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Empowering Communities for Sustainable Natural Resource Use and Management

The Albertine Rift RegionPractical Interventions Manual

Empowering Communities for Sustainable Natural Resource Use and Management The Albertine Rift Region Practical Interventions Manual Uganda Wildlife Society and Buliisa District Local Government

December, 2012

Fountain Publisherswww.fountainpublishers.co.ug



Contributing authors

Joel Buyinza, Teddy Namirimu and Priscilla Nyadoi

Editor

Professor Joseph Obua

Uganda Wildlife Society and Buliisa District Local Government

FOUNTAIN PUBLISHERSwww.fountainpublishers.co.ug

Fountain Publishers Rwanda LtdP. O. Box 6567 KigaliE-mail: [email protected]

[email protected]: www.fountainpublishers.co.ug.

CONTRIBUTING AUTHORSJoel Buyinza, Teddy Namirimu and Priscilla NyadoiEditorProfessor Joseph Obua

Also Involved in the Production of this ManualUganda Wildlife Authority (UWA), National Fisheries Resources Research Institute (NaFIRRI), Ministry of Agriculture Animal Industry and Fisheries (MAAIF) and National Forestry Resources Research Institute (NaFORRI)

Project PartnersBuliisa District Local Government (Buliisa DLG), Ecosystems Alliance Uganda Country Program Partners (NAPE and AFIEGO), Community Based Civil Society Organisation Partners (Soft Power Education, Buliisa Initiative for Rural Development Organisation, Buliisa Catholic Women Association, Kakindo Orphans Care and Kalolo Fish Mongers and Fishermen Association and Tree Talk Foundation Uganda

December 2012Copyright (C) 2012 Uganda Wildlife Society and Buliisa District Local Government

Reproduction of this publication for educational or non-commercial purposes is authorised without prior written permission from the copyright holders provided the source is fully acknowledged. Publication for resale or other commercial purposes is prohibited.

Citation: Joel Buyinza, Teddy Namirimu and Priscilla Nyadoi. 2012. Empowering Communities for Sustainable Natural Resource Use and Management, the Albertine Rift Region: Practical Interventions Manual.

DisclaimerThis manual has been prepared with the fi nancial assistance of IUCN NL, Wetlands International and Both ENDS, partners in the Ecosystem Alliance. The views expressed, the information and material presented and the geographical and geopolitical designations used in this manual do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of IUCN NL, Wetlands International or Both ENDS or the institutions and organisations providing these three organisations with funds.

ISBN 978-9970-25-255-8

iii

Table of Contents

Acknowledgement ....................................................................................... viRationale, Content and Structure of This Manual ..................................... viiChapter One ................................................................................................1

Introduction .......................................................................................................1Chapter Two ................................................................................................3

Training and technological interventions for natural resource use and management among Buliisa communities .....................3Crop Farmers .....................................................................................................3Why UWS should work with crop farmers .................................................3Training and technologies to be promoted among crop farmers ..............3Why UWS shall work with pastoralists in Buliisa ......................................23Training and technologies to be promoted among pastoralists in Buliisa ......................................................................................23Fisher folk .........................................................................................................29Why UWS should work with fish folk in Buliisa .......................................29Training and technologies to be promoted among fisher folk in Buliisa ........................................................................................29Use of appropriate fishing methods and gear .............................................32Wildlife Resource Dependent Communities ...............................................38Why UWS will work with wildlife resource-dependent communities ....................................................................................................38Training and technologies to be promoted among wildlife resource-dependent communities .................................................39

Chapter Three ...........................................................................................53Cross-cutting issues among resource users and managers ......................53Climate change ................................................................................................53What is climate change? .................................................................................53Reducing emissions from deforestation and forestdegradation (REDD) awareness in Buliisa .................................................56What is REDD? ................................................................................................56What Buliisa communities can do to participate

in National REDD Projects .............................................................................57How can communities in Buliisa benefit fromthe National REDD Projects? .........................................................................57

Chapter Four .............................................................................................59Natural resource use and management conflict resolution ......................59Why target natural resource use and managementconflicts in Buliisa? .........................................................................................59Conflict resolution within and among resource users (communities) ........................................................................................59Pastoralists and Crop farmers .......................................................................59Conflict resolution among resource managers and users .........................60Bye-laws and MoUs among resource users and managers .......................61Resource use and management conflictsemerging with oil developments .................................................................62Why UWS will work with communities that aredependent on oil activities in Buliisa ............................................................62What knowledge do communities need for participationin and to benefit from oil related activities in Buliisa?...............................62Bye laws and MoUs for community participation inand benefit from oil activities ........................................................................64Major steps in the formulation of Environmental Impact Assessments (EIAs) ...........................................................................65

Chapter Five .............................................................................................67Feeding lessons and experiences of ecosystemsalliance in Buliisa to national policy formulation processes .....................67Goals and Mandates of Uganda Wildlife Society ......................................67Feeding lessons and research information from Buliisa into the national policy forum .........................................................67Dialogue I ........................................................................................................68Theme “Natural Resource Conservation in theAlbertine Rift. What are the Policy Issues Now”? .....................................68Dialogue II .......................................................................................................70Theme: “Biodiversity Conservation in Uganda: What are the challenges and opportunities”? ..............................................................70

v

References .................................................................................................................. 73Appendices ................................................................................................................ 75

Appendix 1: Community Based Problem Animal Control Self-assessment Form .......................................................................75Appendix 2: Useful Natural Resources Policy andManagement Guidelines in Uganda .............................................................77

vi

AcknowledgementThe entire interventions UWS is undertaking in Buliisa District, including the trainings and technologies, the research whose finding was a basis for this manual and Policy dialogues to be done to feed emerging lessons and experiences from the project into the national policy formulation processes has been done with financial support from the Royal Netherland Government through the Ecosystems Alliance (IUCN-NL, Wetlands International and BothEnds). The Society, Buliisa District Local Government and Ecosystems Alliance Uganda Country Programme Partners acknowledge with much

appreciation the funding from Ecosystems Alliance.

vii

Rationale, Content and Structure of this Manual

This manual is aimed to be used as a checklist and highlight of practical interventions, including training and technologies that Uganda Wildlife Society and Buliisa District Local Government identified as necessary and would be implemented to build capacity of the local communities/natural resource user groups (crop farmers, pastoralists, fisher folks, wildlife resource dependent communities and communities involved in oil activities) for sustainable natural resource use and management in Buliisa District in particular but that may also be relevant for the entire Albertine Rift Region.

Resolving natural resource use and management related conflicts is also key to realising sustainability. Therefore, a section of this manual covers natural resource use and management related conflicts and the conflict resolution strategies that will be applicable in intra and inter resource user groups and between natural resource user groups and the resource managers (including UWA, NFA, BMUs and Oil companies).

Climate change is another challenge in contemporary natural resource management and is therefore discussed in a section of this manual. We highlight climate change, its mitigation and adaptation approaches including reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation (REDD) and how communities can participate in these. For REDD the manual highlights strategic issues and awareness raising. This manual also highlights issues emerging with oil industry developments that are crosscutting and have impacts on natural resources use and management in the Albertine Rift.

Advocacy and dialogues are important strategies for eliciting synergies critical for resolving conflicts related to natural resource use and management, an intervention fundamental to attaining

viii

sustainability. Thus, UWS policy-influencing dialogues, lessons and research information generated from consultations with the general public and community conservation initiatives is also covered in this manual.

In preparation of this manual, we made use of important current natural resource management plans and policy documents (including the 5-year Buliisa District Development Plan (2012/13- 2016/17); Fish (Beach Management) Rules No. 35 2003; National Fisheries Policy (NFP) 2003; Statutory Instruments, 2003 No. 35; Community Conservation Policy (2004); NEMA Guidelines to Oil Companies; UWA Guidelines to Oil Companies) and other literature.

1

Chapter One

IntroductionUganda’s Albertine Rift is home to a number of bird species, amphibians, reptiles, and mammals including critically endangered mountain gorillas, chimpanzees, and elephants. It ranks as one of Africa’s biodiversity hotspots. The region’s mountains and forests provide many crucial resources to local people, such as clean water, fish and firewood. As various studies have found, the dominant environmental issues in the Rift region are reconciling human needs for land, firewood, and other natural resources and maintaining the scale and quality of habitat required by the species in one of the most biodiversity rich areas in the world.

In Buliisa District, unsustainable use and management of natural resources is attributed to low capacity for management, competition and weaknesses in enforcement or compliance to conservation and development policies. As a result, the people’s major economic activities and sources of livelihoods such as fishing on Lake Albert, livestock-grazing and crop farming have been affected negatively. The activities are directly dependent on natural ecosystems whose resilience is being overstretched by increasing levels of over – exploitation. Recent development of oil exploration activities have also exerted more pressure on natural resources due to inflows of people to the district, imposed restriction to access certain locations and heightened expectations of benefits from oil activities that has generated conflicts over access and control of resources close to oil deposits.

Unsustainable use and management of natural resources in Buliisa is clearly evident. The situation has resulted from poor farming and fishing practices, restricted use and access to resources from

2 Natural Resource Use and Management: The Albertine Rift Region protected areas and the lake, limited awareness of the need for and means to harness the natural resource potential, community participation in development decision making, incentives for compliance to natural resources and development policies and regulations and, poor information flow to inform and influence policy level planning.

Uganda Wildlife Society, with financial support from Ecosystems Alliance (IUCN-NL, Both ENDS, and Wetlands International) aims to address the problems of unsustainable fishing practices, poor landuse and management, inaccessibility of resources due to oil activities, natural resource use and management conflicts in Buliisa, to help bring about sustainability in the natural resource use and management. The Society aims to do this by implementing practical interventions identified and needed to address the problem. The interventions include influencing policies, ordinances and bye-laws at the local level and empowering the communities and institutions with training and technologies for sustainable management and use of natural resources. This manual provides details on these interventions and is a guide that the local communities, leaders and any other stakeholder interested in sustainable management of natural resources in the district could use for natural resource use and management planning and practice decisions.

3

Chapter Two

Training and technological interventions for natural resource use and management among

Buliisa communities

Crop Farmers

Why UWS should work with crop farmers The needs assessment study revealed that among crop farmers, the major constraints to the optimisation of natural resource productivity include pests and wildlife, diseases (40.6%), climate change (22.3%), inappropriate management (11.4%) and land and soil fertility loss (11.4%). To address these constraints, interventions are required and this shall include training and adoption of technologies for increased environmental awareness and management including tree planting (58.3%), pests and disease control (20.0%), stabilisation of market for produce (8.0%) and access to resources in wildlife protected areas (2.3%).

Training and technologies to be promoted among crop farmers

Agroforestry Agroforestry is a collective name for land use systems and technologies where woody perennials (such as trees, shrubs, palms, bamboos) are deliberately used on the same land units as agricultural crops and/or animals, in some form of spatial arrangement or temporal sequence. In a typical agroforestry system, the major different components include:

• Trees/forests or shrubs.• Agricultural crops, pastures.• Animals (livestock, poultry).

4 Natural Resource Use and Management: The Albertine Rift Region

All the agroforestry components benefit from one another in form of shade, nutrients from litter and dung, fodder from trees and shrubs. This symbiotic existence makes maximum use of the available space. (Figure 1). Other components include bees and fish that normally occur in specialised systems. The concept of agroforestry is based on development of an interface between agriculture and forestry. It is a sustainable multiple-production system whose outputs can be adjusted to local needs.

Figure 1: Benefi ts from different agroforestry components (Source: Noordwijk and Kurniatun, 2000).

Livestock and Pasture

Shade

cut-and-carrybrowse

shrubs

Litter

Tree nursery establishment and management of trees

Because trees form a major component of any agroforestry system, this manual has been prepared so that farmers are first trained on how to raise and manage agroforestry tree species from a tree nursery before introducing them to the different agroforestry systems that can be applied in Buliisa District.

Tree seeds may not easily germinate, grow or survive when planted directly in the gardens. To avoid this, seedlings first have to be raised in a tree nursery where recommended conditions for germination and growth are ensured until they are ready to be transplanted in the field. The purpose of a tree nursery is to raise seedlings of the

Training and Technological Interventions 5

right size and in sufficient quantities that will be able to survive harsh field conditions.

Factors to consider when choosing a site for a tree nursery• A nursery should be established in the area where you

intend to plant the seedlings in order to minimise transport costs and damages.

• The area should be accessible.• The nursery should be near a reliable source of water.• The soils should be well drained and fertile.• It should be established on a fl at and slightly sloping land

(well drained area).• The area should have wind breaks and permanent source

of shade.• The area should be large enough to produce a good

number of seedlings required for a planting programme and also allow for future expansion.

Nursery operations

Site selection and preparationStumps, weeds and any unwanted vegetation should be removed to create suitable conditions for seed germination and proper growth of seedlings. Site preparation helps to remove vegetation that may be potential weeds. This can be achieved through burning, manual slashing, cultivating using a hand hoe or a plough.

Soil preparation and mixingThe soil is worked out using fingers to attain a proper texture, aeration and drainage. Sandy loam soils are recommended for nurseries. When establishing a nursery for pine, it is recommended that soils from pine plantations are mixed with the local soil. This is to provide mychorriza that is useful for nutrient uptake of the seedlings in the nursery bed.


Seed bed preparationIn areas that are always dry like Buliisa, the seed bed should be sunk below the ground level so as to improve drainage, allow rain water to collect and preserve soil moisture.

Pre-sowing treatmentsUsually seeds are treated to enhance germination prior to sowing. Depending on the type of seed; they may be boiled, soaked in water or scratched mechanically (scarified).

SowingThe seed should be sowed on the surface of the bed and covered with thin soil which is about half the diameter of the seeds. The seed should be covered with soil which is spread out by hand or using a shovel.

Shade constructionA shade should be constructed to provide suitable amount of light, rain water and heat. The shade should be constructed sloping in the north-south gradient and running in the east – west direction. A farmer may use local materials like elephant grass or even plastic materials like polythene for shade construction.

WateringDifferent species of seedlings require different quantities of water. Therefore, a farmer should water his/her nursery bed regularly with the right amount of water using a watering can that has a mesh. Watering should be done twice a day (i.e. in the morning and evening). Avoid too much watering because it may wash away the seeds and seedlings rooting. The watering can should have a mesh to ensure even distribution of water in the bed.


Pricking outAfter the seeds have germinated, seedlings should be removed from the seedbeds and transferred into containers (pots) which are transferred to a transplant bed. This helps to reduce competition among seedlings for basic growth requirements. Pricking out should be done in the evening hours. Make a hole in the soil that is filled in a pot to a depth that is big and deep enough to allow roots to be well placed without bending. Using a spoon and holding the leaves, pull out the seed from the seed bed. Place the seedling’s roots into the hole and fill the pot. Ensure that the seedling is upright and in a central position in the pot.

Root pruningThis is the cutting of roots that grow out of the pots and penetrate into the ground at the bottom of the container/pot. Root pruning is done using a sharp knife or wire root pruners. Root pruning enhances growth of root system within the container/pot which enables vigorous growth of the seedling when transplanted in the field.

Hardening offThis is the process of introducing the seedling to harsh conditions of the field. It is done prior to transplanting. It involves reducing the amount of water and shade from the seedlings while still in the bed. It is done gradually, for example if the seedlings were watered twice; you reduce it to once a day (approximately 50%). Seedlings transplanted in the field without being hardened off may suffer from transplantation shock and die from stress.

Record keepingA tree farmer or nursery manager should maintain proper records to keep track of activities like time of sowing, germination rates, seedling growth rates, disease and pest incidences and any other records relevant for proper management. Record keeping helps in assessing productivity and cost effectiveness of the nursery.


TransplantingThis is the last activity in nursery management. Seedlings that have matured and are ready for transplanting are transported to the field for planting.

Key tools commonly used in tree nurseries• Shovel: is used for mixing soil in the nursery bed and when

covering the seeds.• Watering can: is for watering the bed.• Spoons: are for pricking out seedlings.• Sieve: is used when preparing soil for potting. It helps the

farmer to remove other particles that may impair proper growth of the seedlings e.g. stones.

• Wheelbarrow: is used to transport plants and other materials at the nursery.

• Buckets: are used for carrying soil for potting.• Trowel: is used for fi lling pots with soil.

Soil mixing for pottingGenerally there is no standard ratio used for mixing soils. However the ratio used depends on the texture and nutrient content of the soil at the site. For soils that have high clay content, river or lake sand should be added. In most parts of Uganda a ratio of 1: 3 is recommended when mixing soil for potting.

Characteristics of good soil for potting

The soil should:• be light to enable easy root penetration of seedlings.• be cohesive to withstand pressure from drops of water

during watering process.• have a good water retention capacity to ensure adequate

moisture for the seedlings.• be fairly fertile to provide plant nutrients for seedlings.


Procedures involved in potting• Soil used for potting should be moistened by sprinkling

water.• Using a trowel, scoop soil and gently tap the pot to the

brim and hit the pot on the ground to a level where it prevents compaction. Compacted soil in the pots inhibits root growth and drainage.

Tree establishment and managementProper timing of all activities involved in tree planting and management is an essential component of a successful tree growing program. Once you know the right time of implementing each of the activities, it becomes easier to budget and look for all resources needed in advance.

When should one carry out the different plantation activities?The pattern of rainfall in an area determines the scheduling of most activities in tree growing or woodlot establishment. In most parts of Uganda, there are two seasons; March/April and September/October. These seasons differ in duration of rains depending on the location. In some areas like western Uganda, September/October is the longer rainy season, while in most other parts of the country the best rains are normally received in March/April. It is recommended that a farmer should plan to plant trees in the long rainy season and to do it in the early rains. This is to enable the seedlings take advantage of the large quantities of moisture in the soil and establish quickly. For example, if the plan is to plant trees during the September/October rains:

• Site survey and tree species selection should be done in January.

• Collect or buy seeds not later than 7 months before planting date.


• If you are buying seedlings from a nursery, make sure it is reputable to avoid poor quality seedlings.

• By around May (usually as the fi rst rains are ending), start mobilising labour for land clearing. This operation can run up to July to allow time for lining out and pitting in mid-August.

Land preparation for tree plantingThis activity in tree growing or woodlot establishment aims at achieving high survival and rapid early growth of trees. The process involves removing competing vegetation by cultivation of the soil to enhance root development of the newly planted seedlings.

Land preparation encompasses several separate activities which include among others:

• Initial clearing (often combined with burning).• Lining out and pitting.• Protection from stray animals.• Weeding. • Thinning and pruning.

Thinning regimes vary with the species that have been planted. However, it is advisable to carry out pruning and thinning at the same time to minimise silvicultural costs.

Rationale for promoting agroforestry in BuliisaThe aim of introducing agroforestry in Buliisa is to optimise production based on the interactions between the components (trees, crops and livestock) and physical environment. Agroforestry leads to higher sum total and a more diversified and /or sustainable production than from a monoculture of agriculture or forestry. Different agroforestry technologies have been developed to improve soil fertility and increase productivity. The following are some examples of agroforestry technologies that will be applicable in Buliisa District:


Improved fallow systemsHuman population increase has resulted in faster rotation cycles of crop cultivation and shorter fallow periods. In some instances, fallow time is too short to allow the soil to recover. Blocks of fast-growing trees, particularly species that fix nitrogen in the soil ( such as Sesbania sesban), can help the soil recover as well as provide fuel, poles and fodder. Farmers can plant stump cuttings in the fields at the same time as the harvest of the last annual crops before the fallow period. The cuttings do not shade other crops until after 4-6 months. Desirable characteristics of tree species for use in improved fallows include high nitrogen content in tissue which hastens soil rejuvenation because nitrogen is one of the most important nutrient in tropical soils. Fast biomass production such as litter from the tree, especially foliage, can add important nutrients to the soil.

Home gardensHome gardens, mixed plantings of annual and tree crops around homes, are a common type of multistorey agroforestry system. Multistorey means that there are at least two layers of plants growing to different heights in the system. In home gardens, the lowest level often consists of vegetables or root crops; the second level includes fast-growing trees or crops such as bananas, spices, and cocoa; a third higher level may consist of large trees that provide fruits, timber and shade. Home gardens also provide pleasant shade. Trees grown in home gardens mainly for food should not be pruned regularly for fodder or fuel. Pruning can interfere with flowering and fruiting. Instead, families can collect fallen branches for fuel wood. Women make many of the decisions on how to tend the home garden and often choose the species to be grown. Attempts to improve the use of trees in home gardens should involve discussions with women and men to better understand how they use trees and what products should be optimised.


Scattered tree plantingScattered (randomised) planting technology was developed by National Forestry Resources Research Institute (NaFORRI) and its partners to enable farmers plant proven tree species in mid-field. Proven species are planted (scattered) in the field and grown together with crops or pastures. The trees improve soil fertility, provide ample shade and improve performance of the companion crops. This technology is good for crops that need some amount of shade, like bananas and coffee. Trees recommended for improved fallow technology include Grevillea Robusta (Kalivaliyo) Ficus mucuso (Mukunhu), Ficus natalensis (Mutuba), Albizia chinensis (Nnongo mpya), Gliricidia sepium (Girisidiya) and others. The trees can be planted in a garden of bananas or coffee or the trees can be planted ahead of the crops. Final spacing of trees should be less than 10 m. The trees should be thinned gradually until 10m x 10m density is achieved and pruned regularly to avoid excessive growth.

Trees along boundariesThis is a farming practice whereby trees are planted and grown along farm boundaries or contours within the farm and road sides. The practice enables the farmer to raise a wider range of trees than in the other technologies. Trees used in this technology need to be compatible with companion crops. Tree species recommended for boundary planting are dependent on farmer product interest and these could vary, for example, fuel wood, poles, timber, medicines and so on. Some of the tree species recommended for fuel wood, poles and timber are Casuarina equisettifolia (Kasalina), Grevillea Robusta (Kalivaliyo), Pinus oocarpa (Payini), Araucaria cunninghamii (Alukeriya), Markhamia lutea (Lusambya), Maesapsis eminii (Musizi). Among the medicinal trees NaFORRI is promoting Prunus africana (Ntasesa), Malinger aleifera (Horse-radish), Azadirachta indica (Neem) among others. The trees should be pruned regularly to avoid excessive growth.

Boundary trees need to be planted initially at 5 m apart along the boundary line, contours or road sides. Trees can be gradually


thinned down to improve on stem characteristics such as girth. The final spacing after thinning may be below 10 m between trees. The thinned poles can be used as building poles at home or sold to fetch money for the family. The trees should be pruned regularly to avoid excessive growth. Pruning can be used for firewood at home or sold for income. Trees planted along boundaries are very helpful in reducing the speed of wind (wind breakers). By so doing, they minimise the devastating effects of strong winds. This technology has a potential to answer some of the global environmental concerns. It can be used to reduce the greenhouse/global warming effect which is threatening the existence of mankind.

Crop farmers in Buliisa can grow different tree species, including fruit trees like Citrus sinensis (oranges), Persea Americana (Avocado) and Mangifera indica (Mangoes). The genus citrus comprises several species but the most important ones are(1) Citrus sinensis - Sweet orange e. g Western navel, Valencia, Kuno navel, (2) Citrus aurantium- Sour orange (3)- Citrus limon – Lemon and (4) Citrus reticulata – Tangerine. Most of these species were planted at Kawanda Agricultural Research Institute (KARI), evaluated and later released to farmers. Most recent introductions were brought from Kenya in 2003, evaluated and planted for further evaluation.

Climatic requirements for orangeExtremely hot or extremely cold temperatures are damaging to oranges. Oranges require temperature ranges from 130o C–380o C. At high temperatures flowers and leaves drop. For good citrus production, trees require rainfall or irrigation throughout the year. Where dry seasons occur, planning for irrigation is required. Favourable rainfall ranges between 125 mm-500 mm but are grown in areas that receive as much as 1000-1500 mm of rainfall/annum. A dry, climate, (hot during day and cool at night) favours good color development.


Soil requirementsCitrus trees grow in a wide variety of soils but they grow best in soils of medium texture and moderate depth, with good drainage and high fertility, and which are not high in soluble salts or alkaline. The best pH for citrus ranges between 5 and 6. In very acid soils, citrus roots do not grow well and nutrients are leached out or may be toxic. At a pH above 6, plants experience nutrient deficiency. The water table must be well below the surface at least by 5 feet.

PropagationThe best citrus commercial varieties do not reproduce true by seed; they must be propagated by budding or grafting. These commercial varieties are budded/ grafted onto seedlings of species known to give good results when used as rootstock. It is highly important to use rootstocks known to grow and are adapted to soil conditions on which the trees are to be grown. Budding is by far the most commonly used method of propagation. Grafting apparently gives just as good results, but it is slower and requires more scions than budding.

Raising citrus rootstockSeed for rootstock is obtained from fresh fruit, which is picked from the tree. Select mature fruits from healthy plants. The easiest way to extract seed is to cut shallowly through the rind (peel) all the way around the fruit and then twist the fruit a part. The pulp is then squeezed through a sieve and the seeds washed. Seeds should be sown immediately after washing.

Sowing/ planting seedSeeds are planted in containers or more commonly in seedbeds. The soil should be at least 30 cm deep, light in texture, uniform and well drained. If only a few seedlings are to be grown, the seeds may be planted in boxes of convenient size. The boxes should be put in a warm, partly


shaded place, and the soil should be kept moist but not wet. If large numbers of seedlings are to be grown, seedbeds must be prepared. It is desirable to use virgin soil which has not been used for growing citrus seedlings or vegetables for several years.

Citrus seeds are planted 3 – 5 cm deep and covered with sand or other porous materials, which will not compact. The seed if not freshly extracted from the fruits is often placed in moderately warm water and allowed to soak for 24 hours or more before planting to hasten the process of germination and to prevent the problem of goose neck in the seedlings. Depending on the moisture content of the soil and the temperatures, seed will germinate in three to four weeks.

Care in seedbedBefore and after seedling emergence, the soil should be given frequent light watering to keep the surface moist. When the plants are 10 cm high, the frequency of watering should be decreased but the quantity increased. Keep seedlings weed free in order to promote quick growth and vigour.

Potting and prickingSeedlings are ready for pricking when they have two pairs of leaves and a bud.

Grafting/BuddingCitrus rootstocks are ready for grafting six to seven months from pricking. If budding is to be done, seedlings are budded 9–10 months from pricking. T-budding is a technique commonly used in propagating most citrus seedlings. Whip or splice grafting are also used.


Field establishment and management of citrusDig holes 60 cm deep x 60 cm wide. When digging, separate the topsoil from sub soil. Mix 1 tin full of well decomposed manure with top soil and put back into the hole to cover the first 30 cm. Remove polythene sleeves before planting. Transplant the seedlings at the onset of rains or during the rainy season. Make a basin around the plants for harvesting water. Mulch around each plant and provide a cage to avoid damage by animals. Citrus are spaced 6 m x 6 m giving 126 plants per acre.

Management of oranges in the fieldRemove grafting tape a month after transplanting. If the tape is not removed it will cut into the plant tissues, retard growth and eventually kill the scion part of the plant. Remove shoots which grow below the graft union. These shoot, if not removed, will retard growth or kill the scion part of the grafted plant. Plants will also take a long time to produce fruits, as the shoots below the graft union will take up most nutrients.

WeedingFarmers are advised to keep their fruit fields weed free. Ring weed around the trees and slash the rest of the orchard. At the young stage of the crop, intercrop with low growing crops like beans and ground nuts. The intercrop should be planted away from the basin that is around the plant. Keep the plants and the intercrop weed free.

PruningIt consists of the removal of dead, dry wood and water sprouts. All branches that grow low on the trunk should be removed. Shoots that grow below the graft / bad union should be removed. To have a tree which is easy to manage and to encourage lateral growth the apex should be decapitated at 50 cm from the ground.


Maintain a basin around the plantThis basin is important especially in the areas that experience prolonged periods of harsh dry weather. Its purpose is to harvest and hold water for the plant so that plants have enough water for production.

IrrigationMany farmers in Uganda cannot afford irrigation equipment so they should use cultural practices such as mulching, use of organic manure and maintaining a basin around each plant to conserve water. There are irrigation methods that are relatively cheap. An example is filling jerrycans with water and perforating them at the bottom and in the lids. A jerrycan is placed near the stem of each plant. Water then drips continuously into the soil around the plant. When the water is finished from jerrycan, it should be refilled.

Harvesting and yieldCitrus fruit stays on the tree from six to nine months depending on the variety and climatic conditions. Maturity of citrus is indicated by color changes in the rind (peel). However, in the low land tropics, fruits may remain green at maturity. Rind color changes from dark green to light green. Though lack of colouring decreases the attractiveness of the fruit, flavour is unaffected. Orange fruits are harvested by clipping or pulling fruits from the tree. Harvested fruits should be protected from sun and rain. Damaged fruits should be discarded or used immediately. Avoid picking citrus shortly after rains, wait until the fruit is dry because this prevents moulds. The yield of oranges ranges from seven to fifteen tons/ha, depending on variety, climate and soil management and age of the tree.


Avocado (Persea americana) production: planting and management

• Prepare avocado seeds from fresh fruits and not those that have fallen and are rotting on the ground.

• Plant grafted or budded seedlings since they have a shorter gestation period.

• Dig holes 2ft x 2ft (0.6 x 0.6 m) depth and width then add 0.5 kg of SSP fertiliser to the top soil from each hole. Mix the fertiliser thoroughly with the soil and use it to cover the young seedling.

• Space avocado plants at 9 m x 9 m. • When planting make sure the soil block on the seedling is

at ground level. • Leave a small depression around the plant for water

collection. • Phosphorus (P) helps roots to grow strong and healthy.

Healthy roots mine lower soil layers for nutrients and are not attacked by pests easily.

• Remove the polythene at the point of grafting a month after planting.

• Recommended avocado cultivars for the local and export markets should be grown such as Hass, Fuerte, Drsom 1, Drsom 2, Walu, Avilla and Semil 43.

YieldsAvocado yields vary according to the variety and management. Cultivars such as Walu yield 2 to 4 tons/acre when spaced at 9 m x 9 m under rain fed conditions and medium soil fertility.

Pest management and control in tree cropsTrees and crops are prone to both pests and diseases and farmers should be in a position to know that their crop has been attacked by either disease or pest. When you identify any pest or disease, usually seen from change in leaf colour and stunted growth, please report to the extension officer or the District Agriculture Officer (DAO).


Among common diseases in oranges is dumping off, the most serious disease in fruit trees, particularly oranges and is caused by wet soil, dense shading, humidity and overcrowding. These conditions should be avoided to prevent the disease. The other measure is to thin the trees. Thinning is particularly important in preventing disease attack at the seedling stage. If seedlings appear congested, thin them so as to produce sturdy and vigorous plants. Thinning reduces chances of disease outbreak. Common pests in oranges include aphids, leaf miners and orange dogs. Pests in oranges can be managed by pruning, uprooting and burning the infected trees.

For avocado, the most common disease is Anthracnose (Glomerella cingulata) which attacks leaves, branches, flowers and fruits of susceptible cultivars. Anthracnose can be controlled through cultural methods such as pruning and destruction of infected parts. The other avocado disease is Powdery mildew (Oidium persae). This attacks leaves and flowers and causes them to abort prematurely. This disease is controlled by spraying with Topsin, Antracol and Sulphur dust. Scab (Sphaceloma persea) is another disease that affects avocado and causes rotting of ripened fruits. This disease can be controlled using cultural methods mentioned before and by spraying with fungicides such as Kocide or Cobox. The infected rotten fruits should be removed and buried and or sprayed with contact insecticides.

Soil and water conservation technologies

Soil conservation techniques

Mulching

Mulching is a farming practice where the soil is covered with plant or non- plant materials (Figure 2). This could be straw, cut herbage, leaves, stems of maize or millet or fresh growing cover crops such as Lab lab. Mulching is a good practice because it prevents loss of moisture from the soil, improves soil fertility by adding organic matter to the soil, protects soil from direct impact of rain drops,


protects soil against wind and water erosion, suppresses weeds, maintains good temperatures for germination, crop growth and life of soil organisms.

Manuring

Use of organic manure such as kraal manure, compost and green manure restores and maintains soil fertility. These are used without undergoing any chemical treatment.

Intercropping

Strip cropping is similar to row planting but instead of a single row of maize or beans, strip of two or more rows are planted (Figure 3).

Figure 2: Mulched banana plantation. Source: KARI, 2001.

Figure 3: Intercropped garden. Source: KARI, 2001


Crop rotation

Crop rotation is the growing of crops in a sequence on the same piece of land. This is done to improve soil fertility and reduce pests and diseases. Growing of the same crop on the same plot each season leads to crops taking away all the nutrients thus making the soil infertile. Plant crops that have different demands on the soil every successive season. This will depend on your needs for food and income.

Trenching

Rain water is diverted using channels from various sources such run-off to earth dams or infiltration ditches. This water is mainly used for irrigation or for livestock.

Water conservation techniquesWater is very important for movement of plant nutrients from the soil to the plant. It is also very important in the making of plant food. Therefore soils must have enough nutrients and water to make them productive. Excessive sun and heat dry up the soil, so there is a need to conserve or replenish lost water. Water can be conserved by mulching, planting good crop cover, practicing agroforestry and by applying organic manure. Water can also be harvested to irrigate land during the dry season.

Rain water harvesting from tree trunks

Rain water is harvested from big tree trunks using banana fibre tied around the tree trunk and directed to a large clay pot. This water can be put to domestic use or for irrigating crops.

Roof tops

Rain water harvested from roof tops can be stored in plastic tanks, clay pots, drums, corrugated iron tanks, concrete / brick tanks,


(underground and above ground). This water is mainly put to domestic use but could be used for irrigating crops.

Figure 4: Rain water harvesting from tree trunks. Source: KARI, 2001

Figure 5: Rain water harvesting from roof tops. Source: KARI, 2001.


Pastoralists

Why UWS shall work with pastoralists in BuliisaThe needs assessment revealed that among pastoralists (livestock keepers), the major constraints to natural resources productivity are pests (including wildlife attack) diseases (33.3%), climate change (28.6%) and inappropriate management (28.6%). To address these constraints, interventions required include training and adoption of technologies for increased environmental awareness and management including tree planting (47.6%), access to resources in wildlife protected areas (9.5%), stabilisation of market for dairy and livestock products (4.8%) and pests and disease control (19.0%). The Buliisa District Veterinary Officer acknowledges that 7 out of 10 calves die in Buliisa due to diseases, particularly East Coast Fever (ECF). The local people consequently selected training and technologies to be promoted and applied in interventions to address livestock management constraints.

Training and technologies to be promoted among pastoralists in BuliisaCattle keepers in Buliisa District find treasure and prestige in keeping large numbers of livestock which are left to free range hence compromising productivity and quality. Free ranging livestock is one of the sources of resource use and management conflicts between communities (fisher folk, crop farmers) and pastoralists in Buliisa. The training and technologies that UWS intends to promote among the pastoralists are aimed at changing and improving attitudes of the pastoral communities, their stocking density (keeping only the productive stock) and pasture management practices. Appropriate stock management technologies such as zero grazing, rotational grazing, strip grazing, improved pasture management, milk hygiene,


silvo-pastoral systems (cattle and trees), and pest and disease control will be promoted among the communities.

Zero grazing Under zero grazing (also known as stall feeding), cattle do not graze freely but are confined and fed in a shed or yard. The system is highly productive, but rather labour intensive, since the forage must be cut in the fields and brought to the cattle. The main feed used on small holdings for zero grazing is Napier grass and to some extent green maize. Sweet potato vines, banana stems and garden waste are also fed to cattle. Some 40-60 kg of forage is needed per day per cow. In addition, a mineral lick should be provided. The main advantage of zero grazing over pasture grazing is that production per land unit is 3-4 times higher. About 0.6 ha of good grazing will support one cow while under Napier grass in zero grazing system the same land can support 3-4 cows.

Rotational grazingUnder this grazing method, the farm is divided into 4 -6 portions and the cattle are moved from one field to another in a rotation, which allows the field time to recover. The resting time between fields should be at least 4 weeks. The maximum grazing time for each field is about 1 week, in order to avoid worm infestation. Tens of heads of cattle need approximately 1ha of good grazing per week.

Strip grazingThe animals are confined to a small area that is sufficient for one day’s grazing and the fence moved each day. The results are more uniform grazing and little wastage of grass. Strip grazing requires more labour and more watering points, but experiments have shown an increase of 15-20% in efficiency of pasture use. Useful pasture includes Rhodes grass. Rhodes is a creeping perennial that establishes quickly. Other varieties are Mbarara (eyojo, emburara) and Masaba ( names?), Guinea and Setaria grass and useful pasture legumes like esmodium, clover and lucerne.


Milking hygieneThe aim of having high standards of hygiene in milk production is to supply milk in clean and wholesome condition that is free from objectionable odours and flavours to prevent spread of diseases. The following are the main hygiene requirements to ensure clean milk production:

• Milking shed should be cleaned after each milking.• Washing hands with soap and warm water before milking.• Wash the udder before milking with a clean cloth and

water.• After milking, the milk should be removed to a separate

room, fi ltered and stored in a cool place.• Washing milking utensils with clean water and soap.• Cows with mastitis should be milked last to prevent the

spread of infection to other cows. Mastitis can cause a reduction in milk yield by at least 10%. After milking, use a teat dip containing a suitable antiseptic.

Obtaining good milk yields• For high yields, it is good to practice good milking

techniques. The following are some rules to be applied in milking:

• Milk at regular intervals, at the same time in the morning and evening.

• Maintain peace and a quiet environment during milking time.

• Milk quickly and evenly.• Empty the udder thoroughly at each milking.• A conditioned refl ex relaxes certain muscles and permits

milk let-down. A regular routine should be followed as the rattle of the milk bucket, supplying feed, waiting in the yard or washing the udder may all set off the conditioned refl ex.


Livestock under different grazing regimes have varying lactation periods and milk yields (Table 1). Buliisa livestock grazing system is extensive and one would expect the cattle to produce 2.7 liters per day for a period of 200 days. However, the current situation indicates that most cattle in Buliisa produce 1litre per day, an indicator that there is a need for urgent interventions to increase milk production. The upcoming developments by the Diary Development Authority (DDA) in the district to collect 10,000 litres of milk per day from Buliisa justifies the timely interventions by UWS Ecosystems Alliance project for increased milk yields in Buliisa. The cattle keepers in Buliisa not only need to improve their current grazing regime, but also adopt a semi-intensive grazing system given the developments in Buliisa District.

Table 1: Milk yield under different grazing systems

Grazing regime Lactation period (days)

Total milk yield (litres)

Average milk yield (litres/ day)

* Extensive grazing regime (cattle move very long distances and feed on grass only with no water for some days)

200 545 2.7

Semi intensive grazing regime (In addition to moving to graze, animals also feed on other feeds (like banana peelings when they return to the kraal)

270 2,250 8.3L

Zero grazing regime (animals are confined in an enclosed area)

305 3,800 12.5L

* This is the current livestock grazing system in Buliisa District


Improved pasture management The objective of pasture management is to obtain maximum forage, while sustaining the vegetation and without causing soil erosion. Grazing is best achieved using a planned rotation, the benefits of which are:

• Forage plants are only moderately cropped and given a chance to gain vigour by storing food for growth.

• Pasture are rested in rotation thus enabling farmers to reseed.

• Less palatable plants are also eaten when animals are not allowed to roam freely over large areas.

• Good vegetation cover protects water catchment areas.• Damage to vegetation caused by trampling and trekking

long distances is reduced.

Feeding cattle on fodderFodder is conserved in times of abundance in order that stocking rates can be greatly improved. Types of fodder that can be produced include hay, maize silage, Napier grass, sorghum, sweet potato vines, and shrubs such as calliandra and trees like Ficus natalensis.

Silvopastoral-agroforestry system Silvopastoral agroforestry is a system where trees and livestock are combined in spatial arrangement. Farm systems that combine tree plantations with livestock that graze beneath them are found generally in drier areas, where natural grasslands and farm sizes are larger. In such systems, farmers graze sheep or cattle on forage grasses or in stands of trees. In some areas, which tend to have smaller land holdings, alley cropping and other “cut and carry” methods for procuring fodder are more important. Advantages of integrating tree growing with livestock production include:

• Increasing the production of meat protein without sacrifi cing large tracts of agricultural land.


• Reducing surface soil erosion by preventing open grazing and reducing dependence on grasses.

• Using animal manure to fertilise the soils and intercrops, thereby reducing reliance on inorganic fertiliser.

• Providing additional income through sale of livestock.

Desirable characteristics of pasture species• High protein and nutrient content: for improvement of

livestock nutrition. • Palatable: livestock are selective about what fodder they

will eat. • Free of toxic substances: some fodder species contain toxic

substances that can be consumed only in small amounts. Leucaena spp, for example, contain mimosine which, in large doses, is harmful to animals. It must, therefore, be used in combination with other fodder sources.

• Sprout well: ability to recover rapidly after pruning.

Livestock pest and diseases control measures

Environmental control

The housing, feeding and watering equipment should be cleaned regularly to prevent them from being a source of disease.

Movement control

A farmer’s animals should be isolated as far as possible from contact with other animals as these may be a source of disease.

Control of host insects

Where diseases are carried by insects such as ticks and flies, then a program to kill such insects is necessary. They can be killed by spraying or physically killing them.


Control by vaccination

There are some diseases which can only be adequately controlled by vaccination.

Veterinary attention

Sick animals should be isolated as soon as possible from the rest of the animals and should receive urgent veterinary attention. This is because many diseases can be cured if treated at the early stages.

Fisher folk

Why UWS should work with fish folk in Buliisa According to the fisher folk, the major constraints to natural resource productivity are inappropriate management (64.2%), pests (including wildlife attack) and diseases (15.16%) and climate change (9.4%). To address these constraints the fisher folk recommend interventions such as training and adoption of technologies such as tree planting (45.3%), access to resources in wildlife protected areas (17.0%), stabilisation of market for fish catch (11.3%) and pests and disease control (11.3%). The following interventions shall be promoted among the fisher folk.

Training and technologies to be promoted among fisher folk in BuliisaThe fisheries sector, unlike agriculture, is based on hunting mobile prey (fish) by thousands of fishermen who compete for the same resources. To sustainably manage these resources requires many rules and regulations to be obeyed by fishermen and traders. To obtain greater compliance to fisheries rules requires closer involvement of fisheries stakeholders in managing the resources upon which their livelihoods depend. The Government of Uganda adopted a new management approach called co-management in which local people are equal partners in managing fisheries. This is supported


by a new law, the Fish (Beach Management) Rules No. 35 2003, which delegates legal power to local people for fisheries planning and management. The delegation of legal power is made by fisheries stakeholders joining together to form legally empowered groups known as Beach Management Units (BMUs). The BMUs are mandated with monitoring compliance to set fishing standards/practices and ensuring among others that, sustainable fishing methods and gears are used by the fisher folk. In this section, this manual expounds on training and technologies (fishing gears and methods) to be promoted and those that should be prohibited among the fisher folk.

Appropriate fishing methods and gearThe baseline study carried out by Uganda Wildlife Society in Buliisa revealed declining productivity trends in the fisheries resources in the last 5-10 years, an indicator that there is urgent need for effective sustainable fisheries resource use and management. This section of the manual focuses on empowering communities of Buliisa to sustainably manage the fisheries resources at their disposal, through use of appropriate harvesting methods and gear. The communities need to know the current challenges to sustainable management of the capture fisheries resources in Buliisa. They include the following:

• Harvesting juvenile fi sh by use of illegal fi shing gear, thus interfering with their recruitment into the population.

• Harvesting the brooding stock in the breeding grounds and intercepting their migration route upstream.

• Habitat degradation.• Declining fi sh species diversity and water quality.• Confl icts among different stakeholders such as BMUs,

UWA and fi sher folks.• High pos- harvest fi sh losses.


• Ineffective management of fi sheries due to limited community participation.

• Inadequate investment skills among fi shers.

Note: The participants can be asked to add to the above list

Sustainable use and management of the capture fisheries resource in the Albert Nile can be achieved through the approaches and methods presented in the section that follows.

Maintaining healthy fish habitatsCommunities living around the water system should avoid polluting it. Pollution leads to fish death and hence a decline in fish stocks and fish species diversity. If a pollution source is identified within a community, it should be immediately reported to the local or district authorities. The following are common causes of pollution:

• Wetland degradation.• Poor agricultural practices such as exposure of soils and

cutting of trees leading to soil erosion.• Improper use of farm chemicals that may lead to fi sh

poisoning.

Fishing in lagoon areasLagoon areas are breeding grounds for fish and no fishing activity should take place in such areas. They should be left intact to allow uninterrupted breeding of fish. In Buliisa, the fishing communities have encroached on the lagoon area and most of the fishing activities take place in such places because the fish population is normally high (especially immature fish) in the breeding areas. The most known breeding sites along Lake Albert include the stretch from Katala to Kalolo, Wanseko (Nile Delta), from Bugoigo to Kabolwa, from Booma to Piida B and along Kigoya Landing Site.


Increased community participation in the fisheries resource management and useIncreased community participation leads to increased and sustainable fish production. Communities living around water systems should ensure that proper fishing methods are used. They should report observations that may lead to unhealthy and unproductive water environment to Beach Management Units (BMUs) or Landing Site Committees.

Use of appropriate fishing methods and gearRecommended fishing gear and methods have several benefits that include:

• Allowing enough female Nile Perch to breed. • Uninterrupted fi sh breeding and growth. • Organisms that fi sh feed on to become available.• Increase in fi sh catches and consequently income and

improved livelihoods among the fi sher folk.• These methods are selective; the bigger nets catch bigger fi sh..

• Increased foreign exchange earnings from export of fi sh and other fi sh products and consequently food security and increased fi sh protein availability to people.

The recommended fishing gear and fishing methods are discussed in the following section:

Gill net (passive) 5-10 inches (12.5-25 cm)Gill nets are the most used type of fishing gear. This method is selective when passively used. However, if the net sizes are smaller, the gear catches immature fish.


Figure 6: Gill nets (passive) 5”-10” (12.5-25 cm). Source: NaFIRRI, 2003

Figure 7: Hooks size 10 - 6 mm. Source: NaFIRRI, 2003

Hooks size 6 - 10 mm

Hooks are selective, with bigger sizes catching bigger fish. Hook fishing can be destructive when used in breeding and nursery grounds. Therefore it is always advisable to use the recommended size away from breeding grounds.


Drift nets

This is a recent fishing method operated in open waters. It is recommended to use 6”-10”.Mukene nets: Mukene fishing depends on the fish being attracted to light. It is advisable to use 5-10 mm nets.

Unsustainable and prohibited fishing methods and gear currently used in Buliisa Prohibited fishing gear in contrast to the recommended gear and methods discussed above, are destructive as many of them are highly non-selective, catch fish of all types and size, disrupt breeding and feeding patterns of the fish and deplete fish stocks rapidly. Examples of the prohibited fishing gear and methods include beach seines, seine nets, cast nets, basket traps and tycooning (beating water) and others discussed below.

Trawling

Trawling is highly non-selective and catches a large number of immature fish. This method destroys fish nests, fishermen’s nets and disrupts breeding especially of Tilapia. Trawling also destroys the habitats of bottom dwelling organisms. This fishing method is destructive and it is prohibited (Figure 8).

Figure 8: Trawling. Source: NaFIRRI, 2003.


Tycooning (Beating water)

Tycooning scares fish into the net, disrupts the breeding and feeding of fish, leading to overfishing (Figure 9). This method should be avoided by all the fishing communities.

Figure 9: Tycooning. Source: NaFIRRI, 2003.

Mukene light fishing

Use of mosquito nets especially in nursery grounds, catches even the young of other fish species. Avoid use of mosquito nets and fishing mukene in nursery grounds near the shore.

Seine net

This is a large net with sinkers on one edge and floats on the other that hangs vertically in the water and is used to enclose and catch fish when its ends are pulled together or are drawn ashore. Seine nets are highly non selective, catch fish of all types and size and rapidly deplete the fish stock. They are destructive and prohibited by law.

Cast nets

Cast nets that are operated in breeding grounds interfere with fish breeding. They also catch immature fish. Avoid use of cast nets.


Fishing gear and fish species on L. Albert coastline between Butiaba and WansekoIn 2007, National Fisheries Resources Research Institute (NaFIRRI) conducted a baseline water quality assessment and fish survey on Lake Albert coastline between Butiaba and Wanseko. The study revealed that Wanseko Landing Site had the highest number of fishing boats (29%), followed by Bugoigo (23.5%) and least in Kabolwa (NaFIRRI, 2007). The biggest number of boat crew were at Wanseko (567), followed by Butiaba Piida-A (473), Bugoigo (461), Walukuba (389) and Kabolwa (143). The survey identified active boats and fishing gears operating at each landing site (Table 2), and size of populations of common fish species caught in seine and gillnets in the northern part of Lake Albert (Table 3).

Table 2: Number of active boats with fishing gear operating at each landing site

Gear type Landing site in Buliisa District Total no.

of active

boatsKabolwa Bugoigo Butiaba

Piida-A

Walukuba Wanseko

Gillnet 42 57 70 19 72 260

Long line 1 5 15 39 23 83

Beach seine 1 3 0 0 0 4

Cast net 0 20 0 1 0 21

Hand line 0 0 0 0 2 2

Traps 0 10 0 0 0 10

Small seine 4 79 73 82 121 359

Perforated basins

10 3 0 0 0 13

Total 58 177 158 141 218 752

Source: NaFIRRI (2007)


Table 3: Size parameters of populations of common fish species caught in the seine and gillnets in the northern portion of Lake Albert-September 2007

Species Gear type Size range of fish species

Mean size

% mature fish

Lates niloticus Gill nets

Beach seine

9-26 cm

-

-

-

-

-

Hydrocynus forskahlii Gillnets

Beach seine

9-38 cm

7-16 cm

22

11

75

0

Oreochromis niloticus Gillnets

Beach seine

7-30 cm

3-13 cm

17

7

42

0

Brycinus nurse Gillnets

Beach seine

70-168 mm

70-96 mm

79

94

100

100

Thoracochromis wingatii Gillnets

Beach seine

63-136 mm

44-138 mm

94

75

100

89

Source: NaFIRRI (2007).

Restoration of degraded buffer zones along the Albert NileThe vegetation near the water body is usually destroyed by fishing communities through deforestation to create space for crop cultivation, human settlement and obtain fuel wood. It is recommended that a distance of 100 m from the water body (buffer zone) should be left intact and no human activity should be carried out in this area. The degraded buffer zones should be restored by planting tree species like Markhamia lutea, Grevelia Robusta and Maesapsis eminii among others.

Policy adherenceThe Uganda BMU Guidelines provide a framework for decentralisation and delegation of fisheries functions, powers and services and democratic participation and control of decision-


making. It is based on the general principles underpinning the Plan for Modernisation of Agriculture (PMA) including shifts in decision-making for natural resource management, local participatory planning, and poverty focus and gender sensitivity in development. The National Fisheries Policy (NFP) 2003 also provides for - “Decentralisation and community involvement in fisheries management”. The nine BMUs and fishing communities in Buliisa need such information to sustainably manage the fisheries resources in the district in accordance with the relevant policies.

For example, the BMU guidelines clearly indicate the role of BMUs in poverty reduction (Section 4), the objectives of BMUs (Section 5) and procedure for monitoring of BMU performance (Section 10). The Fish (Beach Management) Rules, 2003 provides for the roles of a BMU committee (Part III, Section 10), the roles of the BMU assembly (Part V, Section 14) and roles of the BMU members (Part VI, Section 15). Copies of the Statutory Instruments, 2003 No. 35, The Fish (Beach Management) Rules, 2003 and the Guidelines for Beach Management Units in Uganda (Under Section 43 of the Fish Act) will be availed to all the fisheries stakeholders. Where need be, these instruments will be translated in the local languages to cater for those who cannot read nor understand English.

Wildlife Resource Dependent Communities

Why UWS will work with wildlife resource-dependent communities The needs assessment study revealed that among the wildlife resource-dependent communities, the major constraints causing natural resources productivity decline are inappropriate management (36.4%), pests (including wildlife attack) and diseases (18.2%) and climate change (27.3%). To address these constraints, wildlife resource dependent communities indicated that interventions required include training and adoption of technologies that increase


environmental awareness and management including tree planting (36.4%), access to resources in protected areas (27.3%), and stabilisation of market for produce (18.2%), agricultural pests and disease control (9.1%).

Training and technologies to be promoted among wildlife resource-dependent communities

Problem animal control Human-wildlife conflict (HWC) is a major conservation and management problem where people and wildlife coexist. HWC can take many forms, including loss of human life, destruction of crops and property, and competition for natural resources. The worst affected by human wildlife conflict are Wildlife Resource Dependent Communities (WRDCs) and Park Adjacent Communities (PACs) in Buliisa. Uganda Wildlife Authority Community Conservation Policy (2004), Section 3.2 provides for human-wildlife management. It states that “human-wildlife conflicts should be resolved in order to build a positive attitude towards wildlife by the public and to minimise the conservation costs to those who bear them most”.

However, the current Problem Animal Control (PAC) techniques designed by Uganda Wildlife Authority to reduce the impact of problem animals such as elephants, crocodile and hippopotami are inadequate. Most of these techniques are either too expensive for rural farmers to afford, or are logistically unworkable in remote locations. Consequently there is a need to develop new conflict mitigation strategies in communal farming areas. The methods should be cheap and utilise locally available equipment. A unique problem animal control technique termed “Community-Based Problem Animal Control” (CBPAC) was developed in the mid-Zambezi valley of northern Zimbabwe where it is currently being used by seven communities to combat elephant crop-raiding (Parker,


2003). In 2002 the system was introduced to communities in South Luangwa, Zambia and Niassa Province, Mozambique.

In Buliisa, UWS will ask communities to identify the animals that they feel are a problem in their area and mention the specific problems the animals cause to them. They will be asked to rank the animals in terms of severity of problems they cause. This exercise will be designed to focus everyone upon human wildlife conflict, and to consider the process of ranking problem animals objectively.

Case study: Human-wildlife conflict in Masomo village, Zimbabwe (Parker, 2003)

The mid-Zambezi valley is a low-lying area in northern Zimbabwe that has historically been rich in wildlife populations. People have only been able to settle in the area in large numbers in recent times, following the control of the tsetse fly. In the past 30 years, there has been a continuous influx of people who moved from other areas in Zimbabwe, seeking farmland. Elephants are considered a major problem and are blamed for crop destruction and endangering the lives of rural farmers.

A crop-damage reporting scheme has revealed the nature and extent of crop damage by elephants and other wildlife species. It found that elephants did not always cause the most crop damage. In Masomo village, baboons and kudus caused most of the crop damage (Figure 10). However, the farmers still perceived the elephants to be the greatest problem (Figure 11).

Figure 10: Actual crop damage per wild problem animals in Masomo


Village, Zimbabwe. Source: Parker (2003).

Baboon Kudu Bushpig Elephant Monkey

Problem animal

0

10

20

30

40

50

Pro

po

rtio

n

Figure 11: Farmers’ perceptions of problem animals in Masomo Village, Zimbabwe. Source: Parker (2003).

0Elephant Baboon Bushpig Birds Monkey Kudu

510

15202530

354045

Problem animal

Community based problem animal control (CBPAC) methodsThe following CBPAC methods should be explained in detail to participants and an evaluation will be done at the end of the training (Appendix I) to determine the methods that would be affordable and applicable to the Buliisa communities. Some of these approaches have already been introduced to the community by UWA.


Buffer zonesBuffer zones serve two purposes. First they define the boundary between the fields and the bush. Secondly, they enable farmers to detect approaching wildlife like elephants in good time so that they can get away before they are attacked. Buffer establishment involves clearing secondary forest on the boundary and creating some physical distance between the boundary and farmland. Farmers clear a 5 m wide buffer zone around their fields, or in some cases along the edge of the whole village (tools needed for buffer zone establishment include slashers and axes).

Live fences (using sisal plants)Live fences (hedges) in Buliisa include sisal plants planted along buffer zones and around crop gardens by crop farmers and they establish this for purposes of deterring wildlife such as elephants from raiding their crops and attacking them.

Bee keepingBees effectively deter wildlife especially elephants from attacking crop farmers and raiding their crops. Farmers locate the bee hives near the buffer zones or the boundary of their gardens. Detailed explanation on bee keeping is given in another section in this manual.

WatchtowersWatch towers are simple raised structures/shelter where someone can be positioned to sight wildlife from a distance. Farmers build these structures at approximately half- kilometre intervals to increase their chances of seeing wildlife such as elephants approaching their crop fields, monitor fire outbreaks and ensure quick response and as protection from rain for the person observing in the watch tower. These structures are usually constructed on a termite mound or some vantage point and can be replaced each season. Tools required


for watch tower construction include axe, poles, thatching grass and string.

Alarm systemsAlarm systems can be set up using string and cowbells or tin cans that are sounded when wildlife such as an elephant tries to enter a crop field. The equipment used to make alarm systems include cowbells or any other metal objects and string. These systems have great security value; they warn farmers of approaching wildlife/animals. Often there is some distance between the homestead or watch tower and the edge of the fields, and without a warning system, farmers would have to stay awake all night to protect their crops. Sound of the cowbells or tins scare the animals away from crop fields.

Grease and hot pepper oil Grease and pepper oil are mixed together and applied to the string. The pepper oil is a concentrate made from red hot chili peppers. The grease acts as a waterproof medium that holds the pepper oil in place. If elephants make contact with the string, the pepper oil and grease causes irritation to the animals. Items used are grease and chili oil.

Establishment of UWA emergency outpostsUganda Wildlife Authority in consultation with Park Adjacent Communities (PACs) can set up emergency outposts in areas that are prone to wildlife attacks. The guards will be able to respond in case of any wildlife attack.

Toll free telephone contactsUganda Wildlife Authority should install 24 hour- toll free telephone communication access in all field offices to facilitate effective communication in case of any emergencies. The telephone number should be made available to all stakeholders in the wildlife conflict region.


Pepper dungElephant dung is mixed with ground chilies, compacted into a brick mould, and then dried in the sun. These bricks are burned in fires along the field boundaries to create a noxious smoke that lasts for 3-4 hours and the smoke keeps away wildlife from raiding the fields and attacking communities. The materials used are elephant dung, dried chilies, and mould.

Other problem animal control methods • Crocodiles: Crocodile barriers, in form of a cage near

water bodies where communities can safely collect water.• Baboons (vermin): Good hygiene and proper disposal of

waste food.• Hippos: Awareness on how a hippo responds when it sees

a person, and how to respond to the hippo’s behavior. The hippo normally stops 2 to 3 times (warning signals) when it sees a person in its way.

Note Due to scarcity of documented problem animal behaviour, a detailed discussion on animal behaviour should be held with the participants and documented thereafter. A Community Based Problem Animal control (CBPAC) self-assessment form is appended (Appendix I).

Appropriate harvesting of resources from protected areas The Community Conservation Policy (CCP) of 2004 provides for negotiations between UWA and local communities in regard to access to wildlife resources within and outside Protected Areas (PAs). One of the objectives of the CCP is to promote regulated utilisation of wildlife resources within and outside protected areas so as to contribute to conservation and poverty eradication programmes. Some of the resources local communities can have access to include:

• Fire wood.• Grass.


• Building poles.• Medicine.• Handi-craft raw materials like papyrus from swamps.• Fish from water bodies inside the PAs.

CCP (2004) gives UWA the mandate to guide the PA neighbouring districts and sub-county local governments, local communities and the private sector to come up with and manage economically and ecologically viable wildlife enterprises and projects in accordance to the Uganda Wildlife Act, 2000 and the Uganda Wildlife Policy, 1999. Local communities have a right to access wildlife resources such as listed above but this should be done in a sustainable manner to avoid depleting the resources. In general, there are guidelines for granting permission to local communities to harvest resources from Protected Areas (PAs). Usually, a request from the local communities in writing should be forwarded to the park authorities. The park authorities then assesses the quantities of resources that communities are seeking permission to harvest and the likely effects including conflicts that may arise from harvesting the resource and or related to resource harvesting. The proposed resource harvesting sought can be subjected to Environment Impact Assessments if deemed necessary.

If the cost of conflict is higher than the benefits, access can be denied but if the benefits are higher than the potential conflicts, access is granted to the communities and an MoU formulated showing guidelines on how they can harvest the resources. Even when access is granted, communities are encouraged and sensitised to domesticate the resources instead of entirely depending on the park for the resources.

Overall, in order to sustainably utilise wildlife resources, there is a need for the following to be considered by the resource managers, policy makers and resource users:


• Organised community groups: UWA requires wildlife resource dependent communities to form organised groups for ease of managing access to the wildlife resources they need from the PAs.

• Binding documents: Documents such as MoUs for granting wildlife resource access and use between UWA and local communities.

• Avoiding overexploitation of resources: Local communities need to harvest optimum amounts of resources and regeneration of such resources should be given priority.

• Local community participation: Local communities should be involved in managing wildlife resources so as to own and protect the resources.

• Domestication of used wild plants.• Local communities need to domesticate the wild plants that

they value so as to reduce pressure on the wild resources. Such plants may include fruit trees, trees of medicinal value and shrubs for handicraft materials. Some of these plants can grow from seeds, cuttings or by transplanting their seedlings from the wild to homesteads.

Note

The participants should suggest the wild plants they would like to domesticate.

Assisted tree regenerationThough not normally planted by farmers because of the long gestation period, regeneration of wild tree species can be facilitated by human management, both by covering germinated seeds with mulch, and through protection of the seedlings when clearing land for cultivation. Due to the high costs of planting trees, there is increased interest in the protection and stimulation of natural tree regeneration especially where mother trees are available. Assisted


tree regeneration aims at encouraging farmers to identify, protect and stimulate the growth of naturally regenerating trees in their fields. Under this system, young woody plants are staked using sticks and protected from grazing, browsing, tillage and fire.

Product development and marketing In order to increase household income, wildlife resource-dependent communities need to locally develop products such as handicraft materials and non-timber forest products.

Handicraft materialsBuliisa District is a potential tourist destination due to the presence of Murchison Falls National Park and Bugungu Wildlife Reserve. There are no handicraft shops in Buliisa despite the great potential of this industry in the area. Handicraft makers need to form organised groups to exploit this economic potential. Such organised groups can have access to raw materials (such as papyrus, reeds, tree barks, poles and grass) from the protected areas.

Non-Timber Forest ProductsNon-timber forest products (NTFPs) constitute goods of biological origin other than timber as well as services from forests and allied natural resources. Non-timber forest products are important among others for:

• Combating malnutrition and improving diets of local communities.

• Source of income.• Insurance against seasonal food shortages.• Source of medicine.

Common examples of NTFP’s include:

• Nuts and seeds: there are a number of tree species that produce fruits whose nuts are useful for example, the the Balanites tree fruits and seeds.


• Mushrooms: they contain proteins, minerals and vitamins. They are suitable for diabetic people because they do not have much starch in them.

• Honey: the apiculture industry employs a number of rural people. Honey can be eaten as food; it is also used in medicine and cosmetics. Other NTFPs that can be obtained from the wild include rattans, bamboo, latex, gums, essential oils, tannins and resins.

Questions for discussion

(i) Identify key NTFPs in your area.

(ii) To what extent are they important to local communities?

(iii) Assess the suitability of the tenure regime.

(iv) How would you promote sustainable utilisation of NTFPs in your area?

(v) How would you enhance the social economic benefi ts from NTFPs?

(vi) What strategies should be put in place to enhance benefi ts of NTFPs to community?

Bee-keepingBee-keeping can improve the economic condition of a farmer by providing additional income through the sale of bee products namely honey and bee-wax. Honey is nutritious, medicinal, can substitute for sugar and it is an income earner. Bee-wax is valuable as it can be used to make cosmetics, polishes, candles, thus earning income. Bees pollinate crops and the result of efficient pollination is higher yields of crops. This also means increased earnings from crops. Good honey production begins with the choice of a site for the apiary, having good type of hive and carrying out proper hive and apiary management.


Guidelines for choosing a suitable apiary siteThe site for an apiary project should be in an area with plenty of nectar source. Baiting a top bar beehive with bee-wax is recommended to work as a starter for bees. Bee forage includes Albizzia, Combretum, Acacia hockii, Lantana camara, Calliandra, Moonflower, Musa spp. citrus fruits, passion fruits, sunflower, coffee and other flowering plants. There should be a water source nearby. You may provide water in a basin with floating sticks for bees to land on. Apiary sites should not be near homes and livestock or near public places like schools, hospitals, markets, or roads. There should be sufficient shade, air circulation, windbreaks, and protection from vandalism, bush fire and floods. It should be easily accessible and low frequency of insecticide use.

Among types of apiaries, Kenya Top Bar (KTB) hives have been commonly used. In these, bees build combs along each bar so that when you remove each bar you are removing a comb. The bars are constructed in total observance of the space of Mellifera adansonii, which is 32 mm. KTB hives may be suspended on wires on posts at waist level for easy manipulation. Bars should be placed along the hive and no gaps should be left. Then firmly place the iron sheets cover and leave no openings between the cover and hive. You may place on the cover a stone or a small brick so that wind does not blow the hive. Keep the entrances clear of grass; grease the wires so that pests do not enter the hive wires. Put some ash around the posts to prevent safari ants from accessing the hive. Always keep the grass in the apiary low to keep pests away. The apiary boundary should be dug clear to prevent the spread of bush fire.

Hive inspectionA hive may be inspected regularly during the early period of colonisation and during honey flow period. During inspection, the top bars may be lifted one by one. Lift them firmly and carefully vertical to the hive so that the combs do not break.


Guidelines for honey harvestingUse protective clothing to guard against the stings. The protective gear includes overall, veil, gloves, boots and smoker. It is recommended to harvest capped honey only and keep separate buckets for fully sealed honeycombs and partially sealed ones. Cover honey to avoid robber bees. Leave some honey in bee hive for continuity of the colony. Do not harvest brood combs. Extract the honey and also make bee- wax from the combs. Honey and bee-wax are both crops.

Preparation of honey for the marketHoney being food should not be exposed to contamination. Therefore, the people and place from which all the equipment used for honey are got must be clean. All containers should be dry to avoid fermentation of honey and honey should not be boiled on direct fire as this causes it to deteriorate in quality.

Honey extraction (separation of honey from combs)There are many methods and a variety of equipment used in extracting honey. Honey should remain as natural as possible and it is this naturalness, which is its strong selling proposition. Minimum handling will lead to a better product. The most common and affordable method is the Comb Pressing method. The honey combs may be broken into small pieces put in a Hessian bag and pressed using honey press. Honey flows into a receiving bucket.

Straining honeyAll extracted honey has to be strained to get a clean product. A tank can filter honey of a big volume. There are several types of strainers, which may also be used to strain honey through the provision of a series of nets. Some strainer tanks have provisions for packaging as well.


Packing honeyHoney for sale may be packed in glass or plastic bottles with wide mouth. Glass jars make honey look clear and attractive to customers but they are expensive, heavy in body and have a greater risk of breaking. Plastic is cheap, light and makes honey look cloudy. Avoid bottles with narrow opening, as it is difficult to get honey out after granulation. A weighing scale should be used to get net and gross weight of honey. In pricing, consider all your expenses including family labour then put a profit. This is possible when all the records of the costs have been kept.

Community and Adventure tourismThe local communities in Buliisa have not tapped into the rich tourism potential of the area. The communities can improve their livelihoods through making handicraft materials and market them to tourists who go through Buliisa to Murchison Falls National Park. The accommodation in the park is sometimes either not enough for the tourists or too expensive for some tourists, hence the need for alternative accommodation. The business community is encouraged to build relatively cheaper accommodation lodges near the park, which can be used by the tourists. These may include rondavels, huts, bandas, tents and tent pads. Well planned organised campsites for back-parkers are another form of affordable accommodation for tourists. Another unexploited product in cultural tourism is domicile tourism, where tourists stay with people in their homes like any other guests. The business community can also set up leisure parks in Buliisa Town Council and along the Murchison road for tourists to spend time while in Buliisa. Other potential products include adventure leisure activities like mountain/hill climbing, treasure hunting, wild fruit and berry harvesting, traditional dish preparation, traditional games and sports, football and other modern sports matches with schools and communities, amphitheatre for cultural performances( dances, recitations, and related performances).


A replica of the royal homestead/palace can be a good tourist attraction.

A tourist and cultural resource centre should be established in the precincts of the national park where tourists can get to know the history of the area and the people, their culture, origin and staple foods among others. Tourists are always interested in such information. Local communities should develop their culture and market it as a tourist product.

The Community Conservation Policy (2004) provides for Community-Based Tourism Management, through the following four strategies:

• Liaison with Uganda Community Tourism Association (UCOTA), local communities and local councils to guide organised community groups in identifying and implementing community-based tourism enterprises.

• Collaboration with the Uganda Tourism Board (UTB) and the concerned community groups would promote market and publicise the community-based tourism facilities. Liaison with UCOTA, and other relevant stakeholders to train community group members and to build their capacity to provide quality tourist products and services is important.

• Formulation of procedures for developing and implementing wildlife tourism related enterprises and managing joint ventures is also a crucial strategy.

53

Chapter Three

Cross-cutting issues among resource users and managers

Climate change

What is climate change?This is change in global temperature and rainfall over a period of time. Radiations from the sun upon reflection from the earth or ocean surface to the atmosphere are reflected back by a layer of greenhouse gasses in the stratosphere. Greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide, methane, chlorofloro carbons and nitrogen oxide come from automobile emissions, vegetation and charcoal burning, refrigerators and other human activities. The concentration of these greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, which is the problem, has been increasing due to diminishing forest cover.

What are and or will be some of the impacts of climate change globally?

• Alteration of rainfall regimes.• Frequent extreme temperatures (lower and higher in the

north and south latitudes).• Shifts in species geographic distribution. • Shifts in species’ phonologies (reproductive cycles,

mechanisms and success). • Extinction of some species that will fail to adapt.• Yields increase and or decrease depending on species and

or geographic regions.• Phenotypic plasticity of species in response to

environment stress.• Genetic variation/evolution/emergence of new species.


How much is not yet known about climate change globally?• The extent to which actual effects changes in and

frequency of extreme temperatures will have on specifi c developmental stages of different species.

• Threshold temperature for onset of responses in species at different developmental stages.

• The mechanisms underlying yield reductions.• Combined effect of increasing temperature and carbon

dioxide concentration on crop species yields.

What are the manifestations of climate change so far in Uganda?

• Increased occurrence of fl oods, hail storms and landslides.

• Increased average temperatures especially in the highlands (Kabale for example).

• Melting of ice on the Ruwenzori Mountain whose glaciers provide water to people.

• Crop yield failures.

What has Uganda done so far to address the effects of climate change?

• In process of domesticating the UNFCCC and the Kyoto Protocol.

• Developed a National Adaptation Programmes of Action (NAPA) for climate change.

• Established Climate Change Unit under the Ministry of Water and Environment.

• Has a Parliamentary Forum on Climate Change to guide decisions on climate change.

Cross-cutting Issues Among Resource Users and Managers 55

What remains to be done to address climate change problems in Uganda nationally and even among communities like the Buliisa people?

• Complete and actualise the national climate change policy and regulations.

• Equip and adequately staff the Meteorology Department to ensure timely monitoring, prediction and dissemination of data on climate change.

• Provide refresher training to personnel of Environment and Natural Resources Directorate to enable them keep up-to date with climate change matters.

• Increase climate change awareness among rural communities up to national levels.

• Establish institutions to carry out policy research, education and development of technologies for climate change adaptation and mitigation.

• Integrate climate change education in primary and secondary school curricula and, stress the use of clubs and societies to enhance knowledge and practice of climate change management among learners.

• Implement Climate Change Adaptation activities (CCAPA) in all sectors.

• Ensure schools and hospitals cater for climate change impacts like lightning.

• Use available climate and weather data in planning and decision making in all sectors.

• Establish climate change sector to implement and monitor the adaptation and mitigation strategies.

• Mainstream, prioritise and allocate funds to climate change in development programmes.

• Develop a national climate change action plan and implement and monitor it annually at all levels.


• Promote energy use effi ciency in all sectors. • Stop deforestation and promote appropriate tree planting

and land uses.

Reducing emissions from deforestation and forest degradation (REDD) awareness in Buliisa

What is REDD?In definition, REDD stands for countries’ efforts to reduce emissions from deforestation and forest degradation, and foster conservation, sustainable management of forests, and enhancement of forest carbon stocks (Cerbu et al., 2009). REDD is based on a core idea; reward individuals, communities, projects and countries that reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Apart from the tropical high forests, woodlands under various management regimes, where Buliisa falls, have a high potential for REDD.

Furthermore, REDD is about making the private sector part of the solution by providing the kind of market signals, mechanisms and incentives to encourage investments that manage and conserve the world’s nature-based resources rather than mining them (Blom, 2010). So it is about making money and conserving the planet too and if REDD can be structured right, the money will be made not just by carbon traders, but also by developing countries and communities for providing the forest-based carbon storage service. It is predicted that financial flows from North to South for greenhouse gas reductions from REDD could reach up to US$30 billion a year—funds that can be invested in renewable energy projects to assist the two billion people that do not have access to electricity or hospitals or schools.

Cross-cutting Issues Among Resource Users and Managers 57

What Buliisa communities can do to participate in National REDD Projects

• Identify potential REDD sites in their communities.• Identify activities that can contribute to achieving REDD.• Develop Community protocols within the context of the

UN Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD).

Funding for REDD strategy will most likely be implemented in the next 2 years. Benefits expected to accrue from integration of REDD in watershed management include:

• Annual revenue from REDD-plus would be available for re-investment for forest development.

• Better management of forest ecology leading to biodiversity conservation, drought proofi ng and enhanced adaptation capacity to climate change.

• Productivity and tree species diversity, both within and outside forest areas would be improved.

• Improvement in rain water harvesting.• Increased productivity from agriculture and allied sectors,

and poverty reduction because of enhanced livelihoods opportunities.

How can communities in Buliisa benefit from the National REDD Projects?The needs of local forest communities, especially indigenous groups, have frequently been ignored in the past. However media attention surrounding REDD and the potentially huge sums of money involved imply that national governments have to give these communities more recognition. Ultimately, ending deforestation means changing the behaviour of people on the ground, and REDD is an effective tool to do that. In general, REDD projects could help local communities to determine how their lives are run. Because funding goes directly to the community, REDD can break


the stranglehold that corrupt governments frequently have on both international development aid and on other types of income from forests, such as profits from logging and mining. REDD can also deliver ‘co-benefits’ such as biodiversity conservation and poverty alleviation. REDD is remarkably a cost-effective source of carbon, given that it is estimated that US $10 per hectare per year could protect rainforests in Africa.

59

Chapter Four

Natural resource use and management conflict resolution

Why target natural resource use and management conflicts in Buliisa? Natural resource use and management conflicts have been reported in Buliisa among resource managers and users. The conflicts have resulted in overexploitation of resources and sometimes loss of human life. The subsequent sections below address the various kinds of conflicts that UWS intends to address by facilitating among others dialogues, bye-laws and MoUs to help resolve resource use and management conflicts among resource managers and resource users in Buliisa district.

Conflict resolution within and among resource users (communities)

Pastoralists and Crop FarmersThe current communal land tenure system in Buliisa District has a great influence on the management of livestock by the cattle keepers. The cattle are usually abandoned by their keepers and left to graze freely with no control and destroy farmers’ crops. Despite the presence of bye-laws and draft ordinances, the cattle still roam freely and destroy crops without any compensation to the farmers. The communities should be sensitised on the existing bye-laws and demand their implementation from the concerned authorities. An MoU has also been proposed between crop farmers and pastoralists on compensation for cattle crop destruction.


Conflict resolution among resource managers and users

Resource managers (UWA, NFA) and Wildlife Resource Dependent Communities The baseline survey carried out by Uganda Wildlife Society (UWS) in Buliisa, under the Ecosystems Alliance (EA) project, revealed existing resource management conflicts between UWA and National Forestry Authority (NFA). The conflict stems from the management of the interface between Bugungu Wildlife Reserve and Budongo Forest Reserve. The two parastatal organisations agreed to co-manage this area. The conflict has also negatively affected the wildlife resource-dependent communities by reducing their access to the wild resources. A Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) between NFA, UWA and wildlife resource dependent communities has been proposed and will be facilitated by the EA project. Policy recommendations regarding the conflict will also be documented.

Resource managers (UWA, BMUs) and the fisher folkAs the human population increases, pressure on natural resources grows. In the past, fisheries management relied heavily on a centralised command and control approach. Such an approach proved inadequate in meeting the needs of the sector and thus leading to introduction of Beach Management Units (BMUs) at all landing sites. Buliisa District has registered conflicts between UWA and the Wanseko BMU, which has also affected the fishing communities in the area. Wanseko is a “unique” landing site, a portion of which is located in Murchison Falls National Park. This has caused conflict over who manages the water resource: is it UWA or the Wanseko BMU? A comprehensive MoU between the two parties, including the local government and fisher folks, has been proposed and will be facilitated by UWS-EA Project.

Natural Resource Use and Management Confl ict Resolution 61

Bye-laws and MoUs among resource users and managersIn order to achieve sustainable utilisation of the natural resources in Buliisa, Uganda Wildlife Society (UWS) under the EA-Project will facilitate the formulation of bye-laws and MoUs among resource users and managers in Buliisa District. There are also a number of bye-laws and ordinances, which the local communities are not aware of. Some of the resource use MoUs have expired and need to be renewed. However, local communities insist that the expired MoUs should be revised first before renewing them because they had loopholes. Some of the expired MoUs include the MoU for communities to collect firewood and grasses from Murchison Falls National Park and Bugungu Wildlife Reserve. A new MoU has been proposed that will allow local communities to sustainably harvest papyrus from wetlands in Bugungu Wildlife Reserve. This could help to promote hand craft making and use of non- timber forest products (NTFPs). Such products will also promote community tourism in Buliisa, hence diversifying local community’ livelihood options.

An MoU on management of Wanseko landing site has also been proposed, which will bind the Wanseko fishing communities, UWA, Wanseko BMU and the Buliisa Local Government.

Note Uganda Wildlife Society will ensure full participation of all resource users and management stakeholders, including the local communities at the grass roots, technical officials, political leaders and resource managers while designing the above MoUs and bye-laws.


Resource use and management conflicts emerging with oil developments

Why UWS will work with communities that are dependent on oil activities in BuliisaThe needs assessment study revealed that among oil activities dependent communities, the major constraints/perceived causes of natural resources productivity decline is pollution (33.3%), inappropriate management (33.3%), pests (including wildlife attack) and diseases (16.7%) and climate change (16.7%). To address these constraints the oil activities dependent communities recommended interventions that include training and use of technologies to increase environmental awareness and management (33.3%), pollution control (16.7%) and pests and disease control (16.7%). Uganda Wildlife Society selected training and technologies to be promoted as part of interventions that oil dependent communities asked for and these are given in the section that follow.

What knowledge do communities need for participation in and to benefit from oil related activities in Buliisa?

Prior knowledge of oil activities impact and benefits to communitiesTraces of oil were first discovered in the Albertine Graben way back in 1926 .This was followed by the enactment of petroleum laws in 1985. The oil and gas regulations were then formulated in 1993 and four years later (1997) the Government of Uganda licensed Heritage Company to collect data (seismic survey) on the quantity of oil and gas in the Albertine Graben. The formulation of the oil and gas policies (up-stream, mid- stream and down-stream) was commenced in 2008 and review and passing of these policies started in 2012.


The local communities in Buliisa District need to have prior knowledge of the negative impact of oil activities on the already existing natural resources at their disposal. Awareness will help the communities to plan appropriate interventions to combat the following negative impacts:

• Oil spills that pollute the soil, air and water. • Increased deforestation due high fuel wood demand.• Offshore drilling that affects fi sh populations.• Blocking of wildlife migration routes.• Oil fl aring that emits excessive noise.• Increased pressure on existing natural resources as a result

of infl ux of people.

Environmental standards safeguard in the face of oil activities The health and safety of people and the protection of the natural environment in which the oil companies operate are critical business considerations. The oil companies should put significant effort in managing the environment, health and safety (EHS) risks and achieving the EHS objectives. The oil companies should seek to achieve targets that promote efficient use of resources to reduce and prevent pollution and protect biodiversity. This should at all times be done openly and honestly with all stakeholders, and particularly with those people affected by oil operations.

Question: If I saw a small oil spill on the ground, just a few litres do I have to report it?

Answer: Yes, all spills or releases of hydrocarbons or chemicals need to be reported to your local leader as soon as you become aware. This will enable the regulatory agencies to determine the cause and implement corrective actions.


Oil companies’ Corporate Social Responsibility Oil companies in the Albertine Graben have a Corporatete Social Responsibility (CSR) component under which communities receive certain services. These may include among others, income generating activities. The communities need to be given opportunity to develop due to the businesses and income generating activities associated with the petroleum and gas industry. These businesses can create market for locally produced products – from agriculture, livestock and labour. Others benefits are:

• Communities would expect to benefi t from investments arising from Corporate Social Responsibility, such as education/school and health facilities.

• Development programmes sponsored by oil companies through oil revenue sharing should be used for community development.

• The communities expect income from employment in oil industry or associated businesses and sectors.

• Training and exposure of community members to recognise their roles and responsibilities. This training should target empowering and giving communities the confi dence to exercise their roles and responsibilities in the society.

• Training and exposing communities about the opportunities for tapping into the oil industry.

• Facilitating access to information about the ongoing and planned developments in the locality.

Bye laws and MoUs for community participation in and benefit from oil activitiesIn order to ensure community participation in compliance monitoring and benefits from oil related activities, a Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) has been proposed between oil companies


and the local communities. The key issues will include but not limited to the following:

• Creation of strong local advocacy teams in the community; these teams will lobby for their rights and ensure local people’s participation in compliance monitoring and benefi t sharing from oil related activities. However, advocacy teams should not be confrontational as they advocate for the needs of their communities.

• The community liaison offi cers in areas of operation who are responsible for taking queries and concerns from community members.

• Local people’s participation in Environmental Impact Assessments (EIAs) and access to EIA reports.

• Formation of local monitoring groups to effectively participate in monitoring oil exploration and production activities.

Major steps in the formulation of Environmental Impact Assessments (EIAs)

• A consultant is hired to carry out an EIA with full local community participation at the initial stage. The village and sub county Environment Committees are very resourceful at this stage of EIA development.

• The draft EIA document is then submitted to National Environment Management Authority (NEMA) in Kampala.

• National Environment Management Authority (NEMA) sends back the EIA report to the local communities through the District Environment Offi cer.

• A public hearing of the Draft EIA report is then conducted and the necessary changes are made in the report.

• The EIA report is then be passed by NEMA after the public agrees to its contents.

67

Chapter Five

Feeding lessons and experiences of ecosystems alliance in Buliisa to national policy

formulation processes

Goals and Mandates of Uganda Wildlife Society Uganda Wildlife Society (UWS), one of the largest and diverse membership-based conservation groups in Uganda, has been at the forefront of active conservation in Uganda. With members from academia, the public sector, the private sector and the general public, UWS is committed to promoting the conservation of wildlife and environment in Uganda. UWS operates under five strategic programs including environmental research, conservation initiatives, membership, policy and advocacy.

Studies have shown that advocacy, policy and stakeholder synergies are critical to realising meaningful natural resource conservation programmes. Therefore, UWS within its mandate of conservation policy influencing activities will within the Ecosystems Alliance Project lifespan engage in national level advocacy and policy influencing dialogues particularly to feed lessons, experiences and research information from Buliisa project into the national level policy platform.

Feeding lessons and research information from Buliisa into the national policy forum Uganda Wildlife Society will disseminate the lessons learnt from the interactions with the local communities while implementing the project interventions to all stakeholders at local, national and international levels. This will enable replication of the technologies in


other regions with similar resource use and management challenges with ease. These lessons will be translated into policy briefs and will influence policy reviews and formulation by the national parliament and the North-South knowledge exchange forum. The Society has already conducted three policy dialogues under the Ecosystems Alliance project and policy issues that emerged from these dialogues which include the following:

Dialogue I

Theme “Natural Resource Conservation in the Albertine Rift. What are the Policy Issues Now”?

1. A campaign to start conservation sensitisation of politicians and the elite class to inculcate in them biodiversity conservation values.

2. To sett le confl icts between UWA and NFA, one of the suggested interventions, is to construct a road between the boundaries of Budongo Forest and Bugungu Wildlife Reserve.

3. Despite the sensitivity analysis of the Murchison-Semliki landscape by NEMA, this report has not been fully embraced by the oil companies.

4. Th e declaration of Uganda as a tourist destination (2012) should challenge the relevant stakeholders to take tourism as a priority for this country, even beyond oil exploration which will only last 20-30 years.

5. Th e area Member of Parliament supported the sustainable use of wetlands in the National Park; MoUs will bind communities and UWA for sustainable harvesting of craft materials.

6. Th e methods of preventing poaching used by UWA, which involve killing of poachers, should be revised and EA project should focus on improving livelihoods and off ering alternatives to communities.

7. Th e community conservation department in UWA needs funding to build public trust towards management of wildlife resources.

Feeding Lessons and Experiences of Ecosystems Alliance in Buliisa 69

8. Th ere is a general consensus that the government of Uganda needs to start planning the transfer of land to the state, to allow bett er management of the natural resources and economic development, even as the country prepares for the East African Community regional integration.

9. Th ere is urgent need to implement the 2010 Physical Planning Act. Th e implementation of this act lies in the hands of the minister but it has never been implemented. Th is will allow eff ective land use planning in the country.

10. Th ere is no law in place governing oil revenue sharing yet the country is in advanced stages of exploring the oil in the Albertine rift region.

11. Sensitisation of the citizens by the local leaders about land rights and policies.

12. Engage the ministry responsible for land to enforce the implementation of compensation rates in collaboration with the Chief Government Valuer.

13. Establishment of Land Committ ees.

14. Government should streamline the land tenure systems in the region.

15. Revision of the immigration policy so that the immigrants are bound with stringent laws regarding land acquisition. Curb land grabbing, forceful evictions, infi ltration of immigrants into the areas, and purchase of land by non-community members.

16. Gender awareness campaigns about women’s’ rights for example rights to own property, Inheritance Act and related legislation.

17. Sensitisation of women about becoming conscious of their capabilities; gender considerations in job allocation by the companies.

18. Empower women to be able to participate in decision making.

19. Encouraging CSR related to community-based tourism especially participation by women.


20. Collaborative park management for investment purposes to enable accessibility of the areas by the local community and promote sustainable utilisation of wildlife.

21. Promotion of other economic activities and benefi t sharing for the entire community.

22. Emphasise off -farm activities/ alternative sources of livelihoods to be able to tap into the oil and tourism industry.

23. Sensitisation on human rights and policies regarding natural resource use and management.

24. Zonation of grazing and farming land to avoid inter resource use confl icts.

25. Sensitisation of communities about the values of wildlife and dangers of living adjacent to protected areas.

Dialogue II

Theme: “Biodiversity Conservation in Uganda: What are the challenges and opportunities”?

1. Promote breeding of indigenous tree species especially in the restoration of degraded Albertine Rift ecosystems in order to conserve biodiversity richness.

2. An understanding of animals and animal behaviour by the wildlife resource dependent communities and park adjacent communities.

3. Increase fi nancial support to the national community tree planting exercise by National Forestry Authority (NFA).

4. Th e current Wildlife Act should be revised to include a section on compensation for loss of life, because currently UWA has no capacity

Feeding Lessons and Experiences of Ecosystems Alliance in Buliisa 71

to compensate life, but rather supports burial arrangements and takes care of the children of the deceased.

5. Indigenous tree species site-matching by NFA, other than relying on exotic tree species like pine and eucalyptus.

6. Th ere is need for an independent line ministry to govern biodiversity conservation.

7. Oil companies should clearly spell out the interventions in case of oil spills and accidents, including loss of life in operations related to oil and gas exploration.

8. Each central government and local government forest reserve should have a management plan for biodiversity conservation. Th e process of endorsing forest management plans by the minister should be faster since most of the Central Forest Reserves are being managed with draft management plans which are not yet approved by the minister.

9. Uganda Wildlife Authority (UWA) should provide incentives and a mechanism that can facilitate whistle blowers to report poachers of elephants, especially the big investors from China and Japan. Th is can be achieved by cultivating good public relations and having bett er information management systems.

10. NFA and UWA should make their publications easily accessible to the academia and the general public.

11. Uganda Wildlife Authority should design bett er mechanisms that will ensure protection of wildlife outside protected areas to bett er conserve biodiversity.

12. Carbon markets such as REDD, Payment for Ecosystem Services (PES) and Saw-log Production Grant Scheme (SPGS) should consider farmers with small pieces of land while promoting tree planting. Th ey should also consider indigenous tree species in such programmes.

13. Promote local community participation in fi ghting poaching and awareness creation in communities around protected areas on the dangers of poaching.


14. Th ere is urgent need to engage parliament and the executive in the management of protected areas. Th is is because most of the local communities have seen the value of protecting wildlife, while the elites and investors are directly/ indirectly engaged in poaching.

15. Advocate for lift ing of the ban on NFA to lease out Central Forest Reserves (CFRs) to private tree planters. Th is is because many private tree planters are in need of land to plant more trees and this will promote biodiversity conservation especially if indigenous trees are planted in the degraded CFRs.

16. A comprehensive research on where the power to conserve biodiversity lies. Th is is because there is ever increasing interference by the executive and legislators (Ministers, President and Members of Parliament) in matt ers concerning biodiversity conservation. For example banning eviction of people from PAs and supporting investors to clear forested areas (Mabira) for sugar cane growing.

17. Promotion of integrated natural resource management involving protected areas adjacent communities.

18. Uganda Wildlife Authority and NFA should initiate projects geared towards poverty eradication and alternative livelihood options among local communities.

73

ReferencesAngelsen, A. (ed.) 2008. Moving ahead with REDD: Issues, options

and implications. CIFOR, Bogor, Indonesia

Blom, B.2010. Getting REDD to work locally: lessons learned from integrated conservation and development projects. Environ. Sci. Policy, doi:10.1016/j.envsci. 2010.01.002

Cerbu G, Minang PA, Swallow B, Meadu V. 2009. Global survey of REDD projects: What implications for global climate objectives? ASB PolicyBrief No. 12. ASB Partnership for the Tropical Forest Margins, Nairobi, Kenya.

Nabanoga, G, Namaalwa, J and Ssenyonjo, E. 2010. REDD Working Papers: REDD and sustainable development – perspective from Uganda IIED, London.

NAFORRI, 2001. Boundary/Contour Tree Planting Technology. National Agricultural Research Organisation (NARO). Agroforestry Series No.4.

NaFIRRI. 2003. Lake Victoria Fishery: Exploitation, Gears, Fishing Methods and Management. National Agricultural Research Organisation (NARO) Jinja – Uganda.

NaFIRRI, 2007. A baseline water quality assessment and fish survey on Lake Albert coastline between Butiaba and Wanseko, Final report, Prepared for Environmental Assessment Consult Limited (EACL).

NEMA. 2012. Operational Waste Management Guidelines for Oil and Gas Operations. Kampala, Uganda.

Parker G. E 2003. Community-based Problem Animal Control. Proceedings document, Training Course Lupande Game Management Area, South Luangwa, Zambia. Mid-Zambezi Elephant Project, 9 Lezard Avenue, Milton Park, Harare, Zimbabwe.


The National Forestry and Tree Planting Act, 2003. Ministry of Water Lands and Environment, Kampala, Uganda.

UWS. 2011. Climate Change the Global Phenomena, Uganda in Perspective: What is it? What does Policy Makers need to know and to do?

75

Appendices

Appendix 1: Community Based Problem Animal Control Self-assessment Form

This form is designed purely to help us evaluate how effective the training session has been. It is not a test, and there is no need to place your name on the paper. Please answer each question as honestly as possible.

InstructionsAnswer each question by placing a ring around the number that most suits your present skills or knowledge in that field.

1 = no knowledge

2 = a little knowledge

3 = some knowledge

4 = a lot of knowledge

5 = excellent knowledge

1. How well do you understand the term “human-wildlife confl ict”?

1 2 3 4 5

2. How well do you understand the term Problem Animal Control (PAC)?

1 2 3 4 5

3. Are you familiar with current methods of PAC?

1 2 3 4 5

4. How much do you know about the strengths and weaknesses of current PAC techniques?

1 2 3 4 5


5. What do you know about community-based PAC (CBPAC) techniques?

1 2 3 4 5

6. How well do you understand the strengths and weaknesses of CBPAC?

1 2 3 4 57. How well do you understand the terms “passive” and “active” PAC?

1 2 3 4 58. How well do you know how to set up CBPAC systems?

1 2 3 4 59. How well do you feel you would be able to maintain CBPAC systems?

1 2 3 4 510. How well do you feel you would be able to train others in CBPAC

techniques?

1 2 3 4 5

Appendicies 77

Appendix 2: Useful Natural Resources Policy and Management Guidelines in Uganda

Operational waste management guidelines for oil and gas operations by NEMA

GOVERNMENT OF UGANDA

NATIONAL ENVIRONMENT MANAGEMENT

AUTHORITY (NEMA)

OPERATIONAL WASTE MANAGEMENT GUIDELINES

FOR OIL AND GAS OPERATIONS

National Environment Management Authority (NEMA)

P.O. Box 22255 KAMPALA

Tel: 256-414-251064/5/8

Fax: 256-414-257521

web: http://www.nemaug.org

June, 2012


1.0 IntroductionWith the discovery of viable Oil and Gas reserves in the Albertine Graben, there is need to streamline and guide on the management of waste associated with the various operations necessary for the exploitation of these resources. This waste is generated by the exploration and production activities as well as from the associated activities like base camps. The Albertine Graben is coincidentally very rich in biodiversity and is also home to very sensitive ecosystems wherefore the proper management of waste from the petroleum activities is of vital importance.

Unlike the drilling and production waste, it is imperative that all other wastes generated from the various activities in the oil and gas sector are disposed of in accordance with the relevant provisions of the National Environment (Waste Management) Regulations. As a precautionary interim measure, the drilling waste has been securely consolidated at designated locations in the Graben while characterisation assessments were being undertaken to determine the best and most acceptable disposal methodology that could be adopted.

As the industry progresses from the exploration into the production phase, waste generation shall exponentially increase hence the urgent need for safe and cost effective waste management options.

Building on the various scientific analyses done on the waste in addition to other environmental management studies and tools such as the Sensitivity Atlas, the environmental monitoring indicators and in consultation with regulatory agencies on the Environmental pillar for the management of Oil and Gas activities, these guidelines have thus been developed.


2.0 Guiding principlesSection 53(2) of the National Environment Act Cap 153, mandates the Authority to issue guidelines for proper management of wastes. However, according to Section 52 of the National Environment Act Cap 153, and the National Environment (Waste Management) Regulations, S.I 153-2, the primary responsibility for management of waste lies with the person or company that has generated the waste. Companies generating waste from the various Oil and Gas activities are thus liable for any harm or damage to the environment that might result from this waste. All reasonable measures and technologies will have to be instituted by operators to as much as possible in favour of the internationally recognised best practice as summarised in the waste management hierarchy illustrated below:

Least Preferable

Dispose

Treat

Recover

Recycle

Reuse

Reduce

Avoid

Most Preferable


In deciding on the most appropriate disposal route, both environmental and economic costs and benefits need to be considered. This decision should be reached taking into account all the costs and impact associated with waste disposal, including those associated with the movement of waste. Wherever possible the Proximity Principle should be applied. This recognises that transporting waste has environmental, social and economic costs so as a general rule; waste should be dealt with as near to the place of production as possible. This has the added benefit of raising awareness about waste and encouraging ownership of the problem at the local level.

3.0 Waste characterisation

3.1 Nature of the WasteDifferent industries generate a lot of waste that is unique to the process or stage that is being undertaken. This waste can be solid, liquid, and even gaseous – all which have characteristics that need specialised attention for proper disposal and release into the environment.

In addition to components used in additives to aid various processes, some naturally occurring materials are also present in the waste in both the solid and liquid phases - generally referred to as Exploration & Production (E&P) Waste whose management challenge is in relation to the safe handling and disposal.

3.2 Chemical CharacterisationWhile the waste was being consolidated, government committed efforts and resources to the characterisation of waste so as to have a proper scientific basis upon which guidelines could be offered to the operators. Representative samples of drilling waste from various wells were analysed by different laboratories in Uganda, Norway, UK, and USA so as to have a thorough understanding

References 81

of the constituents that could be of greatest threat to human and environmental health. The waste has been found to contain substances capable of polluting the environment, mainly traces of heavy metals in addition to residual hydrocarbons.

The table below illustrates the spread of the composition of selected trace heavy metals as analysed by the different laboratories of waste samples from the entire Albertine Graben.

In the absence of specific Ugandan Standards for solid (soil) waste disposal, comparison has been made to those available in Canada and the UK.

Pollutant Standards (mg/kg) from other countries

Composition (mg/kg) Canada (residential/ Institutional use)

UK

Agriculture

UK

(Residential land use)

Range Average Median

Arsenic Cadmium

2.11 - 6.92 4.331 4.325 305 3

3210

0.054 - 2.4 1.392 0.507

Chromium

Copper

21.1 - 98.8

24.3 - 86.4

54.46

44.152

52.2

40.4

250

100 80

Lead 21.3 - 1080 198.57 72 500 300

Mecury

Zinc

Nickel

0.149 - 1.15

24.6 - 300

11.4 - 64

0.388

142.54

37.26

0.301

133.5

39

2 1 1

The above analytical results show that the parameter values were well within acceptable limits when compared to the standards appended above.

4.0 International practices for oil and gas waste managementThis section focuses on the treatment and disposal methodologies and strategies of exploration and production wastes that are

practiced world over together with their pros and cons. These wastes handling practices together with analytical scientific data on waste characteristics have also guided the guidelines development process.

4.1 Land spreading and farming: This involves diluting cuttings with soil and then spreading onto the land. The spreading/applying waste on land allows the waste or soil’s naturally occurring microbial population to metabolise, transform, and/or assimilate organic waste constituents. Land spreading/farming is a simple methodology and requires less initial investment costs. It may also improve the soil characteristics of the area by adding some nutrients. However, this method cannot apply to wastes containing significant levels of heavy metals and persistent organic compounds; requires large land area for it to be effective; needs high technical and financial capability to undertake continuous monitoring and chemical tests; and acceptability by all stakeholders is not guaranteed.

4.2 Re-injection of wastes: The wastes are pumped down the disposal wells into suitable underground formations. These wells are designed to provide an avenue for transporting wastes into underground reservoirs without adversely impacting on the environment. The disposal formations should be geologically and mechanically isolated from the sources of usable water. A technically sound completed disposal well has minimal chances of cross-contamination. However, it is costly, technically demanding, requires adequate subsurface geological and hydro geological studies.

4.3 Stabilisation and solidification: Stabilisation is a method that reduces the hazard potential of a waste by converting contaminants into their least soluble, mobile, or toxic form. Solidification is a technique that makes the pollutants to be encapsulated in a solid of high structural integrity. In both cases, pollutants’ potential

Appendicies 83

toxicity and mobility are reduced by decreasing the surface area exposed to leaching and/or by isolating the wastes within an impervious capsule. The resultant matrix is either land-filled or turned into useful materials like construction materials or used as a base in road surfacing. This method has some concerns that include: long-term impacts (potential for ground water contamination); land disturbance and comprehensive monitoring requirements.

4.4 Bio treatment: This method is used in degrading the organic compounds in the Exploration and &Production wastes using biological natural processes. In-situ and/or ex-situ bioremediation technologies are used in treating Exploration &Production wastes. This method is very efficient and cost effective in remediation of organic compounds in soil, and water. However, it has to be in combination with other methods to get rid of other pollutants like heavy metals.

4.5 Onsite burial: Burial is the placement of waste in man-made or natural excavations, such as pits. Burial is the most common onshore disposal technique used for disposing of drilling wastes (mud and cuttings). Generally, the solids are buried in the same pit (the reserve pit) used for collection and temporary storage of the waste mud and cuttings after the liquid is allowed to evaporate. Pit burial is a low-cost, low-tech method that does not require wastes to be transported away from the well site. For this method to be effective wastes must first be stabilised or else pollutants could migrate from the pit and contaminate usable water resources.

4.6 Thermal treatment: Thermal technologies use high temperatures to reclaim or destroy hydrocarbon-contaminated material. Thermal treatment is the most efficient treatment for destroying organic matter , and it also reduces the volume and mobility of inorganic matter such as metals and salts. Additional treatment may be


necessary for metals and salts, depending on the final fate of the wastes. Waste streams high in hydrocarbons (typically 10% and above), like oil-based mud, are good candidates for thermal treatment technology. Thermal treatment can be an interim process to reduce toxicity and volume and prepare a waste stream for further treatment or disposal (such as landfill, land farming, land spreading).

4.7 Hybrid of methodologies: A combination of methodologies may be used to remediate the wastes.

5.0 Approved guidelines for oil and gas exploration and production waste managementThese guidelines are made in reference to National Environment Act, Cap 153 which empowers the Executive Director NEMA to develop guidelines for proper environmental management. Further these guidelines are in line with National Environment (Waste Management) Regulations, 1999.

These guidelines will be used by the oil companies until as advised by the Authority and they will apply to the current consolidated and future drilling wastes as well as exploration associated wastes.

Unless advised by the Authority, the drilling wastes should be handled in the following manner:

(i) Current consolidated wastes(a) The wastes should be stabilised and buried in lined pits at the

sites of the current storage. The wastes should be covered by a liner and the pits leveled to fit the topography of the area by backfilling with a top soil. The buffer depth between the covering liner and the topography level should be between 1 to 1.5 meters.

Appendicies 85

(b) The liquid wastes should be used in the solid waste stabilisation process.

(c) The burial site should be at least 500m away from a usable underground or ground water source.

(d) After leveling, the site should be restored to almost its original position by planting indigenous plant species.

(e) The burial sites shall be geo-referenced.

(f) Underground water monitoring well on each site should be installed and the respective companies shall carry out quarterly monitoring of the water from the wells and report to the Authority.

(ii) Future Wastes (Exploration and production wastes)(a) In order to reduce the quantities of waste produced and their

corresponding toxicity, all the chemicals used shall be screened and their use monitored closely. Therefore, the companies are required to submit an undertaking on the types, quantities and purity of chemicals to be used before drilling can be done.

(b) All companies shall reduce the level of pollution from the source through substitution of more toxic chemicals with less toxic ones where applicable, and; optimum utilisation of all inputs during the operations.

(c) The exploration companies are required to recycle and re-use the oil drilling mud waste.

(d) The companies are also required to characterise the drilling wastes immediately after drilling and submit an analysis report to NEMA within a week after completion of the drilling activity for authorisation either for onsite burial or for transportation to waste treatment and disposal plant.


(e) If the wastes have pollutants that are within the acceptable standards, the waste shall be buried on site in lined pits otherwise, the waste shall be transported to the central waste treatment plant. In the absence of national standards, United Kingdom standards for solid disposal have been adopted for use until the Ugandan national standards have been developed.

(f) For production waste, especially produced water shall be re-injected back into the underground formations. The Oil companies will ensure that the re-injected waste does not contaminate usable aquifers and surface water.

(iii) Associated wastesThe other wastes associated with exploration and production activities shall be managed in accordance with the requirements of the National Environment Act, Cap 153 and National Waste Management Regulations, 1999.

DR. Tom O. Okurut (Executive Director)

26th June, 2012



Empowering Communities for Sustainable Natural Resource Use and Management The Albertine Rift Region Practical Interventions Manual Uganda Wildlife Society and Buliisa District Local Government

December, 2012

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