Engine Sizing

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Air Force Institute Of

Technology

Basheer Ibraheem

LIGHT TRAINER AIRCRAFT RESEARCH

(AFIT01)

Engine Sizing, Installation and performance

DEPARTMENT OF AIRCRAFT ENGINEERING

PGD THESIS


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Air Force Institute Of Technology

DEPARTMENT OF AIRCRAFT ENGINEERING

PGD THESIS

Academic Year 2011-2012

Basheer Ibraheem

Light Trainer Aircraft Research(AFIT 01)

Engine Sizing, Installation and Performance

Supervisor:..This thesis is submitted in partial fulfillment of

the requirements for post graduate diploma


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ABSTRACT

This report outlines the Engine Sizing, Installation and Performance of

the AFIT Light Trainer Aircraft. The AFIT Light Trainer aircraft Design is a

Group Design Project undertaken in order to meet Nigerian Air Forces

ambition of self reliance in pilot training whilst still satisfying one of the

requirements of the PGD in Aerospace Vehicle Design from AFIT. The

first section given in this report is the introduction and background to

the project. This is subsequently followed by a literature review into

piston engine sizing, engine installation and aircraft performance. The

design stages commenced with a comprehensive engine sizing,

followed by engine selection and propeller sizing. Installation type was

selected based on what the engine was machined for by the

manufacturer. The work in progress is engine performance. The

designer faced some limitations such as absence of past research

articles of similar field of interest.


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CONTENTS

LIST OF FIGURES................................................................................6

1.0 INTRODUCTION .................................................. 61.1 Project Background ................................................................ 7

1.2 AFIT Light Trainer Concept ..................................................... 8

1.3 Project Specifications ............................................................. 9

1.4 Authors Responsibility ........................................................ 11

1.5 Design requirements ............................................................ 11

1.5.1 Certification Requirements ............................................. 12

1.5.2 Functional Requirement ................................................. 12

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW ............................................................... 13

2.1 Aero Engines ....................................................................... 13

2.1.1 Gas Turbine Engines ....................................................... 13

2.1.1.1 Turbojet ..10

2.1.1.2 Turboprop.11

2.1.1.3 Turbofan12

2.1.2 Reciprocating Engine ...................................................... 17

2.2 Light trainer Aircraft Engines ............................................... 18

2.2.1 Selection of Engine Type ................................................. 18

2.2.2 Determination of Engine Size ........................................ 20

2.2.3 Getting the Required Engine ......................................... 21

2.3 Engine Installation ............................................................... 21


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2.3.1 Management of Exhaust Gasses .................................... 22

2.3.2 Management of Cooling Air ............................................ 23

2.3.3 Stability and Control Considerations ............................. 25

2.3.4 Safety Considerations .................................................... 25

2.3.5 Noise Considerations ...................................................... 25

2.3.6 Structural Considerations ............................................... 26

2.4 Engine Mount ...................................................................... 27

2.4.1 Types of Engine Mount ................................................... 28

2.4.1.1 Conical Mounts.24

2.4.1.2 Dynafocal Mounts..25

2.4.1.3 Bed Mounts.26

2.5 Aircraft Performance ............................................................ 31

2.5.1 Introduction .................................................................... 31

2.5.2 Engine and Aircraft Performance. 32

2.5.2.1 Maximum Speed..29

2.5.2.2 Climb Rate29

2.5.2.3 Range30

2.5.2.4 Take off Distance.30


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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1: AFIT Light Trainer Aircraft........................................................9

Figure 2: A Turbojet Engine [18]......................................................14

Figure 3: A Turboprop Engine [18]...................................................15

Figure 4: A Turbofan Engine [18].....................................17

Figure 5: Principles of Piston Engine [18]...................................18

Figure 6: A Bad Way of Mounting Exhaust [6].......................................22

Figure 7: An Improved Way of mounting Exhaust [6]............................23

Figure 8: A Downdraft Cooling *6+.................................................24

Figure 9: An Updraft Cooling [6]......24

Figure 10: A Shock Mount.....................................................27

Figure 11: A Conical Mount........................................29Figure 12: A Dynafocal Mount............................................30

Figure 13: A Bed Mount...........................................31


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1.0 INTRODUCTION

1.1 Project Background

Ab initio flying training aircraft are a class of aircraft specifically

designed to facilitate transition of pilots-in-training (student pilots) to

pilots [19]. Ab initio flying training aircrafts are characterised by

additional safety features which include; forgiving flight characteristics,

stiff structure, simplified cockpit arrangement, excess power and good

visibility. These characteristics serve to accommodate the mistakes by

the inexperienced and enable instructors to allow students more time

to correct their own errors which increase learning speed [5]. The

above mentioned qualities however are considered together with the

operators requirement of cost effectiveness.

A cost effective aircraft must have comparatively lower sum of initial

investment and operating costs [19]. Additionally, availability of parts

and ease of maintenance are major considerations to the operator.

In search of a good trainer, the NAF incorporated the Scottish Aviation

Bulldog into service in the early 80s for use as trainer. However, the

high operating cost, which comprises of cost of fuel and spares made if

impossible for the NAF to sustain the use of Bulldog as trainer.

Consequently the ABT-18 aircraft was introduced in 1995 to replace the

Bulldog. Since then, the air beetle has been the ab initio trainer of the


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NAF. The air beetle is known to have many inadequacies, the major of

which are the unforgiving nature of its nose wheel strut, and frequent

high cylinder head temperature. These maintenance problems made it

impossible for the NAF to sustain local training. Replacing the air beetle

therefore, with an easier to maintain, more robust aircraft would assist

the NAF to actualize its dream of self reliance in pilot training.

1.2 AFIT Light Trainer Concept

The department of Air Engineering, Air Force Institute of Technology is

exploring the possibility of designing a light trainer aircraft for the

Nigerian Air Force. The project when successful is going to replace the

ABT-18 Aircraft currently in service as the ab initio trainer of the NAF.

The AFIT light trainer aircraft project considers a two seater low wing

light aircraft. It is intended to be an engineering data gathering

research to lay the grounds for future development work in subsequent

years. The project consists of a number of individual research topics

that stand in their own right


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Figure 1: AFIT LIGHT TRAINER AIRCRAFT

1.3 Project Specifications

The conceptual design of the aircraft has been carried out by a team of

instructors. The conceptual design was able to establish all the features

of the aircraft. The following are the established parameters and

payload configuration of the light aircraft:

SPECIFICATIONS

Interior Layout

Accommodation and capacity

Maximum specified passenger capacity: 2

Configuration: side by side

Doors: 1 overhead canopy


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Powerplant

Type: Piston Engine

Capacity: To be determined

Configuration: Tractor

Performance:

Max take-off weight: 1,066 kg

Empty weight: 669 kg

Range: 540 nm

Service ceiling: 10,000 ft

Cruise speed: 46.96 m/s

AERODYNAMIC INFORMATION

Lift Characteristics

Maximum lift coefficient: 1.448

Basic wing Max CL angle 15o

Stall angle 9o

Drag Polar:

Cruise condition M = 0.14

Sea level takeoff, undercarriage and flaps extended

Landing gear increment


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1.4 Authors Responsibility

The author was primarily responsible for engine sizing (determining

power required), engine selection, installation and performance

calculation for the AFIT light trainer aircraft. Engine selection is an

important part of the aircraft design process. Because the engine size

was not determined during the conceptual design, this requires the

determination of power required by the aircraft, selecting an engine

capable of producing that amount of power, determining how it will be

installed and calculating the key performance indicators.

Evidently, certain interface issues are present with components such as

fuselage, nose landing gear and systems such as the fuel system and

the mass and C.G of the aircraft. Thus, it is paramount to work in

collaboration with the various designers with which interface issues

exist for synchronization of efforts.

1.5 Design requirements

Definition of necessary air worthiness requirements and goals are key

aspects of an aircraft design. This provides a means of monitoring the

project goals and ensuring that the design outcome is not conflicting

with the pre-stated requirements.


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1.5.1 Certification Requirements

The marketability and the integrity of a design are ensured by it strict

adherence to standard design regulations as documented by the

appropriate governing bodies. In this case, AFIT light trainer aircraft is

designed in conformity with design requirements of EASA certification

Specification for normal, utility, aerobatic and commuter category

airplanes (CS - 23) [7]. The air worthiness code ofCS 23 is applicable

to this class of aircraft as it is an aerobatic aircraft with maximum

certified takeoff weight of greater than 750kg (which is the limit for

CSVLA), and less than 56kg. The sections of the regulatory document

that apply to the power plant are as listed in Appendix A.

1.5.2 Functional Requirement

It can be argued that the correct choice of power plant is half the

success of an aircraft design. It does not matter if you build a really

efficient structure or have the best aerodynamics if the choice of

power plant is poor, then the design will not be successful [5].

The primary role assigned to the aircraft engine is to provide the

required thrust to move the aircraft. In addition, there is the need for

the engine weight and fuel consumption to be within acceptable limits

of todays technology.


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2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Aero Engines

Aircraft need some form of power to keep them flying. Since the first

powered flight, numerous types and models of engines have been

developed. Aviation propulsion system varies according to

construction, configuration and purpose and has gone through several

changes over the years. The most popular propulsion systems are Gas

Turbine and Reciprocating Engines.

2.1.1 Gas Turbine Engines

Most modern passenger and military aircraft are powered by gas

turbine engines, which are also called jet engines. The gas turbine

engine is essentially a heat engine using air as a working fluid to provide

thrust. To achieve this, the air passing through the engine has to be

accelerated; this means that the velocity or kinetic energy of the air is

increased. To obtain this increase, the pressure energy is first of all

increased, followed by the addition of heat energy, before final

conversion back to kinetic Energy in the form of a high velocity jet

efflux. There are several types of jet engines. They include:


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2.1.1.1 Turbojet Engines

The first and simplest type of gas turbine is the turbojet [18]. Turbojet

engine derives its thrust by highly accelerating a mass of air, all of

which goes through the engine. Since a high jet" velocity is required to

obtain an acceptable thrust, the turbine of turbo jet is designed to

extract only enough power from the hot gas stream to drive the

compressor and accessories . All of the propulsive force (100% of

thrust) produced by a jet engine is derived from the exhaust gas.

Figure 2: A TURBOJET ENGINE


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2.1.1.2 Turboprop Engines

Many low speed transport aircraft and small commuter aircraft

use turboprop propulsion. There are two main parts to a turboprop

propulsion system, the core engine and the propeller. The core is very

similar to a basic turbojet except that instead of expanding all the hot

gasses through the nozzle to produce thrust, most of the energy of the

exhaust is used to turn the turbine. The shaft on which the turbine is

mounted drives the propeller through the propeller reduction gear

system. The propeller produces most of the thrust in a turboprop and

the exhaust contributes little thrust. Approximately 90% of thrust

comes from propeller and about only 10% comes from exhaust gas [18].

Figure 3: A TURBOPROP ENGINE


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2.1.1.3 Turbofan Engines

A turbofan engine is the most modern variation of the basic gas turbine

engine. As with other gas turbines, there is a core engine. In the

turbofan engine, the core engine is surrounded by a fan in the front and

an additional turbine at the rear dedicated for driving the fan. The

incoming air is captured by the engine inlet. Some of the incoming air

passes through the fan and continues on into the core compressor and

then the burner, where it is mixed with fuel and combustion occurs.

The hot exhaust passes through the core and fan turbines and then out

the nozzle, as in a basic turbojet. The rest of the incoming air passes

through the fan and bypasses, or goes around the engine, just like the

air through a propeller. The air that goes through the fan has a velocity

that is slightly increased from free stream. So a turbofan gets some of

its thrust from the core and some of its thrust from the fan. The ratio of

the air that goes around the engine to the air that goes through the

core is called the bypass ratio. Because the fuel flow rate for the core is

changed only a small amount by the addition of the fan, a turbofan

generates more thrust for nearly the same amount of fuel used by the

core. This means that a turbofan is very fuel efficient. Most modern

airliners use turbofan engines because of their high thrust and good

fuel efficiency [16].
http://www.pilotfriend.com/training/flight_training/tech/turbo/inlets.htmhttp://www.pilotfriend.com/training/flight_training/tech/turbo/burner.htmhttp://www.pilotfriend.com/training/flight_training/tech/turbo/nozzles.htmhttp://www.pilotfriend.com/training/flight_training/tech/turbo/nozzles.htmhttp://www.pilotfriend.com/training/flight_training/tech/turbo/burner.htmhttp://www.pilotfriend.com/training/flight_training/tech/turbo/inlets.htm


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Figure 4: A TURBOFAN ENGINE

2.1.2 Reciprocating Engine

A reciprocating aero engine is a fuel-burning internal combustion piston

engine specially designed and built for minimum fuel consumption and

light weight in proportion to developed shaft power [21]. Reciprocating

aircraft engines operate on a four-stroke cycle, where each piston

travels from one end of its stroke to the other four times in two

crankshaft revolutions to complete one cycle. The cycle is composed of

four distinguishable events called intake, compression, expansion (or

power), and exhaust, with ignition taking place late in the compression

stroke and combustion of the fuel-air charge occurring early in the

expansion stroke. These reciprocating engines burn specially


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formulated aviation gasoline and produce shaft power by the force of

combustion gas pressure on pistons acting on connecting rods turning a

crankshaft. Major parts are the crankcase, crankshaft, connecting rods,

pistons, cylinders with intake and exhaust valves, camshafts, and

auxiliary operating systems such as ignition, fuel injection or

carburetion, and fuel and oil pumps.

Figure 5: PISTON ENGINE PRINCIPLES

2.2 Light trainer Aircraft Engines

2.2.1 Selection of Engine Type

The following factors play a role in selecting the type of propulsion

system to be used [6]:

1. Required cruise speed and/or maximum speed

2. Required maximum operating altitude


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3. Required range and range economy

4 Noise regulations

5. Installed weight

6. Reliability and maintainability

7. Fuel amount needed

8. Fuel cost

9. Fuel availability

10. Specific customer or market demands

Overall fuel efficiency, cost and installed weight often dominate the

arguments about the pros and cons of a certain type of propulsion

system [6].

Most modern aircraft using engines with up to 450hp output are

powered by air-cooled, horizontally opposed, reciprocating engines.

The biggest reason for this is cost: other than avionics, the system that

contributes most to a vehicles price is its propulsion system, and a

turbine engine can cost up to five times more than a comparable piston

engine [3]. Additionally, recent years have seen large technological

advances in piston engine manufacturing, making them lighter, more

powerful, and more efficient. Finally, piston engines are known to have

greater flexibility with respect to transient power requirements than


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turbine engines, which not only increases safety, but also performance

and efficiency [4]. Because of these factors, many general aviation

manufacturers are using piston engines in an attempt to reduce vehicle

price and increase the potential market.

The smaller turbine engines that fall below 450hp have failed to meet

the low cost and fuel economy necessary to compete with existing

reciprocating engines. Therefore reciprocating engines are the cost

effective choice for light trainer aircraft like the AFIT Light Trainer

Aircraft.

2.2.2 Determination of Engine Size

Before choosing an engine for an aircraft, the total thrust (power)

required must be known. The thrust-to-weight ratio (power loading for

propeller-powered aircraft) and wing loading (w/s) are the two most

important parameters affecting aircraft performance [13]. Wing loading

and thrust-to weight ratio are interconnected for a number of

performance calculations, such as takeoff distance, climb rate andmaximum speed. These performances are critical design drivers used to

size the engine.


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2.2.3 Getting the Required Engine

An aircraft can be designed using some existing engine or a new to-be-

designed engine. However, rarely is a new general aviation airplane

design enough incentive for engine manufacturers to go for the time

and expense of designing a new engine. This only happens in the case

of major military fighter or bomber program [1]. Designer of a general

aviation or aerobatic aircraft mostly rely on selecting the best of the

existing engines. To do this, the designer determines the performance

characteristics he needs and search for an engine that is capable of

delivering those parameters.

2.3 Engine Installation

Haven decided on the type and the number of engines to be used, the

next decision is: how should these engines be installed? There are a

number of possible options. The following factors play a role in deciding

on the engine installation [6]:

1. Management of exhaust gases

2. Management of cooling air

3. Stability and control considerations

4. Safety Considerations


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5. Noise considerations, and

6. Structural Considerations

2.3.1 Management of Exhaust Gasses

When the exhaust stack is mounted perpendicular to the free stream, it

is very bad from a drag viewpoint. Figure 7 shows how this can be

improved somewhat. Reference 6, shows that poorly designed exhaust

configurations can increase the zero lift drag coefficient of an airplane

by 16 percent. By directing the exhaust rearward, drag can be reduced

and some thrust can be recovered as well.

Figure 6: A BAD WAY OF MOUNTING EXHAUST PIPE


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Figure 7: AN IMPROVED WAY OF MOUNTING EXHAUST

2.3.2 Management of Cooling Air

Most piston engines are designed with the assumption that the cooling

air will flow from top to bottom: downdraft, as shown in figure 8.

Updraft cooling arrangement, as shown in figure 9, may look good, but

can result in the cooling air being heated by the exhaust stack thereby

reducing cooling effectiveness. Mismanagement of cooling air can

cause drag Increase of up to 9 percent of zero lift drag [6].


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Figure 8: A DOWNDRAFT COOLING

Figure 9: AN UPDRAFT COOLING


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2.3.3 Stability and Control Considerations

The stability and control effect that should be considered in a tractor

engine is the effect of engine/propeller thrust line location and

inclination. In preliminary design, a good rule of thumb is: if the engine

disposition differs significantly from that of existing certified airplanes,

considerable power effects on stability and control characteristics can

be expected [6]. In such cases the safest thing to do is to perform the

necessary stability and control calculations before freezing the design.

2.3.4 Safety Considerations

AII engines and other heat generating equipment must be isolated from

the rest of the airplane by means of firewalls and/or other suitable

shrouds. This requirement is of great importance in isolating engines

from fuel tanks. Fire walls should be made out of stainless steel and/or

titanium [6].

2.3.5 Noise Considerations

Airplanes and their engines create a substantial amount of both interior

and exterior noise. The interior noise levels should not be so high as to

cause discomfort to the passengers or to make safe operation by the


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crew impossible. The exterior noise levels should meet the

requirements of Certification Specifications for Aircraft Noise CS-36.

These requirements impose severe restrictions on the type of engine

and/or propeller technology which can be utilized.

2.3.6 Structural Considerations

The structural consideration that plays an important role in the

integration of the propulsion system into the airframe is the

transmission of thrust into the airframe [6]. To transmit thrust forces

into the airframe it is necessary to have a number of 'hard points'

where the engine is physically attached to the airframe. The number of

these hard points depends on the type of engine used. Figure 12 shows

an example of the principal method used to mount piston engines in

airframes. This is accomplished with a truss (usually made of welded

steel tubes).

It is important to note that the attachment (mounting) points on the

engine itself cannot be changed easily. Their location depends on the

internal design of the engine which is determined by the engine

manufacturer. Changing these attachment points is very expensive [20].

Also, since most piston engines transmit significant vibrations into the


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airframe it is essential to use some type of shock mount(s) to reduce

these vibrations.

Figure 10: A SHOCK MOUNT

2.4 Engine Mount

The engine mount is primarily used to connect the engine to the

airframe or fuselage. Some of its secondary features are to distribute

the weight of the engine and spread the torque and vibration

generated by the engine [20]. Most engine mounts are made from

tubular steel chrome-molybdenum welded together. This is a

lightweight and strong construction. After welding, the structure is

sandblasted and power-coated in bright color, which makes it easy to

spot any cracks should they develop.

The engine is not bolted directly onto the mount; this would result in

vibrations from the engine to the aircraft. Instead, rubber shock

mounts of varying strength and thicknesses are used. This dampens the

vibration and movement, giving a much smoother flight and running


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engine. Any fatigue due to vibration is also not a factor with this

construction.

2.4.1 Types of Engine Mount

Most four cylinder engines today use mounts that look similar. The

engine is bolted to the mount at the back or at the underside of the

engine. The common types of piston engine mount are conical,

dynafocal and bed mounts.

2.4.1.1 Conical Mounts

This is the easiest mount to fabricate. It has four attach point for the

engine and usually four points to bolt the mount to the firewall. The

engine mount points are parallel with the firewall, so there is no

awkward angle when installing the engine bolts and shock mounts.

The disadvantage of this type of mount is that it is not effective in

cushioning vibration and engine torque [20].


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Figure 11: A CONICAL MOUNT

2.4.1.2 Dynafocal Mounts

These are the best types of mounts, and they do a perfect job of

cushioning the vibrations and movements from the engine. Dynafocal

mounts also produce lower cockpit noise. However, they are more

expensive to build and construct [20]. The engine is held in four attach

points (located in a ring), under a certain angle and point to the center

of gravity of the engine. During welding this angle must be held in

perfect alignment or else the four bolts will not fit when installing the

engine in the mount.


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There are two types of dynafocal engine mounts: Type 1 and Type 2.

Type 1 is used in Lycoming engines up to 180 hp and the type 2 is used

in the IO-320 and IO-360 model engines from Lycoming [20].

Figure 12: ADYNAFOCAL MOUNT

2.4.1.3 Bed mount

In a Bed mount, the engine is mounted using four points underneath

the crankcase and then hang to the firewall, as shown below:


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Figure 13: A BED MOUNT

2.5 Aircraft Performance

2.5.1 Introduction

Performance is a term used to describe the ability of an airplane to

accomplish certain things that make it useful for certain purposes [22].

For example, the ability of the airplane to land and take off in a very

short distance is an important factor to the pilot or operator who

operates in and out of short, airfields. The ability to climb fast, carry

heavy loads, fly at high altitudes at fast speeds, or travel long distances

are essential performance parameters for operators.

The main elements of performance are the takeoff and landing

distance, rate of climb, ceiling, payload, range, speed, maneuverability,

stability, and fuel economy. Some of these factors are often directly


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opposed: for example, high speed versus shortness of landing distance;

long range versus great payload. It is the compromise between two or

more of these factors which dictates differences between airplanes and

explains the degree of specialization of modern airplanes.

Therefore, whenever the question of aircraft performance is asked,

what the questioner wants to find out are:

How fast can the airplane go?How high can it go?How fast can it climb?How far can it travel without refueling?What length of airfield is required to operate it?

2.5.2 Engine and Aircraft Performance

The various items of aircraft performance result from the combination

of airplane and engine characteristics.

The aerodynamic characteristics of the airplane generally define the

power and thrust requirements at various conditions of flight while

engine characteristics define the power and thrust available at various

conditions of flight. The matching of the aerodynamic configuration

with the engine is accomplished by the designer to provide maximum


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performance at the specific design condition; e.g. range, endurance,

and climb.

Below are examples of engine role in key performance parameters:

2.5.2.1 Maximum Speed

The maximum level flight speed for the airplane will be obtained when

the power or thrust required equals the maximum power or thrust

available from the powerplant. So maximum speed is directly related to

the engine capacity. On the other hand, the minimum level flight

airspeed is not usually defined by thrust or power requirements.

Instead, it is determined by conditions of stall or stability and control

problems [22].

2.5.2.2 Climb Rate

Climb depends upon the reserve power or thrust. Reserve power is the

available power over that required to maintain horizontal flight at a

given speed. Thus, if an airplane is equipped with an engine that

produces 200 total available horsepower and the airplane requires only

130 horsepower at a certain level flight speed, the power available for

climb is 70 horsepower.


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2.5.2.3 Range Performance

The ability of an airplane to convert fuel energy into flying distance is

one of the most important items of aircraft performance. Range isanother performance parameter that is determined partly by the

engine; the specific fuel consumption (SFC) of the engine.

2.5.2.4 Takeoff performance

The minimum takeoff distance is of primary interest in the operation of

any airplane because it defines the runway requirements. The

minimum takeoff distance is obtained by taking off at some minimum

safe speed that allows sufficient margin above stall and provides

satisfactory control and initial rate of climb.

To obtain minimum takeoff distance at the specific lift-off speed, the

forces that act on the airplane must provide the maximum acceleration

during the takeoff roll. The powerplant thrust is the principal force in

providing the acceleration and, for minimum takeoff distance, the

maximum output thrust should be high.

When the wing loading (w/s) of an aircraft and other aerodynamic

characteristics are known, the required maximum speed, climb rate and

takeoff distance are used to size the engine [1].


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22. WWW.FREE-ONLINE-PRIVATE-PILOT-GROUND-SCHOOL.COM

23. WWW.LYCOMING.COM
http://www.accessscience.com/http://www.accessscience.com/http://www.airbum.com/http://www.airbum.com/http://www.experimentalaircraft.info/http://www.experimentalaircraft.info/http://www.pilotfriend.com/http://www.pilotfriend.com/http://www.free-online-private-pilot-ground-school.com/http://www.free-online-private-pilot-ground-school.com/http://www.lycoming.com/http://www.lycoming.com/http://www.lycoming.com/http://www.free-online-private-pilot-ground-school.com/http://www.pilotfriend.com/http://www.experimentalaircraft.info/http://www.airbum.com/http://www.accessscience.com/


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APPENDIX A: APPLICABLE SECTIONS OF CS-23.

1. CS-23.45 PERFORMANCE GENERAL2. CS-23.51 TAKE OFF APEED3. CS-23.53 TAKE OFF PERFORMANCE4. CS-23.75 LANDING DISTANCECS-23.655. CS-23.335 DESIGN AIRSPEEDS6. CS-23.361 ENGINE TORQUE7. CS-23.363 SIDE LOAD ON ENGINE MOUNT8. CS-23.371 GYROSCOPIC AND AERODYNAMIC LOAD9. CS-23.611 ACCESSIBILITY PROVISIONS10. CS-23.901 POWERPLANT INSTALLATION11. CS-23.905 PROPELLERS12. CS-23.925 PROPELLER CLEARANCE13. CS-23.1121 EXHAUST SYSTEM14. CS-23.1191 FIRE WALLS

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