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Unit Eight English for Other Purposes

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CONTENT

PAGE SECTION 371

371

371 371

372

372

372 373

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Preview

1.2 Unit Objectives 1.3 Unit Sections

1.4 Methodology

1.5 Audio-Visual Aids

1.6 Evaluation 1.7 Supplementary Readings

1.

373 THE SKY IS THE LIMIT 2. 377

377 379

380

THE LANGUAGE OF THE LAW

3.1 Distinctiveness of Style 3.2 Written and Spoken Legal Language

3.3 Courtroom Strategies

3.

383 384

385

THE LANGUAGE OF MEDICINE 4.1 Scientific vs Everyday Language

4.2 Communication Problems

4.

388 LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE 5.

392 LANGUAGE AND RELIGION 6. 395 WHERE TO DRAW THE LINE? 7.

397

398 400

OVERVIEW

ANSWER KEY REFERENCES

8.

9. 10.

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1. Introduction

1.1 Preview

This is the final unit of the book in which an overview of ESP is given. In addition, specific examination of the language of law,

medicine, literature and religion is made. Finally a discussion will be

given on the possibility of drawing a line between ESP and general

English.

1.2 Unit Objectives

Upon completing this unit, students are expected to:

1. Realize that there is no end to ESP varieties,

2. Get acquainted with the language of the law in terms of its distinctive style, differences between spoken and written language,

and courtroom linguistic strategies,

3. Get acquainted with the language of medicine in terms of scientific vs everyday language and the communication problems involved,

4. Increase their knowledge of the characteristics of the language of literature,

5. Get acquainted with the English language of religion, and

6. Be able to identify the various ESP varieties.

1.3 Unit Sections

1. The Sky is the Limit

2. The language of the Law

2.1 Distinctiveness of Style

2.2 Written and Spoken Legal Language

2.3 Courtroom Strategies

3. The Language of Medicine

3.1 Scientific vs Everyday Language

3.2 Communication Problems

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4. Language and literature

5. Language and Religion

6. Where to Draw the Line?

1.4 Methodology

In addition to the general methodology described above, the

following techniques are recommended:

1. Ask students whether there is a limit to ESP varieties and why.

2. Ask students and make them ask questions about the language of the law: its distinctive style, written and spoken legal language and

courtroom strategies.

3. Ask students and make them ask questions about the language of medicine and the difference between it and everyday language.

4. Ask students to exemplify their knowledge of the language of literature and its various genres and styles.

5. Ask students to list the characteristics of the English language of religion.

6. Ask students whether they can draw a clear-cut line between ESP varieties.

1.5 Audio-Visual Aids

The audio-visual aids suggested above are sufficient for the purposes of this unit. Therefore, no more A/V aids are suggested, but

individual teachers are free to add to them if and when necessary.

1.6 Evaluation

In addition to the general evaluation techniques suggested above,

the following are specifically recommended for this unit.

1. Check whether students are aware of the fact that there is no end

to ESP varieties.

2. Evaluate students knowledge of the characteristics of the language

of law.

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3. Ask students to write sentences, paragraphs and essays on the various ESP types.

4. Check whether students are aware of the characteristics of the language of medicine, literature, religion and other varieties.

5. Evaluate whether students realize that it is difficult to draw a clear-cut line between ESP varieties.

6. Ask students to read, understand and answer assignments and examinations, in addition to any other tasks and (self-evaluation)

questions.

1.7 Supplementary Readings

Ref. No. page

1. Burgess (1998) pp. 1-14

2. Crystal (1987) pp. 382-3; 386-7

384-5; 344-8

70-9; 180-1

3. Collins (1986) pp. 121-32

4. McAlpin (1986) pp. 87-94

5. Robinson (1984) pp. 63-65

2. The Sky is the Limit

“The sky is the limit” means that there is no limit or end to something. In ESP, it seems that there is no limit or end to ESP varieties that can be discussed, practiced or exemplified. So far, we

have discussed three major types of ESP: English for science and

technology (EST), business English, and English in the mass media.

Before we conclude this book with a discussion of English for other purposes, among which are the language of the law, medicine,

literature and religion, it might be useful to summarise here the types

of ESP and their sub-divisions in the following figure:

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ESP

occupational academic

pre simultaneous post discipline school subject

experience experience based

pre-study in-study independent integrated

Types of ESP (from Strevens, 1977, quoted in Kennedy and Bolitho, 1984:5)

It is clear from this figure that English for occupational/ professional purposes (EOP/EPP) (such as business English and

English in the mass-media) constitutes three stages: the ESP

knowledge before attending an ESP course, the knowledge to be

acquired during the course, and the post course experience needed for expressing one‟s knowledge in English. In this way EOP/EPP includes

a stage, the simultaneous stage which is similar to the stage of English

for academic purposes (EAP). EAP itself is first included in school subjects whether as a part of the general English subject or

independently where English is the medium of instruction (for

example in teaching science). Secondly, EAP is taught for the

preparation of using English as a medium of instruction (the pre-study, pre-sessional stage) and later when English is used as a medium

of instruction (the in-study, in-sessional stage), that is, during learning

and teaching the special field of study.

Throughout this book, we have been concerned with the

simultaneous stage in EOP/EPP and the pre-study, pre-sessional stage in EAP. In other words, ESP, as it has been discussed in this book has

been concerned with teaching and learning English to be used either

in an occupation/profession after learning secondary or tertiary education or to be used during the study of a specialized field.

But occupations, professions and fields of study are unlimited. Indeed, new occupations and professions (e.g. computer specialists)

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and new fields of study (e.g. genetic engineering) are rapidly

increasing. The study of English in the fields discussed in this book

represent only the broad fields of interest (science and technology, business, mass-media, law, medicine, literature and religion). Each

field can be sub-divided into so many fields (for example, science

could be divided further into physics, chemistry, etc..) . Our hope is

that the specializations discussed will serve as examples for studying English for other purposes. In the following sections more

specializations will be discussed though rather briefly (see the final

section, Section 6 below).

SAQ (1)

1- What does “the sky is the limit” mean in the context of ESP?

2- How many stages would you recognize in teaching and using ESP?

3- What aspects of ESP could you recognize in school subjects?

4- What does in-study (in-sessional) EAP mean?

5- In what ways could you generalize your ESP knowledge gained in

this course to English for other purposes?

Exercise (1)

Read the following text and answer the questions.

What is the secret of Holmes‟s astonishing

durability? It has been said that Hamlet, Robinson Crusoe,

and Sherlock Holmes, in that order, are the most popular

characters in literature. The estimate needs revising. The

agonizings of Shakespeare‟s gloomy Dane are too cerebral

for mass appeal. Crusoe has been made laughably quaint

by a crowded world; footsteps on any strand today would

lead a castaway to a resort hotel not more than a mile down

the beach. Holmes‟s striking persona, however, has been

undimmed by time or change. And although Holmes is

unique in literature, he did have a real role model, Dr.

Joseph Bell, a surgeon and medical instructor at the

University of Edinburgh. Bell‟s hobby was deductive

reasoning, and he entertained his students, often to their

dismay, by drawing character inferences from sharp

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observations of their dress, habits, and mannerisms.

-Kay Gardella, “The Adventures of Sherlock Holmes”

(From Hodges et al (1990:356)

1. What type of ESP does this text belong to? Give reasons.

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2. Find two compound words and use each in a sentence related to the text.

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3. Explain the meaning of the following words:

Durability ……………………………………………..……………………………………

Laughably ………………………………………………..…………………………………

Undimmed……………………………………………..……………………………………

Deductive ……………………………………………..……………………………………

Inferences ……………………………………………..……………………………………

4. Explain the derivational processes involved in the formation of the words in No.3 above.

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5. Summarize the text maintaining its main idea.

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6. Mention two registers related to the text.

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3. The Language of the Law

It is said that “the law is a profession of words” (quoted in Crystal, 1987:386). According to Crystal, whatever the legal field (for

example, government legislation, courtroom activities, or

documentation related to daily life) the words of the law are, in fact,

the law. When the father of a female says to a male, “I have given my daughter (her name) to you in marriage..” he, the father of the female,

is in fact marrying his daughter to that male. In this section, the legal

style, the written and spoken legal language and courtroom strategies will be examined as some aspects of the language of the law. Most of

this section is based on Crystal (1987:386-387).

3.1 Distinctiveness of Style

One of the most obvious characteristics of the legal style is the unnecessary complexity of the language which could be simplified

without loss. The following is a legal sentence in its original form:

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The indigenous body politic of South Africa has attempted to negotiate

legal enfranchisement without result.

And the following is a revised (simplified) form of the above sentence:

The native population of South Africa has negotiated in vain for the

right to vote.

According to a professor of law, legal language is characterized

by four aspects: wordiness, lack of clarity, pomposity and dullness.

1. Wordiness means using more words than necessary to convey the desired meaning. The following are examples with their simplified

desired meaning:

Annul and set aside = remove

Annual entirely and completely remove = remove

Totally null and void = without force or effect

2. Lack of clarity means the use of lengthy sentences which contain

obscure words and awkward grammatical structures such as:

Although the will itself was silent as to who would take

if the son predeceased the mother, she not having at the time

of the son‟s death remarried, and the son leaving issue at his

death, which event occurred, this omission by itself, in the

will only, cannot did aid son and defeat the testator‟s clear

intention that the son should take only in the event he survived

the death or remarriage of his mother..

Notice the long and obscure (vague) sentence which may mean that

The will itself was silent as to who would inherit if the

son died before his mother or before her remarriage.

Therefore, the son‟s death before his mother‟s remarriage and

his death being disputed will not help him to inherit…

3. Pomposity means the use of elevated (above the ordinary)

language or style such as

The people in their wisdom; in the discharge of that

important duty; trifles with justice; the result will be to

weaken or subvert what it conceives to be a principle of the

fundamental law of the land.

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trifles means showing disrespect; and subvert means to cause the

downfall or ruin of …

4. Dullness means being uninteresting. This dullness arises from the

above features and the tendency to go into minute details (as in the

above example). The following is also an example.

The reason for denying an appeal in the latter case is not

because the order on the motion to vacate is not within the

terms of section 963 of the code allowing appeals, for it may

be, and indeed, an order refusing to vacate a final judgment is

in its very nature a special order made after the judgment, but

because ….

3.2 Written and Spoken Language

Films and television have made the language of the courtroom familiar to people. But people do not know the complexity of that

language until they act as a witness in a lawcourt. Once you are in a court, you must follow its procedures and use its language. You must

not report what others have said; you must not give judgments; and

you should not show emotions. However, the legal language uses :

1. common words with uncommon meanings such as action (law suit); avoid (cancel), etc;

2. words no longer used in everyday language such as aforesaid (mentioned before); thereby (therefore) ; etc;

3. Latin words and phrases such as ex post facto (after the fact); affidavit (written declaration before an official), etc;

4. French words such as plaintiff (one who brings a legal action or

suit in a court);

5. technical terms with precise meanings such as defendant (opposed

to plaintiff);

6. ceremonial words and structures such as Your honour, may it

please the court; the truth, the whole truth, and nothing but the

truth.

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3.3 Courtroom Strategies

Perhaps the best thing to do in explaining courtroom strategies is to quote Crystal (1987:387) (himself quoting another source as seen

below) to give examples of the language lawyers and witnesses usually use (or should use) in the lawcourt during a trial before the

judge and the jury.

Effective courtroom strategies

Lawyers 1. Vary the way in which you ask questions.

2. Give your own witnesses a chance to speak at length;

restrict the opportunity of witnesses under cross-

examination to short, direct answers to the specific

questions asked.

3. Convey a sense of organization in your interviews of

witnesses and your remarks to the jury.

4. Adopt different styles of questioning with different

kinds of witnesses, e.g. women, the elderly, children,

expert witnesses.

5. Remain poker-faced throughout; do not reveal surprise

even when an answer is totally unexpected; save dramatic

reactions for special occasions.

6. Rhythm and pace are important; do not bore the jury

with slowness; use silence strategically.

7. Repetition can be useful for emphasis but it should be

used with care so as not to bore the jury.

8. Avoid interrupting witness, especially when being

given a responsive answer; it gives the impression you

want to hide some of the facts.

9. Use objections sparingly; they not only call attention

to the material being objected to, but also convey an

impression of attempting to conceal information.

Witnesses

1. Vary the way in which you give answers.

2. Give long answers wherever possible; make the

opposition lawyer stop you frequently during cross-

examination, to give the impression of reluctance to have

your full story placed before the jury.

3. Try to confuse the organization that the opposition

lawyer has planned for the cross-examination.

4. Adopt different styles of answering questions asked by

different questioners (e.g. deference to the judge, no

rehearsed answers while under direct examination, no

hostility to the opposition lawyer).

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5. Do not show surprise even when questions are

unexpected; save dramatic reactions for special moments.

6. Use rhythm and pace to advantage. Upset the

opposition lawyer‟s pace with variations in response

timing (e.g. asking Would you please repeat the question?

after an especially long or complex question).

7. React to a cross-examiner‟s repetition of material, e.g.

by saying Why do you keep asking me the same question?

8. Interrupt the opposition lawyer by volunteering

answers, as soon as you can see the drift. This gives the

impression that you are cooperative and serves to confuse

the lawyer‟s style.

9. Blurt out relevant facts and opinions on cross-

examination, even though the opposition lawyer may

attempt to limit your answer. These attempts will give the

impression that the lawyer is trying to conceal some of

your evidence.

(After W.M. O‟Barr, 1982, Table 7.1.)

SAQ (2)

1- Why is the legal profession said to be a profession of words?

2- Why are the words of law in fact the law?

3- What are the distinctive features of the legal style?

4- What is the difference between “wordiness” and “pomposity”?

5- How does the language of films and television help the public understand the legal language and its procedures?

6- What courtroom strategies are common to both lawyers and

witnesses?

Exercise (2)

Read the following text and answer the questions.

MONEYS to be invested under this Settlement may be

invested or otherwise applied on the security of or in the

purchase or acquisition of real or personal property (including

the purchase or acquisition of chattels and the effecting or

maintaining of policies of insurance or assurance) rights or

interests of whatsoever kind and wheresover situate including

any stocks funds shares securities or other investments of

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whatsoever nature and wheresover whether producing income

or not and whether involving liability or not or no personal

loan with or without interest and with or without security to

any person (other than the Settlor or any Spouse of the Settlor)

anywhere in the world including loans to any member of the

Specified Class and the Trustees may grant indulgence to or

release any debtor (other than as aforesaid) with or without

consideration and may enter into profit sharing agreements

and give and take options with or without consideration and

accept subsituation of any security..

(From Crystal, 1987:386)

1. What is totally lacking in the text?

(a) capitalization

(b) punctuation

(c) present tenses

…………………………………………………………………..

2. How would you characterize the above text from general English texts?

(a) It is full of unnecessary complexity of language.

(b) It uses more words than necessary.

(c) It has a lengthy sentence.

(d) It has a long, vague sentence.

(e) It goes into minute details.

(f) None of the above.

(g) All the above.

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3. Find two terms which are rarely used in everyday language.

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4. Find 5 terms which are exclusively legal.

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4. The Language of Medicine

Text A What a Dermatological

Surgeon Can Do

If you want to be rid of age spots once and for

all, any number of procedures are available. Laser

treatment zaps the area with a pulse of light that

destroys the tissue, allowing new, unblemished skin

to grow in its place; all you‟re likely to feel is a

sensation like the snap of a rubber band against

your skin, then the area will turn bluish-gray for a

couple of weeks before healing, a process that takes

two or three months to complete. Cryosurgery

freezes off the tissue with a metal probe cooled to

minus 256 degrees Fahrenheit. The procedure is

painless because it freezes nerve endings, too; a

blister will develop during the healing process. In

electrosurgery, a surgeon burnishes the area with an

electrical device that applies high-frequency

currency to slough off the tissue. The procedure is

done under local anesthesia, and the area will heal

in a month or so. Raised age spots, in which the

dead tissue forms a heap on top of your skin, can

simply be cut away, again under local anesthesia.

Remember, though, the only reason to undergo

any of these procedures is cosmetic-there‟s no need

to have an age spot removed unless you just don‟t

like the way it looks. Be sure you are informed

about possible risks or complications before

deciding to implement any of these treatments.

(From Bankhead et al 1996:13)

As is clear from Text A above the language of medicine is very similar to the language of science and technology (EST) discussed in

Unit Five. The language of medicine is also characterized with

technical terminology, long and often complex grammatical structures

and specialized topics, in addition to everybody language where necessary. However, the language of medicine is characterized in

many situations with a special relation with every day language as

well as certain communication problems.

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4.1 Scientific vs. Everyday Language

According to Crystal (1987:382), the field of medicine, more than any other field, faces a confrontation between scientific language

and everyday language. On the one hand, there is the scientific situations in the laboratory, the clinic, the experimentation and the

like. On the other hand, there are the daily medical practices in which

the doctor and the patient attempt to understand each other. The following text (Text B) is an example:

Text B

Consultation Styles

Analyses of the language used in consultations

have brought to light great differences in styles of

interaction. In one study, patient comments of the type

„I‟m feeling run down. I‟ve got a pain in my back, and

I feel tired all day‟ were found to elicit a wide variety

of responses, such as :

Mmmm. Right, just go into the next room and

get undressed. I‟ll be along in the minute.

Tell me. Just where is this pain?

When do you feel tired? In the morning when

you get up or in the afternoon?

Do you have headaches and pains behind the

eyes?

I think you‟re depressed. How do you feel

about that?

What sort of pain is it?

What do you mean by „I feel tired all day‟?

Yes, go on.

You look very pale.

(P.S. Byrne & B.E.L.Long, 1976, pp. 22-3)

The responses vary enormously. At one extreme

the doctor‟s mind seems already made up; at the other,

the doctor is ready to enter into a long discussion about

further symptoms.

(from Crystal, 1987:383)

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4.2 Communication Problems

There is a need for careful listening and expression by the doctor and the patient. Lacking this, problems between the two parties arise.

According to Crystal (1978:382) these problems include:

1. patients being worried about their health are often confused

in what they say to the doctor;

2. busy doctors will not have the time to take up every point the

patient refers to;

3. medical interviews between doctors and patients have certain

communication characteristics including :

Topics of conversation should be restricted to those dealing with the patient‟s body and conditions contributing to disease.

Conversation should only be with the patients, not with relatives or friends.

It is the task of the doctor, not the patient, to ask questions.

The doctor should avoid telling all the truth, and discourage the elaboration of information from other sources.

Patients should be told that they are ultimately responsible for the improvement of their own health, which will occur

only if they follow the doctor‟s advice.

These problems often cause a breakdown of communication. To minimize the problems, medical staff could promote their

communicative skills. For example, they could explain what they are doing to a patient while they are doing it. For this reason, medical

staff need to be aware of the many functions that language can

perform. Students who study English for medical purposes, in turn, should be aware of these language functions as well as the functions

of the language of medicine.

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SAQ (3)

1- What is Text A about?

2- What medical terms are new to you in Text A?

3- How is medical language similar or different from EST and from everyday language?

4- What are some of the problems faced by doctors in interviewing patients?

5- Why is the knowledge of the various functions of language important to both students of English for medical purposes and

doctors?

Exercise (3)

Read Text A and Text B again and answer the questions.

1. What are the similarities and differences between Text A and Text B?

Similarities:

……………………………………………………………………

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Differences:

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2. Give examples (mainly from Text A) of compound words used in medical English.

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3. Give three examples of the passive voice from Text A.

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4. How does the medical style differ between Text A and Text B?

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5. Choose 4 everyday terms used in a medical sense in the two texts.

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6. Summarize Text A in one third of its length.

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5. Language and Literature

Text C English literature is literature written in English. It

is not merely the literature of England or of the British

Isles, but a vast and growing body of writings made up of

the work of authors who use the English language as a

natural medium of communication. In other words, the

„English‟ of „English literature‟ refers not to a nation but to

a language. This seems to me to be an important point.

There is a tendency among some people to regard, for

instance, American literature as a separate entity, a body of

writing distinct from that of the British Isles, and the same

attitude is beginning to prevail with regard to the growing

literatures of Africa and Australia. Joseph Conrad was a

Pole, Demetrios Kapetanakis was a Greek, Ernest

Hemingway was an American, Lin Yutang was a Chinese,

but English is the medium they have in common, and they

all belong with Chaucer and Shakespeare and Dickens-to

English literature. On the other hand, a good deal of the

work of Sir Thomas More and Sir Francis Bacon-both

Englishmen-is written not in English but in Latin, and

Willian Beckford and T.S. Eliot have written in French.

Such writings are outside the scope of our survey.

Literature is an art which exploits language, English

literature is an art which exploits the English language, but

it is not just an English art. It is international, and Chinese,

Malays, Africans, Indians reading this book may well one

day themselves contribute to English literature.

(from Burgess, 1998:9)

As Text C implies, literature, and in our case English literature reflects the human experience. Authors express thesmelves in all

varieties of language and in different ways: literary and non-literary.

Even in the same literary work, these two varieties of language can be found. This happens most clearly in drama and the novel as can be

seen from the works of Shakespeare and Dickens respectively.

Sometimes, it is even difficult to separate the literary from the non-

literary. For example, Leech, 1969 (quoted in Crystal, 1987:72) constructs a continuum that has mundane (everyday) uses at one end

and abnormal (unusual uses) at the other end.

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Several hours ago MUNDANE

Many moons ago Ten games ago

Several performances ago

A few cigarettes ago

Three overcoats ago Two wives ago

A grief ago (Dylan Thomas)

A humanity ago ABNORMAL

Crystal (1987:73) looks at literary genres (that is, language events) as:

Established categories of composition, characterized by distinctive language or subject matter. The most widely recognized are poetry, drama, and the novel, but several other categories exist, such

as the short story, autobiography, and essays. Each major category can

be further classified-for example, epic, lyrical, and narrative genres

within poetry; comedy, tragedy, and farce within drama; and romance, crime, and science fiction within the novel.

Each of these genres is characterized by grammar and vocabulary. For example poetry is characterized by:

1. archaisms or the use of grammar and vocabulary which are no longer current. Examples include the use of grammatical forms such as „twas (it was) and quoth (said), words such as

e’en (even) and wight (white) and spelling, such as

daunsynge (dancing) and olde (old).

2. neologisms or the invention of new words, as in Othello‟s verb lip (kiss), e.g. to lip that is to kiss..

3. poetic diction or vocabulary that is typically poetic such as nymph, slumber, woe, etc.. or in an unusual sense such as

“History has tongues”.

4. word order in an uncommon way such as “I might not this believe..”

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The language of drama is often considered as poetic language (as in Shakespeare‟s plays) or as prose such as the novel or short story.

However, drama is mainly dialogue or conversation.

The novel, in short, is the major genre of literature. It is characterized by enormous variations in size and scope. Therefore,

other than its narrative purpose, it is characterized by variety in

linguistic form and content.

SAQ (4)

1- What does Text C tell you about literature?

2- In what ways does the language of literature differ from everyday language?

3- How does the language of literature differ from scientific language?

4- What are the characteristics of poetic language?

5- How does the language of drama look like poetry or prose?

Exercise (4)

Read the following text and answer the questions. Attitude to Audience

A concern with the sound of words implies a

concern with the ears that hear the sound.

Shakespeare is always greatly aware of his own

Elizabethan audience, that mixed bag of aristocrats,

wits, gallants, cut-purses, sailors and soldiers on

leave, schoolboys and apprentices, which bears a

greater resemblance to the modern cinema audience

than the modern theatre audience (in Europe,

anyway). He tries to establish intimacy with this

audience, to bring it into the play, and his soliloquies

are not speeches which the actor pretends to be

delivering to himself, but intimate communications

with the audience. It was, anyway, difficult to

pretend that the audience was not there: the daylight

blazed on the audience, the audience surrounded

three sides of the stage, some of the audience even

sat on the stage. The modern actor, cut off from his

audience by footlights and darkness, can pretend that

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they are rows of cabbages, not people at all. Not so

the Elizabethan actor: he had to establish contact

with auditors who were critical, sometimes rowdy,

certainly always day-lit flesh-and-blood, not

abstractions hidden by darkness. This audience had

to be given what it wanted, and, being a mixed bag,

it wanted a variety of things-action and blood for the

unlettered, fine phrases and wit for the gallants,

thought and debate and learning for the more

scholarly, subtle humour for the refined, boisterous

clowning for the unrefined, love-interest for the

ladies, song and dance for everybody. Shakespeare

gives all these things; no other dramatist has given

any-thing like as much.

(from Burgess, 1998:76)

1. What evidence can you infer from the text that literature is a type

of ESP?

……………………………………………………………….

……………………………………………………………….

……………………………………………………………….

……………………………………………………………….

2. Mention 8 categories of Shakespeare‟s audience.

……………………………………………………………….

……………………………………………………………….

……………………………………………………………….

3. How does the theatre today differ from what it was in

Shakespeare‟s days?

……………………………………………………………….

……………………………………………………………….

……………………………………………………………….

……………………………………………………………….

4. What did the Shakespearean audience want from the dramatist?

……………………………………………………………….

……………………………………………………………….

……………………………………………………………….

……………………………………………………………….

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6. Language and Religion

Text D He said: “O Adam! Tell them their nature.” When

he had told them, God said: “Did I not tell you that I know

the secrets of heaven and earth, and I know what ye reveal

and what ye conceal?”

Text E

And out of the ground the Lord God formed every

beast of the field, and every fowel of the air; and brought

them unto Adam to see what he would call them: and

whatsoever Adam called every living creature, that was the

name thereof.

Text D is an English translation of a verse from the Holy Qur‟an, whereas Text E is an English version of a verse from the Holy Bible.

As it is clear from these two texts, there is a close relationship between language and religious belief. It is said that God has given

language as a gift to mankind.

According to Crystal (1987:385), the most striking feature of a religious language is its heterogeneity, deriving from the various

activities involved in public and private worship, and the place of religion in daily living and thinking. Crystal adds that the following

varieties, all distinctive in their use of linguistic structure, are very

common:

Liturgical forms …. spoken ………, produced by

individuals and in unison, as monologue and

dialogue, and including such acts as invocations,

petitions, doxologies (statements of golry or praise),

intercessions, thanksgivings, ….

Preaching from formal written sermon to

spontaneous monologues or even dialogues (as the

congregation reacts), ….

Ritual forms used in relation to cultural or social

practices, such as baptisms, funerals, confessions,

meal-times, remembrance services, weddings,

initiation ceremonies, circumcisions, invocations,

meditations, ……, oaths, vows, ….., and the

blessing of people, objects, or places.

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Readings from sacred texts, in an original language

or in translation, …. The texts themselves will

contain a wide range of varieties, such as parables,

…, historical narrative, …. description, …

Doctrinal statements as expounded in official

„canonical‟ documents, creeds, articles of faith, ….,

expository pamphlets, courses of instruction, ….,

and , these days, teach-ins on cable television.

Private affirmation of belief in supernatural beings,

expressions of mystical …. expressions of …..

prayers, prophesying.

(quoted in Crystal, 1987:385)

It is important for those interested in the language of religion as students or specialists to be familiar with these varieties of religious

language. Finally, religious language is characterized by a very formal

style given the seriousness of the content of the message delivered.

SAQ (5)

1. What common features can you find between poetry and religious

language?

2. In what ways is religious language a type of ESP?

3. Is there much difference between spoken and written religious language?

4. What is the difference between preaching and ritual forms?

Exercise (5)

Read the following text and answer the questions.

Quranic literature is so voluminous that no single

man can compass a perusal of the whole. Besides the extant

works, there were innumerable works written for special

groups of people or from special points of view or for

special purposes, which have perished. And more works are

being added everyday. The activity in this line has never

been greater than it is now.

There is no book in the world in whose service so

much talent, so much labour, so much time and money have

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been expended as has been the case with the Qur-ān. A mere

glance at Imām Suyūtī‟s. (d. 911 H.) Itqan or Haji Khalifa‟s

(d. 1059 H.) Kashf-uz-zunun will show the encyclopaedic

volume of the Quranic sciences in their day.

Since then the volume has continued to go on

increasing, although it must be admitted that the quality of

the later literature on the subject leaves much to be desired.

With the retrogression of the Islamic nations in original

work in science, art, and philosophy, and the concomitant

limitation in their outlook and experience in various phases

of intellectual and spiritual life, has come a certain limitation

in the free spirit of research and enquiry. The new

Renaissance of Islam which is just beginning will, it is

hoped, sweep away cobwebs and let in the full light of

reasoning and understanding.

(From Ali, 1977:ix.)

1. What evidence is there from the text that religious language is a type of ESP?

…………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………

2. What do the following special terms mean?

voluminous ……………………………………………….………………………………..

perusal ………………….………………………………….………………………………..

perished ……………………………………………….……………………………………

expended ……………………………………………….………………………………….

encyclopedic …………………………………………….………………………………..

ritrogression ……………………………………………….…...…………………………

concomitant ……………………………………………….………………………………

Renaissance ……………………………………………….……..………………………

3. Give reasons why the Qur-ān is unlike other books.

…………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………

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4. Is the above text an example of written or spoken religious language?

…………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………

7. Where to Draw the Line?

In this final section of the book, after having described, discussed, and practised various types of ESP, the question remains whether there is really a radical difference between general English

(GE) and English for specific or special purposes (ESP). After all,

general English is the foundation on which ESP is built. Secondly, all

ESP varieties (mentioned or not mentioned in this book) employ a lot of common vocabulary, grammatical structures and functions. Thirdly,

all types of English, general or specific, adopt the same or similar

organizational structure: beginning, middle and close, not to mention that all language consists of sounds or letters, joined, according to

linguistic rules, into syllables, syllables into morphemes, morphemes

into words, words into phrases, phrases into sentences (or utterances),

and these into discourse (or texts).

Perhaps, arguments like those mentioned above explain some of the anxiety over special uses of language seen in the campaigns to

promote „plain‟ speaking and writing in Britain and the USA. These

campaigns attack the use of unnecessarily complicated language by

governments, businesses and other authorities in linguistic contact with the general public. The campaigners‟ aim is to replace such

language, whether spoken or written, with clearer forms of expression

(Crystal, 1987:387).

Whatever the case may be, barriers to communication do exist. (If you want to know why read this book again.) Linguistic difficulties

are inevitable whenever there is a need for interaction. These

difficulties are justification enough for ESP to be taught and learnt.

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SAQ (6)

1. What arguments do you have in support of ESP?

2. Why do some people compaign for the use of plain English?

3. Where do you stand in the controversy on ESP?

4. Where do you actually draw the line between ESP and plain

English?

Exercise (6)

Read the following text and answer the questions.

I feel … that there is a close connection among three aspects

of language in our society. First is the associative squirrel-

chatter that one hears on streets, and even in college halls,

jerking along apologetically or defiantly in a series of

unshaped phrases, using slang or vogue words for emphasis

and punctuation. Second is the poetic illiteracy which

regards anything in verse as a verbal puzzle, not even a

puzzle to be worked out, but a disdainful and inscrutable

puzzle without an answer. Third is the dead, senseless,

written pseudo-prose that surrounds us like a boa constrictor,

which is said to cover its victims with smile before

strangling them. This last, under the names of jargon,

gobbledygook, and the like, has often enough been

recognized as a disease of contemporary language and

ridiculed or deplored as such.

(From Hodges et al, 1990:357)

1. How would you describe the text?

(a) An example of sociolinguistics.

(b) A very formal style of English.

(c) A commentary on the state of English usage today.

(d) None of the above.

(e) All the above.

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2. Would you consider the text as ESP or GE? Why?

……………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………

3. Summarize the text in four sentences at most.

……………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………

4. In the light of your answer to Q.3 can we draw the line between ESP and GE?

……………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………

8. Overview

In this final unit of the book, an overview of ESP was first

given. Following that, specific examination of the language of law, medicine, literature and religion was made. Finally, a discussion was

given on the possibility of drawing a line between ESP and general

English.

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9. Answer Key

Exercise (1)

1. It is an ESP literature type. The contents and language of the text

are literary; it belongs to literary criticism.

2. Castaway

Footsteps

Any correct, grammatical and meaningful sentences are acceptable.

3. Use your dictionary to find the meanings of the given words.

4. In all words (except the 3rd

word, undimmed), there is a process of adding a derivational suffix; in undimmed a derivational prefix is

used.

5. As instructed.

6. One register is that the text is a literary one. The other register is that the text is literary criticism.

Exercise (2)

1. (a) Punctuation.

2. (g) All the above.

3. Situate, aforesaid

4. Settlement, liability, settlor, debtor, agreement.

Exercise (3)

1. The similarities: Both texts use the basic structures and lexion of general English.

The differences: Text A is a written type text but Text B is a spoken type text. Text B is conversational but Text A is formal.

2. Cryosurgery, electrosurgery, undergo, headaches.

3. The procedure is done ..

Spots can simply be cut away.

You are informed ..

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4. The medical style ranges between the formal, consultative and casual styles depending on who speaks (or writes) what, to whom.

5. Tissue, cosmetic, complications, depressed.

6. As instructed.

Exercise (4)

1. Literature has its own languages, grammatical structures and

functions. Literature has its own genres, styles and register: which distinguish it from other types of language.

2. Aristocrats, wits, gallants, cut-purses, sailors, soldiers, school boys, apprentices.

3. In Shakespeare‟s theatre, actors attempted to establish intimacy

with the audience as it was difficult to pretend that the audience was not there …

4. The audience wanted a variety of things: action and blood for the uneducated; fine language for the gallants; thought, debate and

learning for the scholarly, etc.

Exercise (5)

1. The language style, content, etc. are all different from general English.

2. Use your dictionary.

3. It is unlike other books in its language which is neither verse nor prose but a unique linguistic style.

4. It is an example of written text.

Exercise (6)

1. All the above.

2. I would consider it half-way between ESP and GE.

3. As instructed.

4. Sometimes it is possible as in the case of specialized texts, and

sometimes there is a lot of overlap between the two types of

English.

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10. References 1. Bankhead, Charles, D. et al (1996). Medical Book of Remedies.

Lincolnwood, Illinois (USA): Publication International, Ltd.

2. Burgess, Anthony (1998). English Literature. London: Longman.

3. Crystal, David (1987). The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Language. Cambridge (U.K): CUP.

4. Kennedy, Chris and Rod Bolitho (1984). English for Specific

Purposes. London: Macmillan.

Sources quoted in the Exercises

1. Ali, A. Yusuf (1977). The Glorious Qur’an: Translation and

Commentary. American Trust Publications.

2. Burgess, Anthony (1998). See References above.

3. Crystal, David (1987). See References above.

4. Hodges, John C. et al (1990). Harbrace College Handbook for

Canadian Writers. Toronto: Harcourt Brace jovancovich, Canada.

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Glossary

Glossary of Unit One

Abbreviation

Academic

Acronyms

Approach

Article

Back Formation

Blends

Classification

Clipping

Communicative Function

Complex

Compound

Concepts

Conceptual Paragraph

Conclusion

Conjunction

Connectors

Conversation

Conversion

Definition

Description

Discourse

EAP

(EFL) English-As-A-Foreign Language

English For Academic Purposes

English For Specific Or Special Purposes (ESP)

English-As-A-Foreign Language (EFL)

English-As-A-Second Language (ESL)

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EOP/EPP

(ESL) English-As-A-Second Language

(ESP) English For Specific Or Special Purposes

ESP Units

EST

Evaluation

General English (GE).

Instructions

Linguists

Messages

Modals

Non-Standard

Objective Tests

Occupational

Paragraph

Performance

Physical Paragraph

Plurals

Prefixing

Pronouns

Qualitative Methods

Reference

Request

Scientific

Sentence

Simple

Spoken

Structures

Style

Subjective Tests

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Suffixing

Summary

Summative

Tense

Topic

Visual-Verbal

Written

Glossary of Unit Two

Anomalous Finites

Audio-Lingual Approach

Behavioral

Cognitive/Mental

Communicative Approaches

Compound Nouns

Conditionals

Connectives

Content-Centred

Ellipsis

English As A Foreign Language (TEFL)

Functions

Grammatical Explanations

Grammatical Structures

Learner-Centred Approaches

Learning Strategies

Learning-Centred

Lexical

Lexical Cohesion

Lexicon

Means

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Methodology

Needs

Needs Analysis

Passives

Prepositional

Present-Situation

Psycholinguistics

Register

Sociolinguistic Theory

Strategy

Substitution

Target-Situation

(TEFL) English As A Foreign Language

Text

Traditional Approach

Glossary of Unit Three

Arguing

Asking Questions

Audio-Visual Aids

Commenting

Discussing

Essay-writing

Examinations

Group Discussion

Listening

Note-taking

Reporting

Research Papers

Seminars

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Skills

Skills Integration

Speaking Skills

Summarizing

Tests

Understanding Lectures

Writing

Glossary of Unit Four

Authentic Materials

Grading by Focus

Grading of Materials

Grammatical Grading

Organizational Functions

Published Materials

Rhetorical Functions

Selection of Materials

Simplified and Adapted Materials

Teacher-made Materials

Glossary of Unit Five Affixation EST Evaluation

Forms

Frequency

Nominal Register Model

Special Englishes

Syntactic Features

Terminology Verb

Word-Formation

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Glossary of Unit Six

Appendix Application Letters

Banking

Bibliography

Big business Body

Business

Business English Closing

Complimentary Close

Computer

Concern Corporate

Corporation

Cover Letter

Data Delayering

E-mail

Entrepreneur Executive

Expository Language

Faxes

Finance Firing

Firm

Formal Formal Reports

Format

Glossary

Graphs Heading

Hiring

Informal Information Text

Interpretation

Labour

Layout Legal Implications

Letter Format

Manager

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Memos

Middle

Multinational Opening

Output

President

Products Reply Letters

Reports

Respondent Response

Resumes

Sales Letters

Salutation Scientific English

Senior

Signature Small business

Table of Contents

The Abstract

The Body Title Page

Glossary of Unit Seven

Advertising

Broadcasting

Channels

Contexts Controversy

Figurative

Idiosyncratic Style Internet

Journalese

Literary

Magazines Mass-Media

Newspapers

Phonetic Press

Professionalism

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Radio

Rhyme

Rhythm Spelling

Television Appeal

Uniqueness

Varieties Vocabulary

Glossary of Unit Eight

Attitude Consultation

Courtroom

Distinctiveness

Law Lawyers

Literature

Medicine Religion

Witnesses

-407 -

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