Embedding learning in work and using learning in work Some lessons from recent research and policy...

Embedding learning in Embedding learning in work and using work and using learning in worklearning in work

Some lessons from recent Some lessons from recent research and policy research and policy

innovationinnovation

Ewart KeepEwart Keep

The Standard Policy The Standard Policy DiscourseDiscourse

The standard, OECD-wide policy The standard, OECD-wide policy discourse on skill states that: discourse on skill states that:

• skillskill

• learning learning

• knowledge knowledge

are now the key drivers of competitive are now the key drivers of competitive advantage in an era of globalisation.advantage in an era of globalisation.

More is BetterMore is Better

Leaving aside the question of whether this might not Leaving aside the question of whether this might not be a bit of an over-simplification, much resultant be a bit of an over-simplification, much resultant policy discourse appears remarkably uninterested in policy discourse appears remarkably uninterested in understanding anything very much about the: understanding anything very much about the:

• naturenature

• creationcreation

• usage usage

of ‘skill’, ‘learning’ or ‘knowledge’.of ‘skill’, ‘learning’ or ‘knowledge’.

WE JUST WANT MORE OF IT (WHATEVER IT IS)!WE JUST WANT MORE OF IT (WHATEVER IT IS)!

For Example…...For Example…...

The English Learning and Skills Council The English Learning and Skills Council (annual budget £11 billion) has never (annual budget £11 billion) has never once, in its 7-year life, yet chosen to once, in its 7-year life, yet chosen to hold a serious discussion about what hold a serious discussion about what constitutes learning, how it takes place, constitutes learning, how it takes place, or how it might be enhanced (i.e. or how it might be enhanced (i.e. curriculum, pedagogy, learning curriculum, pedagogy, learning environment, etc). Instead, it has spent environment, etc). Instead, it has spent its time chasing targets.its time chasing targets.

More, But How……?More, But How……?

If we want more skills, then If we want more skills, then understanding how they are:understanding how they are:

• Created in the workplaceCreated in the workplace

• Subsequently deployed to produce Subsequently deployed to produce productive valueproductive value

Would seem like important building Would seem like important building blocks for policy.blocks for policy.

15 YEARS AGO15 YEARS AGO

15 years ago, research on workplace learning 15 years ago, research on workplace learning was sparse, tended to be based around was sparse, tended to be based around theoretical constructs derived from theoretical constructs derived from psychology (e.g. Kolb’s learning cycle and psychology (e.g. Kolb’s learning cycle and single and double-loop learning), and was single and double-loop learning), and was founded on very limited evidence of actual founded on very limited evidence of actual learning practices in real workplaces. It learning practices in real workplaces. It discussed what ought to happen, not what discussed what ought to happen, not what happened (and students and practitioners happened (and students and practitioners often spotted this!).often spotted this!).

The Learning The Learning OrganisationOrganisation

• Much of the literature was highly normative, Much of the literature was highly normative, based around models of the perfect ‘learning based around models of the perfect ‘learning organisation’ (Peter Senge and friends).organisation’ (Peter Senge and friends).

• A great deal of energy was spent defining the A great deal of energy was spent defining the LO, and in debating (not very conclusively) LO, and in debating (not very conclusively) whether (and how) a learning organisation whether (and how) a learning organisation was different from organisational learning.was different from organisational learning.

Communitarian VisionsCommunitarian Visions

Much of the LO literature was shot through Much of the LO literature was shot through with a communitarian set of values about with a communitarian set of values about personal actualisation, ‘organisational personal actualisation, ‘organisational transfiguration’, and a new set of transfiguration’, and a new set of organisational values that would put organisational values that would put development and ethics ahead of profits.development and ethics ahead of profits.

OD people liked it, MBAs generally hated it!OD people liked it, MBAs generally hated it!

Not Very HelpfulNot Very Helpful

• Given that the vast bulk of organisations did Given that the vast bulk of organisations did not appear to be LOsnot appear to be LOs

• Given that the few LOs that could be identified Given that the few LOs that could be identified tended either to be exceptional organisations tended either to be exceptional organisations or not to be very successful (e.g. Rover Group).or not to be very successful (e.g. Rover Group).

The LO literature had limited resonance with The LO literature had limited resonance with practitioners or policy makers.practitioners or policy makers.

What Was LackingWhat Was Lacking

• Hard data on how people learned in and Hard data on how people learned in and through their day-to-day jobs.through their day-to-day jobs.

• How lower status workers learned.How lower status workers learned.

• What characteristics of organisational What characteristics of organisational design and job structuring aided or design and job structuring aided or impeded learning on the job.impeded learning on the job.

And Also……..And Also……..

Any sort of simple diagnostic that would Any sort of simple diagnostic that would tell someone how rich a learning tell someone how rich a learning environment was offered by any given environment was offered by any given workplace. Thus publicly-funded workplace. Thus publicly-funded apprenticeships were often placed with apprenticeships were often placed with employers and workplaces where they employers and workplaces where they were doomed to deliver were doomed to deliver weak/poor/shallow learning from day one.weak/poor/shallow learning from day one.

But Things Have But Things Have ChangedChanged

And for once, for the better!!!!And for once, for the better!!!!

• Karen Evans et al. 2006. Karen Evans et al. 2006. Improving Workplace Improving Workplace LearningLearning, Abingdon: Routledge., Abingdon: Routledge.

• Michael Eraut & Wendy Hirsch. 2007. Michael Eraut & Wendy Hirsch. 2007. The The Significance of Workplace Learning for Significance of Workplace Learning for Individuals, Groups and OrganisationsIndividuals, Groups and Organisations, SKOPE , SKOPE Monograph No. 9, Oxford.Monograph No. 9, Oxford.

Expansive-Restrictive Learning Expansive-Restrictive Learning EnvironmentsEnvironments

Lorna Unwin and Alison Fuller in Evans Lorna Unwin and Alison Fuller in Evans et al.et al.

Evolved from work being doen on why Evolved from work being doen on why some apprenticeships worked well, some apprenticeships worked well, and others failed. Explanation and others failed. Explanation sought in nature of the work/learning sought in nature of the work/learning environment.environment.

The FrameworkThe Framework

EXPANSIVE RESTRICTIVE

Participation in multiplecommunities of practiceinside and outside workplace

Restricted and limitedparticipation in communitiesof practice

Primary CoP has sharedmemory and culturalinheritance of skill formation

Main CoP has little sharedmemory and tradition ofstructured initial training

The frameworkThe framework


Breadth: access to learningfostered by cross-companyexperiences

Narrow: learning restricted interms of task, knowledgeand/or location

Access to range ofqualifications

Limited or no access toqualifications



Planned time off-the-job,including for knowledge-based courses and reflection

Virtually no off-the-job.No time for reflection.

Gradual transition to full,rounded participation

As fast as possible transitionto full workload.

Vision of workplace learning= platform for whole career

Vision of workplace learning= static, for single entry leveljob.



Organisational support for, &recognition of employee aslearner

Little support for, orrecognition of, employee aslearner

Workforce development usedto align individualdevelopment andorganisational capacity

Workforce development usedto tailor individual capabilityto immediate organisationalneed



Development fosters chancesto extend skills and identitythrough boundary crossing

Development limits chancesto extend skill and identity.Little boundary crossing.

Deep, well-developedworkplace curriculum(document, symbols,language and tools)

Shallow, poorly developedcurriculum, patchy access tomore sophisticated practice



Widely distributed skills Polarised distribution of skills

Technical skills valued Technical skills taken forgranted

Whole workforce valued anddeveloped

Only some groups valued anddeveloped

Team work valued Rigid specialist roles, oftennarrow



Cross-boundarycommunication encouraged

Bounded communication

Managers as facilitators ofworkforce and individualdevelopment

Managers as controllers andpolice

Chances to learn new skillsand jobs and to progress

Barriers to learning new skillsor to progression



Innovation important Innovation not important

Multi-dimensional view ofexpertise

Uni-dimensional, top-downview of expertise

What the Framework What the Framework AllowsAllows• Can ID workplaces where apprenticeship Can ID workplaces where apprenticeship

will work, and those where it will not.will work, and those where it will not.

• Can more generally be used to audit a Can more generally be used to audit a workplace for learning potential/density.workplace for learning potential/density.

• Simple and easy to deploy.Simple and easy to deploy.

Eraut and HirschEraut and Hirsch

Commissioned to provide a synthesis and Commissioned to provide a synthesis and overview of current knowledge on overview of current knowledge on workplace learning and its links to workplace learning and its links to performance. Draws on their own work, performance. Draws on their own work, and on that of many others. and on that of many others.

Looks at both new entrants to a Looks at both new entrants to a job/profession and mid-career job/profession and mid-career development activities.development activities.

Key PointKey Point

The vast bulk of learning in the workplace The vast bulk of learning in the workplace is:is:

• informalinformal

• uncertifieduncertified

• embedded in the process of doing the jobembedded in the process of doing the job

• often impossible to record, quantify or often impossible to record, quantify or certifycertify

Work Processes with learning Work Processes with learning as a by-productas a by-product

• Participation in group processesParticipation in group processes

• Working alongside othersWorking alongside others

• Consultation with colleaguesConsultation with colleagues

• Tackling challenging tasks and rolesTackling challenging tasks and roles

• Problem solvingProblem solving

• Trying things outTrying things out

• Consolidating, extending and refining skillsConsolidating, extending and refining skills

• Working with clientsWorking with clients

Learning Actions located Learning Actions located within work or learning within work or learning processesprocesses• Asking questionsAsking questions

• Getting informationGetting information

• Locating people who act as resources/knowledge Locating people who act as resources/knowledge sourcessources

• Negotiating accessNegotiating access

• Listening and observingListening and observing

• ReflectingReflecting

• Learning from mistakesLearning from mistakes

• Giving and receiving feedbackGiving and receiving feedback

• Using mediating artifacts (e.g. databases, Using mediating artifacts (e.g. databases, spreadsheets)spreadsheets)

Learning Processes at or near Learning Processes at or near the workplacethe workplace

• Being supervisedBeing supervised

• Being coachedBeing coached

• being mentoredbeing mentored

• ShadowingShadowing

• Visits to other sitesVisits to other sites

• ConferencesConferences

• Short coursesShort courses

• Working for a qualificationWorking for a qualification

• Independent studyIndependent study

Balance Between TheseBalance Between These

• Bulk of learning takes place in first box.Bulk of learning takes place in first box.

• Most attention tends to be focused on Most attention tends to be focused on last box (not least by policy makers).last box (not least by policy makers).

• Impact of courses is often slight and Impact of courses is often slight and often mainly to do with networking.often mainly to do with networking.

Factors Affecting Workplace Factors Affecting Workplace LearningLearning

Feedback and supportChallenge and value of the work

Confidence and commitmentPersonal agency and motivation

Learning Factors

Context FactorsContext Factors

Encounters and relationships with people

at work

Allocation and structuring of work

Individual participation and expectations of their performance

and progress

Context Factors

Key DimensionKey Dimension

The allocation of structuring of work was central to The allocation of structuring of work was central to determining the level and success of learning because it determining the level and success of learning because it impacted on:impacted on:

• The difficulty or challenge of the jobThe difficulty or challenge of the job

• The extent to which activity was individual or The extent to which activity was individual or collaborativecollaborative

• The opportunities for meeting, observing and working The opportunities for meeting, observing and working with people who had more or different expertise, and for with people who had more or different expertise, and for forming relationships that provide feedback and support.forming relationships that provide feedback and support.

Attributes of a Learning Attributes of a Learning CultureCulture

• Confidence and trust in managers and colleaguesConfidence and trust in managers and colleagues

• Mutual learning and supportMutual learning and support

• Giving and receiving feedback without blameGiving and receiving feedback without blame

• Learning from experience, positive or negativeLearning from experience, positive or negative

• Learning from colleagues, clients and visitorsLearning from colleagues, clients and visitors

• Locating and using knowledge from outside sourcesLocating and using knowledge from outside sources

• Attention to the emotional dimension of workAttention to the emotional dimension of work

• Discussing and reviewing learning opportunitiesDiscussing and reviewing learning opportunities

• Reviewing work processes and opportunities for Reviewing work processes and opportunities for quality improvement.quality improvement.

The Role of ManagersThe Role of Managers

Managers have a key role in developing a culture of Managers have a key role in developing a culture of mutual support and learning, not in trying to mutual support and learning, not in trying to provide all of it themselves.provide all of it themselves.

1.1. Use of work allocation and job design to create Use of work allocation and job design to create learninglearning

2.2. To create trustTo create trust

3.3. To appraise and give feedback on both work and To appraise and give feedback on both work and learninglearning

Other Topics CoveredOther Topics Covered

• Nature and meaning of group work and learningNature and meaning of group work and learning

• The nature of performanceThe nature of performance

• Learning trajectoriesLearning trajectories

• Modes of cognitionModes of cognition

• Transferring knowledgeTransferring knowledge

• Learning and innovationLearning and innovation

• How do organisations facilitate and plan learningHow do organisations facilitate and plan learning

• Atomised versus holistic approaches to learningAtomised versus holistic approaches to learning

WeaknessesWeaknesses

Tends to have more to say about the Tends to have more to say about the skills and the work organisation and skills and the work organisation and job design of higher level workers job design of higher level workers (managers, nurses, engineers, (managers, nurses, engineers, accountants).accountants).

Skill Usage and Work Skill Usage and Work OrganisationOrganisation

If we now know lots more about how If we now know lots more about how skill is created inside the workplace, skill is created inside the workplace, what do we know about how it is what do we know about how it is used therein.used therein.

The answer in the UK is quite a lot, but The answer in the UK is quite a lot, but it’s a bit depressing.it’s a bit depressing.

Using Learning in WorkUsing Learning in Work

• Low Paid work in the UK - tiny jobs, Low Paid work in the UK - tiny jobs, limited progression, and some over-limited progression, and some over-qualification.qualification.

• LSC Large Employers SurveyLSC Large Employers Survey

• Skills Survey time series Skills Survey time series

LSC Large Employers LSC Large Employers SurveySurvey

2007 Survey of 201 large (1000+ 2007 Survey of 201 large (1000+ employees, mainly 5000+)employees, mainly 5000+)

Asked a range of questions about Asked a range of questions about recruitment, training and job recruitment, training and job design/quality.design/quality.

Job Quality by main occupational Job Quality by main occupational groupgroup

L4 L3 L2 or Below

Total

Low 14.3% 51.9% 40.6% 37.4%

Medium 17.1% 14.8% 16.4% 16.3%

High 68.8% 33.3% 43.0% 46.3%

Skills Survey DataSkills Survey Data

Year % over-qualified

1986 29.3%

1992 30.2%

1997 31.7%

2001 35.1%

2006 39.6%

OverallOverall

• The UK has many low discretion, low skilled jobs.The UK has many low discretion, low skilled jobs.

• Their number is not shrinking and may be growingTheir number is not shrinking and may be growing

• Across the economy as a whole, skill requirements Across the economy as a whole, skill requirements are rising, but slower than the rate at which the are rising, but slower than the rate at which the workforce’s qualification levels are rising.workforce’s qualification levels are rising.

• A large amount of skill is being seriously under-A large amount of skill is being seriously under-used. used.

Where Does Policy Go Where Does Policy Go Next?Next?Two OptionsTwo Options

Workplace = ‘black box’Workplace = ‘black box’ into which more skills into which more skills are injected, i.e. more of the same (again, and are injected, i.e. more of the same (again, and again, and again…….)again, and again…….)

A three-legged policy - better A three-legged policy - better supplysupply, effort to , effort to stimulate underlying stimulate underlying demanddemand, and attempts , and attempts to help improve to help improve usageusage in the workplace. in the workplace.

ExamplesExamples

• Model 1Model 1 - England, where we now have - England, where we now have ‘world class’ targets at every level to ‘world class’ targets at every level to chase.chase.

• Model 2Model 2 - Scotland, Ireland, - Scotland, Ireland, Scandinavia, Australia, and now New Scandinavia, Australia, and now New Zealand.Zealand.

Why Has Model 2 Why Has Model 2 Emerged?Emerged?• Countries asking why the skills bang isn’t bigger for the Countries asking why the skills bang isn’t bigger for the

bucks expended.bucks expended.

• Exposure to international competition makes continued Exposure to international competition makes continued success problematic (e.g. Ireland).success problematic (e.g. Ireland).

• Concerns about spreading success across whole population, Concerns about spreading success across whole population, not just upper echelons.not just upper echelons.

• Realisation that more skill does not = economic success Realisation that more skill does not = economic success UNLESS other things change as well.UNLESS other things change as well.

Ireland, Scotland and New Ireland, Scotland and New ZealandZealand

• All 3 have decided to try a partnership All 3 have decided to try a partnership approach to changing skill utilisation.approach to changing skill utilisation.

• Following in footsteps of ScandinaviansFollowing in footsteps of Scandinavians

• A chance to experiment with workplace A chance to experiment with workplace innovation, work organisation and job innovation, work organisation and job design.design.

Embedding learning in work and using learning in work Some lessons from recent research and policy...

Documents

Transcript of Embedding learning in work and using learning in work Some lessons from recent research and policy...