Encountering Islam: The Politics of Religious Identities ...

Index

A“A Day in the Life of Dr Karim” story

(Mustafa), 319Abdullah administration, 160, 173,

179Abdullah, Munshi, 50Abdullah, Taufik, 195Abdul Majid, Haji, 51ABIM. See Angkatan Belia Islam

Malaysia (ABIM)accommodation, 305n29

political participation and. See electoral politics participation, Thailand

Acehnese wars, 277Aceh, suicide attacks in, 277Administration of Muslim Law

Enactment 1952, 114“Aesthetics” story (Jamil), 328Aeusrivongse, Nidhi, 278–79Afghanistan terrorist network, 342AGC. See Al-Arqam Group of

Companies (AGC)Ahmadiyah

ban of, 223, 227, 233–35, 238–39beliefs, 219campaign against, 225–26community, 227critics’ argument on, 237government’s toleration of, 228

history in Indonesia, 220–21, 224mosques, 232, 238origins in British India, 223populations, 220protecting, 233religious freedom for, 218, 235–38

Ahmadiyah Muslim Community, 218, 219

Ahmadiyya Muslim Jama’at. See Ahmadiyah

AKKBB. See Aliansi Kebangsaan untuk Kebebasan Beragama dan Berkeyakinan (AKKBB)

Al-Arqam Group of Companies (AGC), 79

Al Fata At Tamimi, 83Al-Furqan incident, 11, 279–80Al-Helmy, Burhanuddin, 69, 70, 88n7Aliansi Kebangsaan untuk Kebebasan

Beragama dan Berkeyakinan (AKKBB), 228–29, 237, 242n33

alim, 27, 35aliran (streams), 252

in contemporary Indonesia, 265n7aliran kepercayaan, 221, 228Al-Ittihad, 74Al-Ittihadiyyah, 74aL.I.V.E. programmes, 364Allah, 89n18

and Muhammad, 224, 227

14EncounteringIslam.indd377 10/11/123:34:53PM

Masiah

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378 Index

al-Qaeda, 342, 355Amangkurat I, 22, 25Amangkurat II, 39American colonialism in the

Philippines, 314, 316–17, 320American feminist movements, 258American imperialists, 316Amin, Ma’ruf, 225, 231amir, 27Anderson, Benedict, 56Angkatan Belia Islam Malaysia

(ABIM), 103, 108, 352Anglo-Siamese agreement, 272Annabel Gallop of British Library, 50anti-Ahmadiyah agenda, 226anti-Ahmadiyah sentiment, 233–35anti-pornography bill, 10, 258anti-prostitution laws, 258–59anti-religion stance, 207Anwar sodomy trial, 127Appiah, Anthony, 314Arabicization of women, 259archipelago pilgrims, 50–51Arjomand, Said Amir, 32–33Arnada, Erwin, 256–57Asain, Calbi, 319asatizah, 364Asatizah Recognition Scheme, 360Ashaari Muhammad, Ustaz, 76–79, 86Asian economic crisis, 249assimilation of Muslim immigrants, 9assimilation policies, Thailand,

271–72, 303n2Astana, 318, 331n3Aurad Muhammadiah congregation,

72, 85in Malaysia, 77–84in Singapore, 74–77

aurat, 256Australian feminist movements, 258authoritarianism, 206–7

Ayat Lima, 73Ayutthaya kings, 272Aziz, Nik, 352

BBabad ing Sangkala, 22Badan Koordinasi Pengawas Aliran

Kepercayaan Masyarakat. See Bakorpakem

Badan Penyelidik Usaha Persiapan Kemerdekaan Indonesia (BPUPKI), 201

Badawi, Abdullah, 141, 162–63, 165, 181n7

Badie, Betrand, 28Bakorpakem, 221–22, 227, 240n6Bali bombings, 292Barisan Nasional (BN), 171Barisan Revolusi Nasional-Coordinate

(BRN-C), 280Bashir, Abu Bakar, 226Basyumi, Muhammad M., 243n46Batak account, 56Batavia, 19, 24, 38Batu Caves temple, 142–43bay bithaman ajil, 117Berjaya administration, 169–70,

172–74“Berjihad Di Patani”, 277Beyer, Peter, 40Bijapur, 31blasphemy, 230Blue Blood of the Big Astana (Jubaira),

317BNBC. See British North Borneo

Company (BNBC)bomohs, 301Boonyaratkalin, Sonthi, 285–86Borneonization of Sabah civil service,

176Brahmins, 28–29, 38


Index 379

British colonial rulers, 31British India, Ahmadiyah’s origins

in, 223British North Borneo Company

(BNBC), 166BRN-C. See Barisan Revolusi

Nasional-Coordinate (BRN-C)Buddhism, 38, 125

in South Asia, 29bumiputra, 70, 140, 159, 165–66,

173–75, 177bumiputraism, 150bureaucratization of Islam, 105

CCarita Sultan Iskandar, 21, 23Catholic Filipinos, 315Central Java, 19Chakri dynasty, 30chauvinism, 369n1chauvinists, ethnic, 141children, Indonesia, 260

dignity of, 257immorality and safeguarding, 260Islamic discourses, 257moral protection, 262protection, 258, 262–63

Chinese communities, demographics of, 134

Chinese populations, 335, 355Chinese War, Islamizing trend in, 24Christian Filipinos, 316, 324, 331n2Christianity, Islam and, 343Chularatmontri, 291, 293citizenship, Islamization and, 160–65civilizational conflict, 344civil laws, 119, 125

civil definition of Malay-Muslim, 125

harmonization of, 117–18syariah and, 119

civil rights of Muslim citizen, 105civil society

Muslim, 345, 357organizations, 35

clash of civilization, 344Cobbold Commission, 168Colonialism, American. See American

colonialismcolonial rule in the Philippines,

316–21common penal code in Malaysia, 114Community Engagement Program

(CEP), 358community, Indonesia, 254, 257, 263Confederation of Muslim Graduates

of the Peninsula, 108conflict in Muslim stories/lives,

326–29confrontations. See violent

confrontationsconstitutional rights in Indonesia, 249contemporary Indonesia, 19, 34–38,

44n10aliran in, 265n7religion and politics in, 249, 253

Contract Act 1950, 118conversion law, 135Coordinating Board for Monitoring

Mystical Beliefs in Society, 221Crescent Star Party, 233cultural identity in Java, 22, 25culturalist approach in Muslims

9/11 and, 340–44impact of, 354mirror image of, 362pervasiveness of, 342traits of, 337–40

culture talk, 339

DDahlan, Kyai Haji Ahmad, 212n7


380 Index

Dahm, Bernhard, 194dakwah, 27, 73, 78, 182n22, 227Daratista, Inul, 255Darul Arqam, 76–79, 82, 92n41, 110Darul Islam movement, 25Da’wa. See Tablighi Jama’at (TJ)DDII. See Dewan Dakwah Islamiyah

Indonesia (DDII)Defenders of Islam Command, 229de-Indianization of Malay culture,

139democracy, 286

criticisms of, 206definition, 206guided, 198, 205–6Islam and, 197–98, 211, 251Islamic, 206, 207of Malaysia, 115and Natsir, 206, 211religion and, 206Siamese, 284and social justice, 266n10and Sukarno, 211Western characteristics, 199wild or unfettered, 207without an opposition, 210

Democrat Party, 234, 281–82Department for the Development of

Syariah Judiciary in Malaysia, 111

Department of Home Affairs, 225Dewan Dakwah Islamiyah Indonesia

(DDII), 25, 221–22, 225, 227, 240n8

Dewan Pertimbangan Presiden (DPP), 225

divine justice, 146–47Djamaluddin, Amin, 221–22, 226, 237,

240n10dual-jurisdiction system, 118Dusun Nyior clash, 283

Dutch colonial army, suicide attacks, 277

Dutch colonialism, 202PNI’s condemnation of, 193

Dutch colonialists, 277Dutch colonial rule, 277Dutch East India Company (VOC),

19–20alliance, 22attacking garrison, 24

Dutch-Indonesian relationship, challenges in, 204

EEastern democracy, 206. See also

Western democracyegalitarian marriages, 263Egyptian Muslim Brotherhood, 252Election Commission of Thailand,

285electoral politics participation,

ThailandConstitutional Court for electoral

fraud, 286Malay-Muslim community, 284–86Malay-Muslim politicians, 281–82New Aspiration Party (NAP), 282People’s Power Party, 285Tak Bai massacre, 284Thaksin’s Thai Rak Thai (TRT),

283–85Wahdah members, 282

Embassy of Saudi Arabia, 222“endangered identity”, 159Engineer, Ali Asghar, 251English common law, 116–17ethnic chauvinists, 141ethnic consciousness in Malaysia,

135ethnic factor, 168ethnic groups, 335


Index 381

ethno-nationalistic urgency, 133extrajudicial killings in South

Thailand, 284extremism, 339, 359extremist Muslims

moderates vs., 344–46struggle with rationalist Muslims,

343

F“fantasized homogeneity”, 119Fatayat, 265n5

demonstrations, 258gender equality and Islamic

feminism, 251pornography debate in Indonesia,

255understandings of Islam, 251Wahhabism, 259for women, 250

Fatayat Nahdlatul Ulama, 248fatwa, 27, 81, 85, 119, 128n1, 221, 224,

228fatwa councils, ban of religious

practices of Muslims, 120–22fatwas, 221–22, 224Faza’il A’maal, 294, 309n74Federal Constitution, 126

Article 11 of, 180n1Article 11(1) of, 123Article 121(1A) of, 113, 129n4

federal law, 181n10Federal Reserve Units (FRU), 142–43,

148feminism, 314Feminist scholars, 248, 254, 256fiqh, 250–52“First Reaction to the President’s

Concept”, 206fitrah, 197force of law, 153

Forum Ulama Umat Indonesia (FUUI), 241n20

Forum Umat Islam (FUI), 225–26Forum Umat Ulama Islam (FUUI),

225FPI. See Front Pembela Islam (FPI);

Islamic Defenders Front (FPI)Franssen, Pieter, 20freedom of speech, 258Front of the Defenders of Islam, 225Front Pembela Islam (FPI), 35, 45n13,

225, 229FRU. See Federal Reserve Units

(FRU)FUI. See Forum Umat Islam (FUI)fundamentalist Muslims and

modernist Muslims, 343FUUI. See Forum Umat Ulama Islam

(FUUI)

Ggangsterism, 142Garcia Villa, Jose, 313Gasche, Rodolphe, 147gender, 262–64

equality and Islamic feminism, 254global discourses of, 251in Indonesian public debates,

254–55media discourses on, 254and religion, 253religious and secular discourses of,

248–49separation of, 252structure of society, 248

gender ideologies, 248, 262, 264nationalism and statemaking, 254symbolic boundaries of community,

254Gerakan Mujahidin Islam Patani

(GMIP), 280


382 Index

Ghulam Ahmad, Mirza, 219, 222, 227, 235

Global Ikhwan, 83, 93n62globalization, 67, 265n4“glum Darussalam”, 285GMIP. See Gerakan Mujahidin Islam

Patani (GMIP)Goh Chok Tong, 337, 341, 369n6,

370n7, 370n8, 370n13Gonda, Jan, 28Guided Democracy, 198, 205–7“Guide for Tableegh Journey and Six

Points”, 294

HHadith, 219hajj

accounts of, 47, 50housewives on, 57journey, 7occupation, 56–57pilgrims, 48, 52–59sacred sites, 51–55and the self, 55–60

Hajji Ishok, 307n51hajj memoirs, 47–48

from pre-independence period, 48–51

Hang Tuah, 61“haram zone”, 52Harmonization of Civil Laws and

Syariah in 2007, 117, 129n5harmonization of civil legal and

syariah systems, 110, 116–18Hassan, Ahmad, 193

beliefs of, 213n11Hasyim, Wahid, 27, 36Hatta, Mohammad, 202, 203headscarves. See tudungHejaz

archipelago pilgrims, 50

holy sites of, 61Southeast Asian pilgrims in, 48

“heroines of Islam”, 58Herzog, Chaim, 341Hijaz, Wahhabi conquests of, 70“Hikajat Prang Sabi”, 277Hikayat Hang Tua, 49Hikayat Patani, 304n20Hikmat Allah Abadan, 304n12Hindraf. See Hindu Rights Action

Force (Hindraf)Hinduism, 38

in India, 28Tamil, 151, 154

Hindu lunisolar era, 20Hindu Rights Action Force

(HINDRAF), 8, 10, 135, 138–40, 151–52, 154n7

Ramaji, spiritual advisor to, 143–47Regu, leader and co-founder of,

140–43Hindus, marginalization of, 128n2Hizbut Tahrir Indonesia, 34–35Hizbut Tahrir Indonesia (HTI), 226Holy War, 18, 24, 219homogenization of Islam, 118–19

and ring-fencing, 105HTI. See Hizbut Tahrir Indonesia

(HTI)Hujjatul Islam, 89n15Human Rights

breach of regulations on, 225declaration, 226

human societies, religion functioning in, 39

IIbrahim, Khalid, 136Ida Leman, 58Identity, Malay. See Malay identityideologization of kebangsaan, 195


Index 383

ihram, 53ijazah, 69ijtihad, 76, 343ijtimas in Thailand, 295Ilyas, Mawlana Muhammad, 296imam, 71IMM13 document, 175, 183n32Imtiyaz Yusuf, 303n8, 304n18India

Ahmadiyah populations in, 220Hinduism in, 28Tablighi Jama’at (TJ) in, 297–98

Indian Ocean, 49–50“Indian origin” theory, 87n5Indians, marginalization of, 142Indo-European kingship, 28Indonesia

Ahmadiyah’s history in, 220–21, 224

claim of religious freedom, 235–38communities in, 84constitution and laws, 236constitution of, 236contemporary, 19, 34–38, 44n10debates on public sphere, 253freedom of speech, 258future of, 254gender and religion, 253histories of, 19–26Islamic groups, 5–6Islamic organization in, 81Islam in, 5, 7–8, 191–92, 252Islamist parties in, 233Islamization in, 249marriage age in, 254, 263media, 253, 263moral debates in, 253–55mosques in, 356Muslim modernism, 252Muslims in, 195, 343nationalism, 201

nationalist and Islamic movements in, 199

political and religious elites in, 26–34

political decentralization, 249political party in, 44n4politics, 7–8, 10pornography debate in. See

pornography debate in Indonesia

process of redefinition, 254religion and politics in, 249–50religions in, 266n10religious freedom in, 228–29social and economic change in, 254social and political change in, 263stability and economic growth, 249traditional culture and fine arts,

257violence in, 249women’s rights proponents in, 258

Indonesian children, 260Indonesian Constitution, 225, 237,

239Indonesian Council of Ulamas, 256Indonesian Independence

Preparatory Committee, 202Indonesian Islamic Propagation

Council, 221–22Indonesian Mujahidin Council, 226Indonesian Muslim women activists,

248Indonesian National Party, 26, 192–93Indonesian Survey Institute, 232Indonesian Ulama Council, 36, 221Institute for the Study and Teaching

of Islam, 221Internal Security Act (ISA), 69, 127,

140International Crisis Group, 225, 280,

304n12


384 Index

International Islamic University, 112, 129n5

Inter-Racial Confidence circles (IRCC), 357

interregional mobility, 67Iranian Muslim feminists, 254Iranian revolution, 32Iraq terrorist network, 342IRCC. See Inter-Racial Confidence

circles (IRCC)ISA. See Internal Security Act (ISA)Islam, 3, 212n3, 336

bureaucracy and legal institutions in, 8

bureaucratization of, 105and Christianity, 343in civil society, 259–60concept of Islamic statehood, 107culturalist approach in, 337, 339,

340custodians of, 124and democracy, 197–98, 211global resurgence of, 340, 346homogenization of, 105, 118–19ideologies of, 5, 262Indonesia, 5institutionalization of, 160legal-bureaucratic, Malaysia. See

legal-bureaucratic Islam in Malaysia

legal system in, 162Malaysia, 5moderate, promotion of, 358–60and nationalism, 195, 200–201and Natsir, 196, 198–201in Netherlands East Indies, 192pillars of, 219political commitment to, 163political dimension of, 6public role of, 160–61, 166, 173, 177,

179–80purification of, 266n9

and racism, 195radical political, 344religious belief, 348religious pluralism and tolerance

in, 10role in politics, 12Salafi-Wahhabi movement, 291Saudi Arabia and, 287and social movement activism, 253in Southeast Asia, 6Sufi variety of, 126and Sukarno, 193–94, 199, 211Syariah Court, 124Tablighi Jama’at (TJ), 296, 299teachings of, 348, 360theological interpretation of, 343traditional heterodox form of, 287UMNO, 104and United States, 341

“Islam Hadhari”, 163, 165, 180n7Islamic Advancement Department of

Malaysia, 73Islamic affirmation, 123Islamic and Martial Arts Association

of Singapore, 76Islamic Banking Act of 1983, 117–18Islamic bureaucracy, 128Islamic Centre, 111Islamic civilization, 165Islamic civil society, 109Islamic community, 27, 135Islamic conversion, 169Islamic Council(s), 307n56

of Pattani, 282of Songkhla province, 289

Islamic criminal code, 114Islamic Deep South of Thailand, 11Islamic Defenders Front (FPI), 256Islamic democracy, 206–7Islamic Development Bank (IDB),

90n21Islamic dress in schools, 353


Index 385

Islamic economy, 117Islamic education, 74, 88n13, 289Islamic eschatology, 90n26Islamic family laws, 114–15Islamic favouritism, 229–33Islamic feminism, gender equality

and, 254Islamic hardliners, 141Islamic headscarf. See tudungIslamic institutions, 106

centralization of, 108, 111federal-level, 110–12proliferation and multiplication of,

110, 112–13Islamic jihadist groups, 249Islamic jurisprudence, 250, 252Islamic kingship, 18Islamic law, 8, 124, 126, 251, 254–56,

258, 261, 272Administration of Muslim Law

Enactment 1952, 114syariah institutions, 112

Islamic leadership, 173Islamic legal-bureaucracy, 105, 110

civil legal system with Syariah system, 116–18

federal-level Islamic institutions, 110–12

homogenizing Islam, 118–19laws under Syariah statutes, 113–16proliferation and multiplication of

Islamic institutions, 112–13ring-fencing the Muslim subject,

119–26Islamic missionary movement,

293–94Islamic moderation, 104

UMNO, 104Islamic modernism, 134Islamic modern, Michael Peletz’s

concept of, 104Islamic morality, 9–10

Islamic norms of modesty, 248Islamic orthodoxy, 10, 119Islamic principles, 163Islamic rebellion, 25Islamic reformers, 135Islamic Religious Council of

Singapore, 73Islamic religious laws, 105Islamic revivalism, 179, 182n22Islamic sects, 9, 119, 120–22

marginalization of, 12Islamic shari‘ah laws, 249, 258–59Islamic society, 248–49, 253, 265n2Islamic state, 209Islamic teachings, 119, 120–22Islamic women’s groups, 10Islamic youth movement, 103Islamist civil society groups, 218Islamist groups, 226Islamist Jama’at Islami, 297Islamist parties, Indonesia, 233Islamist political parties, 34Islamist politicians, 26Islamists’ zakat agenda, 38Islamization, 66–67, 110, 117, 125, 138,

176, 179of bureaucracy, 112and citizenship, 160–65conditions of, 166–68in Indonesia, 249of laws, 112legislative phase of, 125local leadership of, 168–72in Malaysia, 126, 139politics of, 159process of, 159of society, 292syariah Islamists, 109syariah legal system, 110UMNO’s legitimacy, 104

“Islam’s attitude toward Freethinking”, 194


386 Index

JJabatan Kemajuan Islam Malaysia

(JAKIM), 111, 119, 129n7Jabatan Pembangunan Persekutuan

Sabah (JPPS), 171, 183n26Jakarta Charter, 26, 44n4

seven words of, 202, 207JAKIM. See Jabatan Kemajuan Islam

Malaysia (JAKIM)Jama’ah Ahmadiyah Indonesia, 220Jama’at Islami, 309n77Jamilm, Arifah, 328Japakiya, Ismail Lutfi, 288–89

Amir al-Haj, 291contemporary puritan movement,

288, 301Jemaah Islamiyah (JI), 292Kaum Muda reformists, 303puritan reformism in Thailand,

289Japanese Occupation, 202

in Malaya, 166, 176Java

cultural identity in, 22, 25monarchs, 18

Javanese calendrical system, change in, 20

Javanese historical traditions, 22Javanese kingship, 18, 21Javanism, 201Jawatankuasa Kemajuan dan

Keselamatan Kampung (JKKK), 171

Jawi community, 69Jeddah, 48, 51

airport in, 52, 59communication in, 52

Jemaah Islah Malaysia (JIM), 108Jemaah Islamiyah (JI), 241n27, 281,

292, 335, 341dangers of ideology, 361

parliamentary debate on arrests, 346

terrorists, 35jihad, 304n14

denunciation of, 219against Dutch, 277in South Thailand, 275, 281

JIM. See Jemaah Islah Malaysia (JIM)JKKK. See Jawatankuasa Kemajuan

dan Keselamatan Kampung (JKKK)

Joaquim, Nick, 324Joint Madrasah Scheme, 368Joint Resolution, 232“joint statements”, 233JPPS. See Jabatan Pembangunan

Persekutuan Sabah (JPPS)Jubaira, Ibrahim, 323–24, 331n2judicial partiality in Malaysia, 135–36Justice Prosperity Party, 248, 251

Kkadi (Islamic judges), 112–13kafirs, 22Kahn, Joel, 134Kalla, Jusuf, 231Kampung Dusun Nyior, 304n20Kampung Medan attacks of 2001, 138kaoem Muslimin, 212n8karamah, 71kebangsaan. See nationalismKelantan, 114

syariah laws in, 115Kemal, Mustafa, 196–98kenduri, 288, 307n53kerajaan, 50khalifah, 69, 73, 77Khamanei, Ali, 32khanqahs, 69Khomeini, Ayatollah, 32, 39khuruj, 294–95, 301


Index 387

Tablighis, 297Thai army soldiers, 297

Kingdom of Patani, 271–72, 277King Mongkut, 30King Rama I, 30Kitab Usulbiyah, 21, 23konsepsi, 206, 210Korean War, 25Krue Se incident

sociological perspective on, 277–78violent events, 275

Ksatriyas, 28–29, 38KTHCF. See Kudat Thean Hou

Charitable Foundation (KTHCF)Kudat Thean Hou Charitable

Foundation (KTHCF), 184n41kwaampenthai, 303n5kyai, 21–22, 35

Llabour migration, 160, 163Lahore Ahmadiyah Movement, 219Laskar Komando Islam, 229Lee Kuan Yew, 340, 343, 345, 352, 355,

369n5legal-bureaucratic Islam in Malaysia

expansion, elevation and empowerment of, 110–18

homogenization, 105, 118–19political islam and state-society

relations, 105–10ring-fencing Muslim subject,

119–26legal recognition for Ahmadiyah, 218Legge, John, 210Lembaga Dakwah Islam Indonesia,

35Lembaga Penelitian dan Pengkajian

Islam (LPPI), 221–22, 225Lewis, Bernard, 370n10Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam, 144

lifestyle, Islamic identity and, 347Lord’s Resistance Army in northern

Uganda, 276–77Lubis, Sobri, 269Lutfi Japakiya, Ismail, 301, 308n60,

308n64, 308n65Lutfi’s movement, 289

MMadale, Abdullah T., 316madhahib, 307n54madrasa

and 9/11, 366and compulsory education, 367development of, 366–68part-time, 364

Madrasah Al-Ma’arif, 75–76, 90n22Mahathir, Mohamad, 162, 163, 170Mahdi, 219Mahendra, Yusril Ihza, 232Mahfudh, Sahal, 235Majelis Mujaheedin Indonesia (MMI),

34, 226, 241n27Majelis Ulama Indonesia (MUI),

36–37, 221, 226–27, 240n5, 256campaign, 225executives, 224fatwa, 235, 256

Majlis Ugama Islam Sabah (MUIS), 169

Majlis Ugama Islam Singapura (MUIS), 73, 81, 351–52, 357, 360

Majul, Cesar, 316, 326Malacca, Islam in, 68Malaya

Japanese Occupation in, 166, 176non-Muslim communities in, 160traditional customs in, 160

Malayanization of Sabah civil service, 176

Malay-based opposition party, 348


388 Index

Malay community, 135, 271, 336, 340, 344

characterizing, 342elite, 358

Malay cultureaspects of, 135de-Indianization of, 139

Malay identity, 133–34, 150, 178aspects of, 135and culture, Islam’s impact on, 336intractable hold of, 137

Malay-Islamic nationalism, 151Malay leadership, 348Malay loyalty, 340

debates concerning, 341Malay Muslim, 340Malay-Muslim community, 278–79,

281, 286electoral politics participation,

Thailand, 284–85madrasa education, 373n31

Malay-Muslim constituency, 104Malay-Muslim culture, 290Malay-Muslim politicians in South

Thailand, 281, 286Malay-Muslim separatists, 281Malay Muslims in South Thailand

abolition of shari’a law, 272Al-Furqan mosque, 279aspirations of, 283assimilationist policies, 272identity of, 272–73political participation and

accommodation, 281–92population of, 287, 289puritan Islamic reformist

movement. See puritan Islamic reformist movement

in Siam, 272struggle for independence, 274–75Tablighi Jama’at, 293–99Thai-Buddhist dominance, 281

TRT, 283violent confrontations, 274–81

Malay protesters, 136Malay schism, 107Malaysia

Aurad Muhammadiah congregation in, 77–84

citizens in, 163common penal code in, 114constitutional monarchs of, 111Darul Arqam controversy in, 76democracy, 108demolition of temple in, 1422008 election campaign, 127ethnic consciousness in, 135ethnic group in, 161fatwa councils of, 120–22Hindu tamils in, 8Hindu temples in, 135, 137Islam, 5Islamic bands in, 86Islamic bureaucracy, 128Islamic groups, 5–6, 108as Islamic state, 163Islamization, 126, 139, 159judicial partiality in, 135–36lawmaking institutions in, 111legal-bureaucratic Islam in. See

legal-bureaucratic Islam in Malaysia

Muslims in, 182n22, 343non-Muslims in, 135, 160political equality in, 180political struggles, 106politics development in, 134politics in, 160public caning in, 115racialism in, 150racialized thinking and

identification in, 153religio-cultural identity, 109religious conversion in, 125


Index 389

religious group in, 161revenues of, 168secular state in, 161–62, 178self-rationalization in, 134socio-economic reality in, 153state governments in, 85syariah system in, 116Tamils in. See Tamils in Malaysiatransformation of land usage in, 133urban development in, 134

Malaysian common law, 117Malaysian Constitution, 160, 165Malaysian developmentalism, goal of,

133–34Malaysian Federation, 164, 166–67,

173, 179Malaysian Indian Congress (MIC),

138, 148–49Malaysian National Fatwa Council,

129Malaysian society

Muslim citizens in, 162non-Muslim citizens in, 162

Malaysian syariah laws, 115Malay supernaturalism, 287Malay Tamil, demographics of, 134Malay University Leader, 147–52Mannheim, Karl, 363Marcos, Ferdinand, 326marginalization

Hinduism, 148of Indians, 142political Islam, 106

ma’rifah, 87n3“Mari Pertahankan Indonesia Kita”,

242n34marriage of convenience, 301martial law, 286, 321

in Thailand, 272Marxist theory, 309n81Masroor Ahmad, Mirza, 219Masyumi party, 25, 27, 35, 220, 240n8

Mathuphum, 300, 306n42Maududi, Abul A’la, 25, 67Maulid, 89n19Maulid an-Nabi, 288Mawdudi, Abul A’la, 25“May 1969 racial riots”, 107Mecca, 7, 48, 52

ban for visiting, 219Hang Tuah pilgrimage to, 49Jawi community in, 88n10pilgrims, 53, 69religious studies in, 71

Media Dakwah journal, 222media in Indonesia, 253–54Medina, 7, 48, 54

Prophet’s mosque in, 89n19MENDAKI, 372n23mengacak-acak, 237“men of prayer”, 17–18, 25Mernissi, Fatima, 251MIC. See Malaysian Indian Congress

(MIC)Michael Peletz’s concept of “Islamic

modern”, 104militant groups, 301militant violence, 299–300Mina, 48

stone pillars in, 54Mindanao, violence in, 328Minister-in-Charge of Muslim Affairs,

357–58Ministry of Home Affairs, 232Ministry of Religion, 227, 232Ministry of Religious Affairs, 36minority fikh, 362, 366minority Muslims, 363moderate Islam, promotion of,

358–60moderates vs. extremists, 344–46modernism, Islamic, 134modernist Muslims and

fundamentalist Muslims, 343


390 Index

modernity, 51modernization, benefits of, 85modesty

concept of, 263Islamic ethic of, 263

Mohamad, Mahathir, 133–34Mojares, Resil, 321monarchs of Java, 18morality in Indonesia, 253–55, 260,

262–64pornography debate in Indonesia.

See pornography debate in Indonesia

public regulation of, 262state regulation of, 264

morality laws, 258–59Mosque Building Fund, 355, 368mosques

Ahmadiyah, 232impact of, 355–56and interfaith dialogue, 363–64

Mubarok Ahmad, Mirza, 240n4mufti, 105, 112Muhammadan Marriage Ordinance

1946, 114Muhammadiyah, 34, 196, 201, 220,

235, 238, 240n3, 250, 252Muhammadiyah National Congress,

220MUI. See Majelis Ulama Indonesia

(MUI)MUIS. See Majlis Ugama Islam

Singapura (MUIS)mujaddid, 83multiracial principles, 169musharakah, 117Muslim Ahmadiyah Community, 220Muslim citizen, civil rights of, 105Muslim civil society, 357Muslim community, 11, 224, 238, 336,

344characterizing, 342

cultural identifier of, 338impact on, 358–64impact on remedies, 344–46leaders, 340tudung issue in, 347–55

Muslim conversion, 123Muslim Court (Criminal Jurisdiction)

Act 1965, 113Muslim Courts (Criminal

Jurisdiction) Act 1984, 113Muslim elite, members of, 358Muslim Filipinos, 314, 316–17, 329–30,

331n2English-language educated, 314–15to publish magazine in Philippines,

321Muslim girls, issue of headscarves,

347Muslim identity, self-conscious,

development of, 316Muslim immigrants, 9Muslim Lawyer’s Association, 108Muslim leaders, 168–69Muslim lives, conflict and violence in,

326–29Muslim minorities, 10–11

Singapore, 11–12Muslim modernism, 252Muslim movement, 201Muslim nation, 209Muslim organizations, 196, 218–19

Indonesia’s, 220, 222with pluralist credentials, 239ulama from, 221

Muslim population in Southeast Asia, 5

Muslim Professional Forum, 108Muslim Religious Council of

Singapore (MUIS), 351, 363Singapore Muslim identity project,

364–66Muslims, 9


Index 391

mainstream, 219, 229pro-pluralist, 237proportion of, 177religious practices of, 120–22social behaviour of, 12Syariah Court, 109

Muslim separatists and the Philippines Government, 319

Muslims in the Philippines, 11American colonialism, 316–17, 320brutal military campaign, 317conflict and violence in Muslim

stories/lives, 326–29emergent national cultural form,

321–26languages of, 314–15political integration of, 317schooling, language and

negotiations of culture, 316–21short story writers, formation of,

316–21Muslims in Singapore, 336

culturalist approach in, 337, 339leadership, 348and non-Muslims, 338religious belief of, 340–41restrictions, 346terrorist ideology, 345

Muslims’ religiosity, 346–47impact of mosques, 355–56tudung issue, 347–55

Muslims’ sympathy, 341Muslim stories, conflict and violence

in, 326–29Muslim traders, 68Muslim women activists, 247–64

and pornography debate in Indonesia. See pornography debate in Indonesia

Muslim writers, 314, 321–22Muslim Youth Movement, 352Mustafa, Noralyn, 319, 322–23

Muzadi, Hasyim, 234anti-pornography movement, 256

mysticism, 301

NNahdlatul Ulama (NU), 10, 81, 238,

250, 265n7anti-pornography movement, 256central leadership of, 234–35East Java branch of, 235fifth National Congress in

Pekalongan, 220gender equality, 252general liberalization of, 251kyai of, 34, 36religious elite of, 27Wahhabism, 259

NAP. See New Aspiration Party (NAP)

nasionalisme, 195National Day Rally Speech, 343, 346National Economic Policy (NEP), 79National Fatwa Council (NFC), 73nationalism

Islam and, 195, 200–201Malay-Islamic, 151Natsir and, 193, 195and religion, 200of Sukarno, 193

Nationalist Party, 26National Land Code 1965, 118National Reconciliation Commission,

278National Registration Identity Card

(NRIC), 125national schools, tudung issue in, 353Natsir, 9, 10, 25, 35. See also Sukarno

arguments with Kemal, 198beliefs of, 213n11and characteristics of Western

democracy, 199and democracy, 206, 211


392 Index

ideologization of kebangsaan, 195imprisonment, 210and Islam, 196, 198–201, 211kaoem Muslimin, 212n8oemmat, 212n8opposing Western democracy, 199and Pancasila, 207–8recognizing and criticizing

Sukarno, 199speech to Constituent Assembly,

207–8and Sukarno, 192, 197–99, 203–5,

209–11Western classical education,

199–200NEP. See New Economic Policy (NEP)New Aspiration Party (NAP), 282New Economic Policy (NEP), 107, 164Ninth Buddhist Council, 30non-Malays, 134non-Muslim leaders, 183n24non-Muslims, 35, 37

in enhancing social cohesion, 357in Malaysia, 135Muslims and, 338

non-Muslim vote bank, 127non-state Islamism, 86n1Nor Matta, Wan Muhammad, 283“no-tudung” policy, 350

in schools, 354NRIC. See National Registration

Identity Card (NRIC)NU. See Nahdlatul Ulama (NU)Nusantara, 67

OObama, Barack, 43“Obituary for Today” story (Mustafa),

322objet petit a, 137oemmat, 212n8

OIC. See Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC)

Orang Asli, 154n3Orang Asli communities, 137Organisations in Defence of Islam,

128n3Organization of the Islamic

Conference (OIC), 223–24, 240n12

orientalism, salient traits of, 339ormas, 232orthodoxy, 42orthopraxy, 42Ottoman Turkey, 49

PPadang Jawa

demolition of temple in, 142, 145temple, reconstitution of, 152

Pakistan, Ahmadiyah populations in, 220

Paknam crisis, 309n82Pakubuwana II, 18, 22–24, 38Pakubuwana, Ratu, 18, 22–23Pancasila, 201–2, 207–8, 235–36, 238Pandji Islam (Natsir), 194, 196–97Panitia Persiapan Kemerdekaan

Indonesia (PPKI). See Indonesian Independence Preparatory Committee

Pan-Malaysian Islamic Party. See Parti Islam SeMalaysia (PAS)

pan-Muslim identity, 316Partai Bulan Bintang (PBB), 233Partai Demokrat, 34Partai Keadilan (PK), 226Partai Keadilan Sejahtera (PKS),

34–35, 226, 233, 248, 265n5aliran, 253democratic rights of provinces, 261electoral democracy, 252


Index 393

moral behaviour, 261national votes in elections, 251politics, 261pornography, 255–56religion, 253, 261women’s support for pornography,

259–60Partai Kebangkitan Bangsa (PKB), 36Partai Kebangkitan Nasional Ulama,

36Partai Nasional Indonesia (PNI). See

Indonesian National PartyPartai Persatuan Pembangunan

(PPP), 34Partai Persaturan Pembangunan

(PPP), 233–34Partai Sarekat Islam Indonesia, 201Parti Bersatu Sabah (PBS), 170Parti Bulan Bintang (PBB), 34Parti Islam SeMalaysia (PAS), 103,

130nIslamic bureaucracy, 128Islamization of Malaysia, 127–28Malay nationalism, 106

Parti Islam SeMalaysia’s (PAS), 352Parti Keadilan Rakyat (PKR), 136PAS. See Parti Islam SeMalaysia (PAS)Pasundan movement, 201Patani Darussalam, 309n70Patani Kingdom, 271–72Patani United Liberation

Organization (PULO), 280PBB. See Parti Bulan Bintang (PBB)PBS. See Parti Bersatu Sabah (PBS)Pembela Islam (Natsir), 195Penang Syariah Appeals Court, 125Pencak Sunda, 73, 76–77Pencegahan Penyalahgunaan atau

Penodaan Agama, 221People’s Consultative Assembly

(MPR), 35

peranakan, 139PERGAS, 348, 351PERIPENSIS. See Persatuan Islam

dan Pencak Silat Singapura (PERIPENSIS)

Permi party, 200Persatuan Islam, 192, 195Persatuan Islam dan Pencak Silat

Singapura (PERIPENSIS), 76, 81, 84

Persatuan Islam organization, 25Persatuan Umat Islam (PUI), 235pesantrens, 69Phak Palang Prachachon (PPP), 285Phibun regime, 303n5Phibunsongkhram, Plaek, 272Philippines

American colonialism in, 316–17, 320

English-language magazines established in, 321

Muslims in. See Muslims in the Philippines

vernacular narrative traditions in, 313

Philippines Free Press, 321, 323–24pilgrimage

to Medina, 54memoirs of, 50notion of place (topos) in, 48occupation of, 56Southeast Asian memoirs of, 55

pilgrims, hajj, 48, 52–59Pitsuwan, Surin, 305n32PKB. See Partai Kebangkitan Bangsa

(PKB)PKR. See Parti Keadilan Rakyat (PKR)PKS. See Partai Keadilan Sejahtera

(PKS)plain of Arafat, 48, 53Playboy magazine, 256


394 Index

pluralism, 251political authority, 39

in precolonial Java, 24primacy of, 31

political elite, 18, 26, 38, 40comparative primacy of, 41conflict or challenge, 42problem with religious agendas, 43

“political game”, 80political integration of Muslims, 317political Islam, 105–6

centralization, 108–9contestation, 106–8expansion, 109–10impact of, 357marginalization, 106radical, 344

politicsof Indonesia, 263religion and, 6role of Islam in, 9

pondok, 69, 71, 88n13, 307n55pornography debate in Indonesia, 247

context and research methods, 249–53

moral debates, gender and nation, 253–55

religion, gender and morality, 262–64

rights and freedoms, 248women activists and moral

debates, 255–62PPP. See Partai Persatuan

Pembangunan (PPP); Phak Palang Prachachon (PPP)

Prachatham, 307n48pre-Obama Democratic Party, 282Presidential Advisory Council, 225Presidential Resolution, 232Prevention of Misuse or Desecration

of Religion, Law No. 1/PNPS/1965 on, 221, 237

print capitalism, 56, 61Prophet Muhammad, 194

and Allah, 224, 227biography of, 74

Prosperous Justice Party, 10, 248, 251Protestants, 39psychological defences against

terrorism, 357public caning, 115PULO. See Patani United Liberation

Organization (PULO)puritan Islamic reformist movement

cooperation with Thai Government, 291–92

educational and religious structures, 289

kenduri, 288Maulid an-Nabi, 288Salafi characteristics, 289Thai preference for, 292–93traditional heterodox form of

Islam, 287puritan reformist movement, 297,

301puritan reformists, 302pusaka, 20Putrajaya, developments of, 133–34

QQadiyaniah, 218, 223Qardhawi, Sheikh Yusof, 366Qur’an, 222, 237, 252, 261, 265n3, 288

Ahmadiyah teachings based on, 219

Rracialism in Malaysia, 150racism, Islam and, 195radicalism, 364, 366

problem of, 343–44, 359radical political Islam, 344Ramadan, 305n21


Index 395

Ramaji, spiritual advisor to Hindraf, 143–47

Rancangan Undang-Undang (RUU) Pornografi, 247

liberalized version of, 257Rasadorn (People) party, 286Rashtriya Swamysevak Sangh (RSS),

145rationalist Muslims and extremist

Muslims, 343Razak, Najib, 141, 163rebellion, 20

Islamic, 25Red Shirts, 310n83Regent of Bandung, 51regional autonomy of Indonesia, 249Regu, leader and co-founder to

Hindraf, 140–43Relative Deprivation Theory, 280,

305n25religion, 3, 39, 262–64

arguments in favour of, 208concept of, 4and democracy, 206dispute in, 42functions in human societies, 39gender and, 253nationalism and, 200and politics, 6, 192pornography debate in Indonesia.

See pornography debate in Indonesia

relationship between state and, 196role of, 192, 197and secularism, 4

religion conversion in Malaysia, 125religious activists, 19religious authority, 19, 24religious classes, part-time, 364religious diversity, 254religious education, 71religious elite, 18, 25

authority of, 41claims, 43definitions, 26disputation among contending, 42general pattern of, 38–39in Indonesia, 26–34, 38Muslim community impact,

360–63Shi‘ite, 33

religious freedomfor Ahmadiyah, 218claim of, 235–38in Indonesia, 218, 230

religious hegemony, 254religious orthodoxy, 33religious pluralism, 9

in Indonesia, 10Religious Rehabilitation Group

(RRG), 361–62religious schools, 88n13, 366–368religious teachers, accreditation of,

360–61reverse patrimony, 151Reynolds, Craig, 30Rida, Rashid, 200Ridwan, Kholil, 226ring-fencing

homogenization and, 105Muslim subject, 119, 122–26

Risalah, 365, 366Risalah for Building a Singapore

Muslim Community of Excellence (2006), 365

Rizieq Shabib, Habib, 229Roman Catholic Church, 45n15Round Table Conference 1949, 204RRG. See Religious Rehabilitation

Group (RRG)RSS. See Rashtriya Swamysevak

SanghRufaqa’ Corporation, 77, 81ruling elite, 28, 300


396 Index

SSabah

authorities in, 166Chief Ministers of, 164, 168Chinese immigrants to, 169conditions of Islamization in,

166–68education in, 166ethnic and religious constitution

of, 9ethnic composition in, 173–74ethnicity by, 172ethnic state of, 180High Courts in, 162illegal immigrants in, 173–76indigenous people in, 165Islamic leadership in, 170Islamization in, 159, 166–68Malaysian administrations in, 177non-Muslim communities in, 168policies in, 169politics in, 159, 171population in, 173remote villages in, 169two-year rotation system of, 171–73

Sabah politics, federalization of, 172–78

Sabah Progressive Party (SAPP), 176Salafi, 308n60Salafism, 87n4Salafi-Wahhabi movement, 291sangha

reformation of, 29religious objectives of, 31

SarawakHigh Courts in, 162indigenous people in, 165non-Muslim communities in, 168

Sarekat Islam, 196Saudi Arabia, 287

ban of Ahmadiyah in, 220Saudi purification movement, 259

Sayyid, Ayatollah, 32Second Malaysian Plan (1971), 91n30secular bureaucracy, role of, 125secularism, 158–59, 180, 208

religion and, 4secular law, 265n3secular state, 158, 163

principle of neutrality in, 161Selangor

Administration of Muslim Law Enactment 1952, 114

syariah laws in, 115self-rationalization in Malaysia, 134self-validation Appiah, 31411 September (9/11), 335–36, 346,

356–57culturalist approach, 337–44

Serat Yusuf, 21, 23sesat, 220shahadah, 227Shah Alam

developments of, 133Hindu temples in, 137, 142land use patterns in, 135

Selangor State Government Secretariat in, 136

Shah Sibghat Allah, 31, 39Shariah Court in Singapore, 76, 89n16shari‘ah law, 19, 26, 249, 265n3Sheykh ul-Islam, 291Shi‘ite group, 31, 33Shi‘ite Sacred Law, 33Shinawatra, Thaksin, 280, 283, 300

People’s Power Party, 285Tak Bai massacre, 279, 284

short story writers, formation of, 316–21

Siamese democracy, 284Siamization, 282–83Singapore

Arab Muslims in, 88n11attack by Muslim aggressor, 340


Index 397

Aurad Muhammadiah congregation in, 74–77

British colonial rule in, 369n1Chinese population from, 167ethnic relations, 335federal-state relations in, 168Islamic education in, 75Muslim minorities, 11–12political harassment in, 74Rufaqa’ Corporation in, 77, 81Shariah Court in, 76, 89n16tudung, 370n15, 370n17, 370n18,

370n19, 370n20Singaporean Muslims

conflicts for, 341minority community, 364religiosity of, 346–56sentiments of, 342

Singapore Government, 352Singapore Malay National

Organisation, 348Singapore Muslim identity project,

364–66Singapore Religious Teachers’

Association, 348, 351SKB. See Surat Keputusan Bersama

(SKB)SKP. See Surat Keputusan Presiden

(SKP)slametan, 307n53social cohesion, 356–58social contract, 163, 178social defences against terrorism, 357Socialist Party, 25–26social order, 86n1socio-economic reality in Malaysia, 153Soeharto, 191–92, 247, 249, 251

pornography debate, 250Soon Singh A/L Bikar Singh V

Pertubuhan Kebajikan Islam Malaysia (PERKIM) Kedah & Anor (1999), 123

South AsiaBrahmin in, 29Buddhism in, 29

Southeast AsiaBrahmin in, 29diffusion of Aurad Muhammadiah

in, 70–74Islam in, 6, 66–68Muslim population, 5profile of, 66prominence of Islam, 5religion and politics, 4, 12Sufi orders in, 68transnational Sufism in, 67–70

Southeast Asianhajj, 48–49, 60Muslims, 50, 56pilgrims, 48

Southeast Asian Islam, 67–70south of Thailand

assimilation policies, 272constitutional set-up of, 280cultural assimilation, 272foreign jihadi groups, 281Malay Muslims. See Malay

Muslims in South Thailandmartial law in, 2721988 parliamentary elections, 282political participation and

accommodation, 281–82separatist groups, 272suicidal mission, 277TJ. See Tablighi Jama’at (TJ)

South Sumatra, ban of Ahmadiyah in, 233, 243n54

Special Assistance Plan (SAP) schools, 353–54

“Spirits in the Box” story (Sadain), 326

state authority, 19, 24state-controlling elites, 17–18, 39, 40

authority of, 41


398 Index

state elitecomparative primacy of, 41general pattern of, 38–39and religious elite, 27–28

state-society relations, 105–6centralization, 108–9contestation, 106–8expansion, 109–10marginalization, 106

statist Islam, 104, 108–9Sufi movements, 7Sufi practices, 276Sufism, 21, 67, 85, 87n3, 90n26, 126

influence of, 87n4Suhaimi, Muhammad Fadhlullah,

74–75Suhaimi, Muhammad Taha, 76–77, 81,

89n16, 90n24Suhaimi, Sheikh, 70–78, 80, 86, 88n11,

89n19suicide attacks in Aceh, 277Sukarno, 9–10

arrest of, 193and characteristics of Western

democracy, 199and democracy, 211Five Principles/Pancasila of, 201–2,

207–8Guided Democracy, 198, 205–7idealization of Kemal’s rule, 197and Islam, 193–94, 199, 211and Natsir, 192, 197–99, 203–5,

209–11opposing Western democracy, 199separation of religion, 196

Sukarno’s National Party (PNI), 193Sulong, Haji, 283Sultan Agung of Mataram, 18–19sultanate of Patani, 303n3Sultan Ibrahim II, 31Sulu Islands, violence in, 328Suluk Garwa Kencana, 21, 23

Sunan Bayat, 21Sundanese account, 56Sunnah, 265n3Sunnah Wal Jammah, 119, 126Sunni Islam, 119, 126Surat Keputusan Bersama (SKB), 232

government’s critics of, 233government’s decree, 232, 237,

239Surat Keputusan Presiden (SKP), 232Susuhunan, 22Syaikh Daud, 49Syamsuddin, Din, 235Syariah and Civil Technical

Committee, 112Syariah Court, 8, 110, 112–13, 166

“cautious” tolerance, 126elevation of, 113institution-building process, 113Islamic banking and finance, 117Islamic religious laws, 105jurisdiction of, 123–24legal institution for Muslims, 109levels, 112–13procedures, 114public caning, 115punishments, 113strengthening of, 109

syariah crimes, laws on, 114–16syariah criminal enactments, 115–16Syariah Criminal Offence Enactment

(Takzir), 124Section 25 of, 129n12

syariah judicial process, 111syariah laws, 105, 112, 119

in Kelantan, 115in Selangor, 115

syariah legal system, 110–11syariah legislations, 114Syariah Lower Court, 112–13syariah system in Malaysia, 116“system of symbols”, 4


Index 399

TTablighi Jama’at (TJ), 11, 279, 293,

301–2administration of, 298followers from Pakistan and China,

295in India, 297–98Islam, 296, 299khuruj, 294Malay Muslims, 296organizational structure of, 298puritan reformist movement, 299in South Thailand, 296Thai Government, 296–97violence in South Thailand, 296

Tadzkirah, 222, 227Tahlil, 89n18Tahrir, Hizbut, 226Takaful (Islamic Insurance) Act of

1985, 118Tak Bai massacre, 11, 278–79

Chulanont, Surayud, 285Thaksin’s credibility, 284

Tale of Hang Tuah, 49Tamil community, 8–9Tamil folklore, 151Tamil Hinduism, 151, 154Tamil protesters, 143Tamils in Malaysia

Batu Caves temple, 142–43demolition of temple in Shah Alam,

142, 145economic marginalization of, 135Hindraf, 138–40“Makkal Sakti” campaign, 142–43,

145Ramaji, spiritual advisor to

Hindraf, 143–47Regu, leader and co-founder to

Hindraf, 140–43tariqahs, 69, 71, 85teachings of Islam, 348, 360

“Termites” story (Mustafa), 323terrorism, 339

and radicalism, 343social and psychological defences

against, 357terrorist organizations, 35terrorist violence in Thailand, 11Thahir Ahmad, Mirza, 224Thai Buddhist legal system, 272Thai Buddhists, 279

police arrest, 279Thai-Buddhist state, Malay Muslims

and. See Malay Muslims in South Thailand

ThailandBali bombings, 292electoral politics participation. See

electoral politics participation, Thailand

ijtimas in, 295Malay-Muslim politicians in, 281martial law in, 272Muslim students, 2921988 parliamentary elections, 282puritan Islamic reformist

movement. See puritan Islamic reformist movement

puritan reformism in, 289south of. See south of Thailandterrorist violence and separatist

ambitions, 11Theravada Buddhism in, 30

Thai Muslims, 11politico-religious influences on,

273Thai parliament, 283Thai police, 278–79Thai political system, 281Thai politics

Democrat Party, 282by Malay-Muslim politicians, 2811988 parliamentary elections, 282


400 Index

Thai security forces, 275–76, 279Thai security services, 292Thaksin’s Thai Rak Thai (TRT), 283,

285–86anti-Thaksin coup, 285

Theravada Buddhism in Thailand, 30

Third Javanese War of Succession, 24

Threat of Terrorism, parliamentary debate on, 346

Tiamson, Alfredo T., 325TJ. See Tablighi Jama’at (TJ)Tohmeena, Den, 283tok guru, 307n55“Toleransi Sosial Masyarakat

Perkotaan” survey, 243n48“tomboys”, 129n11Toqueville, Alexis de, 39traditional culture of Indonesia, 257Transnational Sufism, overview of,

67–70tudung, 347, 370n15, 370n17, 370n18,

370n19, 370n20ban on, 353in school, 349–50, 353theological opinions on, 351

Tuhfat al-Nafi, 50Tukku Paloh, 69Twenty Points agreement, 170

Uulama, 19, 21, 25, 35, 69, 76, 277, 296,

307n54MUI and, 37from Muslim organizations, 221politics, 34religious elite of NU, 27

umma, 341, 342ummah, 66

concept of, 86n2

United Malays National Organisation (UMNO), 79, 103, 136, 142, 144, 165, 171, 173, 175, 179

institutionalization of Islam by, 126

Islamic moderation, 104lawmaking and policymaking, 104legitimacy, 104state promotion of Islam by, 110statist Islam, 108

United Pasokmomogun Kadazandusun Murut Organization (UPKO), 177

United Sabah Islam Association (USIA), 169

United Sabah National Organization (USNO), 168–69, 173

United states, 11 September (9/11), 335–36, 346, 356–57

Unity Development Party, 233UPKO. See United Pasokmomogun

Kadazandusun Murut Organization (UPKO)

USIA. See United Sabah Islam Association (USIA)

USNO. See United Sabah National Organization (USNO)

Vvan Goens, Rijklof, 22Vejjajiva, Abhisit, 286Verelendung, 300, 309n81Vienna Convention on Diplomatic

Relations, 304n13violence

in Indonesia, 249, 257on Islam, 339in Muslim stories/lives, 326–29

violence in South Thailand, 292economic situation, 280escalation in 2004, 292, 294


Index 401

Malay-Muslim struggle, 274security forces, 278Tablighi Jama’at (TJ), 296

violent confrontations in South Thailand

Al Furqan incident, 279–81extrajudicial killings, 274Krue Se incident, 275–78Malay Muslims and Thai-Buddhist

state, 275Narathiwat province, 274separatist groups, 274Tak Bai incident, 278–79

violent jihadi movements, 275Vishnu Hindu Parishad, 145

WWahab, Ahmad, 287Wahdah, 300, 305n30Wahdah, Thai politics

New Aspiration Party (NAP), 282–83

separatism, 284Tak Bai massacre, 300TRT, 285

“Wahhabi”, 87n4Wahhabi-Salafi, 67, 80, 84–85Wahhabism, 87n4, 259, 266, 308n60Wahid, Abdurrahman, 224–25, 258Wahid, Hidayat Nur, 35Wahid Institute, 236, 239n1, 242n35,

242n41, 243n52Wali Songo, 68Wan Nor, 300, 306n35, 306n37

Western Christian societies, 28Western democracy, 206West Irian, 204–5Wirjosandjojo, Sukiman, 26women activists, pornography bill in

Indonesiaaurat, 256debates in parliament, 255demonstrations, 255–56Internet, 255in Muslim political parties, 257–58public outcry, 256

women’s rights in Indonesia, 251–52, 257–58, 263

individual freedom and, 262Wood, Leonard, 317World Mosque Council, 223

YYala Islamic University, 289–91Yellow Shirts, 310n83Yeo, George, 343Yeong Yoon Ying, 372n31yoga, ban of, 126, 129n11Yogyakarta, 220Yongchaiyudh, Chavalit, 282Yudhoyono, Susilo Bambang, 34, 37,

40, 218, 224–25, 238Yusuf, Mawlana Muhammad, 296

Zza‘im, 27zakat, 197zuama, 25, 27, 43


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