Nuclear education and training

Engineering and science educationfor nuclear powerCo-operative approaches exist to attain necessary standards of excellence

by Frances Mautner-Markhof

Experience has shown that one of the critical condi-tions for the successful introduction of a nuclear powerprogramme is the availability of sufficient numbers ofpersonnel having the required education and experiencequalifications. For this reason, the introduction ofnuclear power should be preceded by a thorough assess-ment of the relevant capabilities of the industrial andeducation/training infrastructures of the countryinvolved. This requires, where necessary, upgrading orestablishing national education and training capabilitiesin engineering and science to develop the qualifiedpersonnel needed to perform the tasks and functions fora nuclear power programme.

As educational systems vary from country to country,there is a need for flexibility in the design of educationalprogrammes. Curricula (such as those developed for theIAEA Guidebook on engineering and science educationfor nuclear power) indicate the level and content whichwould provide the necessary education qualifications forengineers and scientists who are to work in a nuclearpower programme, and thus could be used as a basis forbuilding up an appropriate education programme.However, it is difficult to describe all of the measuresand arrangements necessary to introduce the teaching ofnuclear technology into an existing education system.

The manpower skills required are in no way relative:There can be no compromise with the assurance or thesafety and reliability of nuclear power. Thus, althoughthere are various ways of achieving the required level ofpersonnel qualifications — as can be seen from thevaried experiences of developed and developing coun-tries — a comparable level must be attained and main-tained in every country which has or embarks on anuclear power programme.

In developing a programme on engineering andscience education for nuclear power, it is necessary tokeep in mind those nuclear power programme activitiesfor which the national government or national organiza-tions must bear the ultimate responsibility and which arethus considered essential for national participation. (Seeaccompanying table.) These activities should be

Ms Mautner-Markhof is a staff member in the Division of NuclearPower, Reactor Engineering Section

primarily executed by national manpower, regardless ofthe contractual arrangements of the nuclear powerproject.

A country which plans a nuclear power programmeshould provide most of the basic and at least some of thespecialized education and training needed to producequalified personnel for performing the essential activi-ties of the nuclear power programme, including thoserequired for the technology transfer and adaptationneeded to enable national participation. The infrastruc-ture for education and training for nuclear powerconsists primarily of universities, nuclear trainingcentres, nuclear research centres, and industry andgovernment organizations.

It is important to note that the costs of education andtraining to produce qualified personnel represents asmall fraction of the cost of a nuclear power project.Experience also has shown that education costs are smallcompared to those incurred when a nuclear power plantmust be taken out of operation for even a short timebecause of the lack of appropriately qualified plantpersonnel. A good education and training regime is notonly a necessary condition for the introduction of anuclear power programme, but also a sound investmentin its future growth and in the optimum operation ofnuclear power plants. For this reason, education andtraining should be an integral part of the long-rangenational planning for nuclear power.

Special needs of developing countries

In many developing countries, an insufficient numberof qualified personnel is one of the principal constraintsto technological development in general and to nuclearpower development in particular.

The problems of some developing and industrializedcountries regarding education and training requirementsfor nuclear power are primarily associated with limita-tions on the resources and capabilities of universities,training institutions, or industries in providing therequired scope and quality of education and training.Particularly, secondary schools in developing countriesoften do not adequately prepare students by providingthem with the skills and knowledge needed for undertak-ing university studies of the required level in engineer-

14 IAEA BULLETIN, 2/1988

Nuclear education and training

Nuclear power programme activities

Activity

Nationalparticipationconsideredessential*

yesyesyesyesyesyesyesyesyesyesyesyesnononononoyesnononoyesyesyesnonoyesyesyesnonoyesyesyesnonononoyesyesnoyesyesno

Technicaldifficulty**

321-21-222-332-32-333333-43-42-33-42-32-31-2321-211-42-3122-32-33-43-41-221-21-24 '32-31-242-33-43-4

Manpowereffort**

111112-321-21-2211-2223421

21-221121-422-34321-2311

3-41-23211

322-33

1 Nuclear power programme planning and co-ordination2 Power system planning3 Development of legal and organizational framework4 International agreements and arrangements5 National participation planning and co-ordination6 Manpower development planning and implementation7 Feasibility studies8 Site evaluation9 Preparation of bid specifications

10 Bid evaluation11 Contracting12 Project management (utility)13 Project management (main contractor)14 Plant conceptual design15 Basic design engineering16 Detailed design engineering17 Preparation and review of equipment and plant specifications18 Establishment of quality assurance policy19 Quality control and quality assurance implementation20 Procurement21 Safety analysis reporting22 Emergency planning23 Public information and public relations24 Safeguards and physical protection25 Equipment manufacturing26 Construction management27 Site preparation28 Erection of plant buildings and structures29 Plant equipment and systems installation30 Plant systems and component testing31 Criticality and plant acceptance testing32 Plant operation and maintenance33 Radiological protection and environmental surveillance34 Fuel procurement35 Uranium exploration, mining, and milling36 Conversion37 Enrichment38 Fuel fabrication39 Fuel management and storage at the power plant40 Fuel transport and off-site storage within the country41 Spent fuel reprocessing42 Waste management43 Nuclear licensing and regulation44 Research and development in nuclear power

* Activities considered essential will vary somewhat depending on national participation policies and capabilities and on the contractual arrangementsfor the nuclear power project(s)

** Index number: 1 = low; 2 = medium; 3 = high; 4 = very high.

ing and science. Adequate attention and resources mustbe devoted from the outset to (1) the education andqualification of teachers, and (2) co-operation betweenuniversities and industry to ensure the provision ofhands-on experience and on-the-job training in industry.This includes the organizational, contractual, andadministrative aspects of managing large projects, asuniversities do not have sufficient capabilities for this.

A serious problem has been retaining in the homecountry qualified technical professionals for the nuclearpower programme, especially those who have hadeducation, training, or experience abroad. This problemis due to differentials in the conditions of employment,as well as to phase lags between the scheduling of theprogrammes for development of personnel and fornuclear power, resulting in people being ready when

IAEA BULLETIN, 2/1988 15

Nuclear education and training

tasks were not or vice versa. Therefore, effective andefficient personnel management is essential for theproper and timely recruitment of personnel, and for theeducation and training required, to achieve the qualifica-tions needed for working in a nuclear powerprogramme. It has generally been found necessary torecruit and train more people than are needed to fillexisting vacancies, to cover the rate of trainingdropouts, and to meet replacement requirements due toattrition and migration of qualified personnel.

Practical training and experience

The critical need for practical work and training in allrelevant disciplines throughout conventional and nucleareducation at all levels cannot be overemphasized. It isessential for the students and teachers involved,especially in the engineering education process. Whilemost of this practical component of education should beprovided in the country itself, some may be obtainedabroad in foreign industries, research centres, institu-tions of higher education, and government agenciesthrough bilateral agreements or supply contracts.

Engineering and science education should, therefore,provide students with opportunities for practical work inindustry or utilities before graduation from the univer-sity (or higher technological institute). Developingcountries in particular should aim to increase andimprove interactions between universities and indus-tries, to prevent engineering education from becomingfar removed from current practices and needs. In addi-tion to practical engineering experience, the varioustasks of a nuclear power programme will require anumber of individuals with practical experience in suchareas as technology assessment, economics, energyplanning, administration, and public acceptance issues.

Nuclear-oriented education

Major education requirements call for nuclear-oriented graduate programmes at a university (to attainthe equivalent of a bachelor of science degree) and forpostgraduate programmes up to the level of a mastersdegree (or Diplom Ingenieur). Postgraduate academicprogrammes beyond the masters level are needed toensure the availability of at least a small number ofengineers and scientists highly trained academically (i.e.with a Ph.D. or equivalent degree) and with broadexperience, to ensure qualified personnel for inter aliauniversity-level teaching, research and development,and certain regulatory functions. Most countries do notusually have such nuclear-oriented educationprogrammes in place when starting their nuclear powerprogrammes.

Countries generally find it necessary to introducepostgraduate specialization courses to supplement theeducation and training of graduates who possess non-nuclear education qualifications, and (in some cases)professional but non-nuclear experience, who are to

work in the nuclear power programme. These speciali-zation courses are not meant to replace the longer-termneed for nuclear-oriented undergraduate and post-graduate engineering and science education. Neverthe-less, as a mechanism for upgrading qualifications orproviding new or updated theoretical knowledge andpractical skills in nuclear subjects, the specializationcourses play an important role in the national educationand training system. (See accompanying figure.)

Generally, a specialization programme for engineer-ing and science education for nuclear power wouldnormally be introduced at the start of a nuclear powerprogramme, to provide the required theoretical founda-tion and practical work in nuclear engineering forindividuals from industry and government organizationswith backgrounds in the classical engineering dis-ciplines. As the nuclear power programme develops andpersonnel requirements increase, the education fornuclear power tends to become incorporated into theexisting educational infrastructure. However, even inthe case when this becomes the primary mode of educa-tion for nuclear power, specialization courses will stillbe required, e.g. for continuing education, to keep upwith recent developments (such as new technologies,regulations), to upgrade education in specialized ornuclear areas, and to provide training for certain typesof personnel such as shift supervisors, health physicsofficers, and other specialists.

Education/training and industrial infrastructures varyfrom country to country, as do the nature of the nuclearpower programmes and their objectives, such as theextent of national participation. Therefore, it is difficultto recommend detailed curricula for nuclear specializa-tion programmes, although model curricula have beenproposed.* The specialization courses should thussupply overall nuclear-related knowledge and practicalskills which provide the essential basis for thisspecialized training.

The specialization programme should bedistinguished from a conventional postgraduate degreeprogramme, as it has a stronger orientation towards theactual demands of the nuclear power programme, and itincludes a high standard of traditional engineering ingreater depth than in the undergraduate programmesavailable in the country. It also provides education andpractical work in specific nuclear subjects, such asradiation effects and reactor technology. It is highlydesirable to involve some universities in thisprogramme. They would be more encouraged toupgrade their curricula, faculties, and facilities for theundergraduate and graduate programmes which areneeded to meet the higher standards, required by thenuclear power programme and the national participationprogramme, in conventional as well as nuclear areas.

It is especially important to earmark for such trainingthose individuals who will become the teachers of local

* Guidebook on engineering and science education for nuclear power,IAEA, Vienna (1986) pp. 17-40.

16 IAEA BULLETIN, 2/1988

Nuclear education and training

Graduatein engineeringor science(for healthphysicsprogramme) " • • •with no orinsufficient

Generalupgradingcourses

nuclear-oriented education

Structure of specialization

II.

Inter-disciplinarycourses

III.

Nuclearorientation

courses.

IV.

Upgrading inprofessionaldiscipline

i

V.

Nuclearspecialization

Nuclear powerprogramme

specialization courses. It is essential to have knowledge-able and experienced teachers for these courses, and itis recommended that special attention be paid to allaspects of their education and training, including effec-tive pedagogical practice.

Continuing education for nuclear power

To ensure that professional technical personnel canacquire, maintain, upgrade, and update the knowledgeand practical techniques needed to meet the educationand training qualifications for performing the tasks orfunctions of a nuclear power programme, it will benecessary to have broadly-scoped and flexible possibili-ties for continuing education, especially in engineering.Continuing education should be provided and requiredfor practising professionals and teachers, and includedas an integral and formalized component of a countries'personnel development programme and education/train-ing infrastructure. It should be a part of and utilize theco-operative. process between universities, industry,utilities, nuclear training and research centres, and otherrelevant organizations. Professional societies could playa useful role in fostering certain types of continuingeducation. It may also require education abroad,especially in areas involving the latest technologicaldevelopments and high technical complexity. Interna-tional co-operation will also be valuable for providingexchanges of teachers, teaching materials, and possiblyfor establishing regional centres for continuingeducation.

The main requirement for ensuring the necessaryquality of education and training is to develop, maintain,and implement sound criteria for outside review, evalua-tion, and accreditation of university programmes leadingto nuclear-oriented engineering and science degrees, toestablish and maintain minimum standards of qualifica-tions. It is also important to provide accreditation of

non-degree nuclear specialization and other continuingeducation programmes offered by universities and otherinstitutions such as utilities, industries, national labora-tories, and nuclear training centres.

The role of government

There are certain activities of a nuclear powerprogramme in which full responsibility has to be borneby national organizations and should be executedprimarily by national personnel, regardless of the con-tractual arrangements. These are considered "essential"activities for national participation. In countries nowintroducing or in the process of implementing a nuclearpower programme, the planning, co-ordination, andcontrol of the nuclear power programme and nationalparticipation in the programme, as well as the overalldevelopment programme for personnel, is fundamen-tally a governmental responsibility. The governmentmay delegate to specific organizations under its controlmany of the tasks and functions involved. But it mustretain the ultimate responsibility as well as the functionof defining policies and strategies and making finaldecisions.

Governments, via the responsible organizations,generally conclude bilateral and multilateral agreementsfor nuclear co-operation and for nuclear supply andtraining. Bilateral agreements include scientificexchange arrangements between specified authoritiesaimed at developing infrastructures including personneldevelopment programmes and regulatory functions.Generally, the national nuclear energy commission orauthority (the nature of which depends on the nationalnuclear energy policy and programme) has constitutedthe basic governmental infrastructure and organizationfor meeting the responsibilities and performing thefunctions in the planning and implementation of thenuclear power and personnel development programmes.

IAEA BULLETIN, 2/1988 17

Nuclear education and training

Measures which could be taken by governments toenhance national engineering and science educationcapabilities for nuclear power include:

• Establishing the necessary standards of accreditationfor academic and non-academic programmes andfaculty, and adequate levels of qualification and/orlicensing for engineering and other professionals;

• Improving, through the appropriate standards,support and incentives, the quality of courses,researchers, and university faculty in the relevantengineering and science programmes. This could bedone through governmental (and industrial) support byproviding fellowships, stipends, training facilities, andresearch contracts, and by appropriate funding ofrequired improvements in curricula and laboratory/com-puter facilities and in research and development.Research and teaching staff may require improved con-ditions of employment (including higher salaries) tokeep them from being drawn away into industry.

• Improving through appropriate examinations, qualifi-cation requirements, and incentives, the number andquality of students who choose to study and whocomplete nuclear-related engineering and scienceprogrammes at the undergraduate and graduate levels;

• Reinforcing and utilizing increasingly industry's rolein providing the necessary practical work and trainingcomponent of education (as well as the neededexperience) by inter alia providing legislation, as well asfinancial incentives and contracts, to increase practicaleducation, training, and experience opportunities;

• Investigating the possibilities for and advantages ofproviding or utilizing technical co-operation ambngcountries.

Educational infrastructure and capabilities

The IAEA assists its Member States in a variety ofways in the development of infrastructures and capabili-ties for engineering and science education for nuclearpower. Types of assistance provided by the IAEA toMember States include:

• Providing information in connection with the estab-lishment or upgrading of academic and non-academicengineering and science education programmes fornuclear power (on the basis of curricula recommendedin the Agency's Guidebook on engineering and scienceeducation for nuclear power).

• Expert assistance in setting up or upgrading laborato-ries and other teaching facilities; qualified teachers forsetting-up and teaching nuclear-oriented engineering andscience courses; expert missions to assess a country'sneeds in nuclear-oriented education and training; andstudent fellowships. Agency fellowhips could also beused to train teachers.

• Assessing the capabilities and interest of MemberStates and their institutions/organizations for technicalco-operation among countries, especially developingones, in engineering and science education, as well as itsfeasibility and usefulness. This would involve co-operation between the IAEA and the Member State toevaluate and, if needed, assist in upgrading the capabili-ties of selected institutions which have specific expertisein an important area of nuclear-oriented engineering andscience education.

• Preparing and conducting nuclear specializationcourses (e.g. on radiation protection) in various MemberStates.

18 IAEA BULLETIN, 2/1988