobsarecomplexandcomplexjobsareroutine.”Anthropologistsalsohaveprovidedmanagerialprescriptionsbasedonfieldresearch(Briody,Trotter,R.T.andMeerwarth,2010;ChappleandSayles,1961),thoughthefocusisnotexplicitlyonentrepreneurship.

Goodethnographyinorganizationsrevealsactorswhomanage,withvaryingsuccess,thecontradictionsandambiguitiesoftheirwork.Suchobservationsarediacriticalmarkersbetweengenuineethnographyandthe“qualitative”studiesfoundmorecommonlyinbusinessschoolwritings.Searchthroughtheformerandyouwillfindvariantsofwordslike“disparage,”“mistake,”“confusion,”“contradiction,”“blame,”“ambiguity,”“bias,”mislead,”“pretend,”“conflict,”and“anger.”Searchthroughthelatterandallwillseemfine;thesetermswillbefewandfarbetween.Thereasonforthedifferenceliesintheethnographicapproach.

Howdoethnographerssucceedinrecordingwhatweallmustknowgoesoninanyhumansetting?OneanswerisfoundinTable1onethnographic“criteria,challenges,andtactics”(adaptedfromStewart1998:17).“Criteria”refertoepistemicvaluesappropriatetoethnography,“challenges”tothemainlimitationsonsuccessintheseterms,and“tactics”tothechoicesfieldworkerscanmaketoovercomethelimitationssofaraspossible.Fourtacticsareparticularlygermaneforourconcernwithentrepreneurshipresearch.Twotacticsconcernhowethnographersact:they“searchfordisconfirmingobservations”(Veracitytactic2)andthey“explore…doggedlyrootingoutwhatintereststhem”(Perspicacitytactic2,1988:57).


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Table1:ExpectationsforEthnographicMethod:Criteria,Challenges,andTactics*

EpistemicValue Veracity Objectivity Perspicacity

Conventionalequivalent

validity(excludingexternalvalidity)

reliability(excludingconsistency)

generalizability,externalvalidity

Underlyingquestion

verisimilitudeofdepiction

transcendenceofperspectives

applicabilityofinsightselsewhere

Researchprocesschallenges

limitstolearningduetoconditionsinthefieldortoresearcher’sroleorpersonallimits

sensitivityofresultstocontext;riskofreactivity;lackoffullyspecifiableresearchcontext;unknowncontextfindingslinkages

methodcannotcreateinsights;invalidormissingtaxonomieslimitknowledgeofwhereaninsightcan“travel”

Relatedresearchcopingtactics(boldedifcrucial;struckthroughifquestionable)

prolongedfieldwork;searchfordisconfirmingobservations;goodparticipativerolerelationships;attentiontocontext;multiplemodesofdatacollection

trailofethnographer’spath;respondentvalidation;feedbackfromoutsiders;interraterchecksonindexing;comprehensivedataarchive

intenseconsiderationofthedata;exploration

*Source:Table2.1inStewart(1998:17)withslightmodifications.Usedwithpermission.

Allresearcherscanusethesetactics.However,ethnographersemploythesetacticsdistinctively.First,theyengagein“prolongedfieldwork,”“thesinglemostpotenttactictoenhanceveracity”andatacticunknowninmostentrepreneurshipresearch(1988:20).Second,theyfind,createanddevelop“goodparticipativerolerelationships”thatenableengagementinahostofsocialscenes,manyofwhicharerestrictedtoinsiders’eyes(1988:22-26).Myriadexamplescoulddemonstratethislatterpoint.AnexampleintheentrepreneurshipresearchisRencher’s(2012)participationasacontestantinpitch


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competitions.Withoutthisexperience,shewouldhavehadlessawarenessofthe“embodied”experienceandidentificationwithaventure,norwouldshehavelearnedhowuncertaintherewardswereforthewinners(2012:118,142,175).

Themethodologicalapproachesthatenableinsightsmakeethnographyanunlikelycandidateforresearchersonstart-ups.Threereasonscometomind.First,muchprecedesthevisiblesignsofastart-up(Learned,1992).Identifyingnewventuresfromneartheirbeginningsisdifficultandtimingthestartofresearchandnegotiatingaccessarechallenges.Second,thepre-organizationalstageisatimeofinstabilityandswitchesindirection—“pivots”incurrentparlance.Negotiatingaccesstofieldsitesisalwaysanongoingprocess(Feldman,Bell,andBerger,2003),butitisparticularlydynamicforstart-ups.Noteveryfounderisenchantedtolearnthatresearchersplantohangaroundformonths,asactiveparticipants.Hence,thereisathirdproblem:findingappropriateroles.Theriskofreactivityiseasytoexaggerateinresearchonestablishedorganizations,letaloneindustryclustersandotherlargerentities.Earlystageventures,however,lacktheslacktoletscholarshangaround.Becausetheyaresmall,researchersaremoreintrusive.Theseventuresarealsofragile.Forexample,foundersmightworryabouttheircapacitytodefendtheirintellectualproperty.

Onesolutionistogiveuphopeforparticipantobservation.Anthropologistusemanyothermethods,suchasopen-endedinterviewsthatelicitstudyparticipantperceptionswithminimalresearcherinfluence.Manyinterviewstylescanbefoundintheanthropologicalliterature,asStrathern(2012)observesaboutthechaptersinSkinner(2012).Allstyles,ifethnographic,shouldminimizethescholar’sconceptionsanddrawoutthoseofthestudyparticipants.Spradley’sTheEthnographicInterview(1979)remains,regardlessofviewsonitsmodeofcognitiveanthropology,helpfulforadviceonthisscore.Inourview,ethnographicinterviewsareusefultoolsintheanthropologistrepertoire.However,incontrasttoparticipantobservation,theyhavetwokeylimitations.Thefirstinvolvediscrepanciesbetweenwhatstudyparticipantssaytheydoandwhattheydoifobserved(Bernard,Wutich,andRyan,2017,p.28).Thesecondentailsdiscrepanciesbetweenwhatstudyparticipantssaytheydidinthepast,andthehistoricalrecord(Golden,1992).

Recordingeventsinrealtime,asLuskandHarrison(2002)didinTheMousedriverChronicles,overcomestheselimitations.Theyrecordedtheireffortstorecogniseandunderstandobstaclesastheyaroseintheirventure.Theyrecordedtheireffortstodiscoverwhocouldhelpthem.Iftheyhadwaited,theywouldhavebeenhard-pressedtorememberjusthowtheycametoconceptualizeproblems,howtheysettledonpeopletohelp,andhowwelltheirexpectationsweremet.Theirbookbeganasablog.Itisnotanthropological.Butitrepresentsanapproachto


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ethnographythathasbeenusedinmanycontexts:theauto-ethnography.Auto-ethnographersmakeuseofpre-existingsocialroles,whichtheydidnottakeupforthesakeofresearch.Forexample,Hayano(1979)didnotbecomeacard-playinggamblersohecouldstudypokerplayers.Learned(1995)didnotco-foundandleadasoftwarefirmtostudyhowfirmscreateresources.

Anethnographercould,ofcourse,takeona“complete”membershiprole(AdlerandAdler,1987),andlaunchaventurepurelytostudytheexperience—asRencherdid(2012).However,asshealsofound,herventuringwhileconductingfieldresearchwasnotasencompassingasfull-timeventuringinherpast.Doingbothwiththeneededintensityishardtoimagine.Nevertheless,wecannotruleitout.Anderson’s(2006:375)definitionof“analyticautoethnography”doesnotdoso.“Analyticautoethnographyreferstoethnographicworkinwhichtheresearcheris(1)afullmemberintheresearchgrouporsetting,(2)visibleassuchamemberintheresearcher’spublishedtexts,and(3)committedtoananalyticresearchagendafocusedonimprovingtheoreticalunderstandingsofbroadersocialphenomenon”(Anderson,2006:375).Bythisthirdpoint,hedistinguishesasocialsciencestancefromaprominenthumanistic,interpretivestancerepresentedby,amongothers,EllisandBochner,whosecritiqueofAnderson’sarticleiswrittenincharacterand,asithappens,disputesthesocialscience/humanities(art)distinction.

Wedrawattentiontothedifferencesbetweenthesocialsciencesandhumanitiesapproaches.Shouldonesearchforautoethnographyinrecentwritings,onemightconcludethatitisnotsuitedtorealistresearchbutonlyto“subjectiveandevocative”writings,quotingAtkinson’s(2016)commendationofAnderson(2016).Forexample,theresearchforLearned’sdissertation,perhapstheearliestauto-ethnography(or“nativeethnography,”inhisparlance),wasconductedwhenwasChairmanoftheBoardbutnolongerCEO.Dataincludedamassivearchivalrecordsincebothofthefounderswere,intheirwords,“recoveringaccountants;”moreover,Learned’sdissertationchairmadethreesitevisits.Thisdissertationisalsonotableformakinguseofaresourceoftenfoundindoctoralprograms,atleastthoseinbusiness:extensiveentrepreneurialexperiencebythestudents.Thepotentialthattheseexperiencesprovideisdemonstratedbytheauto-ethnographicstudieslistedinAppendixB.Fourofthe13auto-ethnographiesstudynewventures,aratethatis10timeshigherthantherateinnon-auto-ethnographicstudiesinAppendixA.

Asweconsiderthesevariousmethodologicalchallengesinusingethnographytoconductstudiesofentrepreneurship,weshouldnotgettooboggeddownsothatwecan’tclawourselvesoutofahole.Yes,tounderstandthelifespanofanentrepreneurialventure,timingmatters.Alignmentbetweenananthropologist’savailabilityduringthepre-startup


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phaseofentrepreneurialventureswouldbeideal.Unfortunately,fieldresearchers,likeentrepreneurs,faceconstraints(e.g.,funding,languageacquisition,contacts)thataffecttheiraccesstothefieldandthepeopleassociatedwithit.Yet,whenanthropologistsbeginanethnographicproject,theytypicallyendupgatheringdata—sometimesonexactlywhattheyplannedtostudyandsometimestheyhavetopunt!So,itisrarewhentheplannedidealworksout.Let’stakealookatwhatthecontributorstothesethemedarticlesactuallydidwhileinthefield.Someinterestingpatternsemergethatoffercluesaboutconductingfieldresearchonentrepreneursandusingthatprocesstohelpfilloutthebroadercontextinwhichentrepreneurialworkoccurs.

AnOverviewoftheSixArticles

WebeginwiththestudybyOnomake-McShanesinceentrepreneurshavebeenpartofNigerianculturereachingbacktopre-Colonialtimes.Hercasestudyfocuseson“Preston,”aNigerianentrepreneurwhohasembracedglobalbusinessopportunitiesbyestablishingventureswithChinesecounterparts.SheemphasizesthevalueofconductingethnographicresearchtohelpthwarttheviewthatAfricanslackagency.Shemanagestoengagein“ethnographybyappointment”(Kemmitt2008)withPreston,ashisbusinessschedulepermits.Throughtheconversations,interviews,participantobservation,historicalandpresent-daydocuments,andsocialmedia,Onomake-McShaneproducesanarticlethatwillkeepyouclamberingformore.

AfascinatingcomponentofheraccountisherabilitytoidentifyanddistillthecriticalelementsofPreston’sapproachtoentrepreneurshipinhiscross-culturalventuressituatedinhisowncountry;theseattributesareevidentintheattitudesandbehaviorofotherentrepreneursinOnomake-McShane’slargerstudy.First,Prestonmustrelyonhisownfinancialandsocialcapital.Trustandrelatedness,beyondkinshipnetworks,areessentialinestablishingandmaintainingrapport,andultimatelyhisbusiness.Second,andperhapsmorestriking,isPreston’sintuitiontomanagehisown“brand”—thatis,structurehisinteractionswiththeChinesesothattheyperceivehimastrustworthy.Forexample,heconductsbusinessinpublicsothatanyonenearbycanobservehistransparency;producinganarrayofgemsforsalefromwhichhisbuyerscanselectisacriticalfeatureinmarketinghimself.Onomake-McShane’sworkemphasizeshowentrepreneursadaptinaglobalworld.Whilethespecificsoftheiradaptationareafunctionoftime(i.e.,era),place(i.e.,location),andclientgroup,thelong-standingtraditionofentrepreneursisingrainedinthenationalcultureandidentity.Thus,herstudyzoomsinonacasebutzoomsoutsothatthereadercanunderstandthecasewithinanhistoricalcontext.

Bolton,Aguirre,andEricksonsuggestthatentrepreneurshipis


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notnecessarilyconfinedtoindividualsbutinstead,canreflectthecollectivebehaviorofagroup—inthiscase,anentirecommunityintheAltiplanoofPeru.LiketheNigeriansdocumentedbyOnomake-McShane,thepeopleoftheAltiplanohavereliedonentrepreneurialventuresasanimportantincome-generatingstrategy.Communityentrepreneurshipcameintoitsownin1963withtheestablishmentoftheTaraco-ChijnayaProject.Supportedbyaregionalpublicdevelopmentagencyintentonaddressingafloodcrisis(andcovertly,agrarianreform),theprojectledtothepurchaseofahaciendawhoselandwouldbeheldincommon.Basedondecadesofethnographicresearchandpractice,theauthorstracethehistoryofthiscollectiveeffortthroughitsvariouscombinationsoffarming,animalhusbandry,andcheeseproduction.

Anintriguingpartofthisarticleisthestrugglebetweentheindividualandthecollective.Theagrariancooperativewasputtorestin1992asthe“individualistethos”reasserteditspresencewithinthecommunity;theonce-communallandsrevertedtoindividualcontrol.However,thecollectivityperseveredandreapedsuccessinotherways:1)communaldecisionsonrotatingloanstoimproveanimalhusbandrypractices,andhencemilkproduction,and2)theestablishmentofacheesefactorycooperativewhichpurchasedcommunitymembers’milkdailyandemployedcommunitymembersonarotatingbasis.Whileanumberofchallengesassociatedwiththesetwoeffortshavebeenaddressed,severalpertainingtothemanagementofthefactoryanditsproductsremaininakindoflimbo.Thus,justasindividualentrepreneursexperiencedifficultiesastheirventureslaunch,develop,andmature,sotoohasthecommunityofChijnayaasithasattemptedtoreconcileindividualandgroup-basedentrepreneurshipthroughitstrialanderrorapproach.

Rencher’sarticleintroducesustooneU.S.university’ssurvivalstrategythatisbankingonaninnovativeeducationalapproachinvolvingentrepreneurship.Fearingthatitsmessagewasnolongerresonatingwithpotentialstudents,theinstitutionengagedinorganizational-widechangetorefocusitsmissionandofferings.Rencher,whoworkedfortheuniversityinaseniorleadershiprole,helpedleadthetransformation.Bothherparticipantobservationandstrongtheoreticalbackgroundenabledhertodescribeandexplaintheuniversity’sshifttoanentrepreneurialfocus.Studentpreparationforentrepreneurialcareerswouldoccurthroughcurriculumredesignaswellasstudentcreationandmanagementof“for-profitcorporations.”Inessence,itscollectiveapproachtoentrepreneurshipwasdevisedtoproduceindividualentrepreneurs.

Figure3fromherarticlefurnishesanoverviewofhowthebusinessdevelopmentprocessworks,completewithabusinessconcept,productandservicevalidation,businessplan,“pitchforresources,”andactualbusinessoperations.Innovativearethe“dynamiccasestudies”tied


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tostudentbusinesses.Differentstakeholders(e.g.,mentors,advisoryboard,otherstudents)contributetheirfeedback,contacts,andotherresourcestoagivencasestudyasawayofhelpingthestudentrefinehis/herideasanddecisionspertainingtothenascentbusiness.Theuniversity’sexpectationisthatthiskindofhands-ontraining,combinedwithcoursework,willpositiongraduatesforthejobmarket.Herstudyrepresentsastructuralresponsetothehighereducationmarketplace,onethatdoesnotsimplytalkaboutinnovationintheformofenterprisinggraduates,butactuallyimplementsit.

JacksonandSanyal’squalitativestudyofBlackwomenbusinessownersintheU.S.digsdeepintothechallengesofrunningabusinessventuregiventheirgenderandracialidentities.Theauthorsskillfullydescribethestereotypicalviewsthesewomenconfrontfromsocietyatlarge:theyworkinhairsalons,theyhave“badattitudes,”theyareintimidating–thelistgoeson.Inastrategyreminiscentofentrepreneurial“brandmanagement”(Onomake-McShane,thisissue),thesewomenfocuson“impressionmanagement”tocounteractsuchperspectives.Theyworktopresentthemselvesasprofessionalsandtheirbusinessesasoperatingwiththehighestofstandards.SomeremoveidentifiableattributesassociatedwiththeBlackcommunityfromtheirmarketingandadvertisements.

Simultaneously,theseentrepreneurshavetosteertheirbusinessestowardsuccessaspartoftheBlackcommunity.Someoftheirclientsseekspecialfavors(e.g.,delayedpayments),inanattempttobreakdowntheboundarybetweenpersonalandprofessionalrelationships.Thesewomenbusinessownersadoptotherstrategies—seeminglythroughtrialanderror—tocope,includingspecifyingthepriceoftheproductorserviceatthestartoftheinteractionortransaction.Thus,theyexperienceandmustrespondtoclient-inducedstressfrommultiplequartersonanongoingbasis.Interestingly,theauthorsprefernotapplyingtheterm“entrepreneur”tothesebusinessownersbecauseofitsstereotypicalimages(e.g.,profitabilityassolesuccessmeasure,aWhitemaledomain,necessityoffull-timeengagement).Theircritiquepointstothenarrownessandexclusivityofsuchpopularcharacterizations.

Sanyal’sarticleassessesadifferentaspectofentrepreneurship—theperspectivethatmicrocreditcanenablewomentobecomeentrepreneurs,therebyincreasingtheirearnings,skills,socialstatus,andfreedom.Herresearch,likethatofothercontributorstothesethemedarticles,emphasizesthe“initiative”thatherWestBengalientrepreneurialwomentaketodeveloptheirsmallbusinesses.Microcreditloanscanbelifesavingforsomewomen;indeed,hernarrativesrevealanimprovementinagencyforthesewomenbusinessowners.Becausetheycanborrowagainsttheirmicrocreditgroup,theyarenolongerreliantonlocalmoneylenderswhoseinterestchargesareexorbitant.Oncetheirloansarerepaid,theyareeligibletotakeoutadditionalloans.


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However,fromherlargesample,onlyasmallproportionofwomenaccessthemicrocreditloansfortheirownpurposes.Sanyalaskswhythereissuchalowincidenceofentrepreneurship.Itturnsoutthattheentrepreneurialperspectiveembeddedinthenon-governmentalorganizationswithwhomsheworkedtosecurehersampledoesnotalwayshold.First,thecommonpracticeofwomentransferringanyloanstoone’shusbandorgrownsonsfortheirownventuresisakeyreasonforthelownumbersofwomenentrepreneurs.Second,loansareanecessarybutnotsufficientconditionforsuccess.Certainskillsarenecessary“toproducemarketablegoods,”skillswhichwomenmaylack.Finally,Sanyal’snarrativesshowthatwomenbecomeentrepreneursprimarilyasa“lastresort.”Sheoutlinessixconditionsassociatedwiththeirchoicetosecuremicrocredit,includinga“husband’sfunctionalabsencefromhouseholdmanagement”orhis“paltryearnings.”InvestigationslikeSanyal’sgetusclosertounderstandingtherelativesuccessofmicrocreditprogramsandwomenentrepreneurs.

Erickson’ssequentialstudiesinBrazilforadesktopprintermanufacturerrevealentrepreneurialbehaviorinunexpectedplaces.Hisethnographicteamstumbleduponapuzzleinanearlymeetingwiththeirnewclient:“peoplewerebuyingprinters,butnottheink.”Theteamsoonhadapossibleexplanation—thathouseholdspreferredprintingatashopcalleda“LANhouse”becauseitwaslessexpensive.Theseshopsneitherbelongedtoacommercialchainnorlookedsimilarinappearance.Moreover,theyprovidedarangeofservices(e.g.,printing,scanning,gettingcomputerhelp)andweretypicallylocatedinlower-incomeareas.Initialclientreactionwasmixed,withsomeskepticismthatsuchbusinesseswereimportant.Nevertheless,theteamwasallowedtocontinueitsworkanddidsothroughhomeandstoreinterviewsandvisitstovariousLANHouses.Theirresearchconfirmedthatlower-middle-classhouseholdspatronizedLANHousesfortheirprintingneeds.Inaddition,visitstoLANHousesandtheirsuppliersrevealedtheavailabilityofbulkinkandbulk-inkadaptorsforprinters.

Asuggestionbyoneoftheclientmanagerstoconsiderabulk-inkprinterforsaleinBrazilbecameanexampleofintrapreneurialactivity(i.e.,entrepreneurshipwithinanorganization).AsecondroundofdatacollectioninLANHousesencompassedausabilitytrialwithnewprintersandbulk-inkadaptors.ThenewproductwastweakedovertimeandhasbeensoldthroughoutLatinAmerica.Ericksonmakesthecasethatstudyparticipantsinallthekeyrolesinthetwosequentialstudiesexhibitedentrepreneurialbehavior:householdmembers,LANHouseemployees,andclientmanagers.Akeytake-awayfromhisarticleisthatthesedisparate“individuals”formakindofentrepreneurshipclusterinresponsetoaproductonthemarket.HouseholdsandsmallLANHousebusinessesidentifiedworkaroundstoaddresstheprinter’sdrawbackswhilethemanufacturerhadnoideathatitsproducthadcreatedsuch


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workarounds.Intheend,aprinterthataccommodatedbulkinkbecamethesolutionofchoice.

EmergingPatternsaboutthePeopleinContext

Inallsixcases,theresearchersconductedtheirstudiesbyadjustingtotheirfieldconditions.Theyhadtogainaccess,developconnections,andbuildrapportwiththeirstudyparticipants.Theytooktheircuesfromthem,reproducingtheirverbatimcomments,paraphrasinganynotableeventsandexperiences,and/orreflectingonunforeseenactionsordecisionsinrelationtotheirstudyparticipants’worldviews.Indeed,someauthors,reliantontheirextendedassociationwiththeirstudyparticipants(Boltonetal.;Rencher)orontheirremarkablenotesandvideofootage(Erickson),foldinformsof“analyticautoethnography”(Anderson2006:375)intotheirarticles.Inallcases,contradictionsandambiguitiessurfacedrepeatedlyinthefield;theresearchershadtoconfrontthem,whilealsotryingtomakesenseoftheirsignificanceandimplicationsfortheirongoingdatacollectionandpreliminaryanalyses.Theresearchers,likethosetheystudied,couldbeunderstoodasentrepreneursaswell;indeed,EricksonmakesthatargumenteloquentlycitingSchumpeter’s(1947:152)“gettingnewthingsdone”perspective.

Evenwhentheresearchersspecificallyplannedtostudyaspectsofentrepreneurship(Onomake-McShane;Rencher)orsmall-businessstartups(JacksonandSanyal),theresearchersfocusedontheintervieweeincontext,andnotonanyparticulartextbookdefinitionofentrepreneurorentrepreneurship.Consequently,theyclearlyrecognizedthattheirstudyparticipantswereatdifferentstagesinthedevelopmentoftheirventures,withsomerecentlylaunchedandothersquitemature;capturingtheentrepreneurialventurefromthepre-planningphasesthroughitsmaturityandtransitionphaseswasnotanissueforthem.Theyviewedtheirroleaslearningwhattheycouldfromtheirstudyparticipantsduringthatperiodintheirstudyparticipants’lives.Theresult:withoutapre-conceivednotionofentrepreneurship,theresearcherswereabletoexamineawidearrayofcircumstancesandconditionssurroundingtheworkofentrepreneurial-mindedindividuals(Onomake-McShane;Rencher;JacksonandSanyal;Sanyal;Erickson),households(Boltonetal.;Sanyal;Erickson),andemployees(Rencher;Erickson).

Takentogether,thesixarticlesbreakopenthemoldonentrepreneurship.First,thearticlesrevealvariationinentrepreneurialdemographicattributes.Theydispelthestereotypicalimageofanentrepreneurasa“Whitemanstandinginfrontofconceptboardsdeliveringapitchordevelopingamarketingstrategy”(JacksonandSanyal).EntrepreneurscanbefoundinNigeriantradingnetworks,ininnovativePeruviancheesecooperatives,amongAmericanuniversity


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students,withinBlackcommunitiesintheU.S.,inWestBengalifemale-headedhouseholds,andamongBrazilianmanagers,suppliers,LANHouseworkersandcustomers.Wealsolearnthatentrepreneurshiphasalonghistoryinatleasttwoofthoseregionsoftheworld(Onomake-McShane;Boltonetal.),somuchsothatitisdeeplyembeddedwithintheculture.Thetypesofpeopleandrangeofgeographiclocationssuggestsaphenomenonthatisneitherspecificnorlocal,butrathergeneralandglobal.

Second,thearticlesidentifyarangeofmotivatingfactorsbehindtheentrepreneurialbehaviorencountered:makingaliving(Onomake-McShane),improvingacommunity’slivelihood(Boltonetal.),developingauniversityeducationwithentrepreneurshipatitscore(Rencher),supplementinghouseholdincome(JacksonandSanyal),stavingoffdestitution(Sanyal),andcopingwiththepoorfunctionalityofaproduct(Erickson).Evenwhenprofitabilityisagoal,itcoexistswithotherequallyimportantormoreimportantgoals.Forexample,recommendationswereofferedbyoutsideexpertstoimprovethecheesefactory’soperations,andhenceproductionandrevenue(Boltonetal.).Oneofthem—hiringapermanentworkforce—wasrejectedbythecommunitybecauseits“democraticandegalitarianidealinsistsonbroadparticipationintheenterprisebyallmembers”andbecausetherearefewalternativesourcesofworkforcommunitymembers.

Third,culturalimpactisspecifictotheparticularcontext.Cultureaffectsthewaysinwhichinteractionsandrelationshipstranspireinentrepreneurialventures.Someentrepreneurs/smallbusinessownersfindtheymustlearntooperateinacross-culturalcontext,learningnewculturalrulesandadaptingtounanticipatedcircumstances(Onomake-McShane;JacksonandSanyal).AsLANHouseemployeesexpandtheirservices,theyhavetodealwithcustomerswhosefamiliaritywithelectronicsvarieswidely,andalongwithit,theirvaryinglevelsoffrustration(Erickson).Otherentrepreneursoptnottoadaptbuttodemandchange,asinthePeruvianexamplewhenthecommunityshiftedfromcommunally-heldtoindividually-heldland(Boltonetal.).StudentstrainingtobecomeU.S.-basedentrepreneursmustacquireentrepreneurialknowledge,skillsandpractices(i.e.,acculturate)sothattheycanactappropriatelyinAmericanbusinesscircles(Rencher).WestBengaliwomenhavetodisregardculturalnormstolearnaboutandaccessself-helpgroupsofferingmicrocredit(Sanyal).Inallsixarticles,thesurroundingculturebothconstrainsandenablesstudyparticipantresponses.Inotherwords,apracticethatworkseffectivelyinonecontext,mayfailmiserablyinanother.Ethnographicandqualitativeapproachesareadeptatdescribingsuchsituationsandofferingexplanationsfortheiroutcomes.


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TheValueinUnderstandingEntrepreneurialBehaviorinContext

Thekindsofstudiesrepresentedinthesethemedarticlesmakeimportantcontributionstoourunderstandingofentrepreneurshipandsmallbusinessactivity.Theyprovideastrongdoseof“reality”asitisexperiencedbystudyparticipantsin“realtime,”oftenintheirownwordsandactions.Suchstudiesrepresent“actual”circumstancesfacedbypeopleastheynavigateanuncertainfuture.Gillen(2016:2)makesasimilarcase:“Knowledgesharing,collaboration,reciprocity,andtheroleofhometown,locality,andkinshipineconomicrelationshipsareamongmanyculturalorextra-economiccharacteristicsofentrepreneurialismyetarerarelydocumentedintheexistingliteratureandarethusoftenill-definedandpoorlyunderstood.”

Thesesixcontextualaccountscanandshouldprovidefeedbackloopsintomultipleliteratures—thoseconcernedwithentrepreneurialtopics,issues,andinterests.Unfortunately,weoftenfindourresearchdoesnotsuccessfullypenetratethedisciplinarysilosinwhichwework.Forthatreason,venuessuchasthe2017Princeton-KauffmanConferenceandjournalsthatactivelyseekandsolicitarticlesbeyondtheirdisciplinaryborders,suchastheJournalofBusinessAnthropology,aresovaluable.Theyenableinteractionsthatmightneverhaveoccurredandinvitediscussionondifferentperspectivesandapproachestoagivendomain,allwiththepurposeofexpandingmindsetsanddevelopingnewresearchpracticesandopportunities—nottomention,solutions!

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AppendixA:DoctoralDissertationswithEthnographyandEntrepreneurshipintheAbstract

Theseare100recentdoctoraldissertationswith“entrepreneur*OR“newventure*”ANDethnograph*intheabstract,fromProQuestDissertationsandTheses(omittingdoctorsofeducationbutnotPh.D.’sineducationandomittingautho-ethnographies,asofearlyJuly2018).Dissertationsarecategorizedbythemainunit(s)ofobservation.Categoriesarebroad.Forexample,“sectoral”ismeanttoincludeindustry,“field”or“arena”ofsocialaction.An“ecosystem”wouldbeclassedthisway.Theclassification“commonactivities”encompasseswhatcouldbecalledsocialinstitutions.“Topical”ethnographyisoften“multi-sited.”Relativelyfewstudies,thosewhichareunderlined,examinenewventuresfromnearlythestart.Onlythreeofthe100aresocategorized.

Lee,Seung-Cheol.2018.ColumbiaUniversity,Anthropology.“ethnographicresearchonthesocialeconomysector”–commonactivitiesandself-definedassector(usedtoincludeindustriesandsetsthereof).

Schmidt,EricJames.2018,UCLA,Ethnomusicology.On“Tuaregmusic”–ethnicallydefinedsetofcommonactivitiesor“artworld”andsectoral.

Nichols,T.Philip.2018.Pennsylvania,Education.Anewhighschool–organizational(usedtoincludenetworkformsaswellasmorecorporateforms).

Trent,Tiffany.2018.ArizonaState,Theatre.Tenyouthperformingartsspaces–organizational.

Melnick,AmielBize.2018.ColumbiaUniversity,Anthropology.Roadsidebusinesses–sectoral(atermusedherefortoencompassalsofieldsorarenas;sociallyrecognizedandspatiallociofaction).

Steiner,Robin.2018.Arizona,Anthropology.“Oman’scitizenlaborindustry”–sectoral.

Loughlin,Corrina.2018.Pennsylvania,Communication.“theAmericanevangelicalsubculture…Life.ChurchinEdmundOklahoma…[and]religiousentrepreneurs”–organizationalandcommonactivities.

Crowell,JessicaKathleen.2018.Rutgers,LibraryScience(apparently).“Philadelphia’sKEYSPOTproject,anetworkofdigitalaccessandskillsprograms”–organizational.

SaavedraEspinoza,Mariana.2017.Cornell,Anthropology.“Colombianbusiness-owningfamilies”–commonactivities.

Tompkins,ChristienPhilmarc.2017.Chicago.Anthropology.NewOrleanscharterschools.organizational.

Laurencin,Edith.2017.Rutgers,Anthropology.“small-scalefarmersonSt.


158

CroixU.S.VirginIslands”–sectoral.

Kim,EstherGrace.2017.California–Berkeley,EnvironmentalScience,Policy,andManagement.“urbansustainabilityandenvironmentaljustice(EJ)inLosAngeles…focus[ing]ononeparticularsustainabilityproject”–sectoralandorganizational.

Kyser,DianaC.2017.Temple,Business.“foursmallfirmsfrommultipleindustries”–organizational.

Fouts,Sarah.2017.Tulane,LatinAmericanStudies.“undocumentedfoodvendors…fromHondurastoNewOrleans”-sectoral.

Medford,MarcelleMandisa.2017.Chicago,Sociology.“Jamaicanimmigrantculturalorganizations”-organizational.

Carfagna,LindseyB.2017.BostonCollege,Sociology.“openlearningfromthevantagepointoflearners”–thematicandcommonactivities.

Porter,AmyLynn.2017.Wisconsin-Madison,EducationalPolicyStudies.“youth…inentrepreneurialtrainingprograms…andbeyond”–commonactivities.

Weiner,TaliaRose.2017.Chicago,ComparativeHumanDevelopment.“apsychoanalytictraininginstitute”–organizational.

Bunting-Hudson,LauraL.2017.Columbia,TeachersCollege.“TherapmusicindustryinBogota,Colombia”–anartworld,commonactivitiesandsectoral.

Bandinelli,Carolina.2017.Goldsmith’sCollege,London,CulturalStudies.“youngsocialentrepreneursinLondonandMilan”-commonactivitiesandsectoral.

Kennedy,John.2017.Birmingham,ModernLanguages.“threesmallSiberianenterprises”–organizational.

Sischarenco,Elena.2017.St.Andrews,Anthropology.“entrepreneursoftheconstructionbusinessinLombardy”–sectoral.

Bunsit,Thanawit.2017.Bath,Economics.“borrowersofmicrofinance”–commonactivities.

DeAvillez,MariaMargaridaDurão.2017.Nottingham,Business.SocialentrepreneurshipinMozambique-thematicandsectoral.

DeLisio,EsterElizabethAmanda.2016.Toronto,Anthropology.“womeninvolvedinsexualcommerceinRiodeJaneiro”-commonactivitiesandsectoral.

Wang,CarolKai-Ju.2016.TheNewSchool,Anthropology.AIDSactivism–commonactivities.

Ziemer,JordanAllen.2016.TexasA&M,Communication.“evangelicalChristianchurchplanters[founders]”-commonactivitiesandsectoral.


159

Gaultieri,AnthonyAngelo.2016.American,Anthropology.CommunitiesinWashington,D.C.and“theredevelopmentofAnacostiaHistoricalDistrict,theBarryFarmpublichousingprojectandSt.ElizabethHospital”–sectoralandorganizational.

Khare,AmyTurnbull.2016.Chicago,SocialServiceAdministration.“publichousingredevelopment”–sectoralandthematic.

Lynn,Randy.2016.GeorgeMason,Sociology.“twosuburbanhighschools”–organizational.

Toombs,AustinLewis.2016.Indiana,InformaticsandComputing.“ahackerspace…[and]thebroaderhackerspacemovement”–organizationalandcommonactivities.

Mitts,LeslieBroudo.2016.Pennsylvania,Anthropology.“entrepreneursbuildingscalablenewventures”…“globalincubatorsandaccelerators”–organizationalandnewventures.

Williams,SamuelJoseph.2016.Princeton,Anthropology.“twomarketplacesinIstanbul…focusingonthesouvenirbusinessofanAleviKhurdishfamilyandapartnershipbetweentwogaynightlifeentrepreneurs”–organizationalandsectoral.

Bhandari,Riddhi.2016.American,Anthropology.“localentrepreneurs…inAgra’slocaltourismmarket”–sectoralandindividual.

Cummins,E.R.2016.Northeastern,Sociology.Redevelopmentandthree“sites”ofurbanplanninginDetroit-sectoralandorganizational.

Steffen,MeganAmanda.2016.Princeton,Anthropology.“acceleratingsocial,economic,andgeographicalshifts”withthestudyofpeopleofdiversebackgrounds,includingentrepreneurs–individualandthematic.

Reilly,PatrickMichael.2016.UCLA,Sociology.“artistswith[in]culturalproductionindustries…stand-upcomediansinLosAngeles”–individualandsectoral.

Kim,ChristinaHyunIm.2016.NewSchool,Anthropology.SouthKoreanentrepreneursinChinaneartheNorthKoreanborder.individualandsectoral.

Morgan,PaulJames.2016.California–Irvine,Sociology.“craftspeoplewhosellonEtsy.comand/oratRenegradeCraftFair”–individualandsectoral.

Jasor,Océane.2016.FloridaInternational,GlobalandSocioculturalStudies.“SonkeGenderJustice,atransnationalentrepreneurshipNGO…inSouthernAfrica”–organizational.

Yezbick,Julia.2016.Harvard,Anthropology.“theintersectingworldsofart,creativeindustries,realestate,philanthropyandurbanrevitalizationthroughthemateriallensofsinglefamilyhome”-thematicandsectoral.


160

Hsieh,I-Yi.2016.NYU,EastAsianStudies.“thereconstructionofurbanfolkartsasculturalheritageinChina.FocusingontwoBeijingfolkloremarkets”-commonactivitiesandsectoral.

Gupta,Hemangini.2016.Emory,Women’sStudies.“theemergenceofastartupeconomyin…Bangalore…StartupFestivals,incubationlabs,investorandnetworkingmeetings,entrepreneurialworkplaces,andsitesofleisureandconsumption”–sectoral,thematic,andorganizational.

Russum,JenniferAnn.2016.ArizonaState,English.“women’ssewingpracticesinthedigitalage…participating…online”-commonactivitiesandsectoral.

Al-Masri,Muzna.2016.Goldsmith’sCollege,London,Anthropology.“Beirut’sSunnicommunities,mainlywithinNejmehSportsClub…an‘entrepreneurialelite’”-sectoralandorganizational.

Popova,Irina.2016.AngliaRuskin,Anthropology.“socialventureincubation…oncohortofsocialentrepreneursandtheirventuresfromselectiontoincorporation”–newventures.

DiMartiniUgolotti,Nicola.2016.Bath,Education.“youngmenofmigrantorigin…practicingcapoeiraandparkourinTurin’spublicspaces”-commonactivitiesandsectoral.

Gümüşay,AliAslan.2016.Oxford,OrganizationalBehavior(apparently).“thefoundingprocessofthefirstIslamicBankinGermany”–organizationalandnewventures.(Ihavearequesttoviewthedocument,whichisunderembargo,tobesureaboutthis.)

Botoeva,Gulzat.2016.Essex,Sociology.“small-scaleillegalproductionofhashishinamountainousregionofKyrgzstan”-commonactivitiesandsectoral.

Hung,Julia.2016.LSE,Anthropology.“AgentsinruralBangladesh…small-scalebusinesswomen”–sectoral.

Kushins,EricRoss.2015.Rutgers,SociologyandOrganizationalManagement.Foursmallfirms-organizational.

Orrico,LauraAnn.2015.UCLA,Sociology.“apublicmarketplace[and]agroupofmarginalizedentrepreneurs”–sectoral.

Jones,AnikaYetunde.2015.Wisconsin–Milwaukee,Anthropology.“African-Americanwomen[whobecome]micro-enterprisingentrepreneurs”aschildcareproviders–sectoral.

Jiao,Yang.2015.Florida,Anthropology.“ChineseentrepreneursinGhana…[multiple]sectors[ofan]ethnicenclave”–sectoral(theenclave).

Ferguson,RachaelH.2015.Princeton,Sociology.“actorsinvolvedintheextralegaleconomy…drugentrepreneurs,sexworkers,andmembersandassociatesofMafiagroups”–individualandcommonactivities.


161

Garrison,SheaBradley.2015.Tulane,InternationalDevelopment.“thedemandandsupplyoffemalelaborinKuwait”–thematicandsectoral.

Hodges,RebeccaMcLain.2015.WashingtonUniversity,Anthropology.“teachersatatypicalJordanianpublicschool”–individualandorganizational.

Taylor,ChristopherBrennan.2015.BostonUniversity,Anthropology.“theriseandtransformationof…Islamicalmsgiving(zakat)…incontemporaryIndia”–thematicandcommonactivities.

Ignatova,JacquelineAlyce.2015.Maryland,GovernmentandPolitics.a“newGreenRevolution”inGhana–thematicandsectoral.

Hobden,Deborah.2015.California–SantaBarbara,Sociology.“Ghana’sfirst‘world-class’shoppingmall”–organizational.

Long,Ziyu.2015.Purdue,Communication.“womenentrepreneursfromthreedifferentpolitical-economicsystemscommunicativelydesigntheirentrepreneurialcareers”–thematicandindividual.

Alexander,James.2015.Manchester,Politics.“howtechnologicalsecuritysolutionsaredeployedineverydaylife…[andexamines]tradefairsandexhibitionswhereonecanwitnessthemarketingandsaleofthe‘latestandgreatest’technologicalfixes…fromprivatesectorsecurityentrepreneurs”butfocusesonthe“mind-setregardingwhatitmeanstoconsumersecurity”–thematicandsectoral.

Feldman,Elana.2015.BostonUniversity,Business.“aseedaccelerator(‘InnoTech’)”–organizationalandindividual(withrespecttotheorganization).

Akinyemi,FlorenceOluwabunmi.2015.UCLA,PoliticalScience.“peaceentrepreneurs”inYorubaareasofNigeriawho“identifypotentialconflictsituationsbeforetheyescalate”–commonactivitiesandindividual.

Jankauskas,JenniferKathleen.Leicester,MuseumStudies.“mid-sizedandregionalAmericanartmuseums”andvariousartworldparticipants–sectoral.

Heslop,LukeAlexander.2015.Edinburgh,SocialAnthropology.“middlemenandbusinessfamiliesinacommercialtownincentralSriLanka…inthehouseholdsofbusinessfamilies,atworkinthevegetablemarket,andatsocialandpoliticalgatherings”(subtitle“Asmalltownethnography”)–sectoral.

Fox,Dierdre.2015.Ulster,n/a.“twelveentrepreneurialcasesengagedinbusinessventuringwithintraditionaltextiles,seafood,seaweedprocessingandculturaltourism”;on“theroleofsocialandculturalcapitalinGaeltachtentrepreneurship”–thematicandsectoral.

Erdélyi,Peter.2015.LSE,Management.“e-commerceandsmallretailersintheSouthofEngland”–sectoralandcommonactivities.


162

Mbwilo,LoyJob.2015.Hull,Business.“Tanzanianruralwomenentrepreneurs”–individualandcommonactivities.

Dobson,Johnl2015.Manchester,Business.On“therole[that]institutionsplayintheadoptionandnon-adoptionofInformationSystems…withintheTaxcoSilverHandicraftSector”–sectoralandthematic.

Abid,Sufyan.2015.Sussex,Anthropology.“MuslimbusinessmenandentrepreneursinBirmgingham,UK”withafocuson“charityandphilanthropy”–individualandcommonactivities.

Chang,Janny.2014.Columbia,n/a(eclecticreferences).“workplacerelationshipsamongChineseandZambiansworkingtogether…intwourbanareasinZambia[using]threecasestudies[thatinvolve]ChineseandZambianentrepreneurialventures”–sectoralandcommonactivities.

Azcarate,TaniaArriaga.2014.Nevada,BasqueStudies.“aself-brandedentrepreneur’sinnovationcommunityofpractice,knownas#NASF…[a]Navarresecommunityofentrepreneurs”–sectoralandorganizational.

Enriquez,Falina.2014.Chicago,Anthropology.“theprimarilystate-sponsoredmusicsceneinRecice,”Brazil–sectoral.

Sheth,AnupArvind.2014.UCLA,Sociology.“ethnicplacenaminginLosAngeles;”informantsinclude“ethnicentrepreneurs”(i.e.entrepreneursregardingethnicity)–sectoralandcommonactivities.

Roti,MariaR.(2014).WayneState,Anthropology.“theRussianinformaleconomy[anda]Russianbusinessorganization”–sectoralandorganizational.

Wood,MarkWilliams.2014.ArizonaState,SchoolofHumanEvolutionandSocialChange.“anetworkofsocialbusinessincubatorsoperatedbyTecnologicodeMonterrey…centeringonitscampusinGuadalajara[studying]ifandhow[middleandbaseofthepyramid]businessesaddresssustainability”–thematicandorganizational.

Muse-Orlinoff,Leah.2014.California–SanDiego,Sociology.“pioneerentrepreneursfromafirst-generation,low-resourceimmigrantcommunity…a‘life-cycle’ofimmigration,settlement,labormarketincorporation,andentrepreneurship”–thematicandsectoral.

Pluim,GaryW.J.2014.Toronto,Curriculum,TeachingandLearning.“youthparticipation…duringaninternationallydominatedreconstructionofHaitifollowingtheearthquateof2010”–commonactivitiesandsectoral.

Lopez,MarianneHamilton.2014.Maryland–BaltimoreCounty,PublicPolicy.examines“welfarediscoursetoanalyzehowthepolicycommunityviewedtheroleofTANF[TemporaryAssistanceforNeedyFamilies]within[a]deeprecession”-thematicandsectoral.


163

Keleş,Fethi.2014.Syracuse,Anthropology.“theresettlementexperiencesofBosnianMuslimsrelocatedtotwourbanlocalesinthenorthofNewYorkstate”-thematicandsectoral.

Demuynck,Erin.2014.Illinois,Geography.“farmersmarkets[and]theircompatibilitywithandincorporationintotheentrepreneurialstrategiesthroughwhichcitiesstrivetobecompetitive”-thematicandsectoral.

Goldstein,Jesse.2014.CUNY,Sociology.“whetherandhow‘greencapitalism’coheresaroundnewjustificatoryframes…Thisresearchfocusesspecificallyuponindividualswithinthebroadfieldofgreencapitalism”–thematic.

Gist,AngelaN.2014.Missouri,Communication.Studies“unemploymentsupportorganizationsacrossclasslines”–organizational.

Williams,AdamS.2014.Colorado,Geography.InformalrecyclingnetworksandtheirparticipantsinShanghai–sectoral.

Davies,GillianLouise.2014.Edinburgh,AfricanStudies.Studies“insidetwodevelopmentintermediaries,GlobalVillageEnergyPartnership(GVEP)International’s‘DevelopingEnergyEnterprisesProject’(DEEP)inKenyaandUgandaandSolarAid’ssocialenterprise‘SunnyMoney’inMalawi…[and]therecruitmentandtrainingofsupplychainentrepreneurs”–sectoralandorganizational.

Margey,A.2014.Queen’s,Belfast,HigherEducation(apparently).On“attitiudestowardsentrepreneurshipandenterpriseeducationwithinNorthernIreland’svisualartsandtheatresectors”-thematicandsectoral.

White,Joy.2014.Greenwich,Literature,LanguageandTheatre.Ongrimemusicand“theinformalcreativeeconomy…invarioussettingsincludingpirateradiostations,nightclubsandmusicvideoshoots”–thematic.

Finney,Angus.2014.CityUniversity,London,Management.“cognitivebiases[in]thefilmindustryvaluechain”-thematicandsectoral.

SalinasEdwards,MichaelAntonio.2014.Manchester,Criminology.“acontemporaryBritishdrugmarket[and]agroupoftwenty-fivefriends,termedTheLads”–thematicandindividual.

Rosemann,Achim.2014.Sussex,Anthropology.“theformationandgovernanceofinternationalclinicalresearchcollaborationsinthefieldofregenerativestemcellmedicine”-thematicandsectoral.

Rogelja,Igor.2014.SchoolofOrientalandAfricanStudies,London,PoliticalScience.“howcreativityisincorporatedinurbanredevelopmentschemes…particularlyinmarginalurbanspaces…[in]mthreecasecitiesinTaiwanandChina”–thematic.

Klaeger,Gabriel.2014.SchoolofOrientalandAfricanStudies,London,AnthropologyandSociology.“theeverydaylivesofthepeoplewhodwell,


164

workandmovealongsidetheAccra-Kumasiroad”inGhana–sectoral.

Saleh,Elizabeth.2014.Goldsmith’sCollege,London,Anthropology.“Lebanesewineproducersandtheiron-goingeffortstocreateandsustainanicheintheinternationalmarketfortheirhighqualitywines”–sectoralandcommonactivities.

Li,Boyi.2014.LSE,Management.“examinestherationaleofgeographicco-locationofentrepreneurswhodobusinessoninternetplatforms”–thematicandsectoral.

Sethna,Zubin.2014.Stirling,Business.“examinesthefactorsthathaveshapedentrepreneurialcognitionandpracticeinentrepreneursfromwithintheworld’soldestmonotheisticreligiouscommunity,theZarathustriancommunity”–sectoralandthematic.

Nguyen,AnTuan.2013.BowlingGreen,EthnicStudies.On“newcommunitiesofVietnameseimmigrantsintheU.S….[including]entrepreneurialimmigrants”–sectoral.

Ghadge,Ravi.2013.Illinois,Sociology.“urbandevelopment[and]multiplestakeholders”inMumbaiand“anentrepreneurialmodel”ofurbandevelopment-sectoralandthematic.

Mendoza,MarcosAlexander.2013.Chicago,Anthropology.On“environmentalcapitalisminPatagonia.”Variousactorsinclude“tourismentrepreneurs”–sectoralandthematic.

Irani,LillyCristine.2013.California–Irvine,InformationandComputerScience.“examinesthepoliticsofdesignpracticeinurbanIndiathroughanethnographyofaDelhi-baseddesignandinnovationstudio”–organizationalandthematic.

Jones,CalvertW.2013.Yale,PoliticalScience.“Istudystate-initiatedsocialengineeringintheUnitedArabEmirates[whoseleaders]arestrugglingtobuildmoremarket-friendly,entrepreneurialcitizens…”–sectoralandthematic.


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AppendixB:Auto-ethnographicStudies

ThesearchforthesedissertationsdiffersfromthatinAppendixAbecause“auto-ethnography”or“nativeethnography”andvariantsaresubstituted.All13ofthesedissertations,whichgobackintimeto2005,areincluded.

Wagg,Andrew.2017.Keele,SocialSciences(General).apartlyautoethnographicstudyof“differententrepreneurs”…“examine[s]theeffectsofcognitions,motivations,andself-efficacyonorganizationalchange”–individualandthematic.

Fixsen,AlisonMarie.2017.Westminster,PersonalandProfessionalDevelopmentinEducation.“stafflearninganddevelopmentprograms”inauniversitythatpromote“self-entrepreneurialactivities,self-care,andself-examination”–organizationalandcommonactivities.

Dauncey,AlexanderJames.2016.PrifysgolBangor,NaturalResourcesandGeography.Retrospectivestudyof“policyentrepreneurs”forUKforestry,utilizing“personalautoethnographicwitnessfromacompletememberresearcher,”focusingon“themindsetsandframesof[theearlier]times…[and]powerfulinstitutionalinertia”–sectoralandthematic.

Henderson,NathalieMeans.2015.Missouri–St.Louis,Education.Onhow“EE[EducationalEntrepreneurship]policiesharmBlackstudents,familiesandeducators”-sectoralandindividual(reflectionsonpersonalexperience).

Arzberger,JenniferE.2015,Denver,Education.“aneducator’sjourneyindevelopinganeconomicallyintegrated,urbanExpeditionaryLearningcharterschool…traversingtheyearspriortoopeningtheschool…[invoking]personalexperiences”–newventure,organizational,sectoral(thenetworkofExpeditionaryLearningschools);(retrospective,e.g.p.36).

James,Juli.2015.Glamorgan,Marketing.withina“hightechnologybasedsmallbusiness,”an“autoenthographicnarrative…positionedinthreephasestoshowtheprogressionfromnoformalmarketingmarketingtoadministrativemarketingmethodsthroughtoinnovativeandentrepreneurialmarketingstrategiesandtechniques”–organizationalandthematic.

Musgrave,George.2014.EastAnglia,LanguageandCommunicationStudies.“competitioninUKurbanmusic,”partlyautoethnographic;on“culturalintermediaries”-thematicandsectoral.

Triplett,IndigoDebra.2014.Benedictine,Values-BasedLeadership.On“myjournalofleadingwithbipolardisorderinanentrepreneurialorganization”asCEOofanInc.500fastest-growingcompaniesfor2012and2013.Newventuresandorganizationalandindividual.

Whelan,TimothyCharles.2011.Surrey,Management.Includes(Chapter


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5)“alongitudinalautoethnography[on]anenvironmentinwhichpoorleaderbehaviourprecipitatedpoorleader-subordinaterelationshipsandareducedwillingnesstoimplementideas,whilstgoodleaderbehaviourwasassociatedwithmorepositiveattitudesbysubordinatesandawillingnesstotakerisksandimplementideas”–organizationalandthematic.

Alexander,AmandaS.2010.OhioState,ArtEducation.“considersthecollaborativeprocessdevelopedwiththeColorsandCreationscooperativeofartistsinCajamarca,Peru,”includingconsiderationof“entrepreneurs”and“business(wo)men;”“issues[coveredinclude]trustwithinthegroup[and]internationaleconomicpolicyissues(dis)servingthedevelopmentofdirecttradewithartists”-organizationalandthematic.

Malone,StephenA.2009.Lancaster,Management.Studiespersonalbusinessadvisors(PBAs)tosmallfirm,drawinginpartonauto-ethnographicconsiderationoftheauthor’spastexperienceasaPBA.Keyconceptsincluderelationship-buildingandsensemaking–sectorandthematic.

Ryan,JohnEdwinHolston.2007.Warwick,Management.Theauthorwasoneoftwofoundersofa“socialentrepreneurialnewventure;”thestudy“explorestherelationshipbetweenthetwoentrepreneurs.…theirrelationshipswiththeirnetworkpartners[and]theirsharedmission-relatedvalues”–newventures,organizational,andthematic.

Karra,Neri.2005.Cambridge,Management.Anauto-ethnographicstudyof“aninternationalfashionfirmthatwasbornglobal…highlightingthecriticalroleofthedomesticandforeignmarketenvironment,aswellasexistingopportunitiesinthemarket”–newventures,organizationalandthematic.

Notcounted:

Wolfe,MariaLoukianenko.2008.IowaState,RhetoricandProfessionalCommunication.Thisisdepictedasanauto-ethnography,butitisbetterdescribedasareflexiveethnographywithfullmembershipintheauthor’spastexperience,whichwasnotthatofthemainprotagonist.

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