Energy: coal and steam replace wind, water, human and animal labor

Organization: factories over cottage industries

Rural agriculture declines, urban manufacturing increases

Transportation: trains, automobiles replace animals, watercraft

1

The Industrial Middle Class Urban Proletariat Shift in political power Inspiration for new political systems, esp.

Marxism

2

Genesis of an environmental catastrophe◦ Intellectual origins of human domination over

natural resources◦ Unforeseen toxins, occupational hazards

Social ills◦ Landless proletariat◦ Migrating work forces

3

Great Britain, 1780s Followed agricultural revolution

◦ Food surplus◦ Disposable income◦ Population increase

Market Labor supply

4

Strong banking tradition Natural resources

◦ Coal, iron ore Ease of transportation

◦ Size of country◦ River and canal system

Exports to imperial colonies◦ Esp. machine textiles

5

Flying shuttle doubled weaving output ◦ without doubling supply of yarn

Spinning jenny (1768)◦ Increased supply of yarn, faster than flying shuttle

could process Power loom (1787) met supply of yarn

6

Massive machinery Supply of labor Transport of raw materials, finished product

to markets Concentration in newly built factory towns

on rivers

7

050

100150200250300350400

Lbs. (mill.)

1760 1840

Cotton Imports to UK Steam Engine

◦ James Watt (1736-1819)

◦ Coal fired◦ Applied to rotary

engine, multiple applications

1760: 2.5 million pounds of raw cotton imported

1787: 22 million 1840: 360 million

8

Cheap cotton from American south Benefit of transatlantic slave trade Irony: early British abolitionism, yet profit

motive retained

9

Henry Cort devises method of refining iron ore (1780s)◦ First major advance since middle ages

1852 produces more high-quality iron than rest of world combined

Synergy with increasing technological development

10

1804 first steam-powered locomotive Capacity: Ten tons + 70 passengers @ 5

mph The Rocket from Liverpool to Manchester

(1830), 16 mph Ripple effect on industrialization Engineering and architecture

11

Early modern Europe adopts “putting-out” system

Individuals work at home, employers avoid wage restrictions of medieval guilds

Rising prices cause factories to replace both guilds and putting-out system◦ Machines too large, expensive for home use◦ Large buildings could house specialized laborers◦ Urbanization guarantees supply of cheap

unskilled labor

12

Dramatic shift from rural work rhythms Six days a week, fourteen hours a day Immediate supervision, punishments “Luddite” Protest against machines 1811-

1816◦ Name from legend about boy named Ludlam who

broke a knitting frame◦ Leader called “King Lud”

Masked Luddites destroy machinery, enjoyed popular support

14 Luddites hung in 1813, movement dies out

13

Development of technical schools for engineers, architects, etc.

Government support for large public works projects (canals, rail system)

Spreads throughout Germany under Bismarck

14

15

Eli Whitney (U.S., 1765-1825) invents cotton gin (1793), also technique of using machine tools to make interchangeable parts for firearms◦ “the American system”

Applied to wide variety of machines Henry Ford, 1913, develops assembly line

approach◦ Complete automobile chassis every 93 minutes◦ Previously: 728 minutes

16

17

Ancient and medieval notions of kingship: “mandate of heaven,” “divine right of kings”

Impact of Enlightenment ideas Kings to be made responsible to subject

populations John Locke (1632-1704)

◦ Second Treatise of Civil Government (1690)◦ Argues that rulers derive power from consent of

ruled◦ Individuals retain personal rights, give political

rights to rulers

18

Voltaire (pen name of François-Marie Arouet, 1694-1778)◦ Écrasez l’infame, “erase the infamy:” criticism of

Roman Catholic Church Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778)

◦ Argues for equality of all individuals, regardless of class, before the law

◦ The Social Contract (1762), argues that society is collectively the sovereign

19

Little indication of forthcoming revolution in mid-18th century

13 colonies regarded themselves as British subjects

Long cultural and personal connections with England

Mutually profitable military and economic relationship

20

Expensive, extensive Overlapped with Seven Years’ War (1756-

1763)◦ Conflict in Europe, India◦ British victory ensured global dominance, North

American prosperity

21

Bills come due from the Seven Years’ War Tax burden falls to the colonies

◦ Sugar Act (1764)◦ Stamp Act (1765)◦ Quartering Act (1765) (Housing British Troops)◦ Tea Act (1773)

22

British products boycotted, officials attacked

Protests◦ Boston Tea Party (1773), tea dumped into Boston

harbor in protest against Tea Act◦ “no taxation without representation”

Continental Congress formed (1774), coordinates colonists’ resistance to British policies◦ July 4, 1776, adopts Declaration of Independence◦ Influence of Locke: retention of individual rights,

sovereignty based on consent of the ruled

23

Colonies:◦ Logistic advantage◦ Popular support◦ Support of British

rivals◦ George Washington

(1732-1799) provides imaginative military leadership

Britain:◦ Strong central

government◦ Navy, army◦ Loyalist population

24

25

War-weariness sets in by 1780 British forces surrounded at Yorktown,

Virginia◦ Surrender in October 1781

Military conflict ceases, treaty at Peace of Paris, 1783◦ Recognition of American independence

1787 Constitution of the United States drafted◦ Political and legal equality for men of property

26

Serious fiscal problems in France◦ War debts, 1780s

50% of tax revenues to war debts◦ 25% of tax revenues to military

Leads to revolution more radical than the American◦ Repudiation of many aspects of the ancien régime

27

Three Estates◦ 1st Estate: Roman Catholic Clergy

100,000◦ 2nd Estate: Nobles

400,000◦ 3rd Estate: Everyone else

24,000,000 serfs, free peasants, urban residents Estates General founded 1303, had not met

since 1614 One vote per estate

28

Protest of nobility forces King Louis to call Estates General for new taxes, May 1789

3rd Estate demands greater social change June, 3rd Estate secedes

◦ Renamed “National Assembly” July, mob attacks Bastille, bloody battle won

by mob

29

August 1789 American influence Equality of men

◦ Women not included: Olympe de Gouges (Marie Gouze) unsucessfully attempts to redress this in 1791

Sovereignty resides in the people Individual rights

30

“liberty, equality, fraternity” National Assembly abolishes old social order Seizes church lands, redefines clergy as

civilians New constitution retains king, but subject to

legislative authority Convention: elected by universal male

suffrage Levée en masse: conscription for war Guillotine invented to execute domestic

enemies◦ 1793: King Louis and Queen Marie Antoinette

31

“the Incorruptible,” leader of “Committee of Public Safety”

Leader of Jacobin party Dominated Convention, 1793-1794 Churches closed, priests forced to marry

◦ Promoted “Cult of Reason” as secular alternative to Christianity

Calendar reorganized: 10-day weeks, proclaimed Year 1

Executed 40,000; imprisoned 300,000

32

Revolutionary enemies of the Jacobins 1794 Robespierre arrested, sent to

guillotine Men of property take power in the form of

the Directory Unable to solve economic and military

problems of revolutionary France

33

From minor Corsican noble family Army officer under King Louis XVI, general

at 24 Brilliant military strategist Joins Directory 1799, then overthrew it Imposed new constitution, named self

“Consul for life” in 1802

34

Concludes agreement with Pope: Concordat◦ France retains church lands, but pay salaries to

clergy◦ Freedom of religion, also for Protestants, Jews

1804 promulgates Napoleonic Code◦Patriarchal authority◦Became model for many civil codes

Tight control on newspapers, use of secret police

Eventually declared himself Emperor

35

Conquered Iberian, Italian Peninsulas, Netherlands

Forced Austria and Prussia to enter into alliance Disastrous invasion of Russia in 1812 Burned Moscow, but defeated by Russian weather

◦ “General Winter” British, Austrian, Prussian and Russian armies

force Napoleon to abdicate, 1814◦ Exiled to Island of Elba, escaped to take power again for

100 days◦ Defeated by British at Waterloo, exiled to St. Helena, dies

1821

36

37

Only successful slave revolt Island of Hispaniola

◦ Spanish colony Santo Domingo in east (now Dominican Republic)

◦ French colony of Saint-Domingue in west (now Haiti)

Rich Caribbean colony◦ Sugar, coffee, cotton◦ Almost 1/3 of France’s foreign trade

38

1790: ◦ 40,000 white French settlers

Dominated social structure◦ 30,000 gens de couleur (free people of color, i.e.

mixed-race, freed slaves) Holders of small plots

◦ 500,000 black slaves of African descent High mortality rate, many flee to mountains “Maroons,” escaped slaves

39

Inspired by American and French revolutions◦ 500 gens de couleur sent to fight British in American

War of Independence 1789 white settlers demand self-rule, but with

no equality for gens de couleur 1791 civil war breaks out Slaves revolt under Vodou priest named

Boukman French, British, Spanish forces attempt to

intervene

40

Renames self Louverture (“the opening”), 1791

Descendant of slaves, freed in 1776 Helped his original owners escape, then

joined rebel forces Built army of 20,000, eventually dominated

Saint-Domingue 1801 promulgated constitution of equality 1802 arrested by Napoleon’s forces, died in

jail French troops driven out, 1804 Haiti declares

independence

41

30,000 peninsulares, colonial officials from Iberian peninsula

3.5 million criollos (creoles), born in the Americas of Spanish or Portuguese descent◦ Privileged class, but grievances with peninsulares◦ 1810-1825 led movements for creole-dominated

republics 10 million others

◦ African slaves, mixed-race populations

42

Napoleon’s invasion of Spain and Portugal (1807) weakens royal authority in colonies

Priest Miguel de Hidalgo (1753-1811) leads revolt◦ Hidalgo captured and executed, but rebellion continues

Creole general Augustin de Iturbide (1783-1824) declares independence in 1821◦ Installs self as Emperor, deposed in 1823, republic

established Southern regions form federation, then divide

into Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, Costa Rica

43

Led independence movement in South America

Native of Caracas (Venezuela), influenced by Enlightenment, George Washington

Rebels against Spanish rule 1811, forced into hiding

Forms alliances with many creole leaders ◦ José de San Martín (Argentina, 1778-1850)◦ Bernardo O’Higgins (Chile, 1778-1842)

Spanish rule destroyed in South America by 1825

44

Bolívar hoped to form U.S.-style federation Venezuela, Columbia, Equador form Gran

Colombia◦ Attempts to bring in Peru and Bolívia

Strong political differences, Gran Colombia disintegrates

Bolívar goes into self-imposed exile, dies of tuberculosis

45

Napoleon’s invasion sends Portuguese royal court to exile in Rio de Janeiro

1821 King returns, son Pedro left behind as regent

Pedro negotiates with creoles, declares independence of Brazil◦ Becomes Emperor Pedro I (r. 1822-1844)

Social structure remains largely intact

46

47

Conservativism◦ Edmund Burke (England, 1729-1797)◦ Disavowed rapid revolutionary change◦ Favored slow evolution of society

Liberalism◦ Viewed conservatives as defenders of illegitimate

status quo◦ Manage, not stifle, social change◦ John Stuart Mill (England, 1806-1873)

48

Campaign to end slavery begins in 18th century◦ Olaudah Equiano (1745-1797)

Gains momentum after American, French and Haitian revolutions

William Wilberforce (England, 1759-1833), philanthropist, succeeds in having Parliament outlaw slave trade, 1807

Other states follow suit, but illegal trade continues until 1867

49

Haiti: slavery ends with revolution Mexico slavery abolished 1829

◦ Partially to stop U.S. development of slave-based cotton industry in Mexico

1833 Britain abolishes slavery, offers compensation to former owners

Other states follow, but offer freedom without equality◦ Property requirements, literacy tests, etc. block

voting

50

Enlightenment thinkers remained conservative regarding women’s rights◦ Rousseau argues women should receive

education to prepare for lives as wives and mothers

Mary Astell (England, 1666-1731) argues that women essentially born into slavery

Mary Wollstonecraft (England, 1759-1797)◦ A Vindication of the Rights of Woman (1792)

51

Women active in all phases of French revolution◦ Women storm Versailles in 1789, demands for

food◦ Republican Revolutionary Women patrol streets of

Paris with firearms Yet hold few official positions of authority Revolution grants equality in education,

property, legalized divorce Yet women not allowed to vote, major task

of 19th century◦ Elizabeth Cady Stanton (U.S., 1815-1902)

52

“Nation” a type of community, especially prominent in 19th century

Distinct from clan, religious, regional identities

Usually based on shared language, customs, values, historical experience◦ Sometimes common religion

Idea of nation has immediate relationship with political boundaries

53

Cultural nationalism◦ Johann Gottfried von Herder (1744-1803) praises

the Volk (“people”)◦ Literature, folklore, music as expressions of

Volksgeist: “spirit of the people” Political nationalism

◦ Movement for political independence of nation from other authorities

◦ Unification of national lands◦ Giuseppe Mazzini (1805-1872), “Young Italy”

54

Nationalist ideologies distrustful of indigenous minorities

Pogroms, violent attacks on Jewish communities in Russian Empire beginning 1881

Anti-Semitism rallying cry of many European nationalists

French military Captain Alfred Dreyfus framed for selling military secrets to Germany

Eventually exonerated, but great debate on loyalty of Jews in European societies

55

Theodor Herzl (Austria, 1860-1904) journalist at Dreyfus trial

Observed intense mob anti-semitism, concluded that Enlightenment and revolution could not solve this human ill

Worked to create refuge for Jews by re-establishing Jewish state in Palestine◦ Zion synonymous with Jerusalem

1897 convened first World Zionist Congress

56

Meeting after defeat of Napoleon Prince Klemens von Metternich (Austria,

1773-1859) supervises dismantling of Napoleon’s empire

Established balance of power Worked to suppress development of

nationalism among multi-national empires like the Austrian