E N G L I S H T E A C H I N G F O R U M O C T O B E R 2 0 0 2 4746 O C T O B E R 2 0 0 2 E N G L I S H T E A C H I N G F O R U M

Renewable Energy When you plug an electrical appliance

into the wall socket, do you know whereyour electricity comes from? Probably the local public

utility company. But how does the utility company generate the electricity you

use at home? If it is like most power companies, it produces electrical power

by burning fossil fuels—coal, natural gas, or oil—to make steam, which turns

turbines to generate electricity at the power plant. To take one example of

dependence on these three types of fossil fuel, in the United States in 1988,

88 percent of all the electricity generated came from coal, natural gas, and oil.

They are non-renewable fuels, originating from organic matter of the late

Paleozoic Era (several hundred million years ago) and estimated by most sci-

entists to run out during this century. When coal, natural gas, and oil supplies

are depleted, how will people see to read at night? What will power their cars,

airplanes, buses, and trains? What will provide electricity for their computers

and factories? Fortunately, there are renewable, alternative sources of energy

for electricity and transportation that have well-developed technology.

When you plug an electrical applianceinto the wall socket, do you know whereyour electricity comes from? Probably the local public

utility company. But how does the utility company generate the electricity you

use at home? If it is like most power companies, it produces electrical power

by burning fossil fuels—coal, natural gas, or oil—to make steam, which turns

turbines to generate electricity at the power plant. To take one example of

dependence on these three types of fossil fuel, in the United States in 1988,

88 percent of all the electricity generated came from coal, natural gas, and oil.

They are non-renewable fuels, originating from organic matter of the late

Paleozoic Era (several hundred million years ago) and estimated by most sci-

entists to run out during this century. When coal, natural gas, and oil supplies

are depleted, how will people see to read at night? What will power their cars,

airplanes, buses, and trains? What will provide electricity for their computers

and factories? Fortunately, there are renewable, alternative sources of energy

for electricity and transportation that have well-developed technology.

Renewable Energy by Kent S. Markle

When you plug an electrical applianceinto the wall socket, do you know whereyour electricity comes from? Probably the local public

utility company. But how does the utility company generate the electricity you

use at home? If it is like most power companies, it produces electrical power

by burning fossil fuels—coal, natural gas, or oil—to make steam, which turns

turbines to generate electricity at the power plant. To take one example of

dependence on these three types of fossil fuel, in the United States in 1988,

88 percent of all the electricity generated came from coal, natural gas, and oil.

They are non-renewable fuels, originating from organic matter of the late

Paleozoic Era (several hundred million years ago) and estimated by most sci-

entists to run out during this century. When coal, natural gas, and oil supplies

are depleted, how will people see to read at night? What will power their cars,

airplanes, buses, and trains? What will provide electricity for their computers

and factories? Fortunately, there are renewable, alternative sources of energy

for electricity and transportation that have well-developed technology.

02-0246_46-53 10/28/02 1:51 PM Page 46

RECENT DEVELOPMENTSThe future is bright if new technologies in

alternative fuels are exploited wisely aroundthe world. Every country can meet the chal-lenging energy demands of the future ifnational and local governments dedicatethemselves to building power plants that usethese renewable energy sources. In the U.S.,following the creation of the Department ofEnergy in 1977, several important renewableenergy sources were developed for industrialand residential power. In 1980, a geothermalplant that generates 10 megawatts of electrici-ty was built in Brawley, California. Also inCalifornia in the early 1980s, more than15,000 large wind generators with a combinedcapacity of 1,300 megawatts were installednear Palm Springs. The first commercial syn-thetic gas plant began operation in the state ofNorth Dakota in 1983. After federal and statelaws were passed giving tax credits for renew-able energy users, manufacturing and ship-ments of solar panels increased by over 500percent between 1982 and 1996. Tougher pol-lution laws gave an extra incentive to producecleaner energy.

However, a drop in oil prices in the mid-1980s combined with government leadersmore friendly to oil and gas companies than toalternative energy development policies led tothe expiration of tax credits for solar collectorsand the shutdown of the two largest solar dishplants. Still, there were signs for hope. By

1990, over 100 landfill methane power plantswere in operation. Concerns about pollutionand global warming have given operators ofalternative energy plants added public support.

Let’s take a closer look at how variousrenewable energy technologies are being usedaround the world and how they might be usedmore widely.

SolarUltimately, almost all energy comes from

the sun. The energy stored in coal, oil, andnatural gas is the result of photosynthesis car-ried out by plants that lived hundreds of mil-lions of years ago. Wind energy is actually themovement of the atmosphere driven by theheat from the sun. Currently solar energy isused two ways: for heat (thermal) and to gen-erate electricity (photovoltaic). Solar rays canbe directly thermal in two ways: actively as canbe seen in the thousands of rooftop waterheaters throughout Italy and Greece, and pas-sively with proper design of homes and build-ings. Improvements in photovoltaic (or solarelectric) panels continue to make this technol-ogy more applicable, especially for developingcountries without widely established powergrids that transport electricity generated atlarge public utilities. Increased efficiency ofconverting sunlight to electricity, using thinfilm silicon panels or copper indium thin film,has been an ongoing goal of several manufac-turers of solar energy technology.

49

Some renewable energy sources are wellknown and already in wide use. For example,hydroelectric power is generated by water indams. In the U.S., hydroelectric power pro-vides 10 percent of all electricity. Other alter-native sources of energy are not well known tothe public or are still in the developmentalstages. The World Energy Council has identi-fied six sources of energy to pursue as alterna-tives to non-renewable fossil fuels:

Solar (energy from the sun’s rays)

Wind (energy from moving air)

Geothermal (energy from heat inside the earth)

Modern biomass (energy from plant andanimal residue)

Ocean (energy from seawater movementand temperature changes)

Small hydroelectric (energy from smalldams, such as those filled by melting snow)

It is worth pointing out why large hydro-electric (large dams that block rivers) andtraditional biomass (firewood and charcoal)were excluded from the Council’s focus. Thesetwo renewable sources of energy often causeenvironmental problems and other adverseeffects. Large hydroelectric projects usuallyrequire long planning and construction,which delays their benefit, and sometimesresults in social problems, such as displacementof people living near rivers that are dammed.Traditional biomass (burning trees) results inair pollution and deforestation. A combina-tion of these six other alternative sources ofenergy may prove to be our best hope to fillthe energy void created as supplies of fossilfuels gradually diminish.

HISTORYSince the early days of the Industrial Age,

industries and utility companies have relied ona variety of different sources of power. TheDanes were pioneers in wind-generated elec-tricity, building over 100 systems in 1890 tocapture the North Sea winds. Coal was thefuel of choice for steam-powered engines,which were widely used in manufacturing andtransportation. In fact, in the 1890s, more

electric- and steam-powered cars were soldthan those using gasoline. The world’s firstgeothermal electric plant was built in Italy in1904. Surprisingly, photovoltaic (solar) cellswere built as early as the 1880s, but it wasn’tuntil Bell Labs developed silicon cells in 1954that solar cells could be used efficiently. In1958, the Vanguard satellite was equippedwith solar photovoltaic cells. The world’s firstpower plant using the ocean’s tides was built inFrance in 1966.

The global energy situation began tochange significantly in the second half of thelast century. For example, in the U.S., from1950 to 1995, coal virtually disappeared as aheating source for homes. By 1995, natural gaswas used for heat in over 50 percent of U.S.homes, and electricity was used in 27 percentof them. In about the same time frame, percapita electricity consumption rose by over1,000 percent. Widespread ownership of ener-gy-hungry appliances such as air conditioners,refrigerators, and clothes dryers contributed tothis huge growth in energy consumption,while individual automobile ownership createda heavy demand for new petroleum supplies.By 1958, the U.S. had begun to consumemore fuel of various kinds than it produced.Oil prices per barrel rose from about $5 in the1960s to over $17 in October 1973, and fur-ther production limitations caused the price torise to about $34 in 1981.

By the mid-1980s, geologists and other scientists began to make predictions about howlong the world’s petroleum supplies wouldlast. By estimating future rates of oil consump-tion, then taking into account the amount ofproven petroleum reserves, they calculatedthat supplies could last between 50 and 100years longer. Of course, their calculations canvary depending on fluctuations in consump-tion and discoveries of new oil fields. Nuclearpower, which had once been the energy hopeof the future, no longer seemed so attractiveafter accidents at Three Mile Island in the U.S.in 1979 and Chernobyl in the Soviet Union in1986 changed the public’s perception of itssafety. France has continued to operate nuclearplants for 75 percent of its electricity, with agood safety record, however, other countrieshave scaled back plans for building nucleargenerating facilities, and the disposal of spentradioactive fuel remains a problem.

48 O C T O B E R 2 0 0 2 E N G L I S H T E A C H I N G F O R U M

Benefits of Renewable Energy Not Captured in Standard Economic Accounts

Social and economic development:Production of renewable energy, particularly biomass, can provide economic development and employment opportunities, especially in ruralareas, which tend to have limited opportunitiesfor economic growth. Renewable energy can thus help reduce poverty in rural areas andreduce pressures for urban migration.

Land restoration: Growing biomass for energy on degraded lands can provide theincentives and financing needed to restore lands rendered nearly useless by previous agriculturalor forestry practices. Although lands farmed forenergy would not be restored to their originalcondition, the recovery of these lands for bio-mass plantations would support rural develop-ment, prevent erosion, and provide a better habitat for wildlife than at present.

Reduced air pollution: Renewable energytechnologies, such as methanol or hydrogen forfuel-cell vehicles, produce virtually none of theemissions associated with urban air pollutionand acid deposition, without the need for costlyadditional controls.

Abatement of global warming: Renewableenergy use does not produce carbon dioxide andother greenhouse emissions that contribute toglobal warming. Even the use of biomass fuelswill not contribute to global warming: the carbondioxide released when biomass is burned equalsthe amount absorbed from the atmosphere byplants as they are grown for biomass fuel.

Fuel supply diversity: There would be sub-stantial interregional energy trade in a renew-able-intensive energy future, involving a diversityof energy carriers and suppliers. Energyimporters would be able to choose from amongmore producers and fuel types than they dotoday and thus would be less vulnerable tomonopoly price manipulation or unexpected dis-ruptions of supplies. Such competition wouldmake wide swings in energy prices less likely,leading eventually to stabilization of the world oilprice. The growth in world energy trade wouldalso provide new opportunities for energy suppli-ers. Especially promising are the prospects fortrade in alcohol fuels such as methanol derivedfrom biomass, natural gas (not a renewable fuelbut an important complement to renewables),and in the future, hydrogen.

Excerpted from Chapter 1 of Renewable Fuels andElectricity for a Growing World Economy, edited byJohansson, Kelly, Reddy and Williams, 1993,Island Press.

SOLAR

WIND

GEOTHERMAL

MODERN BIOMASS

OCEAN

SMALL HYDROELECTRIC

E N G L I S H T E A C H I N G F O R U M O C T O B E R 2 0 0 2

Opposite from the top left:A SOLAR POWERED ELECTRIC GENERATION FACILITY IN

BARSTOW, CA ©PhotoDisc

A WIND POWERED ELECTRIC GENERATION FACILITY OUT-SIDE OF PALM SPRINGS, CA ©PhotoDisc

A GEOTHERMAL ELECTRIC GENERATION FACILITY IN THE

MOUNTAINS OF CALIFORNIA ©AP/WideWorld Photo

A SUGARCANE CROP BEING GROWN FOR CONVERSION TO

ETHANOL AND OTHER TYPES OF BIOMASS. ©AP/Wide-

World Photo

AN INEXHAUSTIBLE SUPPLY OF ENERGY FROM OCEAN

WATER MOVEMENT AND TEMPERATURE CHANGES YET TO

BE DEVELOPED ©PhotoDisc

A SMALL HYDROELECTRIC FACILITY HARNESSES WATER

POWER WITHOUT THE SIGNIFICANT IMPACT ON THE SUR-ROUNDING ENVIRONMENT OF MAJOR DAMS ©PhotoDisc

Right:AN EXPERIMENTAL ARRAY OF SOLAR REFLECTORS

DESIGNED TO MAXIMIZE THE ENERGY FROM SUNLIGHT

THROUGHOUT THE DAY ©PhotoDisc

02-0246_46-53 10/28/02 1:26 PM Page 48

RECENT DEVELOPMENTSThe future is bright if new technologies in

alternative fuels are exploited wisely aroundthe world. Every country can meet the chal-lenging energy demands of the future ifnational and local governments dedicatethemselves to building power plants that usethese renewable energy sources. In the U.S.,following the creation of the Department ofEnergy in 1977, several important renewableenergy sources were developed for industrialand residential power. In 1980, a geothermalplant that generates 10 megawatts of electrici-ty was built in Brawley, California. Also inCalifornia in the early 1980s, more than15,000 large wind generators with a combinedcapacity of 1,300 megawatts were installednear Palm Springs. The first commercial syn-thetic gas plant began operation in the state ofNorth Dakota in 1983. After federal and statelaws were passed giving tax credits for renew-able energy users, manufacturing and ship-ments of solar panels increased by over 500percent between 1982 and 1996. Tougher pol-lution laws gave an extra incentive to producecleaner energy.

However, a drop in oil prices in the mid-1980s combined with government leadersmore friendly to oil and gas companies than toalternative energy development policies led tothe expiration of tax credits for solar collectorsand the shutdown of the two largest solar dishplants. Still, there were signs for hope. By

1990, over 100 landfill methane power plantswere in operation. Concerns about pollutionand global warming have given operators ofalternative energy plants added public support.

Let’s take a closer look at how variousrenewable energy technologies are being usedaround the world and how they might be usedmore widely.

SolarUltimately, almost all energy comes from

the sun. The energy stored in coal, oil, andnatural gas is the result of photosynthesis car-ried out by plants that lived hundreds of mil-lions of years ago. Wind energy is actually themovement of the atmosphere driven by theheat from the sun. Currently solar energy isused two ways: for heat (thermal) and to gen-erate electricity (photovoltaic). Solar rays canbe directly thermal in two ways: actively as canbe seen in the thousands of rooftop waterheaters throughout Italy and Greece, and pas-sively with proper design of homes and build-ings. Improvements in photovoltaic (or solarelectric) panels continue to make this technol-ogy more applicable, especially for developingcountries without widely established powergrids that transport electricity generated atlarge public utilities. Increased efficiency ofconverting sunlight to electricity, using thinfilm silicon panels or copper indium thin film,has been an ongoing goal of several manufac-turers of solar energy technology.

49

Some renewable energy sources are wellknown and already in wide use. For example,hydroelectric power is generated by water indams. In the U.S., hydroelectric power pro-vides 10 percent of all electricity. Other alter-native sources of energy are not well known tothe public or are still in the developmentalstages. The World Energy Council has identi-fied six sources of energy to pursue as alterna-tives to non-renewable fossil fuels:

Solar (energy from the sun’s rays)

Wind (energy from moving air)

Geothermal (energy from heat inside the earth)

Modern biomass (energy from plant andanimal residue)

Ocean (energy from seawater movementand temperature changes)

Small hydroelectric (energy from smalldams, such as those filled by melting snow)

It is worth pointing out why large hydro-electric (large dams that block rivers) andtraditional biomass (firewood and charcoal)were excluded from the Council’s focus. Thesetwo renewable sources of energy often causeenvironmental problems and other adverseeffects. Large hydroelectric projects usuallyrequire long planning and construction,which delays their benefit, and sometimesresults in social problems, such as displacementof people living near rivers that are dammed.Traditional biomass (burning trees) results inair pollution and deforestation. A combina-tion of these six other alternative sources ofenergy may prove to be our best hope to fillthe energy void created as supplies of fossilfuels gradually diminish.

HISTORYSince the early days of the Industrial Age,

industries and utility companies have relied ona variety of different sources of power. TheDanes were pioneers in wind-generated elec-tricity, building over 100 systems in 1890 tocapture the North Sea winds. Coal was thefuel of choice for steam-powered engines,which were widely used in manufacturing andtransportation. In fact, in the 1890s, more

electric- and steam-powered cars were soldthan those using gasoline. The world’s firstgeothermal electric plant was built in Italy in1904. Surprisingly, photovoltaic (solar) cellswere built as early as the 1880s, but it wasn’tuntil Bell Labs developed silicon cells in 1954that solar cells could be used efficiently. In1958, the Vanguard satellite was equippedwith solar photovoltaic cells. The world’s firstpower plant using the ocean’s tides was built inFrance in 1966.

The global energy situation began tochange significantly in the second half of thelast century. For example, in the U.S., from1950 to 1995, coal virtually disappeared as aheating source for homes. By 1995, natural gaswas used for heat in over 50 percent of U.S.homes, and electricity was used in 27 percentof them. In about the same time frame, percapita electricity consumption rose by over1,000 percent. Widespread ownership of ener-gy-hungry appliances such as air conditioners,refrigerators, and clothes dryers contributed tothis huge growth in energy consumption,while individual automobile ownership createda heavy demand for new petroleum supplies.By 1958, the U.S. had begun to consumemore fuel of various kinds than it produced.Oil prices per barrel rose from about $5 in the1960s to over $17 in October 1973, and fur-ther production limitations caused the price torise to about $34 in 1981.

By the mid-1980s, geologists and other scientists began to make predictions about howlong the world’s petroleum supplies wouldlast. By estimating future rates of oil consump-tion, then taking into account the amount ofproven petroleum reserves, they calculatedthat supplies could last between 50 and 100years longer. Of course, their calculations canvary depending on fluctuations in consump-tion and discoveries of new oil fields. Nuclearpower, which had once been the energy hopeof the future, no longer seemed so attractiveafter accidents at Three Mile Island in the U.S.in 1979 and Chernobyl in the Soviet Union in1986 changed the public’s perception of itssafety. France has continued to operate nuclearplants for 75 percent of its electricity, with agood safety record, however, other countrieshave scaled back plans for building nucleargenerating facilities, and the disposal of spentradioactive fuel remains a problem.

48 O C T O B E R 2 0 0 2 E N G L I S H T E A C H I N G F O R U M

Benefits of Renewable Energy Not Captured in Standard Economic Accounts

Social and economic development:Production of renewable energy, particularly biomass, can provide economic development and employment opportunities, especially in ruralareas, which tend to have limited opportunitiesfor economic growth. Renewable energy can thus help reduce poverty in rural areas andreduce pressures for urban migration.

Land restoration: Growing biomass for energy on degraded lands can provide theincentives and financing needed to restore lands rendered nearly useless by previous agriculturalor forestry practices. Although lands farmed forenergy would not be restored to their originalcondition, the recovery of these lands for bio-mass plantations would support rural develop-ment, prevent erosion, and provide a better habitat for wildlife than at present.

Reduced air pollution: Renewable energytechnologies, such as methanol or hydrogen forfuel-cell vehicles, produce virtually none of theemissions associated with urban air pollutionand acid deposition, without the need for costlyadditional controls.

Abatement of global warming: Renewableenergy use does not produce carbon dioxide andother greenhouse emissions that contribute toglobal warming. Even the use of biomass fuelswill not contribute to global warming: the carbondioxide released when biomass is burned equalsthe amount absorbed from the atmosphere byplants as they are grown for biomass fuel.

Fuel supply diversity: There would be sub-stantial interregional energy trade in a renew-able-intensive energy future, involving a diversityof energy carriers and suppliers. Energyimporters would be able to choose from amongmore producers and fuel types than they dotoday and thus would be less vulnerable tomonopoly price manipulation or unexpected dis-ruptions of supplies. Such competition wouldmake wide swings in energy prices less likely,leading eventually to stabilization of the world oilprice. The growth in world energy trade wouldalso provide new opportunities for energy suppli-ers. Especially promising are the prospects fortrade in alcohol fuels such as methanol derivedfrom biomass, natural gas (not a renewable fuelbut an important complement to renewables),and in the future, hydrogen.

Excerpted from Chapter 1 of Renewable Fuels andElectricity for a Growing World Economy, edited byJohansson, Kelly, Reddy and Williams, 1993,Island Press.

SOLAR

WIND

GEOTHERMAL

MODERN BIOMASS

OCEAN

SMALL HYDROELECTRIC

E N G L I S H T E A C H I N G F O R U M O C T O B E R 2 0 0 2

Opposite from the top left:A SOLAR POWERED ELECTRIC GENERATION FACILITY IN

BARSTOW, CA ©PhotoDisc

A WIND POWERED ELECTRIC GENERATION FACILITY OUT-SIDE OF PALM SPRINGS, CA ©PhotoDisc

A GEOTHERMAL ELECTRIC GENERATION FACILITY IN THE

MOUNTAINS OF CALIFORNIA ©AP/WideWorld Photo

A SUGARCANE CROP BEING GROWN FOR CONVERSION TO

ETHANOL AND OTHER TYPES OF BIOMASS. ©AP/Wide-

World Photo

AN INEXHAUSTIBLE SUPPLY OF ENERGY FROM OCEAN

WATER MOVEMENT AND TEMPERATURE CHANGES YET TO

BE DEVELOPED ©PhotoDisc

A SMALL HYDROELECTRIC FACILITY HARNESSES WATER

POWER WITHOUT THE SIGNIFICANT IMPACT ON THE SUR-ROUNDING ENVIRONMENT OF MAJOR DAMS ©PhotoDisc

Right:AN EXPERIMENTAL ARRAY OF SOLAR REFLECTORS

DESIGNED TO MAXIMIZE THE ENERGY FROM SUNLIGHT

THROUGHOUT THE DAY ©PhotoDisc

02-0246_46-53 10/28/02 1:26 PM Page 48

Small HydroelectricThe high capital cost and environmental

and social impact of large hydroelectric powerplants (large dams) have made small hydro-electric power (SHP) an attractive alternativein recent years. Rather than building hugedams with lakes behind them that submergeentire towns or beautiful rivers and canyons,some countries have opted to generate elec-tricity using small hydroelectric power plants.Switzerland has used the power of meltingsnow running off the Alps for years. Accordingto a UNESCO survey conducted in China,about 800 of its 2,300 counties can be electri-fied using SHP and the government is givingpreferential loans and tax exemptions to SHPdevelopers.

Other countries are giving assistance forthe development of small hydroelectric power.In Nepal, the government is providing loansand materials to SHP equipment manufacturers,and in Pakistan, the Ministry of Science andTechnology has subsidized SHP construction.Similar efforts are occurring in the Andeanregion of Latin America and in Canada. All ofthese places are especially suited for smallhydroelectric power generation because theyhave high mountain ranges. As the engineer-ing and equipment required for SHP becomemore widespread, other countries with moun-tains and rivers should be able to take advan-tage of this clean source of electricity.

WindThe use of wind energy is growing faster

than any other type of renewable energybecause of improvements in wind turbinetechnology over the past 20 years. The bestlocations for wind as an energy source arecoasts, mountains, and plains. Like solar rays,wind is also a form of intermittent renewableenergy, available only about 30 percent of thetime. Often, when the sun isn’t shining, thewind is blowing, so many users rely on windturbines to complement solar panels.

Most of the world’s wind generation capac-ity is located in the United States, Denmark(the pioneer in wind generation), the Nether-lands (famous for its use of windmills), Ger-many, and India. While wind generation ofelectricity is clean, some disadvantages includethe noise of the blades of windmills and theappearance. A large wind farm on a hillside isclearly visible, in the same way that largearrays of solar panels are. People who rely onwind-generated electricity, however, may notmind the view of clean energy being created.

E N G L I S H T E A C H I N G F O R U M O C T O B E R 2 0 0 2 51

As technology has improved, the cost ofusing solar energy has dropped. In 1996, theaverage price of solar panels was one-tenthwhat it was in 1975. However, one concernabout widespread use of solar panels to gener-ate the large amounts of electricity needed forindustries and cities is the environmentalimpact—they take up a lot of space and arehighly visible. But this is an acceptable trade-off because solar energy is totally clean andpanels have a long lifespan. Panels are also easyto maintain for there are no moving parts,only moving electrons!

A more serious concern for widespread useis that solar energy is an intermittent energysource, as are wind and tides. Therefore, stor-age of excess energy or backup sources of energy are needed for times when there is notadequate sunshine for the panels to functionefficiently. Improved battery technology has

made use of photovoltaic panels easier forusers in remote areas who live “off the grid” ofthe public utility company and need to storeexcess power. In some areas, users of solarpanels who are connected to the grid may sellback any surplus power to the public utilitycompany.

Development of thin film technology hasmade solar power viable for use in some formsof transportation (see Prospects for Trans-portation below). For all its advantages, how-ever, solar power remains the least used of themain alternative energy sources.

Modern Biomass Biomass simply means fuel produced from

organic sources. Traditional biomass such aswood, charcoal, and other plant matter hasbeen the fuel of choice for thousands of years,and it remains so in many parts of the world.Modern biomass, however, includes othertypes of fuel derived from plants, such as theresidues of existing agricultural, livestock, andlumber industries, from forests planted andharvested renewably, and from farms dedi-cated to this purpose.

Biomass needs to be produced on a sus-tainable basis, whether on deforested lands oron excess agricultural land, and never fromvirgin forests. Some of the most suitable loca-tions are areas where widespread deforestationhas already occurred, but there are still otherpossible sources of biomass. For example,residues from the processing of pulpwood,cereals, and logging operations can be processedinto gas or burned in power plants to generateelectricity. Methane from urban landfills andfrom animal and human wastes is anotherpotential type of fuel derived from biomass,although the derivation of fuels from landfillsrequires the labor-intensive separation of vari-ous materials.

As an alternative to non-renewable energysources, modern biomass may have the great-est potential for growth, especially in trans-portation and powering vehicles. For example,Brazil has been a leading nation in the use ofethanol (alcohol-based fuel) for automobiles.It is derived from sugar cane and grains grownspecifically to produce ethanol. Biomass alsolooks promising as a fuel source for electricityif it is burned in small, local power stations.

50 O C T O B E R 2 0 0 2 E N G L I S H T E A C H I N G F O R U M

W e b S i t e s o f I n t e r e s t

World Energy Councilhttp://www.worldenergy.org/

This Web site contains information on the Council’s

Energy Data Center, events, and publications. A

well-organized site, it includes sections on energy

resources and technology, markets in transition,

worldwide reserves, and production and consump-

tion of both fossil and renewable fuels.

World Council for Renewable Energyhttp://www.world-council-for-renewable-energy.org/

This Web site includes information on another

energy council and its publications, including an

easy-to-download action plan for the proliferation

of renewable energy and the formation of the

Group of Renewable and Efficient Energy Nations

(Green Nations).

Energy Information Administrationhttp://www.eia.doe.gov/

The EIA’s site includes data on production, prices,

and consumption of petroleum, coal, and renewable

and alternative fuels. It includes a twice-weekly

“World Energy Update” and also has dozens of

informative tables and graphs on specific renewable

energy topics.

Energy Efficiency and RenewableEnergy Network

http://www.eren.doe.gov/

EREN describes its site as a comprehensive

resource for the U.S. Department of Energy on

energy efficiency and renewable energy informa-

tion. It features access to more than 600 links and

80,000 documents, and sections on efficient tech-

nologies and renewable energy sources, including

hydrogen, ocean, wind, geothermal, hydropower,

and solar.

Center for Renewable Energy and Sustainable Technology

http://www.crest.org/index.html/

In conjunction with the Renewable Energy Policy

Project, CREST reports on energy issues, works to

improve energy policy, and studies the job creation

potential of renewable energy.

Chelsea Green

http://www,chelseagreen.com/

This Web site of the largest publishers of books on

sustainable living lists many books and has 332

links to other useful Web sites.

Opposite from top:GENERATORS INSIDE A HYDROELECTRIC PLANT

©PhotoDisc

LIVESTOCK’S INDIFFERENCE TO WIND POW-ERED ELECTRIC GENERATORS ALLOWS FOR THE

MULTIPLE USE OF LAND ©PhotoDisc

Below:AN OHIO STATE OFFICIAL FILLS UP WITH

ETHANOL IN A STATE OWNED VEHICLE THAT

HAS BEEN FITTED WITH SPECIAL CYLINDER

HEADS AND FUEL INJECTORS TO RUN ON

ETHANOL, GASOLINE, OR ANY COMBINATION OF

THE TWO FUELS. ©AP/WideWorld Photo

02-0246_46-53 10/28/02 1:27 PM Page 50

Small HydroelectricThe high capital cost and environmental

and social impact of large hydroelectric powerplants (large dams) have made small hydro-electric power (SHP) an attractive alternativein recent years. Rather than building hugedams with lakes behind them that submergeentire towns or beautiful rivers and canyons,some countries have opted to generate elec-tricity using small hydroelectric power plants.Switzerland has used the power of meltingsnow running off the Alps for years. Accordingto a UNESCO survey conducted in China,about 800 of its 2,300 counties can be electri-fied using SHP and the government is givingpreferential loans and tax exemptions to SHPdevelopers.

Other countries are giving assistance forthe development of small hydroelectric power.In Nepal, the government is providing loansand materials to SHP equipment manufacturers,and in Pakistan, the Ministry of Science andTechnology has subsidized SHP construction.Similar efforts are occurring in the Andeanregion of Latin America and in Canada. All ofthese places are especially suited for smallhydroelectric power generation because theyhave high mountain ranges. As the engineer-ing and equipment required for SHP becomemore widespread, other countries with moun-tains and rivers should be able to take advan-tage of this clean source of electricity.

WindThe use of wind energy is growing faster

than any other type of renewable energybecause of improvements in wind turbinetechnology over the past 20 years. The bestlocations for wind as an energy source arecoasts, mountains, and plains. Like solar rays,wind is also a form of intermittent renewableenergy, available only about 30 percent of thetime. Often, when the sun isn’t shining, thewind is blowing, so many users rely on windturbines to complement solar panels.

Most of the world’s wind generation capac-ity is located in the United States, Denmark(the pioneer in wind generation), the Nether-lands (famous for its use of windmills), Ger-many, and India. While wind generation ofelectricity is clean, some disadvantages includethe noise of the blades of windmills and theappearance. A large wind farm on a hillside isclearly visible, in the same way that largearrays of solar panels are. People who rely onwind-generated electricity, however, may notmind the view of clean energy being created.

E N G L I S H T E A C H I N G F O R U M O C T O B E R 2 0 0 2 51

As technology has improved, the cost ofusing solar energy has dropped. In 1996, theaverage price of solar panels was one-tenthwhat it was in 1975. However, one concernabout widespread use of solar panels to gener-ate the large amounts of electricity needed forindustries and cities is the environmentalimpact—they take up a lot of space and arehighly visible. But this is an acceptable trade-off because solar energy is totally clean andpanels have a long lifespan. Panels are also easyto maintain for there are no moving parts,only moving electrons!

A more serious concern for widespread useis that solar energy is an intermittent energysource, as are wind and tides. Therefore, stor-age of excess energy or backup sources of energy are needed for times when there is notadequate sunshine for the panels to functionefficiently. Improved battery technology has

made use of photovoltaic panels easier forusers in remote areas who live “off the grid” ofthe public utility company and need to storeexcess power. In some areas, users of solarpanels who are connected to the grid may sellback any surplus power to the public utilitycompany.

Development of thin film technology hasmade solar power viable for use in some formsof transportation (see Prospects for Trans-portation below). For all its advantages, how-ever, solar power remains the least used of themain alternative energy sources.

Modern Biomass Biomass simply means fuel produced from

organic sources. Traditional biomass such aswood, charcoal, and other plant matter hasbeen the fuel of choice for thousands of years,and it remains so in many parts of the world.Modern biomass, however, includes othertypes of fuel derived from plants, such as theresidues of existing agricultural, livestock, andlumber industries, from forests planted andharvested renewably, and from farms dedi-cated to this purpose.

Biomass needs to be produced on a sus-tainable basis, whether on deforested lands oron excess agricultural land, and never fromvirgin forests. Some of the most suitable loca-tions are areas where widespread deforestationhas already occurred, but there are still otherpossible sources of biomass. For example,residues from the processing of pulpwood,cereals, and logging operations can be processedinto gas or burned in power plants to generateelectricity. Methane from urban landfills andfrom animal and human wastes is anotherpotential type of fuel derived from biomass,although the derivation of fuels from landfillsrequires the labor-intensive separation of vari-ous materials.

As an alternative to non-renewable energysources, modern biomass may have the great-est potential for growth, especially in trans-portation and powering vehicles. For example,Brazil has been a leading nation in the use ofethanol (alcohol-based fuel) for automobiles.It is derived from sugar cane and grains grownspecifically to produce ethanol. Biomass alsolooks promising as a fuel source for electricityif it is burned in small, local power stations.

50 O C T O B E R 2 0 0 2 E N G L I S H T E A C H I N G F O R U M

W e b S i t e s o f I n t e r e s t

World Energy Councilhttp://www.worldenergy.org/

This Web site contains information on the Council’s

Energy Data Center, events, and publications. A

well-organized site, it includes sections on energy

resources and technology, markets in transition,

worldwide reserves, and production and consump-

tion of both fossil and renewable fuels.

World Council for Renewable Energyhttp://www.world-council-for-renewable-energy.org/

This Web site includes information on another

energy council and its publications, including an

easy-to-download action plan for the proliferation

of renewable energy and the formation of the

Group of Renewable and Efficient Energy Nations

(Green Nations).

Energy Information Administrationhttp://www.eia.doe.gov/

The EIA’s site includes data on production, prices,

and consumption of petroleum, coal, and renewable

and alternative fuels. It includes a twice-weekly

“World Energy Update” and also has dozens of

informative tables and graphs on specific renewable

energy topics.

Energy Efficiency and RenewableEnergy Network

http://www.eren.doe.gov/

EREN describes its site as a comprehensive

resource for the U.S. Department of Energy on

energy efficiency and renewable energy informa-

tion. It features access to more than 600 links and

80,000 documents, and sections on efficient tech-

nologies and renewable energy sources, including

hydrogen, ocean, wind, geothermal, hydropower,

and solar.

Center for Renewable Energy and Sustainable Technology

http://www.crest.org/index.html/

In conjunction with the Renewable Energy Policy

Project, CREST reports on energy issues, works to

improve energy policy, and studies the job creation

potential of renewable energy.

Chelsea Green

http://www,chelseagreen.com/

This Web site of the largest publishers of books on

sustainable living lists many books and has 332

links to other useful Web sites.

Opposite from top:GENERATORS INSIDE A HYDROELECTRIC PLANT

©PhotoDisc

LIVESTOCK’S INDIFFERENCE TO WIND POW-ERED ELECTRIC GENERATORS ALLOWS FOR THE

MULTIPLE USE OF LAND ©PhotoDisc

Below:AN OHIO STATE OFFICIAL FILLS UP WITH

ETHANOL IN A STATE OWNED VEHICLE THAT

HAS BEEN FITTED WITH SPECIAL CYLINDER

HEADS AND FUEL INJECTORS TO RUN ON

ETHANOL, GASOLINE, OR ANY COMBINATION OF

THE TWO FUELS. ©AP/WideWorld Photo

02-0246_46-53 10/28/02 1:27 PM Page 50

Geothermal Geothermal energy, or heat from the earth

in the form of steam, has been used for manyyears for heating buildings. Geothermal ener-gy is renewable only if the water that bringsthe heat to the surface as steam is replenished.A recent application of geothermal heating isin greenhouses. For example, a large flower-growing operation in the state of New Mexicouses geothermal energy to heat over tenhectares of greenhouses in the winter so thatroses will be available for sale during majorholidays in February (Valentine’s Day), Marchor April (Easter), and May (Mother’s Day).

In addition to heating, geothermal electri-cal generating facilities have been installed inover 20 countries and the potential for manymore exists worldwide.

OceanThe sea could provide an abundant supply

of renewable energy, but the large engineeringchallenges and negative effects on the ecologyof coastal areas have limited its use. Thermalgradients, or currents caused by varying tem-peratures in the water, have the greatest poten-tial as a source of renewable energy, especiallyin tropical areas. Large heat exchangers arerequired to capture the energy of thermal gra-dients. Tidal energy has the widest presentapplication, because it uses dams and turbinessimilar to those now in use for hydroelectricpower plants. The constant movement of thewaves is the third possible form of energy fromthe ocean. Ocean energy has vast promise forthe future but will need financial supportfrom governments and cooperation betweenneighboring countries to handle the large startup costs and to overcome the negative envi-ronmental impact on bays, marshes, beaches,and marine animals.

PROSPECTS FORTRANSPORTATION

Most present forms of transportation runon fossil fuels, in particular petroleum-basedfuels. Most automobiles burn gasoline, com-mercial airplanes burn jet fuel, and most largetrucks and trains burn diesel fuel. How willthis huge sector of global transportation pro-pel itself when petroleum reserves run out?What about the other uses of oil? More thanone petrochemical engineer has observed thatpetroleum is far too useful a substance to bewasted on transportation needs, which can bemet using other sources of energy. Manychemical compounds and plastics, however,can be manufactured only from petroleum.

Support for alternative transportationmodes as a way to reduce reliance on fossilfuels is growing. The Race Across Australia, inwhich solar-powered cars cruise in excess of 80kph (50 mph), has provided an incentive todesigners to develop improved engineeringtechniques. Already electric cars, actuallyhybrid vehicles that combine gasoline enginesand electric motors, are being manufacturedand marketed by Toyota and Honda.Improvements in battery technology, makingthem lighter and more efficient, will help

52

R e f e r e n c e sBerenstein, P. 2001. Alternative energy:

Facts, statistics and issues. Westport, CT:Oryx Press.

Johannson, T., H. Kelly, K. Amulya, R.Williams, and L. Burnham, 1993.Renewable energy, sources for fuels, and electricity. Washington, D.C.:Island Press.

Potts, M. 1996. The new independenthome: People and houses that harvestthe sun, wind and water. Ukiah, CA:Real Goods Publishing.

Tong, J.D. 1996. UNESCO energy engi-neering series: Hydroelectric powerplants, renewable energy sources andwater supply management. Chichester,U.K.:Wiley.

World Energy Council. 1994. New renew-able energy resources: A guide to thefuture. London: Kogan Page.

KENT S. MARKLE taught English andESP in Saudi Arabia at Aramco andKing Fahd University of Petroleumand Minerals. Currently he lives insouthern Arizona, USA, where hehas been getting his electricity fromthe sun since 1992.

G l o s s a r ybiomass (bio=life) fuel produced from living organ-isms, e.g. plant matter or methane

der ivat ion taking from, e.g. the derivation of fuelsfrom landfills

emissions materials or radiation given off, e.g. airpollution emissions

fac i l i t ies buildings and factories, e.g. electricitygenerating facilities

f luctuat ions changes or variations, e.g. seasonalfluctuations in heating oil use

foss i l fuels fuels created at the same time asthe fossils around them, about 230 to 180 millionyears ago, e.g. coal, oil and natural gas, also knownas “non-renewable” fuels

geothermal (geo=earth, therm=heat) heat fromthe earthgr id the network of electric power supply lines

hydroelectr ic (hydro=water) electricity fromwater

incent ive a reason to do something, e.g. moneyor laws

in termit tent part-time, on and off, e.g. solar andwind energy

photovol ta ic (photo=light, volt=electricity) elec-tricity from sunlight, e.g. photovoltaic (solar) panels

renewable something we can grow or collectmore of, e.g. wood or sunlight

replenish to replace or put back, e.g. replenishthe water in geothermal reservoirs

res idue that which remains, leftovers, e.g. theresidue from logging operations is small bits ofwood, branches and twigs, and sawdust

viable practical or able to be done, e.g. solarpower is viable for most desert regions

make electric cars more attractive to the pub-lic. Certainly, electric buses and streetcars,which used to be common in many cities ofthe world, may need to be reintroduced. Ofcourse, this suggests that more people willneed to use public transportation, especially incountries where there is an overreliance, eveninfatuation, with private cars, such as theUnited States. Increased use of electric vehicleswill require generating more electricity, whichcan be done using renewable fuels, thus help-ing to reduce consumption of fossil fuels andat the same time reducing the air and noisepollution caused by internal combustion(gasoline and diesel) engines.

WHERE DO WE GOFROM HERE?

What will it take for renewable energysources to be exploited on a wider basis? Inter-national cooperation, through such organiza-tions as the World Energy Council, is neededto coordinate policy planning, research anddevelopment, and economic assistance efforts.Also, changes are needed in the way that elec-tric utility companies, petroleum companies,and automobile manufacturers operate.

Electric utility companies need to act asenergy distributors as much as producers. Theycan integrate new renewable energy technolo-gies into existing grids and ensure that newequipment is properly designed and efficientlyconnected. Large oil companies could also actas brokers for renewable fuels from diversemarkets, for example, by helping to start bio-mass plantations on deforested or overgrazedlands in countries where they currently drill foroil. These international corporations couldbenefit local communities by providing jobs,engineering skills in chemical processing, andcapital in exchange for the product they wouldmarket. Automobile manufacturers will needto make changes in existing practices byincreasing their support for research and devel-opment of alternatives to gasoline cars and bymaking a genuine commitment to designchanges to improve fuel efficiency.

Other renewable sources of energy, such ashydrogen-powered cars, are not yet sufficient-ly developed to meet the growing worlddemand for energy. But clearly, the produc-tion of vast amounts of energy using technol-ogy that exploits renewable sources will beneeded as the world enters the inevitable post-fossil fuel future.

E N G L I S H T E A C H I N G F O R U M O C T O B E R 2 0 0 2O C T O B E R 2 0 0 2 E N G L I S H T E A C H I N G F O R U M 53

Above:TURBINES CONVERT THE GEOTHERMAL STEAM

(176º C/350º F) INTO MECHANICAL ENERGY

TO DRIVE ELECTRIC GENERATORS IN THIS

POWER GENERATION FACILITY IN THE

CALPINE SONOMA REGION OF CALIFORNIA.©AP/WideWorld Photo

Opposite from top:PHOTOVOLTAIC PANELS PROVIDE NOT ONLY

POWER BUT SHADE FOR PASSENGERS ON THIS

UNIQUE SOLAR AND WIND POWERED BOAT,THE SOLAR SAILOR, IN SYDNEY, AUSTRALIA.IT ALSO HAS A PROPANE POWERED BACK-UP

GENERATOR. ©AP/WideWorld Photo

SUNSWIFT II, AN ENTRY BY THE UNIVERSITY

OF SOUTH WALES, IS SEEN HERE IN TRAFFIC

WITH CONVENTIONAL INTERNAL COMBUSTION

ENGINE CARS AS IT ATTEMPTS A RECORD FOR

3,010 KILOMETERS (1,870 MILES) ACROSS

AUSTRALIA FROM DARWIN TO ADELAIDE IN

THE WORLD SOLAR CHALLENGE CAR RACE. TO

CROSS THE CONTINENT IN LESS THAN A WEEK,SOLAR POWERED VEHICLES MUST AVERAGE A

SPEED OF 91 KPH (55 MPH). ©AP/Wide-

World Photo

02-0246_46-53 10/28/02 1:27 PM Page 52

Geothermal Geothermal energy, or heat from the earth

in the form of steam, has been used for manyyears for heating buildings. Geothermal ener-gy is renewable only if the water that bringsthe heat to the surface as steam is replenished.A recent application of geothermal heating isin greenhouses. For example, a large flower-growing operation in the state of New Mexicouses geothermal energy to heat over tenhectares of greenhouses in the winter so thatroses will be available for sale during majorholidays in February (Valentine’s Day), Marchor April (Easter), and May (Mother’s Day).

In addition to heating, geothermal electri-cal generating facilities have been installed inover 20 countries and the potential for manymore exists worldwide.

OceanThe sea could provide an abundant supply

of renewable energy, but the large engineeringchallenges and negative effects on the ecologyof coastal areas have limited its use. Thermalgradients, or currents caused by varying tem-peratures in the water, have the greatest poten-tial as a source of renewable energy, especiallyin tropical areas. Large heat exchangers arerequired to capture the energy of thermal gra-dients. Tidal energy has the widest presentapplication, because it uses dams and turbinessimilar to those now in use for hydroelectricpower plants. The constant movement of thewaves is the third possible form of energy fromthe ocean. Ocean energy has vast promise forthe future but will need financial supportfrom governments and cooperation betweenneighboring countries to handle the large startup costs and to overcome the negative envi-ronmental impact on bays, marshes, beaches,and marine animals.

PROSPECTS FORTRANSPORTATION

Most present forms of transportation runon fossil fuels, in particular petroleum-basedfuels. Most automobiles burn gasoline, com-mercial airplanes burn jet fuel, and most largetrucks and trains burn diesel fuel. How willthis huge sector of global transportation pro-pel itself when petroleum reserves run out?What about the other uses of oil? More thanone petrochemical engineer has observed thatpetroleum is far too useful a substance to bewasted on transportation needs, which can bemet using other sources of energy. Manychemical compounds and plastics, however,can be manufactured only from petroleum.

Support for alternative transportationmodes as a way to reduce reliance on fossilfuels is growing. The Race Across Australia, inwhich solar-powered cars cruise in excess of 80kph (50 mph), has provided an incentive todesigners to develop improved engineeringtechniques. Already electric cars, actuallyhybrid vehicles that combine gasoline enginesand electric motors, are being manufacturedand marketed by Toyota and Honda.Improvements in battery technology, makingthem lighter and more efficient, will help

52

R e f e r e n c e sBerenstein, P. 2001. Alternative energy:

Facts, statistics and issues. Westport, CT:Oryx Press.

Johannson, T., H. Kelly, K. Amulya, R.Williams, and L. Burnham, 1993.Renewable energy, sources for fuels, and electricity. Washington, D.C.:Island Press.

Potts, M. 1996. The new independenthome: People and houses that harvestthe sun, wind and water. Ukiah, CA:Real Goods Publishing.

Tong, J.D. 1996. UNESCO energy engi-neering series: Hydroelectric powerplants, renewable energy sources andwater supply management. Chichester,U.K.:Wiley.

World Energy Council. 1994. New renew-able energy resources: A guide to thefuture. London: Kogan Page.

KENT S. MARKLE taught English andESP in Saudi Arabia at Aramco andKing Fahd University of Petroleumand Minerals. Currently he lives insouthern Arizona, USA, where hehas been getting his electricity fromthe sun since 1992.

G l o s s a r ybiomass (bio=life) fuel produced from living organ-isms, e.g. plant matter or methane

der ivat ion taking from, e.g. the derivation of fuelsfrom landfills

emissions materials or radiation given off, e.g. airpollution emissions

fac i l i t ies buildings and factories, e.g. electricitygenerating facilities

f luctuat ions changes or variations, e.g. seasonalfluctuations in heating oil use

foss i l fuels fuels created at the same time asthe fossils around them, about 230 to 180 millionyears ago, e.g. coal, oil and natural gas, also knownas “non-renewable” fuels

geothermal (geo=earth, therm=heat) heat fromthe earthgr id the network of electric power supply lines

hydroelectr ic (hydro=water) electricity fromwater

incent ive a reason to do something, e.g. moneyor laws

in termit tent part-time, on and off, e.g. solar andwind energy

photovol ta ic (photo=light, volt=electricity) elec-tricity from sunlight, e.g. photovoltaic (solar) panels

renewable something we can grow or collectmore of, e.g. wood or sunlight

replenish to replace or put back, e.g. replenishthe water in geothermal reservoirs

res idue that which remains, leftovers, e.g. theresidue from logging operations is small bits ofwood, branches and twigs, and sawdust

viable practical or able to be done, e.g. solarpower is viable for most desert regions

make electric cars more attractive to the pub-lic. Certainly, electric buses and streetcars,which used to be common in many cities ofthe world, may need to be reintroduced. Ofcourse, this suggests that more people willneed to use public transportation, especially incountries where there is an overreliance, eveninfatuation, with private cars, such as theUnited States. Increased use of electric vehicleswill require generating more electricity, whichcan be done using renewable fuels, thus help-ing to reduce consumption of fossil fuels andat the same time reducing the air and noisepollution caused by internal combustion(gasoline and diesel) engines.

WHERE DO WE GOFROM HERE?

What will it take for renewable energysources to be exploited on a wider basis? Inter-national cooperation, through such organiza-tions as the World Energy Council, is neededto coordinate policy planning, research anddevelopment, and economic assistance efforts.Also, changes are needed in the way that elec-tric utility companies, petroleum companies,and automobile manufacturers operate.

Electric utility companies need to act asenergy distributors as much as producers. Theycan integrate new renewable energy technolo-gies into existing grids and ensure that newequipment is properly designed and efficientlyconnected. Large oil companies could also actas brokers for renewable fuels from diversemarkets, for example, by helping to start bio-mass plantations on deforested or overgrazedlands in countries where they currently drill foroil. These international corporations couldbenefit local communities by providing jobs,engineering skills in chemical processing, andcapital in exchange for the product they wouldmarket. Automobile manufacturers will needto make changes in existing practices byincreasing their support for research and devel-opment of alternatives to gasoline cars and bymaking a genuine commitment to designchanges to improve fuel efficiency.

Other renewable sources of energy, such ashydrogen-powered cars, are not yet sufficient-ly developed to meet the growing worlddemand for energy. But clearly, the produc-tion of vast amounts of energy using technol-ogy that exploits renewable sources will beneeded as the world enters the inevitable post-fossil fuel future.

E N G L I S H T E A C H I N G F O R U M O C T O B E R 2 0 0 2O C T O B E R 2 0 0 2 E N G L I S H T E A C H I N G F O R U M 53

Above:TURBINES CONVERT THE GEOTHERMAL STEAM

(176º C/350º F) INTO MECHANICAL ENERGY

TO DRIVE ELECTRIC GENERATORS IN THIS

POWER GENERATION FACILITY IN THE

CALPINE SONOMA REGION OF CALIFORNIA.©AP/WideWorld Photo

Opposite from top:PHOTOVOLTAIC PANELS PROVIDE NOT ONLY

POWER BUT SHADE FOR PASSENGERS ON THIS

UNIQUE SOLAR AND WIND POWERED BOAT,THE SOLAR SAILOR, IN SYDNEY, AUSTRALIA.IT ALSO HAS A PROPANE POWERED BACK-UP

GENERATOR. ©AP/WideWorld Photo

SUNSWIFT II, AN ENTRY BY THE UNIVERSITY

OF SOUTH WALES, IS SEEN HERE IN TRAFFIC

WITH CONVENTIONAL INTERNAL COMBUSTION

ENGINE CARS AS IT ATTEMPTS A RECORD FOR

3,010 KILOMETERS (1,870 MILES) ACROSS

AUSTRALIA FROM DARWIN TO ADELAIDE IN

THE WORLD SOLAR CHALLENGE CAR RACE. TO

CROSS THE CONTINENT IN LESS THAN A WEEK,SOLAR POWERED VEHICLES MUST AVERAGE A

SPEED OF 91 KPH (55 MPH). ©AP/Wide-

World Photo

02-0246_46-53 10/28/02 1:27 PM Page 52