Energy Conservation in Transportation By Steve Bauer and Josh Basofin
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Transcript of Energy Conservation in Transportation By Steve Bauer and Josh Basofin
Energy Conservation in Transportation
By Steve Bauer and Josh Basofin
Three-pronged Policy Initiative:
Expansion of Regional Rail Systems Implementation of Growth Management
Legislation Establishment of Gasoline Taxes to
Incentivize Rail and Associated Public Transit Use
Problem Addressed:
Excessive Energy Consumption in Transportation As a Consequence of
Over-Dependence on Automobiles
Conclusions:
Rail expansion, growth management, & gasoline taxes, when implemented in conjunction with each other, are effective means to reduce U.S. energy consumption.
However, this three-pronged initiative is a time intensive process and therefore does not provide an immediate solution.
Furthermore, political considerations may constrain implementation of one or all prongs of this initiative.
History of Public Transit in the US 1630 Boston--reputed first publicly operated ferryboat
1835 New Orleans--oldest street railway line still operating (New Orleans & Carrollton line)
1883 New York--first publicly operated cable-powered line (Brooklyn Bridge)
1904 New York--first electric underground (& first 4-track express) heavy rail line (Interborough Rapid Transit Co.)
1938 Chicago--first use of federal capital funding to build a public transportation rail line
1946 highest-ever public transportation ridership (23.4 billion)
1972 public transportation ridership hits all-time low (6.6 billion)
Types of Rail-Based Public Transit
Light Rail Monorail Personal Rapid Transit
Heavy Rail Commuter Rail
Light Rail
Monorail - n. 1. A single rail serving as a track for passenger or freight vehicles. In most cases rail is elevated, but monorails can also run at grade, below grade or in subway tunnels. Vehicles are either suspended from or straddle a narrow guideway. Monorail vehicles are wider than the guideway that supports them.
Personalized Rapid Transit – a type of Automated People Mover (APM). Small vehicles available for exclusive use
by an individual or a small group, typically 1 to 6 passengers, traveling together by choice and available 24 hours a day.
Direct origin to destination service, without a necessity to transfer or stop at intervening stations.
Service available on demand rather than on fixed schedules.
Heavy Rail
Heavy rail refers to traditional high platform subway and elevated rapid transit lines.
Principal characteristics:
Operation over rights of way that are completely segregated from other uses, with the track placed in subway tunnels, on elevated structures, or on fenced surface rights of way, free of grade crossings with roads.
Trains have two to 12 cars, each with its own motors, and drawing power from a third rail (or in some cases from overhead wire).
Heavy Rail (cont’d)
Boarding is from high platforms that are even with the floor level of the car, allowing large numbers of people to enter and leave rapidly.
Before World War II, true heavy rail rapid transit systems existed only in Boston, New York, Philadelphia, and Chicago. Since the war, new systems have been opened in Cleveland, Baltimore, Washington, the San Francisco-Oakland region, Los Angeles, Atlanta, and Miami.
Commuter Rail
Commuter rail refers to passenger trains operated on main line railroad track to carry riders to and from work in city centers.
The trains are normally made up of a locomotive and a number of passenger coaches. The coaches are dimensionally similar to intercity (Amtrak) coaches, but typically have higher density seating as the average ride is shorter.
Commuter rail lines normally extend an average of 10 to 50 miles from their downtown terminus. In some cases service is only offered in rush hours. In other cities, service is operated throughout the day and evening and on weekends.
Commuter Rail (cont’d)
Commuter rail systems are traditionally associated with older industrial cities such as Boston, New York, Philadelphia, and Chicago, but in recent years new diesel powered commuter rail systems have been inaugurated in cities as diverse as Los Angeles and Burlington, Vermont, as traffic congestion has made auto commutes much more difficult. Many additional cities are planning commuter rail lines currently.
Relatively inexpensive to build as they normally operate over existing rail lines. However, typical planning challenges are negotiating use of the tracks with very busy freight rail operators and finding adequate funding both for construction and for operating subsidies.
Existing State of Rail-Based Public Transit Nationwide
From DC to Portland, Cities across the country have a wide variety of public transit systems.
Some Examples
BART – San Francisco Runs partially under the Bay
MAX – Portland Runs exclusively on street level
METRORAIL – Washington, D.C. Runs partially underground and
partially on street level
Cars vs. Public Transit
Decreases in Public Transit Ridership Coincide with Increases in Car use.
Public Transit Ridership Statistics
Car Usage Statistics US population in 1969: 202,677,000 US population in 1995: 263,082,000
More Transit and More Cars?
While public transit ridership continues its upward trend, the number of vehicles on the road and the number of miles driven is also increasing.
In short, Americans are using both modes of transportation at higher rates.
The Solution: Dethroning the Car!By Increasing Public Transit Ridership
The words of John Muir –
“Tug at anything and you will find it hitched to everything else in
the universe”
may be better stated as:
“Tug at anything and you will find it hitched to an automobile”
Methods to Dethrone the Car…
Reduce Dependence Upon Automobiles
Increase Public Transit Ridership
Aspects of Increased Ridership
Increased Ridership means: Accommodating new riders on existing rail
lines Better serving urban and suburban
communities
INCREASED RIDERSHIP
A Chicago Area Case Study
Accommodating New Riders On Existing Rail Lines
The current metropolitan system can accommodate nearly a 25% increase in ridership.
Beyond that, new rider accommodation entails more frequent service, more cars, or rail extension.
Is Extension of Existing Lines Necessary to Better Serve Chicago Area Communities?
Metra is Currently Planning Several Extensions
North Central Service Expansion SouthWest Service Improvements and
Extension Union Pacific West Line Extension
The Reality:
Rail extension is necessary to make public rail transit a more viable solution for all.
Light rail, buses, and/or transit oriented development are necessary to fill the gaps.
Potential Legal Implications Associated With Rail Extension
Nuisance Claims
Takings Claims
Relocation of Public Utilities Claims
Nuisance Claims
Among those things applicable to rail transit that are known to constitute a nuisance are:
That which annoys and disturbs property, rendering its ordinary use uncomfortable
Annoyance; anything that essentially interferes with enjoyment of life of property
Interference by means of noise, vibration, etc.
Common Classifications of Nuisance
Public
Private
Mixed
Public Nuisance
Affects an indefinite number of persons or all the people within a particular locality
Caused by failure to perform a legal duty
Intentionally causing or permitting a condition to exist that injures the public
Private Nuisance
Affects ONLY an individual or a few persons
Includes any wrongful act that: destroys, deteriorates, interferes with or hinders use or enjoyment, or causes a special injury different than that sustained by the public
Importantly, a private nuisance can constitute a public nuisance and vice versa…
Mixed Nuisance
Both public and private in its effects
Injures many persons or all of a particular locality
Produces special injuries to private rights
Further Classifications of Nuisance
Nuisance per se
Nuisance in fact (a/k/a Nuisance at law)
Nuisance per se
An act, occupation or structure that is a nuisance at all times and under all circumstances
Location and surroundings are irrelevant
Injury is certain to be inflicted in some form
Nuisance in fact Similar to nuisance per se
Act, occupation, or structure
Location and surroundings ARE relevant
May become a nuisance by reason of the particular location and surroundings
May become a nuisance by reason of the manner in which it is performed or operated
Would Construction of New Rail Lines in Areas of Existing Development be Prone to Nuisance Claims?
Case Law is Clear as to Nuisance Claims from Use of Rail Systems for Private Purpose… “The universally accepted rule is…that the
operation of a lawfully constructed railroad in an ordinarily prudent and careful manner, without negligence or abuse, does not, by reason of…noise…vibration, and other objectionable features which are necessarily incident thereto and which are common to the public at large, constitute an actionable nuisance, since the doing of that which has been lawfully authorized cannot constitute a nuisance.” City of Hamilton v. Hausenbein (OH), 139 N.E.2d 459
Case Law is also Clear as to Nuisance Claims from use of Rail Systems for Public Purpose…
Public railroad functions are protected from nuisance claims “so long as they are exercised without negligence and in the customary and appropriate instrumentalities….” Robertson v. New Orleans & G.N.R. Co (MS), 129 So. 1180
“Noise…[is a] necessary incident[ ] of the construction and operation of [an elevated railway], and, if every property owner could recover in all such cases, the making of public improvements would become practically impossible.” Griveau v. S. Chicago City Railway Co. (IL), 130 Ill.App. 519 (1st Dist.)
“The annoyance and inconvenience occasioned [by noise from train movement is] to be viewed from the same legal standpoint as are the annoyance and inconvenience necessarily suffered by those who live along a turnpike or other highway.”
“The perfectly proper use of [rail] vehicles constitutes an annoyance, from which people suffer and sometimes seriously, but this inconvenience is an injury for which there is no redress.”
Dean v. Southern Railway Co. (MS), 73 So. 55
However, it is unclear how this case law would influence rail expansion into well-established neighborhoods.
Takings Claims
Los Angeles County Metropolitan Transportation Authority v. Continental Development Corporation
Are Takings Claims Likely to Stem from Rail Expansion?
Just compensation must be provided No more and no less than making the landowner
whole for the loss/damage sustained
Inverse Condemnation/Nuisance When the consequences of the project are “not
far removed” from a direct physical intrusion or amount to a nuisance
Severance Damages When diminution in the FMV of the remainder of
the property is caused by the project
Los Angeles County Metropolitan Transportation Authority v. Continental Development Corporation (1)
The Facts:
Continental Development Corporation (CDC) owned a 4.43 acre (192,970.8 sq. ft.) parcel of land
The Los Angles County Transportation Commission (LACTC) brought an eminent domain proceeding to acquire three interests in the land for elevated light rail construction Air rights easement (approx. 5 feet on avg.) Construction easement (approx. 5 feet on avg.) Fee (373 sq. ft. area)
Los Angeles County Metropolitan Transportation Authority v. Continental Development Corporation (2)
Issue: Whether CDC could recover severance damage to its property based on:
Building redesign Noise mitigation Visual Impact
Los Angeles County Metropolitan Transportation Authority v. Continental Development Corporation (3)
Severance Damages – the diminution in the FMV of the remainder land caused by the project
Two Kinds of Benefits: General Benefits – the increase in the FMV of the land &
community from advantages that come from the improvement
Special Benefits – the increase in the FMV of the land from the mere construction of the improvement
– are peculiar to the land in question
Los Angeles County Metropolitan Transportation Authority v. Continental Development Corporation (4)
Eminent domain requires a set-off of general and special damages against both severance damages and compensation for the taking
Conclusion: A land owner shall receive compensation
for the damage he suffers based upon the land taken and the damage or value of the project’s construction.
Just compensation can be off-set by value added to remaining land
Railway expansion will likely require relocation of public utilities
Within public rights-of-way
Outside public rights-of-way
Relocation of Public Utilities Claims
Northwest Natural Gas Co. v. City of Portland
Northwest Natural Gas Co. v. City of Portland (1)
The Facts:
Tri-Met provides and operates a light rail transit (LRT) system in the Tri-County Portland metropolitan area in cooperation with the City of Portland
Tri-Met was constructing rail lines to provide public transit between neighboring Gresham and downtown Portland
Each of the utilities doing business within the City previously received authority to operate and maintain their facilities within the public rights-of-way
Northwest Natural Gas Co. v. City of Portland (2)
The Facts (continued):
The City of Portland mandated the relocation of all public facilities within the public rights-of-way to enable construction of the LRT.
Four investor-owed public utilities (gas, power, & phone) sought a declaration that the City could not require uncompensated relocation of their facilities to accommodate Tri-Met’s construction of the LRT.
Northwest Natural Gas Co. v. City of Portland (3)
Issue: Whether the City had authority to require uncompensated relocation of public utilities to accommodate construction of the LRT system.
Northwest Natural Gas Co. v. City of Portland (4)
Trial Court: City may require utilities to relocate their facilities within public rights-of-way without compensation
Court of Appeals: Reversed in part
Oregon Supreme Court: Reversed.
Northwest Natural Gas Co. v. City of Portland (5) Holding:
“Municipal ownership and operation of a mass transit system is a traditional governmental function.”
Municipalities need only act within applicable statutes and within the authority of their charters and ordinances.
Municipalities have the right to act “in the interest of public health and general welfare.”
“The regulation of [a] city[’s] streets for purposes of transportation is a proper exercise of [its] governmental authority.”
Northwest Natural Gas Co. v. City of Portland (6)
Conclusion:
Utility companies may not recover the costs of relocation of their facilities against the City or the transportation authority for the construction of the light rail transit system within the public rights-of-way.
What about relocation of public utilities not located within public rights-of-way?
But…
Solutions:
Negotiate Relocation/Alteration Purchase Lease Eminent Domain/Condemnation
Urban Growth Limits are Integral to Increased Transit Ridership
Growth Limits are Good for Transit Optimize use of transit facilities by reining in
development Encourage transit oriented developments Ensure financial viability of transit systems Enable better planning and transit
expenditures
Suburban Growth Rates Have Grown Steadily in the U.S. Since
World War II
Such Growth Requires an Increase in Housing Stock to Support the Increased Population
People want the “American Dream:” Detached single-family residential homes
Requires increased land area Proliferates urban sprawl Requires inefficient expansion of roadways
and public commuter systems
Current Metropolitan Growth Rates
A Chicago Area Case Study(Continued)
Like many other large U.S. metropolitan areas, the Chicago area has experienced high land consumption and population growth rates
Chicago Area Geography
The region is composed of six counties - McHenry, Lake, Kane, DuPage, Cook, and Will.
Projected Growth:
The Chicago area includes the City of Chicago and 272 surrounding suburban municipalities
The Chicago area will grow by 1.6 million people over the next three decades
The Chicago area will experience an increase of one million additional cars by the year 2030
Land Development (1972/2030)
Evaluating the Capability of Current Planning Measures to
Regulate Urban Growth
Current Planning Efforts are Insufficient
Many municipal and county zoning ordinances proliferate urban sprawl by establishing:
Prohibitions on multi-unit dwellings Excessive minimum lot sizes Excessive maximum density regulations Prohibitions on mixed-use development
The Net Effect:
In the Chicago area alone, continued developmental patterns will result in the development of 500 square miles of open space by 2030
Driving times will increase by 14 minutes per person by 2030
Increased traffic congestion Deterioration of air quality
Types of Growth Management
Urban Growth Boundary (UGB)
Intergovernmental Growth Management (IGM)
The Urban Growth Boundary(UGB): A Potential Solution
What Is a UGB?
The UGB is a line drawn on planning and zoning maps outside of current municipal boundaries to show where and how a municipality expects to grow
The UGB designates undeveloped urbanizable land that will accommodate future municipal growth
Urban development is prohibited on all land outside the UGB, thus restricting urban growth
How Is the UGB Established?
A Collaborative Effort Between: Each municipality that is enveloped by the
UGB The county or counties within which the
municipality is located and/or contiguous Special service districts Local area citizens
How Much Land is Needed in the UGB?
The Formula:
AVLN – AVLA = Urbanizable land needed in the UGB
AVLN: Acres of vacant land needed to accommodate expected growth within the community
AVLA: Acres of vacant land already available within the current municipal boundary
How is the Location of the UGB Established?
Three General Factors of Consideration:
Efficient Use of Land Protection of Open Space & Agricultural
Land Cost-effectiveness, as by ensuring the
orderly and economic provision of pubic services.
Can the Boundary of the UGB be Enlarged?
Yes. However, enlargement of the boundary iscontingent upon compliance with statewide planninggoals. Enlargement is permitted:
When founded upon necessity After examining the potential expansion by
considering the three factors utilized in establishing the initial boundaries of the UGB
After determining that the proposed area of expansion is indeed the best place to expand
Successful UGBs Accomplish the Following Goals:
Contain Urban Sprawl Encourage Mixed-Use Zoning Encourage In-fill Development and Redevelopment Control Costs of Public Services and Facilities Create Certainty
Land Consumption Land Use Public Service and Facility Expansion
How is the UGB Good for Transit?
UGBs encourage mixed use development, creating “town centers” in which people live, shop, and work near public transit lines.
Such development reduces the need and dependence upon automotive transportation.
The End Product:
Mass transit rail systems can be extended and
improved with certainty
But…
Are UGBs Unconstitutional Takings?
UGBs have not been challenged on constitutional grounds as takings.
However, UGB proponents remain concerned, as the current Supreme Court is increasingly protective of private property rights.
Physical Takings v. Regulatory Takings
Physical takings are those primarily contemplated by the 5th Amendment
The classic case: the government physically appropriates one’s land for public use
Always require compensation
The Supreme Court has also recognized so-called regulatory takings.
The classic case: “government actions do not encroach upon or occupy [one’s] property yet still affect and limit its use to such an extent that a taking occurs.”
Require further analysis
Total Takings v. Partial Takings Total Taking
“A regulation which denies all economically beneficial or productive use of land” will require compensation under the Takings Clause.
Partial Taking (Penn Central)
The following factors must be balanced
Regulation’s economic effect on the landowner
Regulation’s interference with reasonable investment-backed expectations
Character of the government action (is there a “substantial public purpose?”)
Are UGBs a Total Taking?
In Palazzolo v. Rhode Island, a plaintiff was unable to convince the Supreme Court that he suffered a regulatory taking when he was limited to building one residence on his eighteen acre lot. The court held that the land was not “economically idle” and therefore not a “total taking.”
Landowners in Oregon that live outside the UGB are allowed to do even more than the Palazzolo plaintiff, such as building several houses on ten-acre lots, using land for agricultural purposes, and even converting land to urban uses if rural uses are impracticable. Thus, Oregon’s UGB law is probably not a total
taking.
Are UGBs a partial taking?
Even if a state has not enacted a UGB, a proposed UGB will interfere with investment-backed expectation only if the landowner reasonably relied on its absence. Municipalities may avoid this by including land
already zoned for intense development within UGBs.
In Agins v. Tiburon, the Supreme Court held that limiting urban sprawl is a legitimate state interest justifying restrictions upon development of rural and suburban land. Thus, UGBs are probably not a partial taking,
because their purpose is to limit sprawl.
Intergovernmental Growth Management (IGM): A potential solution AND alternative to the UGB
Purpose of IGM: A mechanism for municipalities and counties
to work together
Establishes regional councils composed of representatives from each county and municipality within the region
Encourages development and implementation of intergovernmental plans
Importantly, the IGM is More Carrot than Stick.
This is not a minor distinction!
Conclusion:
UGB and IGM both effective
However, the feasibility of a growth control is dependent upon variations among regions and states: Need Politics
Which is Best for the Chicago Area?
1 million additional cars by 2030
1.6 million additional people
High land consumption trends
And mixed feelings about growth controls and public transit
GAS TAX
A GAS TAX WOULD
Incentivize public transit ridership Fund extensions to current transit lines or installation of
new systems Encourage fuel efficiency
POINT COUNTERPOINT
“Western Europe stands as a testament to the effects of higher transportation costs on land use….It is no coincidence that European nations that exact high fuel taxes from motorists also have…limited sprawl and heavily patronized transit services.”
We would need a considerable tax to make Americans “feel it” in their pocketbooks: “Eleven percent of the
1996 average disposable income divided by the amount of gasoline consumed that year gives the price per gallon ($5.72) that is necessary for gasoline to consume the same percent of personal disposable income as was consumed by gasoline in 1981.”
THE PUBLIC SUPPORTS PUBLIC TRANSIT
Four in five (81 percent) Americans believe that increased investment in public transportation strengthens the economy, creates jobs, reduces traffic congestion and air pollution, and saves energy.
The survey found that almost three-quarters (72 percent) support the use of public funds for the expansion and improvement of public transportation.
“Most Americans, even those living in rural areas of the country, agree that their community needs more public transportation options.”
“Recent studies suggest that people will readily walk ¼ mile in order to take advantage of public transportation. People will walk even further if the transit includes rail….”
Conclusions:
Rail expansion, growth management, & gasoline taxes, when implemented in conjunction with each other, are effective means to reduce U.S. energy consumption.
However, this three-pronged initiative is a time intensive process and therefore does not provide an immediate solution.
Furthermore, political constraints may not enable one or all prongs of this initiative to be implemented
Feasibility of implementing the initiative
Pros Rail-based transit enjoys
wide public support Partially self-financing Mitigate sprawl, foster
redevelopment (infill reinvestment), and increase property values
Reduce fossil fuel consumption
Cons There may be opposition
from the terminally addicted
Associated costs likely to exceed revenues from gas
Increased property values Economic impacts