A - Comparison with -er/-est

clean - cleaner - (the) cleanest

We use -er/-est with the following adjectives:

1) adjectives with one syllable

clean cleaner cleanest

new newer newest

cheap cheaper cheapest

2) adjectives with two syllables and the following endings:

2 - 1) adjectives with two syllables, ending in -y

dirty dirtier dirtiest

easy easier easiest

happy happier happiest

pretty prettier prettiest

2 - 2) adjectives with two syllables, ending in -er

clever cleverer cleverest

2 - 3) adjectives with two syllables, ending in -le

simple simpler simplest

2 - 4) adjectives with two syllables, ending in -ow

narrow narrower narrowest

Spelling of the adjectives using the endings -er/-est

large larger largest leave out the silent -e

big bigger biggestDouble the consonant after short vowel

sad sadder saddest

dirty dirtier dirtiest Change -y to -i (consonant before -y)

shy shyer shyest Here -y is not changed to -i.

(although consonant before -y)

B - Comparison with more - most

difficult - more difficult - (the) most difficult

all adjectives with more than one syllable (except some adjectives with two syllables - see 2 - 1 to 2 - 4)

C - Irregular adjectives

good better best

bad worse worst

much more most uncountable nouns

many more most countable nouns

little less least

little smaller smallest

D - Special adjectives

Some ajdectives have two possible forms of comparison.

common commoner / more common commonest / most common

likely likelier / more likely likeliest / most likely

pleasant pleasanter / more pleasant pleasantest / most pleasant

polite politer / more polite politest / most polite

simple simpler / more simple simplest / most simple

stupid stupider / more stupid stupidest / most stupid

subtle subtler / more subtle subtlest

sure surer / more sure surest / most sure

Difference in meaning with adjectives:

far

farther farthest distance

further furthest distance ortime

late

later latest

latter x

x last

oldolder oldest people and things

elder eldest people (family)

nearnearer nearest distance

x next order

Put in the adjective in bold from the first sentence into the second sentence in its correct form (comparative or superlative).

Example: I have a fast car, but my friend has a ______ car.

Answer: I have a fast car, but my friend has a faster car.

1) This is a nice cat. It's much than my friend's cat.

2) Here is Emily. She's six years old. Her brother is nine, so he is .

3) This is a difficult exercise. But the exercise with an asterisk (*) is the exercise on the worksheet.

4) He has an interesting hobby, but my sister has the hobby in the world.

5) In the last holidays I read a good book, but father gave me an even one last weekend.

6) School is boring, but homework is than school.

7) Skateboarding is a dangerous hobby. Bungee jumping is than skateboarding.

8) This magazine is cheap, but that one is .

9) We live in a small house, but my grandparents' house is even than ours.

10) Yesterday John told me a funny joke. This joke was the joke I've ever heard.

Conditional sentences

The conditional sentences are sometimes confusing for learners of English.

Watch out:

1) Which type of the conditional sentences is used?

2) Where is the if-clause (e.g. at the beginning or at the end of the conditional sentence)?

There are three types of the if-clauses.

type condition

I condition possible to fulfill

II condition in theory possible to fulfill

III condition not possible to fulfill (too late)

Form

type if clause main clause

I Simple Present will-future (or Modal + infinitive)

II Simple Past would + infinitive *

III Past Perfect would + have + past participle *

Examples (if-clause at the beginning)

type if clause main clause

I If I study, I will pass the exam.

II If I studied, I would pass the exam.

III If I had studied, I would have passed the exam.

Examples (if-clause at the end)

type main clause if-clause

I I will pass the exam if I study.

II I would pass the exam if I studied.

III I would have passed the exam if I had studied.

Examples (affirmative and negative sentences)

typ Examples

e

long forms short/contracted forms

I

+ If I study, I will pass the exam. If I study, I'll pass the exam.

- If I study, I will not fail the exam.If I do not study, I will fail the exam.

If I study, I won't fail the exam.If I don't study, I'll fail the exam.

II

+ If I studied, I would pass the exam. If I studied, I'd pass the exam.

-

If I studied, I would not fail the exam.If I did not study, I would fail the exam.

If I studied, I wouldn't fail the exam.If I didn't study, I'd fail the exam.

III

+ If I had studied, I would have passed the exam.

If I'd studied, I'd have passed the exam.

-

If I had studied, I would not have failed the exam.If I had not studied, I would have failed the exam.

If I'd studied, I wouldn't have failed the exam.If I hadn't studied, I'd have failed the exam.

* We can substitute could or might for would (should, may or must are sometimes possible, too).

I would pass the exam.

I could pass the exam.

I might pass the exam.

I may pass the exam.

I should pass the exam.

I must pass the exam.

Thanks to Kai.

We use the Gerund after prepositions.

verb + preposition

Exception: to Here we use the phrase:looking forward to + Gerund

Example:I'm looking forward to seeing you soon.

We use the Gerund after the following phrases:

accuse of They were accused of breaking into a shop.

agree with I agree with playing darts.

apologize for They apologize for being late.

believe in She doesn't believe in getting lost in the wood.

blame for The reporter is blamed for writing bad stories.

complain about She complains about bullying.

concentrate on Do you concentrate on reading or writing?

congratulate sb. on I wanted to congratulate you on making such a good speech.

cope with He is not sure how to cope with getting older.

decide against They decided against stealing the car.

depend on Success may depend on becoming more patient.

dream about/of Sue dreams of being a pop star.

feel like They feel like going to bed.

get used to You must get used to working long hours.

insist on The girls insisted on going out with Mark.

look forward to I'm looking forward to seeing you soon.

prevent sb. from sth. How can I prevent Kate from working in this shop?

rely on sth. He doesn't rely on winning in the casino.

succeed in How then can I succeed in learning chemistry?

specialize in The firm specialized in designing websites.

stop sb. from I stopped Andrew from smoking.

talk about/of They often talk about travelling to New Zealand.

think of Frank thinks of playing chess.

warn sb. against We warned them against using this computer.

worry about The patient worries about having the check-up.

Both forms end in -ing. Nevertheless it is easy to find out whether it is a Gerund or a Progressive form.

Progressive tenses

These tenses are formed with von to be and the infinitive + - ing.

sentences tense

He is reading a book. Present Progressive

He was reading a book. Past Progressive

He has been reading a book for three hours. Present Perfect Progressive

He had been reading a book before Mary came in. Past Perfect Progressive

He will be reading a book when I get home. will-future Progressive

He will have been reading a book. Future Perfect Progressive

He would be reading a book if he had time. Conditional Progressive

He would have been reading a book if he had had time.

Conditional Perfect Progressive

A book is being read. Present Progressive - Passive

A book was being read. Past Progressive - Passive

Gerund

The Gerund is formed only with infinitive + - ing.

sentence

Reading books is great fun.

He likes reading books.

He is looking forward to reading books at the weekend.

He is keen on reading books.

He is used to reading books.

What about reading books?

He likes the idea of reading books.

After reading the book, he went to bed.

I remember having read this book. - Passiv

) He likes reading books. Gerund

2) He is reading books. Progressive/Continuous

3) Reading books can be great fun. Gerund

4) He is interested in reading books. Gerund

5) He was reading books. Progressive/Continuous

6) He has been reading books for two hours. Progressive/Continuous

7) Instead of reading books Henry went to bed. Gerund

8) Do you like reading books? Gerund

9) He had been reading books. Progressive/Continuous

10) His hobby is reading books. Gerund

after:

the first Gagarin was the first to fly in a spaceship.

the last Peter was the last to watch the film.

the next He is the next to get his passport.

after: adjectivesI'm happy to be here.

It's better not to smoke.

after:

certain verbs (agree, choose, forget, hope, learn, promise, regret, want, …)

I learn to drive a car.

after: question wordsI don't know what to say.

Can you tell me how to get to the bus stop?

after: want/would like I want you to help me.

verb + object + to-infinitive

I helped my dad to clean the car.

NOTE!!!

I want to help you. I want you to help me.

1) finish Gerund2) like Both possibilities are correct.3) hope Infinitive + to4) feel like Gerund5) seem Infinitive + to6) forget Both possibilities are correct.7) start Both possibilities are correct.8) manage Infinitive + to9) agree Infinitive + to10) avoid Gerund

Manuscript sources

The poem in its various written forms was lost by the end of the 16th century, but manuscripts from as early as the 13th century were re-discovered during the 18th century. There are thirty-five known manuscripts of the Nibelungenlied and its variant versions. Eleven of these manuscripts are essentially complete.[2] The oldest version however seems to be the one preserved in manuscript "B". Twenty-four manuscripts are in various fragmentary states of completion, including one version in Dutch (manuscript 'T'). The text contains approximately 2,400 stanzas in 39 Aventiuren. The title under which the poem has been known since its discovery is derived from the final line of one of the three main versions, "hie hât daz mære ein ende: daz ist der Nibelunge liet" ("here the story takes an end: this is the lay of the Nibelungs"). Liet here means lay, tale or epic rather than simply song, as it would in Modern German.

The manuscripts sources deviate considerably from one another. Philologists and literary scholars usually designate three main genealogical groups for the entire range of available manuscripts, with two primary versions comprising the oldest known copies: *AB and *C. This categorization derives from the signatures on the *A, *B, and *C manuscripts as well as the wording of the last verse in each source: "daz ist der Nibelunge liet" or "daz ist der Nibelunge nôt". Nineteenth century philologist Karl Lachmann developed this categorisation of the manuscript sources in Der Nibelunge Noth und die Klage nach der ältesten Überlieferung mit Bezeichnung des Unechten und mit den Abweichungen der gemeinen Lesart (Berlin: Reimer, 1826).

[edit] Authorship

Prevailing scholarly theories strongly suggest that the written Nibelungenlied is the work of an anonymous poet from the area of the Danube between Passau and Vienna, dating from about 1180 to 1210, possibly at the court of Wolfger von Erla, the bishop of Passau (in office 1191–1204). Most scholars consider it likely that the author was a man of literary and ecclesiastical education at the bishop's court, and that the poem's recipients were the clerics and noblemen at the same court.

The "Nibelung's lament" (Diu Klage), a sort of appendix to the poem proper, mentions a "Meister Konrad" who was charged by a bishop "Pilgrim" of Passau with the copying of the text. This is taken as a reference to Saint Pilgrim, bishop of Passau from 971–991.

The search for the author of the Nibelungenlied in German studies has a long and intense history. Among the names suggested were Konrad von Fußesbrunnen, Bligger von Steinach and Walther von der Vogelweide. None of these hypotheses has wide acceptance, and mainstream scholarship today accepts that the author's name cannot be established.

[edit] Synopsis

Though the preface to the poem promises both joyous and dark tales ahead, the Nibelungenlied is by and large a very tragic work, and these four opening verses are believed to have been a late addition to the text, composed after the body of the poem had been completed.[citation needed]

Middle High German original Shumway translation

Uns ist in alten mæren wunders vil geseit Full many a wonder is told us in stories old,

von helden lobebæren, von grôzer arebeit,von freuden, hôchgezîten, von weinen und von klagen,von küener recken strîten muget ir nu wunder hœren sagen

of heroes worthy of praise, of hardships dire,of joy and feasting, of weeping and of wailing;of the fighting of bold warriors, now ye may hear wonders told.

The original version instead began with the introduction of Kriemhild, the protagonist of the work.

The epic is divided into two parts, the first dealing with the story of Siegfried and Kriemhild, the wooing of Brünhild and the death of Siegfried at the hands of Hagen, and Hagen's hiding of the Nibelung treasure in the Rhine (Chapters 1-19). The second part deals with Kriemhild's marriage to Etzel, her plans for revenge, the journey of the Burgundians to the court of Etzel, and their last stand in Etzel's hall (Chapters 20-39).

[edit] Siegfried and Kriemhild

Siegfried and Kriemhild

Gunther's wedding night (Johann Heinrich Füssli 1807)

The first chapter introduces the court of Burgundy. Kriemhild (the virgin sister of King Gunther, and his brothers Gernot and Giselher) has a dream of a falcon that is killed by two eagles. Her mother interprets this to mean that Kriemhild's future husband will die a violent death, and Kriemhild consequently resolves to remain unmarried.

The second chapter tells of the background of Siegfried, crown prince of Xanten. His youth is narrated with little room for the adventures later attributed to him. In the third chapter, Siegfried arrives in Worms with the hopes of wooing Kriemhild. Upon his arrival, Hagen von Tronje, one of King Gunther's vassals, tells Gunther about Siegfried's youthful exploits that involved winning a treasure and lands from a pair of brothers, Nibelung and Schilbung, whom Siegfried had killed when he was unable to divide the treasure between them and, almost incidentally, the killing of a dragon. Siegfried leaves his treasure in the charge of a dwarf named Alberich.

After killing the dragon, Siegfried then bathed in its blood, which rendered him invulnerable. Unfortunately for Siegfried, a leaf fell onto his back from a linden tree, and the small patch of skin that the leaf covered did not come into contact with the dragon's blood, leaving Siegfried vulnerable in that single spot. In spite of Hagen's threatening stories about his youth, the Burgundians welcome him, but do not allow him to meet the princess. Disappointed, he nonetheless remains in Worms and helps Gunther defeat the invading Saxons.

In chapter 5, Siegfried finally meets Kriemhild. Gunther requests Siegfried to sail with him to the fictional city of Isenstein in Iceland to win the hand of the Iceland's Queen, Brünhild. Siegfried agrees, though only if Gunther allows him to marry Gunther's sister, Kriemhild, whom Siegfried pines for. Gunther, Siegfried and a group of Burgundians set sail for Iceland with Siegfried pretending to be Gunther's vassal. Upon their arrival, Brünhild challenges

Gunther to a trial of strength with her hand in marriage as a reward. If they lose, however, they will be sentenced to death. She challenges Gunther to three athletic contests, throwing a javelin, tossing a boulder, and a leap. After seeing the boulder and javelin, it becomes apparent to the group that Brünhild is immensely strong and they fear for their lives.

Genealogy

Siegfried quietly returns to the boat his group arrived on and takes his special cloak, which renders him invisible and gives him the strength of 12 men (Chapters 6-8). Siegfried, with his immense strength, invisibly leads Gunther through the trials. Unknowingly deceived, the impressed Brünhild thinks King Gunther, not Siegfried, defeated her and agrees to marry Gunther. Gunther becomes afraid that Brünhild may yet be planning to kill them, so Siegfried goes to Nibelungenland and single-handedly conquers the kingdom. Siegfried makes them his vassals and returns with a thousand of them. Siegfried then goes ahead as messenger. The group of Burgundians, Gunther and Gunther's new wife-to-be Brünhild return to Worms, where a grand reception awaits them and they marry to much fanfare. Siegfried and Kriemhild are also then married with Gunther's blessings.

"Siegfried's Departure" (Julius Schnorr von Carolsfeld, ca. 1843)

"Siegfried's Death" (Julius Schnorr von Carolsfeld, 1847)

Gunther orders Hagen to sink the hoard in the Rhine (Peter von Cornelius, 1859)

However, on their wedding night, Brünhild suspects something is amiss with her situation, particularly suspecting Siegfried a potential cause. Gunther attempts to sleep with her and, with her great strength, she easily ties Gunther up and leaves him that way all night. After telling Siegfried of this, Siegfried again offers his help. Siegfried proposes that he slip into their chamber at night with his invisibility cloak and silently beat Brünhild into submission. Gunther agrees but says that Siegfried must not sleep with Brünhild. Siegfried slips into the room according to plan and after a difficult and violent struggle, an invisible Siegfried defeats Brünhild. Siegfried then takes her ring and belt, which are symbols of defloration. Here it is implied that Siegfried sleeps with Brünhild despite Gunther's request. Afterwards, Brünhild no longer possesses her once-great strength and says she will no longer refuse Gunther. Siegfried gives the ring and belt to his own newly wed, Kriemhild, in chapter 10.

Years later, Brünhild, still feeling as if she had been lied to, goads Gunther into inviting Siegfried and Kriemhild to their kingdom. Brünhild does this because she is still under the impression that Gunther married off his sister to a low-ranking vassal (while Gunther and Siegfried are in reality of equal rank) yet the normal procedures are not being followed between the two ranks combined with her lingering feelings of suspicion. Both Siegfried and Kriemhild come to Worms and all is friendly between the two until, before entering the Worms Cathedral, Kriemhild and Brünhild argue who should have precedence according to their husbands' perceived ranks.

Having been earlier deceived about the relationship between Siegfried and Gunther, Brünhild thinks it is obvious that she should go first per custom of her perceived social rank. Kriemhild, unaware of the deception involved in Brünhild's wooing, insists that they are of

equal rank and the dispute escalates. Severely angered, Kriemhild shows Brünhild first the ring and then the belt that Siegfried took from Brünhild on her wedding night, and then calls her Siegfried's kebse (mistress or concubine). Brünhild feels greatly distressed and humiliated. She bursts into tears.

The argument between the queens is both a risk for the marriage of Gunther and Brünhild and a potential cause for a lethal rivalry between Gunther and Siegfried, which both Gunther and Siegfried attempt to avoid. Gunther acquits Siegfried of the charges. Despite this, Hagen von Tronje decides to kill Siegfried to protect the honor and reign of his king. Although it is Hagen who does the deed, Gunther - while first objecting to the plot - and his brothers know of the plan and quietly assent. Hagen contrives a false military threat to Gunther and Siegfried, considering Gunther a great friend, volunteers to help Gunther once again.

Under the context of this threat of war, Hagen persuades Kriemhild, who still trusts Hagen, to mark Siegfried's single vulnerable point on his clothing with a cross under the premise of protecting him. Now knowing Siegfried's weakness, the fake campaign is called off and Hagen then uses the cross as a target on a hunting trip, killing Siegfried with a spear as he is drinking from a brook in chapter 16. This perfidious murder is particularly dishonorable in medieval thought, as throwing a javelin is the manner in which one might slaughter a wild beast, not a knight. We see this in other literature of the period, such as with Parsifal's unwittingly dishonorable crime of combatting and slaying knights with a javelin (transformed into a swan in Wagner's opera).[3] Further dishonoring Siegfried, Hagen steals the hoard from Kriemhild and throws it into the Rhine (Rheingold), to prevent Kriemhild from using it to establish an army of her own.[4]

[edit] Kriemhild's revenge

Kriemhild swears to take revenge for the murder of her husband and the theft of her treasure. Many years later, King Etzel of the Huns (Attila the Hun) proposes to Kriemhild, she journeys to the land of the Huns, and they are married. For the baptism of their son, she invites her brothers, the Burgundians, to a feast at Etzel's castle in Hungary. Hagen does not want to go, but is taunted until he does: he realizes that it is a trick of Kriemhild in order to take revenge and kill them all. As the Burgundians cross the Danube, this fate is confirmed by Nixes, who predict that all but one monk will die. Hagen tries to drown the monk in order to render the prophecy futile, but he survives.

Kriemhild showing Gunther's head to Hagen (Johann Heinrich Füssli, ca. 1805)

The Burgundians arrive at Etzel's castle and are welcomed by Kriemhild "with lying smiles and graces". But the lord Dietrich of Bern, an ally of Etzel's, advises the Burgundians to keep their weapons with them at all times, which is normally not allowed. The tragedy unfolds. Kriemhild comes before Hagen, reproaches him for her husband Siegfried's death, and demands the return of her Nibelungenschatz. Hagen answers her boldly, admitting that he killed Siegfried and sank the Nibelungen treasure into the Rhine, but blames these acts on Kriemhild's own behaviour.

King Etzel then welcomes his wife's brothers warmly. But outside a tense feast in the great hall, a fight breaks out between Huns and Burgundians, and soon there is general mayhem. When word of the fight arrives at the feast, Hagen decapitates Kriemhild and Etzel's little son before his parents' eyes. The Burgundians take control of the hall, which is besieged by Etzel's warriors. Kriemhild offers her brothers their lives if they hand over Hagen, but they refuse. The battle lasts all day, until the queen orders the hall to be burned with the Burgundians inside.

All of the Burgundians are killed except for Hagen and Gunther, who are bound and held prisoner by Dietrich of Bern. Kriemhild has the men brought before her and orders her brother Gunther to be killed. Even after seeing Gunther's head, Hagen refuses to tell the queen what he has done with the Nibelungen treasure. Furious, Kriemhild herself cuts off Hagen's head. Old Hildebrand, the mentor of Dietrich of Bern, is infuriated by the shameful deaths of the Burgundian guests. He hews Kriemhild to pieces with his sword. In a fifteenth century manuscript, he is said to strike Kriemhild a single clean blow to the waist; she feels no pain, however, and declares that his sword is useless. Hildebrand then drops a ring and commands Kriemhild to pick it up. As she bends down, her body falls into pieces. Dietrich and Etzel and all the people of the court lament the deaths of so many heroes.

[edit] Historical background

A historical nucleus of the saga lies in events of the Germanic Migration Period, in particular the defeat of the Burgundians by Flavius Aëtius with the aid of Hunnic mercenaries near Worms in ca. AD 436. Other possible influences are the feud between the 6th century Merovingian queens Brunhilda and Fredegunde, as well as the marriage of Attila with the Burgundian princess Ildikó in AD 453.

From the evidence of Waltharius Nibelung is a part of the name for Franks, although there are other uses of the name in other medieval texts. The Nibelungenlied combines a first part dealing with Gunther's wooing of Brünhild and the Murder of Siegfried which takes place in Worms, with a second part, describing the journey of the Nibelungs east across the Danube to Etzelburg, the residence of Attila the Hun (Etzel), the location of the final catastrophe. The Nibelungenlied arranges these traditional materials in a composition aiming at a High Medieval audience casting the inherited Germanic theme in a critical view of contemporary chivalry. Consequently, Siegfried changes from a dragon killer to a courtly man who will express his love to Kriemhild explicitly only after he has won the friendship of the Burgundian king Gunther and his brothers, Gernot and Giselher. Some situations, which exaggerate the conflict between the Germanic migrations and the chivalrous ethics (such as Gunther's embarrassing wedding night with Brünhild) may be interpreted as irony. The notoriously bloody end that leaves no hope for reconciliation is far removed from the happy ending of typical courtly epics, but is probably part of the original story. The bloody conclusion is also part of the overall critical dimension of the work.

Some scholars, particularly Delbrück, consider the historical figure of Arminius (Hermann), who defeated the Roman imperial legions (clad in scale armour) at the Battle of Teutoburg Forest in 9 AD, a possible archetype for the dragon-slayer Siegfried.[5]

[edit] Legacy

An early critic labeled it a German Iliad, arguing that, like the Greek epic, it goes back to the remotest times and unites the monumental fragments of half-forgotten myths and historical personages into a poem that is essentially national in character.

Imagery from the Nibelungelied was used in many poems, essays, posters and speeches at every stage in the development of German nationalism, from the Befreiungskriege (Wars of Liberation) to the regime of National Socialism (Nazism), to less jingoistic interpretations and references today.

For example, the faithfulness among the Burgundian king and his vassals, ranked higher than family bonds or life, is called Nibelungentreue. This expression was used in Germany, prior to World War I to describe the alliance between the German Empire and Austria-Hungary, as well as trying to inspire the army when referring to the Battle of Stalingrad.

The word Nibelungen is applied to the followers of Siegfried and finally to the Burgundians which are portrayed in the poem.

In October 2006, USA Today listed Siegfried as #7 on their list of Imaginary Luminaries: the 101 most influential people who never lived. [2]

However, it is very difficult to separate the influence of the Nibelungenlied itself from that of other works of art and propaganda dealing with the Siegfried myths. Often, images which clearly refer to part of this story differ in some way. For example, one famous poster from the 1930s links Siegfried's death with the Dolchstosslegende (the idea that German soldiers

were stabbed in the back by the peace treaties of 1918) and shows a Siegfried-like figure stabbed with a dagger, not a spear.

[edit] Adaptations

The Nibelungenlied, Thidreks saga and the Völsunga saga served as source materials for Richard Wagner's Der Ring des Nibelungen (English: The Ring of the Nibelung), a series of four music dramas popularly known as the "Ring Cycle".

In 1924, Austrian-American director Fritz Lang made a duology of silent fantasy films of the epic: Die Nibelungen: Siegfried and Die Nibelungen: Kriemhilds Rache. Lang and Thea von Harbou wrote the screenplay for the first film; von Harbou has the sole screenwriting credit on the second. Margarete Schön portayed Kriemhild, Paul Richter portayed Siegfried and Hanna Ralph portrayed Brunhild. Remakes were made in 1966.

The premise of the Nibelungenlied was made into a miniseries called Ring of the Nibelungs (also called Sword of Xanten) in 2004. It uses the title of the series by Wagner and, like the Ring Cycle, is in many ways closer to the Norse legends of Siegfried and Brünhild than to the Nibelungenlied itself. Like many adaptations, it only deals with the first half of the epic, ignoring Kriemhild's revenge. On the SciFi Channel, it is broadcast with title Dark Kingdom: The Dragon King (2006).