English 9A: Argumentative

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English 9A: Argumentative Informational Text

Evaluating an Argument: And the verdict is…

An argument is a series of statements designed to convince you of something. When you evaluate an author’s argument, you act somewhat like a juror serving on a trial. Like a juror, you need to analyze the evidence presented to you and decide whether the argument is sound. The following tips and the chart on the next page will help you determine whether an author’s argument is credible, or believable:

1. Understand the claim, or opinion. First, read through the argument to make sure that you understand the matter being discussed. Identity what the author is trying to prove, which is called the claim, or opinion. Often the author’s opinion is stated in the form of a generalization, or a broad statement that covers many situations. For example, the following statement is a generalization that expresses an opinion: all jurors should be allowed to take notes during a trial. Try to restate the author’s opinion in your own words.

2. Identify the support. An author must provide support for a claim in order to create a persuasive argument. Here are some common types of support that authors use:

Logical appeals. To show that their opinions are valid, authors present reasons, statements that explain why the author holds an opinion. For example, the following statement provides a reason for the author’s opinion: All jurors should be allowed to take notes during a trial because notes can help them remember important information for reaching a verdict. Evidence is the information that authors use to support their reasons. Every generalization, to be believable, should be backed up by evidence. There are several types of evidence:

▪ Facts ▪ Statistics (number facts) ▪ Examples ▪ Quotations from or opinions of

experts Sometimes writers use analogies, another type of logical appeal to help them explain a point. An analogy is a type of comparison in which writers usually explain something complex or unfamiliar in terms of something

familiar. Emotional appeals. To win readers over to their opinions, authors sometimes appeal to readers’ emotions rather than their reason. Writers, for instance, might want their readers to feel outrage over an injustice or to feel sympathy for a victim. Emotional appeals can be effective tools, but watch out for arguments that rely heavily on emotion at the expense of logic. It’s usually a sign that an argument is weak. Emotional appeals include

▪ Loaded words (words with strong emotional connotations)

▪ Anecdotes (brief stories) 3. Evaluate the evidence. An argument is only as

strong as its evidence. Ask yourself: “does the evidence directly support the author’s reasons? Does the author present sufficient evidence to back up generalizations and to prove the claim? Has the author loaded the argument with emotional appeals instead of proving valid evidence?

4. Identify the author’s intent. Finally, think about why the author is making this argument. As far as you can tell, has the author carefully weight all the evidence before arriving at an opinion? Does the author instead seem to be biased or prejudiced? Note how the author’s intent, or purpose, influences the tone of the argument. For example, if the author wants to urge readers to take action, the tone might be strongly emotional.

Evaluating an Author’s Argument

Claim, or opinion:

Logical appeals Reason 1: Evidence: Reason 2: Evidence:

Emotional appeals Loaded words: Anecdotes:

Tone:

5. Create a chart. To help you evaluate an argument, make a chart like the one shown here. Such a chart

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English 9A: Argumentative will help you see the strengths and weaknesses of an argument.

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English 9A: Argumentative Common Fallacies

1. Ignoring the burden of proof: failing to support one’s claim (ua: unsupported assertion)

a. Ex: certain music should be banned (thesis) because it makes kids kill themselves (claim): i. What’s the evidence?(refutation)

2. Begging the question: to assume as true precisely what needs to be proven

a. Ex: those arrested shouldn’t have lawyers present during questioning (thesis) because criminals don’t deserve such rights (premise).

i. Assumes everyone that’s arrested is guilty (refutation)

3. Can lead to a circular argument: a. Ex: I agree with weintraub that parents are to blame for childhood obesity because I really

believe he’s right. 4. Argumentum ad hominem: attacking your opponent instead of your opponent’s ideas

a. Ex: why would anyone accept Obama’s plans for job growth? (thesis) he never had any business experience before he took office (claim)

5. Extension: exaggerating/distorting a person’s argument to make them look bad

a. Ex: do you like carne asada? No? What do you have against Mexicans? 6. Leads to so-called “straw man” (see #15): a person who can’t win an argument any other way might

attempt to paint his opponent as a racist 7. Red herring: intentionally trying to change the subject

a. Ex: "why should I study math? I don't want to be a math teacher. Teachers don’t make any money and have to babysit kids all day.

b. Daughter: "I'm so hurt that Todd broke up with me, Mom." Mother: "Just think of all the starving children in Africa, honey. Your problems will seem pretty insignificant then."

8. Appeal to pity: used to avoid having to defend a logical appeal

a. Ex: "ladies and gentlemen of the jury, look at this miserable man, in a wheelchair, unable to use his legs. Could such a man really be guilty of embezzlement?"

b. Ex: Teacher: “Did you do the homework?” Student: Well, you see it’s difficult…”

9. Hasty generalization: making a conclusion about a group based on one’s experience with a few

individuals one associates with that group a. Ex: assuming all Chinese people are disgusting and rude after once sitting next to a few such

individuals on a bus bench in Chinatown 10. Stereotype: judging individuals according to one’s opinion of the group you associate them with

a. Automatically assuming the Chinese person one meets is going to be rude and disgusting because of perceptions about the Chinese in general

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English 9A: Argumentative 11. Either-or fallacy: failure to consider other alternatives (a situation in which only two alternatives are

considered, when in fact there are additional possibilities) a. Ex: "it wasn't medicine that cured Mrs. X, so it must have been a miracle." b. Ex: Either you believe in God, or you go to hell.

12. Oversimplified cause: mistaking a possibly contributory cause for a sufficient one

a. Ex: so-called “suicide rock” should be banned so teens stop taking their own lives. i. (it’s possible that listening to certain types of music might make a particular person

commit suicide, but it’s obvious that it doesn’t have that effect on everyone) b. Ex: School violence has gone up and academic performance has gone down ever since organized

prayer was banned at public schools. Therefore, prayer should be reintroduced, resulting in school improvement.

13. Unexamined analogy (false analogy): saying two things are similar when in fact they have significant

differences a. ex: we ought to install metal detectors at schools because they work in prisons

14. False authority: relying on the opinion of a non-expert.

a. Ex: buying a Toyota because Kobe recommends it 15. Post hoc ergo propter hoc: “after this, therefore because of this” (you assume x caused y just because x

happened first) a. Ex: "I can't help but think that you are the cause of this problem; we never had any problem

with the furnace until you moved into the apartment." b. Ex: “I prayed for rain then it rained, therefore prayer works”

i. Think about superstitions 16. Non-sequitur: one’s conclusion does not follow logically from one’s evidence

a. Ex: "o. J. Simpson is in the pro football hall of fame. He couldn't have murdered his wife. b. Ex: Buddy Burger has the greatest food in town. Buddy Burger was voted #1 by the local paper.

Therefore, Phil, the owner of Buddy Burger, should run for President of the United States. 17. Straw man: what’s created when an argument is grossly (extremely) distorted or misrepresented

a. Ex: ● Bill and Jill are arguing about cleaning out their closets: ● Jill: "We should clean out the closets. They are getting a bit messy." ● Bill: "Why, we just went through those closets last year. Do we have to clean them out

everyday?" ● Jill: "I never said anything about cleaning them out every day. You just want too keep all

your junk forever, which is just ridiculous."

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English 9A: Argumentative Logical Fallacies Exercise

The following statements are faulty because they are based on one or more logical fallacies. Your job is to identify which one(s) underlies each.

1. “Of course he’s guilty. If he were innocent, he would have disproved those charges long ago.”

2. “Careful research shows that many of the most successful people have large vocabularies. This proves that the

way to be successful is to develop a large vocabulary.”

3. “Frank and Jenny aren’t mature enough to get married since they’re just teenagers, and teenagers have the highest

divorce rate of any age group. If teen were more mature, they would be able to make their marriages work.”

4. The president of a university says to professors at a faculty meeting: “we must give student athletes special

consideration in our grading system, or our athletic program will suffer since everyone will be declared ineligible to play because of their bad grades.”

5. "I think that we should make the academic requirements stricter for students. I recommend that you support this

because we are in a budget crisis and we do not want our salaries affected."

6. “Bill, you’re a superb mechanic; you seem to have a natural talent for detecting anything that’s wrong with a car

and fixing it. Surely, then, you can analyze the rough drafts of your papers and turn them into quality essays.”

7. “Students here are rude. Last night some guys in the room next to mine played their stereo at full blast until two

in the morning, and as I was on my way to class this morning a bicyclist almost ran me down.”

8. (from two people talking about sushi – a Japanese dish consisting of raw fish)

a. “You know, I’ve never really been too crazy about sushi. I don’t like to eat any meat unless it’s cooked.” b. “You have no appreciation of Japanese culture. I bet you think chopsticks are stupid and that Japanese

music sounds terrible. What do you have against Japan?”

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English 9A: Argumentative 9. “I went to a feminist meeting last night. The speakers were about as ugly a group of women as I’ve ever seen.

No wonder they hate men. A man would have to be pretty desperate to want to have anything to do with them.”

10. “Oh come on, I've been sick. That's why I missed the deadline.”

11. “It comes down to this: either the U.S. should take control of Iraq in order to get rid of terrorists there or it should

bomb that country to smithereens.”

12. (from a conversation between two business owners) “I don’t know what the colleges are teaching nowadays. I

just received a letter of application from a young man who graduated from the state university last June. It was a terrible letter – badly written, with basic mistakes in spelling, punctuation, and grammar. If that is the kind of product the university is turning out, it does not deserve the tax support it’s getting.”

13. “The argument that football is a dangerous sport is disproved very simply by showing that the death rate – not

total deaths, but deaths per thousand – among high school, college, and professional players combined is much less than the death of the total population.”

14. “I dined in a London restaurant last summer, and the fish was so bad I couldn’t eat it. What’s more, a friend of

mine traveled on a British ocean liner, and she said the menus were boring – practically everything was boiled beef and potatoes. The English seem to have no talent for cooking.”

15. “When the fuel light goes on in my car, I soon run out of gas. Therefore, the fuel light causes my car to run out of

gas.”

16. “Bingo should be made illegal since so many elderly people like to play it.”

17. “I decided to buy an Apple computer because Kobe Bryant said in a TV commercial that it has the best graphic

interface hardware.”

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English 9A: Argumentative 18. “He’s obviously lazy. Why else would he be living in such a dump?”

19. “Al Gore warns everybody about global warming, but he lives in a huge house and owns a lot of stock in a big oil

company. In short, he’s a hypocrite. I guess we don’t need to be that concerned about the planet heating up.”

20. “I saw a local band last night that was supposedly old-school ska, but it didn’t even have a horn section – and

everybody was moshin’ instead of skankin’. I guess people around here are pretty clueless about what ska really is.”

21. “I am a good worker because Frank says so. How can we trust Frank? Simple: I will vouch for him.”

22. “When the rooster crows, the sun rises. Therefore, the rooster causes the sun to rise.”

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English 9A: Argumentative Writing an Essay that Evaluates

the Strengths and Weaknesses of Competing Arguments

Steps in the Process

1. Look for the thesis (may be included in the title) 2. Look for supporting arguments

a. It helps if you can recognize different types of appeals i. Logos (Logical): based on facts (including statistics) and other things that

can be proven ii. Ethos (ethical/credibility):

1. based on the credibility of the author (or the experts he/she cites) 2. based on agreed-upon values

iii. Pathos (Emotional) 1. based on feelings associated with a particular point of view

3. Look for evidence used for supporting arguments a. facts, expert opinion, loaded words, etc

4. Look for any counterarguments and attempts to refute them

5. Look for fallacies such as contradictions, ad hominems, red herrings, etc.

6. Organize your findings in an outline or with a double-bubble map a. Outline

i. arrange your findings according 1. to the type of appeal 2. counterarguments and refutation 3. fallacies

b. Double-Bubble Map i. Write what the authors have in common in the middle bubbles

(such as similar topics) ii. write in the outer bubbles what the authors disagree about with respect to each of the

items in the middle bubbles

Annotate everything!

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English 9A: Argumentative

A Weighty Case

1) Crowds of students once streamed toward Smith High School just before the first bell,

headed for their lockers to deposit their bulging backpacks crammed with text books, three-ring

binders, library books, paper, pens, calculators, and perhaps track shoes, lunches, and extra sweat

shirts. However, now they are out of luck. Now there is no rest for the weary and heavy-laden at

Smith High School, where lockers have been removed by school administrators because of their

concerns about crowded hallways and tardiness. As a result, Smith High School students carry

their heavy backpacks all day—an unfortunate situation that will cause other serious problems for

students and should be changed.

2) According to a school announcement, the decision to remove the lockers was prompted

primarily by congested hallways. During every passing period between classes, clumps of students

filled the halls so that other students could not get to class on time. Tardiness had become a real

issue for the administration and teachers. In addition, Dr. Jones, principal of Smith High School,

believed that locker maintenance had become an enormous effort. He explained in a school

bulletin, “Keeping the lockers in good shape has been an ongoing problem. . . . Besides, when

students go off to college, they will not have lockers, so they might as well learn to be organized

now, instead of later.” The school administration’s answer for the congested hallways, tardiness,

and Dr. Jones’s opinions was to remove the lockers from the high school.

3) Without lockers, students have been forced to carry heavy backpacks all day. This

situation creates not only an inconvenience, but also a health risk. Two recent studies show that

carrying an overloaded backpack can result in serious muscle strain in a student’s back and

shoulders. The U.S. Consumer Product Safety Commission announced last year that 5,900

students were treated at various health care sites, emergency rooms, clinics, and doctors’ offices

for injuries caused by backpacks. In addition, 58 percent of the doctors surveyed by the American

Academy of Orthopedic Surgeons reported that they had treated students for pain caused by

carrying heavy backpacks.

4) Alexa Nuñez, a local chiropractor, confirms the findings of the two studies by reporting

an increase in the number of high school students who suffer from back and neck pain caused by

carrying heavy backpacks. She says, “Students are carrying heavy backpacks slung over one

shoulder and increasing their risk of injury.” Nuñez also says that the American Chiropractic

Association recommends that a backpack should weigh no more than 10 percent of the student’s

body weight, or no more than 15 pounds. A backpack full of textbooks and supplies, however,

weighs 25 or 30 pounds. Asking students to carry this weight all day means ignoring basic health

guidelines.

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English 9A: Argumentative 5) What happens physically to a student carrying a heavy backpack? First affected is the

spinal column, made up of thirty-three vertebrae, each cushioned by a disk to prevent the vertebrae

from rubbing against one another. If a student carries a backpack loaded with five or six

1,000-page books, the force of the weight pulls him backward, forcing the spine into awkward

positions and prohibiting the disks from doing an adequate job of cushioning the vertebrae. Even if

the backpack is carried on both shoulders, the student compensates for the backpack’s weight by

leaning forward to keep from falling backward. To see where he is going and to stay balanced as

he walks, the student lifts his head in an unnatural position. His front neck muscles tighten, also

contributing to muscle strain in his neck and shoulders.

6) In addition, constantly carrying a heavy backpack “flattens the natural curve in the

lower back,” says Jan Richardson, president of the American Physical Therapy Association. Such

flattening of the lower back results in chronic poor posture and leads to back and neck pain. Even

worse, if the student carries a backpack over only one shoulder, the backpack’s strap digs into his

shoulder, cutting off proper circulation and causing a tingling in his hands and a weakness in his

arms. It may also contribute to a temporary curvature of the spine. Straps that are not adjusted

properly may cause nerve damage in the collarbone area. If students suffer the effects of a heavy

backpack at this young age, consider what happens when they move into the work force.

Currently, working Americans suffer most from back pain, “costing the U. S. economy as much as

$50 billion annually in lost wages and productivity,” according to one study.

7) To help students manage the restrictions of a lockerless school and a heavy backpack

school day, Mrs. Yablonsky, Smithville’s physical education instructor, has taken time out of all

her classes this semester to teach students exercises, specifically designed to help them correct

their postures and to counteract the effects of carrying heavy backpacks. In the class I attended last

week, she asked each student to stand before a mirror at home and check to see if one shoulder is

higher than the other. She requested that the students check their postures, their head positions, and

their knees and to look for any slouching or slumping positions. The students have to do 10 or 15

minutes of daily exercises at home—stomach crunches and pushups held for 10 seconds—in order

to develop stronger muscles.

8) She also provided a checklist for choosing a kind of backpack that would best serve

each student’s needs. Backpacks should have two, well-padded straps and a belt strap. Students

should use all three kinds of straps, not just sling their backpacks over their shoulders. Backpacks

should have several compartments to distribute the load, and students should load their backpacks

with the heavier items closer to their backs, not stuffed at the bottom, as students usually do.

Loading backpacks in this manner means that the students’ legs are carrying most of their weight,

not their backs.

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English 9A: Argumentative 9) Mrs. Yablonski demonstrated the correct way to pick up a backpack and then had all of

us in the class practice with our own normally loaded backpacks. We had to face our backpack

before lifting it, bend our knees, and using both hands, check the weight of our backpack by

picking up our backpack a little from the floor to see if it was too heavy. If it felt heavy, we had to

take at least one book from our backpacks. Then from a bent-knee position, we lifted our

backpacks with our legs, not our backs, carefully putting on both straps and attaching the waist

strap. After we had all put on our backpacks the correct way, she encouraged us students to use

this procedure at all times—even in the rush to get from one class to another.

10) As part of the classroom exercises, Mrs. Yablonski instructed the students to first lie

flat on the floor, face up, and push their lower backs to the floor several times in a passive stretch.

Standing, the students shrugged their shoulders, counted ten, released, and repeated the shrug for

several times. Still standing, the students reached up as high as they could, one arm at a time, for

several times. Finally, the students extended their arms in front, palms up, stretching outward, and

repeating for several times. Performing all of these exercises made me aware of the importance of

good posture, of the importance of carrying my backpack correctly, and of the dangers associated

with carrying heavy backpacks, as all students at Smithville High School now have to do.

11) Besides the harm caused by carrying these backpacks, there is an additional danger

once students get to class. Because a stuffed backpack cannot fit under a desk, it ends up jamming

the aisle. As a result, students and teachers cannot move freely around the classroom, and they

may trip and fall. In case of a fire or even a fire drill, what if a student stumbles on a backpack,

falls, and smashes her head? In the rush to escape, what if no one notices her? Is this a risk that

Smith High administrators are willing to take?

12) Because of the hardships imposed on students by the school administration’s decision,

I ask for one of the following actions. First, I urge the school administration to reconsider its

decision and restore the lockers for student use at least before school, during lunch, and after

school. If students used their lockers at these times, they would not fill the halls during the passing

periods, risk being tardy, or jam the aisles. The students would have to carry only half of their

day’s required books and perhaps cut the weight of their backpacks in half.

13) Second, if the school cannot reinstall the lockers for some reason, I request that the

school remedy the situation with a widely discussed and widely used method: Issue two sets of

textbooks—one for the classroom and one for home. Many principals in other areas strongly

support the dual textbook method. By having several classes share the classroom’s set of books,

Dr. Valdez, of Coronado High School in nearby Granger, estimates that the cost of providing the

class set of books is only 10 or 15 percent higher than if the district did not purchase the class set.

14) Everyone is concerned about student health, but the school should not expose students

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English 9A: Argumentative to real health risks in order to prevent possible, but highly unlikely, risks. Removing the lockers

was a mistake because of the problems it has created for the students. To correct its mistake, Smith

High School should reinstall the lockers or issue another set of textbooks for each student.

from Expanded Writer’s Model: Persuading with Cause and Effect

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English 9A: Argumentative Make an outline for “A Weighty Case”

1. Identify the topic (thesis) 2. Identify the main categories

a. Create subcategories

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English 9A: Argumentative

Do Something Good for the Earth

1) Garbage! It smells bad and looks disgusting. Most people think about trash only when

they take it out. People in the United States should be thinking about garbage more, however,

because they throw away 40 percent of all the garbage in the world. The solution to this problem is

recycling. Recycling is the best way to preserve natural resources and to reduce the costs of

processing garbage.

2) By recycling, we can prevent our country from being buried in trash. Much of the

garbage that is now tossed out could be recycled. Of the 200 million tons of garbage that U.S.

citizens produce yearly, about 42 percent is paper (from trees), 8 percent is glass, 9 percent is metal

(from ore, a natural resource), 7 percent is plastic (from petroleum, a natural resource), 8 percent is

food waste, and 18 percent is yard waste. Government officials estimate that 60 percent of all this

trash could be recycled. Environmentalists suggest a much higher figure—as much as 70 to 90

percent.

3) Recycling more of our garbage can also save precious resources. My grandfather says

the thick forests that once surrounded my hometown have nearly vanished. By recycling

newspapers, we can rescue trees from destruction. For example, recycling could help save some of

the fifty thousand trees that are sacrificed every week to produce Sunday newspapers in the United

States. We can also save water and energy by recycling. Recycling paper instead of making it from

trees reduces the amount of water used to make the paper by 60 percent and the amount of energy

by 70 percent. Aluminum cans show the biggest savings from recycling. To produce a can from

recycled aluminum takes 95 percent less energy than from ore.

4) Recycling more can reduce the mountains of garbage we produce—and reduce the costs

associated with all the landfills where the garbage is dumped. Garbage does not just disappear after

it is hauled away. It usually goes into landfills—many of which have created toxic pollution

problems and enormous cleanup costs. People often object to recycling by saying that it costs too

much. Brenda Platt of the Institute for Local Self-Reliance says, “Studies have concluded that

recycling costs less than traditional trash collection and disposal when communities achieve high

levels of recycling.” Therefore, people should understand that recycling actually saves money by

reducing waste and by eliminating the costs that go along with solid-waste disposal and landfill

cleanup.

5) Much of what is thrown away now can be recycled. Anyone who loves the earth can help

make it a better place by recycling. Garbage makes our shared home, this planet, less livable for the

people of today and for the children of tomorrow. People have caused this garbage crisis, and only

people can solve it. Do you care enough to do your part by recycling?

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English 9A: Argumentative from A Writer’s Model

Make an outline for “Do Something Good for the Earth” 1. Identify the topic (thesis) 2. Identify the main categories

a. Create subcategories

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English 9A: Argumentative Before You Read

Rising Tides and An Arctic Floe of Climate Questions Evaluating Arguments: Pro and Con When you read or listen to opposing views on an important issue, how can you decide which side to believe?

1. Understand the arguments. Begin by making sure that you understand the issue and the opinion, or claim, presented in each argument. It helps to paraphrase the arguments, using your own words.

2. Identify the support start by identifying the logical appeals- the reasons why the writer holds that opinion- and the evidence given to back up each reason. The evidence may consist of the following items: ● Facts (statements that can be verified

objectively) ● Statistics (numerical facts) ● Examples ● Comments from experts To what extent has the author also used the emotional appeals, such as loaded words and anecdotes (colorful or emotional stories)?

Who is more persuasive? You can create a chart like the one on the next page to help you evaluate the credibility of each argument. To decide which argument is stronger and why, consider these questions:

1. Is the argument logical? Do the reasons make sense, and are they relevant to the issue? Learn to recognize these common fallacies, or errors in logical thinking: ● Circular reasoning. Watch out for statements

that look like reasons or conclusions but simply restate an author’s opinion.

“After-school sports are essential because they’re a necessary part of school activities.”

● False cause and effect. Just because one event happens after another event, the first event did not necessarily cause the second event. The two events may be (and often are) totally unrelated.

“When after-school sports were dropped at Adams High School, the dropout rate increased.”

● Hasty Generalization. A generalization is a broad statement. An author can’t generalize about everyone or everything based on one or

two cases. An author must examine many cases before he or she can make a valid (true) generalization.

“Everyone agrees that dropping after-school sports is a bad idea. I know because I asked my friend Chad, and he agrees with me.”

● Attacking the person. A good argument stays focused on an issue and on an opponent’s argument- not on an opponent’s character or judgment.

“Mr. McAloo, who proposed cutting after-school sports, is a mean, stingy person.”

2. How comprehensive is the support? Does the writer provide reasons and sufficient evidence to support every generalization? An unsupported generalization seriously weakens an argument.

3. Does the writer deal with opposing evidence? To strengthen his or her argument, does the writer discuss opposing evidence to anticipate objections? Dealing with the opponent’s viewpoint is important when an issue is a controversial one about which many people have clear pro (for) or con (against) views.

4. Is the structure effective? A good writer carefully structures an argument to be most persuasive. Readers generally remember the beginning and the end of a piece most clearly, so an effective technique is to put the strongest reasons in those positions. (Writers also commonly structure arguments using comparison and contrast and cause and effect.)

5. What is the author’s intent? Is the writer’s purpose clear throughout? Often the writer’s goal is just to change your thinking, but sometimes it is a call to action, asking you to go out and do something. Are you being asked to change your behavior in any way? To write a letter? To offer your help? Do there seem to be hidden agendas in the writer’s argument?

6. What is the tone? An author’s intent directly affects a work’s tone, a writer’s attitude toward his or her subject or audience. If the intent is to persuade, look for a tone that is serious, calm, and reasonable. You should question the credibility of the argument if the author uses a humorous, angry, or highly emotional tone or if the author exaggerates or ties to make light

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English 9A: Argumentative of various issues.

Answering all of these questions will help you evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of opposing argument.

Piece 1 Pro Piece 2 Con Claim

Logical appeals Emotional appeals Tone Author’s intent Credibility

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English 9A: Argumentative

Rising Tides By Bob Herbert Published on Thursday, February 22, 2001

in the New York Times The easiest approach for the time being is to pretend it's not happening. It's better for the nerves in the short run to remain riveted by the Clinton follies or the latest shenanigans on "Temptation Island" than to acknowledge that the majestic ice cap atop Mount Kilimanjaro, which seemed for so long to be an almost permanent feature of the planet, 1

will vanish in less than 15 years.

It's February and it's cold in New York, which can help us maintain the fiction that the planet is not warming at a scary rate. But the snows are disappearing from Kilimanjaro, and a few years ago scientists were astonished when a mammoth fragment of the Larsen 2

Ice Shelf at the edge of the Antarctic Peninsula collapsed like a window shattered by a 3

rock. The fragment had measured 48 miles by 22 miles and was hundreds of feet thick. It eventually disappeared.

Many strange things are happening. The seasons are changing, rainstorms are becoming more intense, sea levels are rising, mighty glaciers are receding, the permafrost (by definition, the permanently frozen subsoil in the polar regions) is thawing, trees are flowering earlier, insects are emerging sooner, and so on.

Global warming is not coming, it's here.

There are likely to be some beneficial results in some areas from the warming, such as longer growing seasons and increased crop yields in certain mid-latitude regions, and a decline in deaths related to extreme cold. But 4

over all, the effects of this sharp and accelerating and largely artificial warming of the planet including the consequences of such extreme events as droughts, floods, heat waves, avalanches and tropical storms are potentially catastrophic.

The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, in a report released Tuesday in Geneva , said, "More people 5

are projected to be harmed than benefited by climate change, even for global mean temperature increases of 6

less than a few degrees centigrade."

The report also discussed an issue that has profound policy and ethical implications. The worst effects of global 7

warming will probably not be felt by those most responsible for the pollution of the atmosphere by heat- trapping greenhouse gases. The great industrial societies, which have benefited so long from the rapacious devouring of resources and the indiscriminate release of pollutants, are also the societies best positioned to 8

1 Mount Kilimanjaro: highest mountain in Africa (19,340 ft.) located in Tanzania. 2 Mammoth: adj.: enormous 3 Antarctic Peninsula: narrow body of land (about 800 miles long) extending from Antarctica toward South America. The icy continent of Antarctica is a landmass surrounding the South Pole. 4 mid-latitude regions: areas of the world with moderate temperatures. 5 Geneva: city in southwest Switzerland 6 global mean temperature increases: increases in average temperatures all over the world. 7 ethical: adj.: moral; relating to principles of what’s right and just. 8 Rapacious devouring of resources: greedy using up of natural resources.

19

English 9A: Argumentative cope with the treacherous forces of global warming.

As the panel noted in its report, "The ability of human systems to adapt to and cope with climate change depends on such factors as wealth, technology, education, information, skills, infrastructure , access to resources, and management capabilities." 9

Developing countries, deficient in those areas, are doomed to suffer disproportionately 10

from the warming of the planet. "The effects of climate change," the panel said, "are expected to be greatest in developing countries in terms of loss of life and relative effects on investment and the economy."

Despite the powerful and increasing evidence of the role of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases in the warming of the earth, the concentrations of those gases in the atmosphere are expected to increase, not decrease, over the next several decades. Government leaders are not responding to the problem with the sense of urgency that is called for.

Carbon dioxide doesn't just float away in a day or two. It remains in the atmosphere for more than 100 years. The consequences of our failure to act will last for centuries.

Americans have a special responsibility here. The United States is the mightiest nation on the planet and the greatest contributor to the industrial component of global warming . The 11

nation is wealthy and at peace. A mature approach would require certain sacrifices designed to provide a better environment for future generations of Americans and a more equitable relationship with neighbors around the world.

But that's only one approach. Another is to just ignore the problem and continue to feast like gluttons at the 12

table of the world's resources. That will work for awhile. Why not? All you have to do is convince yourself that damaging the planet is somebody else's problem.

After reading ‘Rising Tides’ for the first time, write and answer the following questions on your group work paper:

1. What is the text about?

2. What are three important points or ideas in the text?

9 Infrastructure: basic installations such as roads, schools, power plants, and transportation and communication systems needed to support a modern, developed society. 10 Disproportionately: not in fair balance; here, to an excessive degree. 11 Industrial component of global warming: the release of pollutants during the manufacturing process, which increases the overall warming of the earth. 12 Gluttons: persons who greedily eat too much.

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English 9A: Argumentative

3. What is the purpose or intent of the text by Bob Herbert?

21

English 9A: Argumentative An Arctic Floe of Climate Questions

from Newsday, April 18, 2001 Robert Cooke

Recent reports of the North Pole’s demise are, to borrow from Mark Twain, “exaggerated.” 13

Although the blanket of floating ice that usually covers the North Pole was found last summer to be gone—there was just open water—climate specialists say that's not such a big deal. As the ice shifts, leads, or channels of water, open up, and ice-free areas called polynyas form.

Eventually, the ice moves and such gaps close. But some alarm bells did ring, because there is growing concern that we humans are

fouling things up through our burning of gas, oil, and coal, which releases so-called greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide into the air. These gases, which trap heat, may be causing the whole World's temperature to steadily creep higher and higher. And an absence of ice at the North Pole seemed like one more ominous sign of impending trouble.

Temperature records also show, clearly, that globally temperatures have gone up by about 3 degrees Fahrenheit in the past 150 years, or since temperatures have been recorded. And, perhaps coincidentally, the last few years have been the warmest on record, accentuating concerns. One scenario suggests that the greatest impact from warming will 14 15

be apparent at high latitudes near the poles . 16

A recent University of Wisconsin study has shown that in the Northern Hemisphere 17

many of the rivers an lakes that freeze are doing so later- by 8.7 days- than they did more than a century ago. Also, “ice-out,” or breakup, is occurring about 9.8 days sooner. This suggests that winters are now a bit shorter.

What people need to know, however, is that the global weather equation is enormously complex, and no one knows exactly how to work it out. A few years with extra-hot summers or an episode of ice shrinking at the poles does not make a disaster. Such things could be normal fluctuations in a very changeable system. 18

The reason it’s so hard to find answers is, in part, a matter of ignorance. Only in the past half-century have instruments begun to be set out at sea and on land to monitor what’s actually happening. And only since 19

about 1972 have orbiting satellites been able to even roughly track what’s happening to ice at the poles. 20

Because there is no reliable, long-term history of climate variability , we can’t know whether what seems usual 21

now is actually unusual in global climate. Tests in sediments and ice cores show that the world’s temperature 22

has been higher in the past and, of course, sometimes lower during ice ages. What recent data have suggested is that ice in the Arctic has been thinning, and the extent or area of sea

ice has shrunk by a measurable degree. On the other hand, there’s substantial disagreement among scientists there too. Measurements taken by submarines under the ice are being debated; some experts think the ice has

13 Recent reports…”exaggerated”: reference to an 1897 cable sent by the American humorist Mark Twain (1835-1910) to a journalist in response to rumors of Twain’s death, often quoted as “The reports of my death are greatly exaggerate.” 14 Accentuating: v. used as adj.: heightening; emphasizing. 15 Scenario: n.: outline of events, real or imagined. 16 Poles: n.: regions around the North and South Poles. 17 Northern Hemisphere: the half of the earth north of the equator. 18 Fluctuations: n.: temporary increases and decreases. 19 Monitor: v.: check on; observe. 20 Orbiting satellites: artificial, unmanned spacecraft that circle the earth, transmitting images and data from space. 21 Variability n.: changeability. 22 Sediments n.: soil, rock, and other solids deposited by water or wind.

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English 9A: Argumentative thinned, others think it hasn’t. In any case, the submarines have been cruising beneath the ice cap for less than 50 years.

Still, “if you look at the records, it seems that since 1972, when satellite observations began, there has definitely been a significant decrease in sea ice. It’s statistically significant decrease and that is pretty well accepted,” said climatologist Mark Serreze, at the University of Colorado. 23

But, he added, “the problem is that when you look at what the sea ice is doing, it’s no just temperature that governs what the ice is doing. The winds are involved in blowing it around.” So a large storm is capable of moving the ice, breaking it up and opening a polynya, an open sea area, at the North Pole.

“These are known to exist, even at the pole,” said George Kukla, a paleoclimatologist at Columbia 24

University’s Lamont Doherty Earth Observatory. From what I understand, in the past 20 years we’ve been observing a trend in the thinning of ice and a

decrease in the area covered by ice,” Kukla said. “But according to comparisons, it doesn’t seem to be reaching the situation [seen] in the 1940s and

1950s, when there are relatively little ice in the area,” Kukla said. So we can’t say it is something that was unprecedented.” 25

Reading Check 1. Name six effects of global warming mentioned in “Rising Tides.” 2. What two opposing approaches to global warming does Herbert say Americans can take? 3. According to Cooke’s article, what do temperature records show for the “last few years”? 4. According to Cooke, what do people need to know about the “global weather equation"?

23 Climatologist: n.: scientist who studies climate and it’s effects. 24 Paleoclimatologist: n.: scientist who studies earth’s ancient prehistoric climates. 25 Unprecedented: adj.: never happening before.

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English 9A: Argumentative Constructed Response Write a brief essay in which you evaluate the credibility of the two arguments. What is the author’s intent in each case? What is each Writer’s opinion, or claim? Is each argument logical and convincing? How strong and comprehensive are the evidence and other support each writer presents in his argument? Whose view- Herbert’s or Cooke’s- do you find more credible and persuasive? (A chart like the one below will help you organize your ideas.)

Herbert Cooke

Writer’s intent

Writer’s opinion, or claim

Evidence and other support

Credibility of argument

24

English 9A: Argumentative Interim Assessment

Actually, College Is Very Much Worth It By Andrew J. Rotherham Thursday, May 19, 2011 1) Lately it's become fashionable — especially among the highly credentialed — to question whether it's really "worth it"

to go to college. A recent report from the Harvard Graduate School of Education proposed deemphasizing college as the

primary goal of our education system in favor of "multiple pathways" for students. Earlier this month, New York

Magazine devoted almost 4,000 words to profiling venture capitalists (and college graduates) James Altucher and Peter

Thiel and their efforts convince Americans that they'd be better off skipping college. Thiel is even creating a $100,000

fellowship for young people who agree to delay going to college in favor of an internship.

2) Make no mistake, there is widespread dissatisfaction with higher education. According to a new survey released by the

Pew Research Center, only 40 percent of Americans felt that colleges provided an "excellent" or "good" value for the

money. At the same time, 86 percent of college graduates still felt the investment was a good one for them.

3) To understand these competing views, you have to juggle a few different ideas at once. First, there are plenty of

problems with higher education — poor quality, even at brand-name schools, and out-of-control costs are two of the

biggest. College presidents themselves shared some of these concerns and others with the Pew researchers. Second, it's

true: College isn't for everyone. There are plenty of rewarding and important jobs and careers that do not require college.

And due to the sluggish economy, there may in fact be more graduates than the current job market needs, or a temporary

"college bubble." Jobs for recent grads are harder to find, and salaries are lower, but that won't last forever. And in spite of

all of this, the data make clear that getting a college education is still a good idea — college graduates earn more, and are

more likely to have a job in the first place — and is especially important for some Americans.

4) Anti-college sentiment is nothing new. Mark Twain admonished us not to let schooling interfere with education, and

we've always celebrated the maverick who blazes their own path. These days, it's Facebook founder Mark Zuckerberg,

Microsoft's Bill Gates, or Apple's Steve Jobs — all college dropouts — who are held up as evidence of why all that time

sitting in class is better spent elsewhere. Perhaps, but it's also worth remembering that their companies are bursting with

college graduates. And what about all the people who didn't finish college and are not at the helm of a wildly successful

venture?

5) Nobody spends a lot of time highlighting their stories, but let's not lose sight of what happens to them. According to the

Bureau of Labor Statistics, in 2010, the median weekly earnings for someone with some college but no degree were $712,

compared to $1038 for a college graduate. That's almost $17,000 over the course of a year and there is an even bigger

divide for those with less education. College graduates are also more likely to be in jobs with better benefits, further

widening the divide. Meanwhile, in 2010, the unemployment rate was 9.2 percent for those with only some college and

25

English 9A: Argumentative more than 10 percent for those with just a high school degree, but it was 5.4 percent for college graduates. The economic

gaps between college completers and those with less education are getting larger, too.

6) It's also odd to talk down college — which is the most effective social mobility strategy we have — at the very time

Americans are becoming concerned about income inequality. Ron Haskins of the Brookings Institution found that without

a college degree, only 14 percent of Americans from the bottom fifth of parental income reach the top two-fifths. But if

they complete college, 41 percent of this same group can then expect to make it to the top two-fifths. Haskins' data also

shows the extent to which debates like this are a luxury of the privileged, because their children enjoy much more of a

safety net and the risks are different for them. In other words, children from low-income families gain more by going to

college than children of the wealthy lose by not going.

7) So here's the key takeaway: Education gives you choices. Assuming you don't pile up mountains of debt that constrain

your career options (and that outcome is avoidable) or go to a school where just fogging a mirror is good enough to get a

diploma, there are not a lot of downsides to going to college. The stories of entrepreneurs who bootstrapped themselves

are exciting but most of us are not a Gates or Zuckerberg. So before heeding the advice of the college naysayers, make

sure you understand the stakes and the odds. Or, here's a good rule of thumb instead: When people who worked hard to

achieve something that has benefitted them start telling you that it's really not all that important or useful — beware.

Disclosure: I'm a member of the Visiting Committee for the Harvard Graduate School of Education. Andrew J. Rotherham, who writes the blog Eduwonk, is a co-founder and partner at Bellwether Education, a nonprofit working to improve educational outcomes for low-income students. School of Thought, his education column for TIME.com, appears every Thursday.

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English 9A: Argumentative Why College Isn't for Everyone

By Richard Vedder April 09, 2012 1) A person who compares the annual earnings of college and high school graduates would no doubt conclude that higher

education is a good investment—the present value of the college earnings premium (the better part of $1 million)

seemingly far outdistances college costs, yielding a high rate of return. But for many, attending college is unequivocally

not the right decision on purely economic grounds.

2) First of all, college graduates on average are smarter and have better work habits than high school graduates. Those

who graduated from college were better students in high school, for example. Thus, at least a portion of the earnings

premium associated with college has nothing to do with college per se, but rather with other traits.

3) Second, a goodly proportion (more than 40 percent) of those attending four-year colleges full-time fail to graduate,

even within six years. At some colleges, the dropout rate is strikingly higher. While college students sometimes still gain

marketable skills from partial attendance, others end up taking jobs that are often given to high school graduates, making

little more money but having college debts and some lost earnings accrued while unsuccessfully pursuing a degree.

4) Third, not everyone is average. A non-swimmer trying to cross a stream that on average is three feet deep might drown

because part of the stream is seven feet in depth. The same kind of thing sometimes happens to college graduates too

entranced by statistics on averages. Earnings vary considerably between the graduates of different schools, and within

schools, earnings differ a great deal between majors. Accounting, computer science, and engineering majors, for example,

almost always make more than those majoring in education, social work, or ethnic studies.

5) Fourth, the number of new college graduates far exceeds the growth in the number of technical, managerial, and

professional jobs where graduates traditionally have gravitated. As a consequence, we have a new phenomenon:

underemployed college graduates doing jobs historically performed by those with much less education. We have, for

example, more than 100,000 janitors with college degrees, and 16,000 degree-holding parking lot attendants.

6) Does this mean no one should go to college? Of course not. First of all, college is more than training for a career, and

many might benefit from the social and non-purely academic aspects of advanced schooling, even if the rate of return on

college as a financial investment is low. Second, high school students with certain attributes are far less likely to drop out

of school, and are likely to equal or excel the average statistics.

7) Students who do well in high school and on college entrance exams are much more likely to graduate. Those going to

private schools may pay more in tuition, but they also have lower dropout rates. Those majoring in some subjects, such as

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English 9A: Argumentative education or one of the humanities, can sometimes improve their job situation by double majoring or earning a minor in,

say, economics.

8) As a general rule, I would say graduates in the top quarter of their class at a high-quality high school should go on to a

four-year degree program, while those in the bottom quarter of their class at a high school with a mediocre educational

reputation should not (opting instead for alternative methods of credentialing and training).

9) Those in between should consider perhaps doing a two-year program and then transferring to a four-year school. There

are, of course, exceptions to this rule, but it is important for us to keep in mind that college is not for everyone.

Richard Vedder directs the Center for College Affordability and Productivity and teaches economics at Ohio University

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English 9A: Argumentative Arguments/Evidence in Support of Paying Kids to Go to School

● How would it work? (pay for grades? Pay for attendance? For a week, month, etc?)

● It’s working where it’s been tried ● Experts think it’s a great idea (Who? What is

their title? What do they say?) ● Students think it’s a good idea (do a survey) ● Will cost how much (per day, per week, per

month, per semester, per year, per four years?)

● How much money per year will be needed? o What percentage of LAUSD’s budget

does that represent? What, if any, positive lessons would a student learn by getting paid?

Arguments/Evidence against Paying Kids to Go to School

● Problems where it’s been tried ● Experts who think it’s a bad idea (Who?

What is their title? What do they say?) ● Students who think it’s a bad idea (do a

survey). What do they say? ● How much would schools have to pay

students? (this might be part of the survey) o How much would this total for a

whole year? o What percentage of LAUSD’s budget

does that represent? ● What, if any, negative lessons would a

student learn by getting paid? ● Other negative consequences of adopting this

plan

Arguments/Evidence in Support Student IDs that Track Students

● How would it work (how much do they

recover and for what?) ● Evidence that it’s working where it’s been

tried ● Evidence that experts think it’s a great idea

(who? What is their title? What do they say?) ● Evidence that students/teachers/parents here

think it’s a good idea (do a survey) ● How much money could the school possibly

collect at the current rates of truancy? (what is the current rate of truancy?

● What would the money collected be spent on?

● Additional arguments/evidence in support of this idea

Arguments/Evidence against Student IDs that Track Students

● Where is it being practiced? ● Evidence that it isn’t working where it’s

being practiced ● Problems in the comparison of these places to

San Fernando ● Evidence that experts think it’s a bad idea

(who? What is their title? What do they say?) ● Evidence that students/teachers/parents here

think it’s a bad idea (do a survey) ● Additional arguments against this idea

29

English 9A: Argumentative

Template for Financial Rewards & Penalties

Use this template to list information you can use in summarizing an idea for dealing with the dropout problem that you disagree with, as well as for explaining (analyzing) what it is you don’t like about that idea. Summary: Paying Kids to Go to School

● Description of the idea. What does it entail?

● Who’s in favor of it?

● Where is it done?

● What are the reasons in favor of it?

● What evidence is there that it works? Analysis: Paying Kids to Go to School

I. II. III. IV.

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English 9A: Argumentative V.

Summary: Fining Parents whose Kids are Truant

● Description of the idea. What does it entail?

● Who’s in favor of it?

● Where is it done?

● What are the reasons in favor of it?

● What evidence is there that it works? Analysis: Fining Parents whose Kids are Truant

I. II. III.

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English 9A: Argumentative

32

English 9A: Argumentative World Café

For the following conversation topics, consider whether you are in favor or against the approaches to dealing with the dropout problem. You must know (and list) the pros and cons of the ideas for you will have the opportunity to discuss them. Consider additional ideas people have for dealing with the dropout problem and what strengths and weaknesses of those ideas might be. 1. Conversation Topic: Bus students from high-achieving to low-achieving schools – and vise versa – in order to

narrow the gap between successful and failing schools. Because schools are largely funded by local property taxes, this will mean that rich kids will be bused to poor schools and vise versa.

2. Conversation Topic: don’t assume everybody has what it takes to go to college – or necessarily ought to go. Expand vocational education programs and perhaps even “track” students into them. Vocational Schools are practical postsecondary education and job training programs that typically offer relatively short, career-focused programs that quickly prepare graduates for the workforce.

3. Conversation Topic: Pay kids to go to school, to get good grades, etc, and fine the parents of those who are truant or drop out.

4. Conversation Topic: Stop focusing so much attention on standardized tests. 5. Conversation Topic: Ending social promotion in junior high school as a way of lowering the high school drop-out

rate. Social Promotion is the practice promoting a child to the next grade level regardless of skill mastery in the belief that it will promote self-esteem

6. Conversation Topic: Homework policy: limit how much it counts toward final grade to 10% 7. Conversation Topic: Make education a bigger part of students’ lives (by increasing the length and number of school

days; by converting public schools into boarding schools) 8. Conversation Topic: No more co-educational schools. Place boys and girls in separate schools. 9. Conversation Topic: End free public education – make people pay for it from now on 10. Conversation Topic: Installing cameras in the classroom as a way of improving the quality of teaching and thereby

keeping students from being bored – supposedly a major reason kids drop out. 11. Conversation Topic: Start middle and high schools no earlier than 10 am. You must propose a solution to the dropout problem, which solution do you believe will be most effective? Why? Would you change anything about this proposal (to make it better)?

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English 9A: Argumentative

Sample Outline for Proposals Section of Dropout Position Paper

I. Transition Sentence (makes reference to conclusion of Summary & Analysis section and points toward presentation of a better proposal)

II. Definition of Parameters: can’t solve the problem entirely, especially for nation or even California: best to focus on improving situation at SFHS

III. Identification of some of the most commonly stated reasons for students dropping out a. not being promoted to 10th grade on time is the biggest risk factor

i. says who: 1. http://www.betterhighschools.org/docs/nhsc_approachestodropoutprevention.pdf citing

Neild and Balfanz 2. The ninth grade is often considered a critical make-it or break-it year when students get

on- or off-track to succeed in high school. More students fail ninth grade than any other high school grade, and a disproportionate number of students who are held back in ninth grade subsequently drop out (Herlihy, 2007).

3. one-third of dropouts exhibit no warning signs in eighth grade but have problems in ninth grade.

b. Inadequate Parental Involvement 1. says who: American Psychological Association 2011: lack of parental involvement

identified as one of four prominent risk factors in determining likelihood of dropping out Facing the School Dropout Dilemma http://www.apa.org/pi/families/resources/school-dropout-prevention.aspx

IV. Proposal Addressing Reason One: presentation to 8th graders a. what it entails

i. teams of 9th grade presenters visiting 8th grade classrooms at SFHS “feeder schools” (Maclay, SFM, and Pacoima) to expound upon

1. how serious the dropout problem is at SFHS a. in terms of how many kids drop out b. in terms of the negative consequences of dropping out

2. what contributes to 9th graders deciding to drop out a. differences between HS and MS

i. no social promotion ii. classes are more challenging

iii. lack of engagement 3. how 8th graders can avoid getting in trouble in 9th grade themselves

a. by taking advantage of various programs at SFHS i. after-school tutoring

ii. in-home tutoring b. by hooking up with a mentor c. by taking college classes (if boredom’s an issue)

ii. getting approval from school administrators and teachers 1. how will that be handled

iii. preparing engaging presentations 1. PowerPoint and/or Video

iv. arranging for transportation b. reasons in favor of this approach

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English 9A: Argumentative i. inexpensive (other than transportation costs)

ii. simplicity 1. paper’s been written: just need a PowerPoint

iii. Logically more likely to succeed 1. kids will listen to peers more than to adults

a. peer mentoring, of which this is a type, has been proven successful elsewhere i. A Win-Win Peer Mentoring and Tutoring Program: A Collaborative

Model Susan Dennison The Journal of Primary Prevention Volume 20, Number 3, 161-174, DOI: 10.1023/A:1021385817106

iv. talking to students BEFORE they come to high school is an idea supported by experts 1. To be most effective in preventing dropout, school systems should focus dropout

prevention efforts in the beginning of the middle grades. http://www.betterhighschools.org/docs/nhsc_approachestodropoutprevention.pdf

2. eighth-to-ninth grade transition programs have proven successful. http://www.betterhighschools.org/docs/nhsc_approachestodropoutprevention.pdf

v. provides additional benefits 1. gives 8th grade teachers a better idea of what’s expected of 9th graders (facilitates vertical

integration of the curricula) 2. might satisfy service-learning requirement for high school graduation 3. an excellent way to enhance the quality of one’s college- or job application

V. Proposal Addressing Reason Two: public service announcements targeting local parents a. what it entails

i. persuading local radio & television station owners and outdoor advertising executives to regularly air public service announcements reminding parents how important it is that their kids finish high school

1. letters (including to the LA Times if we don’t here back from them) 2. working with stations to compose and record a script

b. reasons in favor of this approach i. cost

1. zero for schools and students 2. tax write-off for station owners and advertisers 3. fulfills regulatory requirement station owners assume in exchange to use of public

airwaves ii. more likely to succeed

1. Parent Center & SLC parent meetings routinely get only a handful of parents to come – probably because they are working or traveling to and from work

2. Broadcast message can be heard at work, during commutes, etc iii. logical

1. clear from films like “The Lottery” and “Waiting for Superman” that parental involvement is key to a child’s educational success.

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English 9A: Argumentative Sample Proposals Section on High School Dropout Problem

Given the many problems inherent in the financial-rewards-and-penalties approach, it’s clear that a much different way of dealing with the drop-out crisis must be found. While it would be great if there were one idea that would succeed in addressing the problem as it exists across the nation, the length of this paper limits what it can propose to dealing with the situation facing the San Fernando/Pacoima community.

It only makes sense that whatever idea is put forward must address the fundamental reasons students make the decision to abandon their education. According to a number of experts, a student’s failure to graduate from 9th grade with his or her peers is a major factor in the decision to drop out. (Neild and Balfanz; Herlihy) This was confirmed by Ms. Garcia, the Dropout Coordinator for the Los Angeles Unified School District, who was interviewed by our class in December, 2011. A survey of nearly three hundred students, teachers, and adults in the community suggested some reasons as to why this might be the case. These include a sense of hopelessness once a student who’s supposed to be in the tenth grade realizes how much make-up work is required to earn a promotion; a sense that graduating from high school won’t make that much difference in determining whether a student will succeed or not; and the temptation or perceived need to work.

A second oft-stated reason is a lack of parental support, which the American Psychological Association regards as “one of the four prominent risk factors determining the likelihood of dropping out. (2011) This opinion was also verified by Ms. Garcia when she visited with our class, and is further supported by the research we conducted in our survey, wherein approximately 30% of respondents agreed that the failure of parents to involve themselves in the educational experience of their children is a major problem in this community.

An idea for dealing with the first cause identified above would be for SFHS students to visit middle-school classrooms to talk to students there about how serious the drop-out problem is at our school. This means that members of our class would be visiting the campuses of Maclay, San Fernando Middle, and Pacoima middle schools to share information we have gathered about how many SFHS students drop out and what the negative consequences are of doing so. We would also discuss the reasons we’ve become familiar with for why so many students here don’t make it, such as the fact that there is no social promotion; the likelihood that they’ll find their classes to be much more challenging; and the possibility that they won’t feel a sense of belonging. We would follow this discussion up with advice about how these middleschoolers might more successfully negotiate their way through the many challenges and temptations they’ll face in high school. This would include mention of such things as after-school tutoring; clubs and organizations; the Project Grad program, Impact, our Teen Clinic, and the existence of college classes.

In order to execute our plan, it will be necessary to obtain permission from the administrators at all of the schools involved, as well as from the teachers whose classrooms will be impacted. This can be accomplished by providing all of the parties concerned with a copy of our position paper, as well as an outline of what we intend to discuss, along with a formal letter of request. The likelihood of succeeding in this endeavor is enhanced by the fact that many of us are on good terms with some of the individuals we need permission from. In addition, we will need to prepare a PowerPoint presentation and a short video, as well as arrange for transportation.

This proposal has a number of positive aspects to recommend it. First, its only cost is that of transporting the presenters by school bus, which would be approximately _____. It is also a very simple plan to

36

English 9A: Argumentative put into effect, inasmuch as we’ve already thoroughly researched this topic and have composed a position paper on it. It is a logical approach, moreover, since there is ample evidence supporting the idea that teens are more apt to take advice from their peers than from adults. Indeed, peer mentoring, of which this is certainly an example, is touted in such academic publications as The Journal of Primary Prevention. (Dennison) Experts also support the idea of speaking with at-risk students well before they begin attending high school. (betterhighschools.org) This proposal has additional benefits not directly related to the drop-out problem as well. These would include providing middle-school teachers with a better idea of what sorts of things are required of high school students; satisfying service-learning requirements for graduation; and enhancing the quality of our college- and employment applications.

With respect to the lack of parental support, we propose to invite local radio and television station owners and managers – as well as outdoor advertizing companies – to broadcast public service announcements urging parents in our community to get more involved in the education of their children: particularly to do all they can to ensure that their children graduate from high school. This will necessitate write formal letters of request, as well as notifying local newspapers of our intention so that they can help us pressure these parties into helping us put our plan in action. Once we succeed in establishing a partnership, we hope to be integrally involved in composing the scripts that will be used – and perhaps even taking part in their recording and production.

As bold as this approach may seem, its cost to all parties is minimal. We won’t have to pay anything to participate in this approach and station owners and advertisers can realize a substantial tax benefit. These parties will also have the opportunity to satisfy the requirement that they engage in public service in exchange for being able to use the public airwaves. Another feature that makes this plan attractive is that it is more likely to succeed than current methods of communicating with parents. Although SFHS has a Parent Center which regularly sponsors events intended to facilitate communication with parents, their success in getting parents to participate is notoriously abysmal. SLC events have been spectacularly unsuccessful as well. The reason most often given for why parents don’t attend these events is that they are working or commuting to or from work. If the message that we want to communicate to them is broadcast over the airwaves or posted on local billboards, these reasons will likely not be nearly as much of an impediment.

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English 9A: Argumentative Writing a Position Paper Introduction

1. a lead-in (hook): something that introduces the topic of your paper in a general way ● Open with an unusual detail or statistic, startling or striking fact from a credible source. ● Open with a strong statement. ● Open with a quotation. ● Open with an anecdote ● Open with an engaging question. ● Open with an exaggeration or outrageous statement.

2. Thesis Statement of intent and opinion: in one or more sentences, you need to give the reader an

overview of the paper. The way to handle this is to provide a brief summary of each section of your paper in the order these sections appear. In other words, briefly summarize what you do in the Description section; then briefly summarize what you do in the Summary & Analysis section; and, finally, briefly summarize what you do in the Proposals section. Remember, a big part of successfully writing academic essays is to satisfy your reader’s expectations. By summarizing the parts of the paper in the order they occur, your reader will be able to follow your paper’s progression as he/she moves through it. Your Introduction should also:

● Set the tone: for most academic essays, you should impress your reader that you’re very serious about your topic

● Make someone want to read your essay: a lot of this has to do with how clear your writing is in this crucial paragraph.

Remember you want to make a good first impression on your audience, which is most often going to be your professor, the person who gives you your grade! Depending upon your topic, and how much of it refers to things you’ve experienced directly, you may be expected to avoid the use of “I” “aka 1st person singular pronoun”). Here are some suggestions for how to do this:

● use conventional expressions, such as ● this paper, this essay (This paper will demonstrate that X is not a good idea.) ● what follows (What follows is a description of how serious this problem is.) ● use of the passive voice (Instead of “I will present an idea which I think is better,” (active voice),

write “Finally, a proposal which this paper believes is preferable will be presented”) Sample Introduction:

For the past five years or so, America’s economy has suffered a serious decline. During this time of high unemployment and prolonged joblessness, even those who have a high school degree have found it difficult to find steady work. For those who lack this minimum educational requirement, securing employment is much more of a challenge. Ironically, at a time when the percentage of American youth who graduate high school should be increasing, it is actually moving in the opposite direction, especially in California. Many ideas have been put forward to reverse the downward trend, but at least two of them – paying youths to go to school and fining the parents of those who don’t – would likely only compound the problem. Two approaches with a much greater chance of succeeding, at least with respect to the students in danger of dropping out of San Fernando High School, would be to partner with local radio and television station owners in the broadcast of

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English 9A: Argumentative public service announcements and to facilitate meetings between successful high school seniors and their middle school counterparts.

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English 9A: Argumentative Writing a Conclusion

Just as you want to make a good first impression with your introduction, you want to leave a good lasting impression with your conclusion. This is especially significant when you consider that people supposedly remember most what they read (or hear) last. Start with transition phrase that reflects the rhetorical purpose of your essay. A couple conventional expressions are:

● Hopefully, this essay has succeeded in demonstrating that… ● The preceding discussion has attempted to

In restating your main ideas, reverse the order you presented them in. in other words, proposal first, summary & analysis second, and description last. This way the reader will remember most how serious the problem is that you’ve chosen to write about. That will set things up for your “Call to Action”. Different ways to motivate the reader to want to do something to support your cause include:

● A reminder of his/her civic duty and/or humanitarian responsibilities (i.e. “People have caused this garbage crisis, and only people can solve it. Do you care enough to do your part by recycling?” Do Something Good for the Earth)

● A prediction that things will get worse if nothing’s done (i.e. Rising Tides) ● A warning about how the reader might be personally affected if nothing’s done (i.e. “next time it could

be you”) ● An attempt to make the reader feel guilty if they do nothing (ex, “those who do nothing to solve the

problem of teen suicide must be seen as responsible in part of these tragic deaths.” Teen Suicide) Here’s how a scratch outline evolved into a conclusion paragraph on gang violence

1. Proposals: La needs more cops 2. Summary and Analysis: Legalizing drugs to stop gang violence is a stupid idea 3. Description: the problem of gang violence is really serious 4. Call to Action Hopefully, this essay has made it clear that Los Angeles is in dire need of more police if it wants to get

serious about tackling the problem of gang violence. Instead of experimenting with a proposal like legalizing drugs, which is only based on theory, we should move rapidly to do here what has succeeded so well elsewhere and hire more police. The seriousness of the issue demands that we stop debate and get to work. To do anything less would be to aid those who are perpetuating the violence.

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English 9A: Argumentative Writing a Conclusion

from a position paper on animal abuse in so-called “factory farms”

Hopefully, this essay has succeeded in showing that applying political and economic pressure on factory farms

and educating people about the torment animals endure on their way to our tables will lead to better treatment of our

nation’s livestock. (refers to Proposals section) Hopefully, it has also been demonstrated that adopting peaceful

approaches like these are preferable to animal rights activists attempting to avenge the abuses suffered by animals by

breaking the law. (refers to Summary & Analysis section) This should not be construed as suggesting that the need for

action is not urgent, however. (begins call to action) As the world’s human population continues to dramatically increase,

many more animals are vulnerable to mistreatment. (supports call to action) Those who are sympathetic to the plight of

livestock, (refers to Description section) yet resist this and similar calls to engage in efforts to protect them, are only

slightly less guilty of abusing these creatures than the owners of factory farms. (supports call to action by referring to

Description section) They may not have the animals’ blood on their plates, but they have it on their hands. (ends with a

“bang”, since people often remember most what they hear or read last)

Scratch outline for conclusion of paper on the nation’s illiteracy problem

● Cameras in the classroom is a great idea (from Proposals section) ● School uniforms won’t solve the problem (from Summary & Analysis section) ● Need to do something, cuz illiteracy’s a huge problem (from Description section) ● US = democracy & democracies need informed electorate to survive (“bang”)

Hopefully, this essay has succeeded in demonstrating that installing cameras in the classroom will lead to

improved teacher performance and thus better educated students. As has also been shown, the ideas of extending the

school day and making students wear school uniforms will not achieve the desired effect of improving student literacy.

Failing to immediately adopt a viable option for dealing with the increasingly serious problem of illiteracy will have truly

grim consequences for the country. If it is true that the survival of a democracy depends on an informed electorate, then

we should care passionately about the problem of illiteracy as it involves nothing less than the continued existence of what

we all want to be a prosperous and healthy United States.

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English 9A: Argumentative

Making the Grade:

Ideas for Increasing the On-Time Graduation Rate at San Fernando High School

Name Last Name San Fernando High School

Date: Month Day, Year

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English 9A: Argumentative Sample SFHS Position Paper Titles/Sub-Headings

Driving down the Drive-By’s:

Toward Establishing a Greater Police Presence in the Northeast San Fernando Valley as a Means of Addressing the Problem of Gang Violence There

Before Exposition Section: Horror in the ‘Hood (Suggests that this section will describe gang-related troubles in the community) Before Summary & Analysis Section: The Wrong Prescription (indicates that an idea for solving the problem will be criticized; in this case, it’s the idea that legalizing drugs will reduce the problem of gang violence (hence the word “prescription”) Before Proposals Section: Chief in Charge (reflects the main recommendation of giving the LAPD police chief what he says he needs to fight the gang problem: more cops)

Filling the Cracks: The Problem of Teen Suicide and Recommendations for Its Prevention

Tough Times for Teens Striking the Wrong Chord An Approach That Is More in Tune

Other Dos! Your paper must have page numbers. Here is how to do it on Microsoft Word:

● Insert ● Page Number ● Top of Page ● Upper Right Hand Corner

o Double Click to Add LAST NAME

Akopyan 12

Works Cited Page Author (Last, First). “Article Title.” Website/Book Title. Version: date/volume/issue. Publisher Company:

City/State. Text Type. Date Accessed.

Times New Roman

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English 9A: Argumentative

12 Point Font

Double Spaced

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