ENT4050 Dynamic Organizing · DeDreu, C., & Weingart, L. (2003b). A contingency theory of task...

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ENT4050 Dynamic Organizing

Centre for Entrepreneurship


Team Decision-Making Pitfalls

• Groupthink• Escalation of commitment• Abilene paradox• Group polarization• Unethical decision making

CHAPTER 7


Exhibit 7-1. Team Process and Outcomes

Failure Outcome Successful Outcome

Flawed process Predictable failure “Lucky”· Nonreplicable success

Vigilant process “Unlucky” Predictable Success· Best condition for replicable success

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Exhibit 7-2. A Rational Model of Group Decision Making

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Orientation

Define the problemSet goalPlan the process

Discussion

Gather informationIdentify alternativesEvaluate alternatives

Decision Making

Choose group solution

Implementation

Adhere to the decisionEvaluate the decisionSeek feedback

Forsyth, D. (1990). Group dynamics (2nd ed., p. 286). Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks/Cole.


Symptoms of Groupthink

• Incomplete survey of alternatives• Incomplete survey of objectives• Failure to reexamine alternatives• Failure to examine preferred choices• Selection bias• Poor information search• Failure to create contingency plans

CHAPTER 7


Avoiding Groupthink

• Monitor team size• Provide face-saving mechanism for teams• Risk technique• Invite different perspectives• Appoint a devil’s advocate• Structure discussion principles• Establish procedures for protecting alternative viewpoints• Second solution• Beware of time pressure

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Exhibit 7-8. Escalation of Commitment

CHAPTER 7

Questionable or Negative Outcomes

Reexamination of Current Course of Action

Perceived Utility of Current Course of Action

Perceived Utility of Withdrawal and/or Change

Commitment to Current Course of Action

Withdrawal and Assumption of Losses

Continued Failure

Low

High

Source: Adapted from Ross, J., & Staw, B. M. (1993). Organizational escalation and exit: Lessons from the Shoreham Nuclear Power Plant. Academy of Management Journal, 701–73


Escalation of Commitment

• Project determinants• Psychological determinants• Social determinants• Structural determinants• Avoiding the escalation of commitment problem

• Set limits• Avoid the bystander effect• Avoid tunnel vision• Recognize sunk costs• Avoid bad mood• External review

CHAPTER 7


Key Causes of Self-Limiting Behavior in Teams

• Presence of someone with expertise• Presentation of a compelling argument• Lack of confidence in one’s ability to contribute• Unimportant or meaningless decision• Pressure from others to conform to team’s decision• Dysfunctional decision-making climate

CHAPTER 7


Avoiding the Abilene Paradox

• Confront the issue in a team setting• Conduct a private vote• Minimize status differences• Frame task as a decision to be made• Provide formal forum for controversial views• Take responsibility for failure

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Group Polarization

• Risky shift• Cautious shift• Explanations

• The need to be right• The need to be liked• Conformity pressures

CHAPTER 7


Exhibit 7-12. Group Polarization

CHAPTER 7

Group polarization processes. Imagine that Group 1 includes Person A (who chose 1), Person B (who chose 3), and Persons C and D (who both chose 5); the average of pregroup choices would be (1 + 3 + 5 + 5)/4, or 3.5. Because this mean is less than 5, a risky shift would probably occur in Group 1. If, in contrast, Group 2 contained Persons C, D, E and F, their pregroup average would be (5 +5 + 7 + 9)/4 or 6.5. Because this mean is closer to the caution pole, a conservative shift would probably occur in the group.

1 3 5 7 9Risk Caution

BA D EC & D

Group 1 mean

Group 2 mean

Risky shift Cautious shift

Source: Adapted from Janis, I. L. (1982). Victims of groupthink (2nc ed.). Boston: Houghton Mifflin.


Unethical Decision Making

Situational triggers• Rational man model

• Pluralistic ignorance

• Desensitization

CHAPTER 7


How to Remedy or Prevent Unethical Decision Making

• Accountability for behavior• Reward model• Appropriate role models• Eliminate conflicts of interest• Create cultures of integrity

CHAPTER 7


Exhibit 8-1. Three Types of Conflict

CHAPTER 8

Type of Conflict Definition Example of items used to assess/measure this type of conflict

Relationship conflict (also known as emotional conflict, A-type conflict, or affective conflict)

Involves disagreements based on personal and social issues that are not related to work

How often do people get angry while working in your team? How much relationship tension is there in your team?

Task conflict (also known as cognitive conflict or C- type conflict)

Involves disagreements about the work that is being done in a group

To what extent are there differences of opinion in your team? How much conflict is there about the work you do in your team? How often do people in your team disagree about opinions regarding the work to be done?How frequently are there conflicts about ideas in your team?

Process conflict Centers on task strategy and delegation of duties and resources

How often do members of your team disagree about who should do what? How frequently do members of your team disagree about the way to complete a team task? How much disagreement about the delegation of tasks exists within your team?

Source: Jehn, K. A. (1995). A Multimethod Examination of the Benefits and Detriments of Intragroup Conflict. Administrative Science Quarterly, 40, 256– 282; Jehn, K. A., & Mannix, E. A. (2001). The dynamic nature of conflict: A longitudinal study of intragroup conflict and group performance. Academy of Management Journal, 44(2), 238–251; Behfar, K. (2003). The team exchange contract in autonomous work groups: Behaviors and work strategies for sustainable performance. Doctoral dissertation, Cornell Univeristy; Peterson, R. (1997). A directive leadership style in group decision making can be both virtue and vice: Evidence from elite and experimental groups. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72(5), 1107–1121.


CHAPTER 8

Exhibit 8-3. Managerial grid

Concern for the other person(empathy)

Con

cern

for

ones

elf

(sel

f-int

eres

t; se

lf-pr

eser

vatio

n)

Avoidance(stalemate)

Compromise

Collaboration(win-win)

Accommodation(capitulation)

Competition(intimidation)

Thomas, K.W. (1992). Conflict and Conflict Management: Reflections and Update (p. 266). Journal of Organizational behavior, 13, 265-274.


CHAPTER 8

Conflict management approachCollaboratingContending

Rights-basedPower-based

Avoiding

Type of conflictTask contentTask process Task uncertainty

Team performance

Individual health and well-being

Amount of conflict

Exhibit 8-5. Conflict and Team Performance

Source: DeDreu, C., & Weingart, L. (2003b). A contingency theory of task conflict and performance in groups and organizational teams. In M. A. West, D. Tjosvold, & K. G. Smith (Eds.), International handbook of organizational teamwork and cooperative working. New York: John Wiley & Sons.


Norms of Fairness

• Equity method (or contribution-based distribution)

• Equality method (or blind justice)

• Need method (or welfare-based justice)

CHAPTER 8


Exhibit 8-7. A Model of Cross Functional Product Development Team

Conflict And Performance

CHAPTER 8

Cognitive Integration

Affective Integration

Functional Diversity

Representational Gaps

Task Disagreement

Task Characteristics

Conflict Management Techniques• Interests• Rights• Power

Design Discussion Quality• Transaction costs•

Outcome satisfaction• Relationship•

Recurrence of conflict

Team Performance• Innovativeness• Timeliness• Budget adherence• Product quality

Source: Weingart, L., Cronin, M., Houser, C., Cagan, J., & Vogel, C. (2005). Functional diversity and conflict in cross-functional product development teams: Considering representational gaps and task characteristics. In L. Neider & C. Schriesheim (Eds.), Understanding teams. (pp. 89–100). Greenwich, CT: IAP.


Exhibit 9-1. Four General, Conceptual Domains into which New Ideas Can Be Classified

CHAPTER 9

CREATIVE REALISM

CONSERVATIVE REALISM

CREATIVE IDEALISM

CONSERVATIVE IDEALISM

CREATIVE CONSERVATIVE

REALISTIC

IDEALISTICSource: Finke, R. A. (1995). Creative realism. In S. M. Smith, T. B. Ward, & R. A. Finke (Eds.), The creative cognition approach (pp. 303–326). Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.


Measuring Creativity

• Three indices• Fluency• Flexibility• Originality

• Convergent and divergent thinking• Exploration and exploitation• Creativity and context dependence

CHAPTER 9


Exhibit 9-3. Rules for Brainstorming

• Expressiveness• Nonevaluation• Quantity• Building

CHAPTER 9

Source: Adapted from Osborn, A. F. (1957). Applied imagination (rev. ed.). New York: Scribner.


Exhibit 9-4. Performance Data of Brainstorming and Solitary Groups

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Face-to-Face Brainstorming Group

Same Number of People Working Independently (Solitary Brainstorming)

Quantity: The number of ideas generated28 74.5

Quality: Percentage of “Good ideas” as judged by independent experts who did not know whose ideas they were evaluating 8.9% 12.7%

Source: Adapted from Diehl, M., & Stroebe, W. (1987). Productivity loss in brainstorming groups: Toward a solution of a riddle. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 53, 497–509.


Threats to Team Creativity

• Social loafing• Conformity• Production blocking• Performance matching

CHAPTER 9


CHAPTER 9

Enhancing Team Creativity

Cognitive-Goal instructions Social-Organizational suggestions

Structural-Environmental suggestions

• Set high goals• Explicit set of rules• Paulus’ new rules• Positive mood•

Increase individual accountability• Analogical reasoning

•Trained facilitators• Brainwriting• Brief breaks• Nominal group technique• Delphi technique• Stepladder technique

• Diversify the team• Membership change and rotation• Organizational networking• Build a playground


Advantages of Electronic Brainstorming

• Parallel entry of ideas• Anonymity• Size• Proximity• Memory• Refinement and evaluation of ideas• Equality

CHAPTER 9


Disadvantages of Electronic Brainstorming

• Small teams• Loss of social interaction• Loss of power• No credit

CHAPTER 9

ENT4050 Dynamic Organizing · DeDreu, C., & Weingart, L. (2003b). A contingency theory of task...

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