1. THE ECONOMYOFTHE ANIMAL KINGDOMCONSIDEREDANATOMICALLY, PHYSICALLY, ANDPHILOSOPHICALLYBY EMANUEL SWEDENBORGLATE MEMBER OF THE ROUSE OF NOBLES IN THE ROYAL DIET OP8WEDEN; ASSESSOR OF THE ROYAL METALLIC COLLEGE OF SWEDEN;FELWW OF THE ROYAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES OF UPSALA, AND OFTHE ROYAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES OF STOCKHOLM; CORRESPONDINGMEMBER OF THE IMPERIAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES OF ST. PETERSBURG TRANSLATED FROM THE LATIN DYTHE REV. AUGUSTUS CLISSOLD, M.A.VOLUME ONESECOND EDITION NEW YORKTHE NEW CHURCH PRESSINCOBPOBATBD Reproduced by Photo-offset, SWEDENBORG SCIENTIFIC ASSOCIATION, 1955

2. THE ECONOMYOFTHE ANIMAL KINGDOMCON8IDEREDANATOMICALLY, PHYSICALLY, ANDPHILOSOPHICALLYBY EMANUEL SWEDENBORGLATE ME~IBER OF THE ROUSE OF NOBLES IN THE ROYAL DIET OP6WEDEN; ASSESSOR OF THE ROYAL METALLIC COLLEGE OF 6WEDEN;FELLOW OF THE ROYAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES OF UPSALA, AND OFTHE ROYAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES OF STOCKHOL:I4; CORRESPONDINGMEMBER OF THE IMPERIAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCES OF ST. PETERSBURG TRANSLATED FROM THE LATIN DYTHE REV. AUGUSTUS CLISSOLD, M.A.VOLUME ONESECOND EDITION NEW YORKTHE NEW CHURCH PRESSINOOBPORATSDReploduced by Photo-offset. SWEDENBORG SCIENTIFIC ASSOCIATION. 1955 3. Paucis nat-us est. Qui populum tatis su cogitat: rf!ulta annol"ummillia, multa populorum sllpenenient: ail il/a -respice, etiamsi omnibustecum vivcntibus silentiurn . , . [aliqua causa] indixeril: tmienl, quisine offensa, sine gl"atia judicent. SENECA, Epist, lxxix. 4. CONT}~ NT SOFVOLUMEFIR8T. PART 1. PAeBINTRODuc;TION, Chapter1. The Compo,ition und Gennine Essence of the Blood. 16 "II. The Arterie, an Veins, their lunie", and the Cireu lation of the Blood. . 76 "nI. On the Formation of the Chiek in the Egg, and on the Arterics, V cil);;, and Rudiments of the Heart. 197 "IV. On the Circulation of the Blood in the Ftus; and on the Foramen Ovale and Ductus Arteriosus belonging to the Heart in Embryos and Infants. 286 "V.The rIeart of the Turtlc. .345 "VI. The leeulilr Arteries and Veins of the Heart, and the Coronary Vessels..354 " VII. The Motion of the Adult Heart. 4,18 5. THE ECONOMY OF THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.PART I.THE BLOOD, THE ARTERIES, THE VEINS, AND THE HEART,WITH AN INTRODUCTION TO RATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY.INTRODUCTION. 1. THE animal kingdom, the economy of which 1 am about toconsider anatomicaIly, physicaIly, and philosophicaIly, regardsthe blood as its common fountain and general plinciple. Inundertaking, therefore, to treat of this economy, the doctrineof the blood must be the first propounded, although it is thelast that is capable of being brought to completion. 2. In ordcr that aIl things may succeed each other in propcrorder, it is necessary to set out from general principles ; conscquently, from the blood, in which, as a type, we discern theseveral parts of which we are to treat. For on the nature, constitution, detennination, continuity, and quantity of the blood,depend the fortunes and condition of the animal life. The vessels, namely, the arteries and veins, are only the determinationsof the blood; and such as is the form resulting from their coalition and complication, sucb" are the common forces and vitaleffects of the system, and such their particular qualifications. 3. The blood is as it were the complex of aIl things that exist in the worM, and the storehouse and seminary of a11 thatVOT.. 1.1(1) 6. 2THE ECONOMY OF THE ~NIM~L KiNGDOM.exist in the body. Tt contains salts of every kind, both fixedand volatile, and oils, spirits, and aqueons elements; in fine,whatever is creatcd and produced by the three kingdoms of theworld, the animal, the vegetable, and the minera!. MQreover,it imbibes the treasures that the atmosphere carries in its bosom,and to this end exposes itself to the air through the medium ofthe lungs. 4. Since the blood then is an epitome of the riches of thewhole world and an its kingdoms, it would appear as if anthings were created for the purpose of administering to thecomposition and continued renewal of the blood. For if aUthings exist for the sake of man, and with a view to afford himthe conditions and means of living, then an things exist for thesake of the blood, which is the parent and nourisher of everypart of the body; for nothing exists in the body that has notpreviously existed in the blood. 5. So true is this, that if the texture of any muscle or gland,ofwhich almost all the viscera are composed, be divided into itsminutest parts, it will be found to consist wholly of vessels con-taining [red] blood, and of fibres containing spirit, or purerblood. And cven those parts that do not appear to consist ofvessels, such as the bony, cartilaginous, and tendinons textures,will nevertheless be found, in th~ first softness of their infancy,to have been similarly composed. Rence the blood is not onlya treasury and storehouse of aIl things in nature, and therebyministers to its offspring, the body, whatever is requisite to itsvarious necessities and uses, but it is actually all in aH; andcontains within itself the ground and the means by which everyman is enabled to live a distinctive life, in his own body, and inthe ultimate world. 6. This doctrine, however, is the last in the order of comple-tion, prcsupposing, as it does, a comprehensive knowledge ofthose things that enter into and constitute the blood, as men-tioned above (3), and furthermore, an examination of an theviscera, members, organs, and tunics, which the blood at oncepermeates and vivifies. If we are ignorant of the nature ofthese, and their mode of action, we are ignorant of the natureof the blood. The occult can give birth to nothing but theoccult; in short, our knowledge of it is limited by our knowl- 7. INTRODUCTION.3edge of those things that are known to be involved in it, andof those in which itself is known to he involved. 7. From these remarks we may readily perceive how manysciences are incIuded in that of the blood, namely, the wholecircle of anatomy, medicine, chemistry, and physics; and evenof physiology; for the passions of the mind vary according tothe states of the blood, and the states of the blood accordingto the passions of the mind. In a word, the science of theblood incIudes aIl the sciences that treat of the substances ofthe world, and of the forces of nature. For this reason we flndthat man did not begin to exist till the kingdoms were completed; and that the world and nature concentrated themselvesin him: in order that in the human microcosm the entire universe might be exhibited for contemplation, from its last end toits first. 8. In the present Part, therefore, in which l have investigatedthe blood, blood-vessels, and heart, and not attempted to launchout far beyond the particular experience belonging to thosesubjects, l could not venture to frame any other than generalprinciples and deductions, or to propound any other than obscure notions of things. There is need both of time and offurther progress, in order that what here seems obscure may bemade cIear and be distinctly explained. On aIl occasions it isdesirable to take experience as our guide, and to follow theorder of nature, according to which an obscure notion precedesa distinct one, and a common notion precedes a palticular one.We never have a distinct perception of anything, unless weeither deduce it from, or refer it to, a common fountain and universal principle. This mode of proceeding indeed accordswith the original and natural conditi{)ll of the senses, and of the animal and rational mind. For we are barn in dense ignorance and insensibility. Our organs are opened only by degrees; the images and notions at first received are obscure, and, if l may so speak, the whole universe is represented to the eye as a sin gle indistinct thing, a fonnless chaos. In the course of time, how ever, its various parts become comparatively distinct, and at length are presented to the tribunal of the rational mind; whence it is nat till late in life that we become rational beings. In this manner, by degrees, a passage is effected to the soul, 8. 4THE ECONOMY OF THE ANIMAL KINODOM. which, abiding in her intelligence, decrees that the way leading to her shaH thus be opened, in order that aH actions, and the reasons for all, may be refe11ed to her as their genuine principle.9. Being unable as yet to deliver any other than generals and universals, l foresee that many of the remarks l shaH have to offel, will appear to be mere conjectures or paradoxes. Theywill so appenr, however, to none but those who have not gonethrough a complete course of anatomy, physics, chemistry, andthe other arts and sciences; or to those with whom preconception and prejudice forestall their judgment, and who makesorne one particular govern aU the lest; or again, to those whohave no capacity for comprehending distinctly the sedes andconnection of the subject. Still, as l before remarked, there isneed of time and of further progress to render the subject clear;and moreover the doctrine of the blood, although it is the firstwe have to propound, is nevertheless the last that can be completed. The result, then, must show, whether or not thosestatements, which at first perhaps appear like obscure guesswork, are in the end so abundantly attested by effects, as toprove that they are indeed the oracular responses of the truth.10. Whether a statement be true or not, is easily asceltained.If it be true, all experience spontaneously evidences and favorsit, and likewise aIl the rules of true philosophYj and what lhave often wondered at, various hypotheses, in propOltion asthcy are founded on sorne common notion, either coincide withit, or else indicate pmticular points of contact or approximation;much as the shadowy appearances of the morning are shown intheir connection with real objects by the rising sun. When thetruth is present everything yields a suffiage in its favor j andtherefore it immediately declares itself and wins bcliefj or, asthe saying is, displays itself naked.11. To a knowledge of the causes of things, - in other. words,to truths, - nothing but expedence can guide us. For whenthe mind, with aU the speculative force that belonga to it, isleft to love abroad without this guide, how prone is it to fallinto error, nay, into e110rs, and errors of enors! How futile isit atter this, or at any rate how precarious, to seek con1hmationand SUPPOIt from experience! We are not to deduce experiencefiom assumed principles, but to deduce principles themselvcs 9. INTRODUCTION. 5 from experience. For in truth we are surrOllncled with illusi"e and fallacious lights, and are the more likely to fall because our very darkness thus counterfeits the day. When we are carried away by ratiocination alone, we are somewhat like blindfolded children in their play, who, though they imagine that they are waIking straight forward, yet when their eyes are unbound, plainly perceive that they have been following some roundabout path, which, if pursued, must have led them to the place the very opposite to the one intended.12. But it may be asked whether at the present day we are in possession of such a number of facts as from these alone to be able to trace out the operations of nature, without being obliged to wander beyond experience into the regions of conjecture. In answer to this we are bound to admit, that particular e~eri ence, or that which strictly comprehends or immediately refers-to one and the same object, however rich in detail such experi ence may be, and however enlarged by the accumulated obser vations of ages, can never be sufficiently ample fol the explora tion of nature in the sphere of causes: but if; on the other hand, in exploring each partioular object, we avail ourselves of the assistance of general ~erience, that is ta say, of aIl that is known in anatomy, medicine, chemistry, physics, and the other natural sciences, then, even at the present day, we appear to be abundantly supplied with means for the undmtaking.13. Particular experience, or that which concerns but one object, can never be so luxut1antly productive of phenomena as to exhaust and exhibit thoroughly aIl the hidden qualitics of that object. Take for example the experiments that have been made upon the blood. These inform us merely that it is of various degrees of redness; that it is heavier than water; that it sinks to the bottom of its serum; that it is of a certain tem perature; that it contains salta of both kinds [fixed and volatile], and -so forth. But they do not show us the origin of that red ness, gravity, and heat; nor in what part of the blood the phlegm, the volatile-Ulinous, oily, and spirituous substances re side. N evertheless these questions belong ta the subject either as accidents or essentials, and can be answered and investigated only by general experience, that is, by experience in its widest meaning, or in its whole course and compass. To determine or 14 10. 6THE EOONOMY OF THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.define a thing by occult qualities is to leave it as much in thedark as befOle. In further illustration, we do but stop at thevery threshold of the science of Angiology, unless we learn theanatomy of the body and of all the viscera, that is, diligentlytrace the blood through aIl the diversified mazes in which itflows. The same observation applies in every other instance,whether of anatomy or physics. Thus in investigating thecauses of musculal action, or the qualities of the motive fibre,unless we combine the particular experience of one individual,vith aIl the experience of others; and unless, in addition tothis, we take into account the experience recorded concerningthe blood, the arteries, the heart, the nerves, the nervous ganglia, the glands, the medulla spinalis, the meduIla oblongata, thecerebeIlum, the cerebrum, and aIl the other members, organs,and tunics, endowed with the power of muscular motion; andfurthermore, unless we avail ourselves of the facts that havebeen brought to light in physics and mechanics, respectingforces, elasticity, motion, and many other subjects, - unless wedo ail this, we shaH assuredly be disappointed of the result forwillch we are striving. 14. From particular experience, as wa before observed, onlyobscure notions are derived, but willch are developed, and rendered more distinct, in the course of time and study, by generalexperience. There is a connection, communion, and mutualrelation of all things in the world and in nature, beginningfrom the first substance and force; one science meets and enlarges another, and each successive discovery throws new lightupon the preceding. Out of a number and variety of objects,judiciously arranged and compared, an idea gathers illustration,and reason enlightenment, but still it is only in succession thatits clouds are cussipated and its light emerges. Renee, in thisarena of literature, if any one wouId attempt aught that is worthyof immortality, he must not tany at the starting post, butmeasure the entire course. N ow, if we proceed in tills manner,we shaH find that at the present day we are possessed of a sufficient store of facts, and that it will not be necessary to wanderbeyond experience into the field of conjecture. 15. When particular experience is extended beyond its propel limits, as is fiequently done, and when it is erected into an 11. INTRODUOTION.7authority for general conclusions, how often and how subtillydoes it deceive the mind, which indeed lends its own reveriesto the delusion! how strenuously does it seem to fight on thesame side as ourselves! The ground of this is, that any factmay form a part in djjferent series of reasonings, precisely asone syllable, word, or phrase, may be a constituent in an infinityof sentences and discourses; one idea in Infinite series ofthoughts; one particIe or globule of an atmosphere in an Infinitenumber of modulations ; one corpuscule of salt in an infinity offlavors; and one color in an infinity of pictures. One thingmay be grafted upon another as one tree upon another, and theapurious be made to thrive upon the legitimate. 16. To avoid therefore being misled by appearances, weahould never give assent to propositions unless general experience sanctions them, or unless they are decIared to be true bythe unanimous suffrage of nature; that is to say, unless theyform necessary links in the great unbroken chain of ends andmeans in creation. On this condition alone can an edifice bereared, which after the lapse of ages, and the testimony of thousands of additional discoveries, posterity shall acknowledge tolest upon true foundations; so that it shall no longer be necessary for each age to be electing new structures on the ruins ofthe former. 17. In the experimental knowledge of anatomy our way hasbeen pointed out by men of the greatest and most cultivatedtalents; sl1ch as Eustachius, Malpighi, Ruysch, Leeuwenhoek,Harvey, Morgagni, Vieussens, Lancisi, Winslow, Ridley, Boerhaave, Wepfer, Heister, Steno, Valsalva, Duverney, N uck,Bartholin, Bidloo, and Verheyen; whose discoveries, far fromconsisting of fallacious, vague, and empty speculations, will forever continue to be of practical use to posterity. 18. Assisted by the studies and elaborate writings of theseillustrious men, and fortified by their authority, 1 have resolvedto commence and complete my design; that is to say, to opensorne part of those things which it is generally supposed thatnature has involved in obscurity. Rere and there 1 have takenthe liberty to throw in the results of my own experience; butthis only sparingly, for on deeply considering the matter, 1ieemed it best to make use of the facts supplied by others. 12. 8THE ECONOltfY OF THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.1ndeed there are some that seem born for experimental obser vation, and endowed with a sharper insight than others, as if they possessed naturaUy a finer acumen; such are Eustachius, Ruysch, Leeuwcnhoek, Lancisi, &c. There are others again who enjoy a natural faculty for contemplating facts already dis covered, and eliciting their causes. Both are peculiar gifts, and are seldom united in the same person. Besides, l found, whenintcntly occupied in exploring the secrets of the human body,that as soon as l discovered anything that had not been observed before, l began (seduced probably by self-love) to growblind to the most acute lucubrations and researches of others,and to originate the whole series of inductive arguments frommy particular discovery alone; and consequently to be incapaci.tatcd to view and comprehend, as accurately as the subject required, the idea of universals in individuals, and of individualsunder universals. Nay, when l essayed to form principles fromthese discoveries, l thought l could detect in various otherphenomena much to confirm their truth, although in realitythey were fuirly susceptible of no construction of the kind. ltherefore laid aside my instruments, and restraining my desirefor making observations, determined rather to rely on the researches of others t1lan to trust to my own. 19. To find out the causes of things from the study of givenphenomena cel-tainly requires a talent of a peculiar kind. 1t isnot every one that can confine his attention to one thing, andevolve with distinctness aU that lies in it: it is not every onethat can think profoundly, or, as Cicero says, "that can cast upaU his reasons, and state the sum of his thoughts,":Z; or, as inanot1ler place, "that can recaU the mind from the senses, fixupon the real truth in everything, and see and combine withexactness the reasons that led to his conclusion.":Z; This is apeculiar endowment into which the brain must be initiated fromits very rudiments, and which must afterwards by a graduaIprocess be made to acquire permanence by means of habit andcultivatioll. 1t is a common remark that poete, musicians, singers, painters, architects, and sculptoll!, are bOIn such; and weknow that every species of animaIs is born with that peculiarcharacter which distinguishes it so completely from every otherspecies. We see that some men come into the world as prodi. 13. INTRODUOTION. 9gies endowed with superhuman powers of memory; others withan extraordinary activity of the whole faculty, amounting to apeculiar strength of imagination and intuitive perception; byvirtue of which no sooner do they set the animal mind in motion on any subject, than they excite the rationality of thecorresponding rational mina, they arrange their philosophicaltopics into a suitable form, and afterwards engage in thoughttill they see clearly whether their opinions are consonant withthe decisiot1s of a soundjudgment; when, if any element of anobscure character embarrasses the subject, by a happy gift. ofnature they separate the obscure from the clear, and in its placeinsert sorne other element more conformable to the general idea,80 as to make all the parts aptly cohere. With a natural facilitythey distribute their thoughts into classes, and separate mixedtopics into appropriate divisions; and skilfully subordinate series,thus perspicuously divided, one under the other, that is, theparticular under the general, and the general under the universaI. Thus are they never overwhelmed by the multiplicity ofthings, but continuaIly enlightened more and more, and, by thehelp of arrangement and general notions, recall to mind whenever they please, such parts of the subject as had become eficedfiom their notice, and unfold such as are complicated or perplexed.Those who are born with tbis felicity of talent, and afterwaldsploceed in due order to its development, the more profoundlythey penetrate into the depths of science, the less do they trustto their imagination, and the more cautious are they not to extend their reasoning beyond the strict limit justified by facts:or if they indulge in conjecture at ail, they treat it as mere surmise and hypothesis unti! experience bespeaks its correctness.They avoid as a hydra any premature attachment to, or implicitcredence in, opinions, unless there are circumfltances duly tosupport them. Even if they retain them in theu: memory, theydo not admit them as links in any chain of reasoning; but whileconducting their argument, in a manner banish them fiomthought, and keep the attention fixed on data and faets alone.The fictitious depresses them, the obscure pains them; but theyare exhilarated by the truth, and in the presence of everythingthat is clear, they too are clear and serene. When, after a long 14. 10 THE EOONOMY OF THE ANIMAL KINGDO};1.course of reasoning, they make a discovery of the truth, struightway there is a celtain cheering light, and joyful connrrnatorybrightness, that plays around the sphere of their mind; and akind of mysterions radiation, - 1 know Dot whcnce it proccec1s,- that darts through sorne sacrec1 temple in the brain. Thus asort of rational instinct displays itself, and in a manner givesnotice that the soul is caUcd into a state of more inwaTCl communion, and has returned at that moment into the golden age of its intellectual perfections. The mind that has known this plcasure (for no desire attaches to the unlmown) is carried away wholly in pursuit of it; and in the kindling flame of itslove despises in comparison, as exte111al pastimes, all merelycorporeal pleasures; and although it recognizes them as meansfol exciting the animal mind and the purel blood, it on noaccount foIlows them as ends. Persons of this cast consider thearts and sciences only as aids to wisdom, and lea111 them ashelps to its attainment, not that they may be reputed wise forpossessing them. They modestly restrain aIl tendency to inflated ideas of themselves, knowing that the sciences are an ocean,of which they can catch but a few drops. They look on no onewith a scornful bww, or a supercilious air, nor arlOgate anypraise to themselves. Theyascribe aIl to the Deity, anc1legardHim as the source from whom aIl true wisdom descends. Inthe promotion of his glory they place the end and objeet oftheir OWll. 20. But those who go in opposition ta nature, and with nowisc10m to befriend them, and strive to intrude themselves arbitraily into this condition, are only doing violence to their powers.The more they attempt a transition from one reason to another,and to draw a single conclusion from aIl, the more do theyentangle the threads of their argument, till they enclose themselveswithin the folds of the intricate web they have woven; and atlast are enshrouded in darkness, fiom which they flnd it impossible by their own endeavors to escape. These chiefly are they whom the sciences and a multiplicityof studies benight and blind, or whom lea111ing infatuates.These are they who invent senseless hypotheses, and gravelyin vite the public to visit their castIes in the air. Who displayan absurd ambition to narrow the limits of knowledge, and per 15. INTROD UOTION. 11suade themselves that there is no cultivated lau beyond theborders of thei.r own muddy lake. Who, if haply their eyesbe opened, nevertheless contend to the last for the false againstthe true. Who procIaim that nature is altogether beyond thereach of human comprehension, and consign her to chains; bidding the world despair of seeing her liberated at aIl, or at leastfor ages. Who claim aIl wisdom as an attribute of memory,and hold nothing in esteem but bare catalogues of facUl, regarding as of no account any inqui.ry into their causes. Who, inimitating the character of others, and omitting their own, or infighting fiercely under anothers standard, fancy themselvesamong the leading geJ;liuses of the age, and think they havemerited the leadership. Who consider themselves as havingrevealed the secrets of Delphos, if they have only been able toinvest the obscure oracles of another mind with sorne new, andas they supposed ornamentaI, costume of thei.r own. AlI whicherrors of theirs arise from the fact, that they have not leamedto measure their genius by the mIe of nature. 21. As the natural gift we have mentioned, or the faculty bywhich the understanding sees acutely and distinctly into theseries of things, is to be perfected by the use of means; so evenwhere this faculty is by nature excellent, there are many thingsthat retard its advancement, diminish its energy, and enfeebleits efforts. Such, for instance, are the desires of the animalmind and the pleasures of the body, which render the rationalmind, when too compliant to them, unable any longer to pursueits high investigations; for then it is as it were in bonds, andforced to go wherever lust will have it. This faculty is impairedand destroyed also by the cares and anxieties arising fiom domestic circumstances and the consideration ofworldly prospects.For these determine the mind to low and outward things, andnever raise it to the high and the inward. Nothing superinduces more darkness on the human mind, than the intClferenceof its own fancied providence in matters that properly belong tothe Divine Providence. 22. This faculty, however, is chiefly impaired by the thirstfor glory and the love of self. l know not what darkness overspreads the rational faculties when the mind begins to swellwith pride; or when our intuition of objecta calls up in the 16. 12 THE EGONOMY OF THE ANIMAL K1NGDOM.objects themselves the image and glory of our own selfhood. Itis like ponring a liquor upon sorne exquisite wine, which throwsit into a fioth, sullies its purity, and clouds its translucence. Itis as if the animal spirits were stirred into waves, and a tempestdrove the grosser blood into insurgent motion, by which theorgans of internaI sensation or perception becoming swollen,the powers of thought are dulled, and the whole scene of actionin theu theatre changed. In those who experience these disorderly states, the rational faculty is crippled, and brought to astand-still; or rather its movements become retrograde insteadof progressive. A limit is put ta its operations, which its possessor imagines to be the limit of aH human capacity, becausehe himself is unable to overstep it. He sees little or nothing inthe most studied researches of others, but everything - 0, howvain-glorious! - in his own. Nor can he return to conect conceptions until bis elated thoughts have subsided to their properlevel. "There are many," says Seneca, "who might haveattained to wisdom, had they not fancied they had attained italready." z The Muses love a tranquil mind, and there is noth.mg but hurnility, a contempt of self and a simple love of truth,that can prevent or remedy the evils we have described.But how often does a man labor in vain ta divest himself ofhis own nature. How often, when ignorant or unmindful of thelove that creeps upon him, will he betray a partiality to himself and the offspring of his own genius. If an author therefore de sires that his studies should give birth to anything of sterlingvalue, let him be advised, when he has committed to paper whathe considers to be of particular merit and is fond of fi-equently perusing, to lay it aside for a while, and after the lapse of months to return to it as ta a something he had forgoW;m, and as the production not of himselt; but of Borne other writer. Let him repeat this practice three or four times in the year. In accord ance with the advice of Horace, .. Reprehendlte, quod nonMultll dies et multa litura coercult, atquePerfectum decJes et non castlgavlt ad unguem." De Arte Poeticd, 1. 292-294.Should his writings thcn often raise a blush upon bis countenance, should he no longer feel an overweening confidence withregard to the lines which had received the latest polish from his 17. INTRODUCTION.13hands, let him be assured that he has made some little progr",ssin wisdom.23. l think that l shall not at aH detract from the literatureof the present day, if laver with many, that the ancients surpassed us in wisdom, in the art and perfection of distinguishingthings, and in the shrewdness of their conjectures respectingthe occult. For with no instruction Bave their own, they laidthe foundationB of numerOUB arts and sciences upon which theirposterity aiterwards built; nay, from the resources of their owngenius, and without being under any intellectual obligations tothe past, they raised the superstructure to no inconsidelableheight. Of the truth of this fact we have evidence in theirwritings, which, more lasting than brasa, have been handeddown uninjured through an interval of thousands of years evento this very day. The instructive lessons they have taught, andthe opinions they have pronounced, we, their posterity andcbildren, are still wont to respect, to receive, and to apply tothe practical purposes of life. It is scarcely necessary to mention such names as Aristotle, IIippocrates, Galen, Archimedes,Euclid, and others. 24. On the other hand, l think l shaH not detract fiom thepraise due to ancient literature, if again with many laver, thatthe late and present ages are distinguished above thoso of theancients for the aids they have afforded in carrying to a furtherextent the developments of genius, or for accumulating experimental facts; thus for supplying posterity, of whom we havethe brightest hopes, with materials for a wisdom that is yet tocome. Each therefore has occupied its peculiar province; theancients excelling in genius; the modems abounding in materials that. may afford support to future genius. 25. Thus does it seem to be tho will of that Providence whorules aH earthly affaira, that the one state should be Bucceededby the other; that the parents should instruct the children;and that the ancients should incite their posterity to the acquisition of the experimental knowledge by which their contemplative sciences may be confinned; and in like manner that weof the present age should stimulate the generations that followus, to work again and again in the mines of the same experience, so that they, in their tum, may attain to a deeper insight:, VOL,I. 2 18. 14 THE EGONOilIY OF THE ANIMAL KINGDO.lI.and a fmther progress; in fine, that various ages should culti.vate variuus kinds of learning; in order, as it woulc1 appear, thatthe sciences may at last arrive at their destined perfection. Whether we contemplate the sphere of generals or particulars, we al ways behold na ture busied in alternations. She poursaround the world the light of day, and then the darkness ofnight, and from darkness leads on a new day through the gatesof the breaking dawll. She advances from spring to summer,and from summer to autumn, and retums through winter tospring-time. She guides the infant through youth and manhoodto old age, while at the same time she is preparing a new generation to enter on the years of infancy and youth. By likealternations, or u similar order of things, it is reasonable to suppose that the republic of letti-s is govemed. First came theday, and the world was enlightened with the brilliance ofgenius; then the night, and for ages the human mind layslumbering in c1arkness. N ow again the dawn is near, and weabound in experience. Haply the progress hence will be to anew day and a second age of genius. 26. And the time is ut hand when we may quit the harborand sail for the open sea. The materials are ready: shall wenot build the edifice? The harvest is wuiting: shall we not putin the sickle? The produce of the garden is re and ripe:shall we fail to collect it for use? Let us enjoy the providedbanquet, that is to say, from the experience with which we areenriched, let us elicit wisdom. Had such a store as we possessheen set before the sages of antiquity, there is reason to presume, that they would have advanced tile sciences to the heightsnot only of Pindus but of Helicon. Nor will there be wantingmen at this day, with this splendid inheritance of knowledge;who - provided they devote their minds to the object ficmtheir earliest years, and with their full native powers, and donot suffer themselves to be cunied away by the sensual pleasuresand dissipations of the age - will carry the same sciences beyond the Pindus of the ancients. 27. But to launch out into this field is like embarking on ashorelcss ocean that environs the world. It is easy to quit theland, or to loose the barses fiom the starting-post; but to attainthe end or reaeh the goal is a labor for Hercules. N evertheless 19. INTRODUCTION.15we are bounc1 1.0 attempt the abyss, though as }(t we must proceed Iike young birds, that with the feeble strokes of t11eir newfledged wings first essay their strength, and from their nests trytbe air, the new world into which they are 1.0 enter.28. But ail this contributes nothing 1.0 the business before us,or 1.0 the knowledge of the blooc1. l shall therefore detnin thereader no longer, but proceed immec1intcly 1.0 the matter in hanr1.Allow me 1.0 observe, thllt in each chapter of the ensuing treatisel have prescribed 1.0 myself the following method. First, byway of introdJction l haye premised the expericnce of the bestauthorities, ac1bering closely 1.0 their own worc1s, that nothingmay be suppressed which may be suspectec1 of militating againstmy views. N ext, l have procceded 1.0 foml sorne general inferences, and 1.0 confinu them one by one by the previous experi.ence, so LIr as it has gone, the latter serving as tbe foundationof the present work; my principal object in which is, 1.0 let factitllclf sreak, or 1.0 let causes flow spontaneously frOID its lips 20. 16THE ECONOMY OF THE ANIMAL KINGDOM. CHAPTER I.TB]l: COMPOSITION AND GENUINll: ESSENCll: OF TBll: BLOOD. 29. LEEUWENHOEK has observed, that blood drawn from hisown hand was composed of red globules floating in a crystallinehumor not unlike water, but that he was in doubt whether aIlblood was of the same nature. He says, that upon a closeexamination of the globules, after separating one from the other,and even dividing sorne of them, they presented the appearanceof being very slightly colored. Milk he found in like manner toconsist of globules fioating in a limpid humor, but these weretransparent. (Philosophical Transactions, n. 102, p. 23.) Healso clearly discerned, as he says, that every globule was compounded of six smaller ones, which were as fiexile and soft as thelarger. That in proportion as the larger were stretched out orelongated, the smaller assumed the same lengthened figure, tillthey became like threads. He also relates that he had subjectedthe larger globules to violent motion, when they burst in pieces,and displayed the smaller globules. Also that the globules ofmilk were of different dimensions, but that those of the bloodwere of only one dimension. (Lectiones Gutlerian, v., p. 84-86.)He saw that the globules were flexible and pliant in proportionas the blood was healthy, and in passing through the small capillaryarteries and veins, changed to an ol)long figure (Phil. Trans.,n. 117, p. 380), three times as long as broad: also that theypassed byand into one another, and by reason of their softnesscould be moulded into various shapes, but when at liberty immediately recovered their former globular condition. Where manyglobules came together, and lost their heat, they appeared as auniform matter in which no parts were distinguishable. (Lect. Gutl., p. cit.) When the author was ill, the globules of theblood he drew from himself appeared to he harder and firmer;but when he was in a good state of health, they were betterconnected with each other, being softer and more fiuid: whencehe infers, that death may sometimes proceed from the hardnessof these globules. (Phil. Trans., n. 117, p. 380, 381.) Whenhe examined blood possessing much crystalline liquor, and placedin one of his tubes, and carried it into the open air at a time 21. COMPOSITION AND ESSENCE OP THE BLOOD. 17when there was a pretty strong wind, he observed that the glob-ules were agitated, like the air itself, by concussions and mutualmotions; and he observed moreover another kind of motion, inthat eaeh globule gyrated round its own axis. (Ibid., n. 106, p.129, 130.) He likewise observed that the transparent liquor inwhieh the red globules of the blood swim, itself consisted offim"ll globlllel, which were fewer before evaporation than after.In the same liquor hc also distinguished certain bodies of aquadrangular figure, which he considered to be saline particles.(Ibid., n. 117, p. 380.) But the globules of the blood, he says,are specifically heavier than the crystalline liquor, for the momentthey escape from the veins, they by little and little subside towardthe bottom; and being made up of soft, fluid corpuscules, andlying one upon another, they unite together, and by their closeconjunetion, the blood that is under the surface alters its color,and becomes dark red, or blackish. The red globules, he says,are 25,000 times smallcr than a grain of sand. (Ibid., n. 106,p. 122.) He observed that in a tadpole the particles of bloodwcre fiat and oval, and that sometimes, by reason of the tenuityof an artery, they were made to assume a tapering figure, andwere so minute, that a hundred thousand myriad of them couldnot equal in bulk a large grain of sand. (Epist. 65, ArcanaNatur Detecta, p. 161, 162.) 30. LANCIS!. " Microscopical experiments demonstrate, thatthe blood consists principally of two parts, namely, of serumwhieh is mostly limpid in healthy subjects, and of extremelyminute globules from which the general mass of this fluid derivesits redness, whether it be in circulation, or intercepted in anypart of the system.... Leeuwenhoek observes, that in fishes hefound that the partiel es whieh occasioned the redness of theblood were plano-oval; that in land animais they were round, sofar as he eould judge from the cases that came under his owninspection. But that in human blood these globules were soft,and each of them fOlmed by the union and conjunction of six:smaller globules. fo these he attributes the redness of theblood, and considers that it is deeper and more intense the morenumerous they are, and the more agglutinated the one to theother. With respect to my own observations l would remark,that 1 have made them with the greatest care, and with theassistance also of the illustrious Blanchinus. There are fourprincipal things that wc noticed in drops of blood recentlydrawn, when received on a crystal plate and submitted to themicroscope. 1. Innumerable globules of a lcd color, which on, exaulination 3ppearcd to be mixed up with a transparent scrum,and swimming in it, but which, when the serum had soon after 2" 22. ON THE FORMATION OF THE CHICK, ETC. 227Of this formative substance, therefore, scarcely anything canbe predicated adequately, inasmuch as it occupies the supremeand superlative degree :mlong the substances and forces of itskingdom: but 1 would rather calI it a formative substance thancaU it nature; for it has within it a force and nature such as 1have described.257. Except that it is the first, the most perfect, the mostuniversa1, and the most simple, of al[ the BUbstances andforcesof its kingdom. It is evidently thefirst, because it commencesthe thread, and when commenced continues it to the ultimate oflife. (n.253.) It is the most perfect, because it causes all thingsto proceed in the most distinct manner (n. 248); and perfectlysubordinates each severaUy, and when subordinated, coordinatesthem for their uses and ends. (n. 252.) It is the most universal, because it insures the general good of aU things, and at thesarne time the particular good. It is the most simple, becauseaU other things in the body are successively compounded.258. And that it has a8signed to it, within its own litUe corporeal world, a certain species of omnipresence, power, knowldge, and providence: of omnipresence, because it is the mostnniversal substance, and in a manner the aH in aU of its kingdom; for in forming all things, it must be everywhere present inorder to form them. Of power and knowlege j for it goes fromprinciples to causes, from causes to means, from means to effects,frOID use to use, or from end to end, through the mysteries ofaU the mundane arts and sciences; so that there is nothing,however internaI and deeply involved therein, but it evokes it,and summODB it to assist in building and completing its kingdom. In the animal kingdom, therefore, in whatever directionwe turn our eyes, we meet with wonders that overwhelm DBwith astonishment; so that it would seem that to this force orsubstance, starting fiom its principles and proceeding fromorder to order, no possible path were refused, but its course laythrough aU things. Of providence j for it ananges prospectively,that the membeJs and parts of the members shaU combine, andundergo renovation and formation, in one peculiar and contradistinctive manner. (n. 261.) We shaU admit a certain providential series if we attentively contemplate the parts in thewhole, and see how one is prepared for the sake of another; 23. 228 THE ECONOMY OF THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.how one always comes to the use of the nen succeeding; andhow aIl, individually and coUectively, are for the sake of thefirst substance; since they refer themselves to their antecedents:hence aU the consequents refer to the first of the series, on whichthey depend, and for the sake of which they exist in one distinctive manner. (n. 252.) 259. This formative substance or force then it is whichgovems the sceptre and Bits at the helm of the kingdom; thatis to say, marks out the provinces, disposes the guards, distributes the offices, and keeps verything in the station in whichit h38 been placed, and thus takes care that everything shaUexecute its functions in aIl their p.etails. Bince, therefore, it isthe most powerful, the most scientific, the most present, of aIlthings in its body, it follows that it is 38 it were the demigoddess, tutelar deity, and genius of the microcosm. Neverthelss its power is extremely limited, although leBB limited thanthat of the substances and forces that come after it, in regardto which indeed it is comparatively unlimited. 1 say comparatively, for so far fiom being essentially unlimited, there is nothing poBBible to it but that which h38 been impressed upon andimparted to its nature; so that its omnipresence, its power andprovidence, are almost entirely confined within the circ1e of itsown narrow world. For the Author of Nature has reserved tohimself the supremacy over it and aU things, both in regard topower, presence, knowledge, and providence, which supremacyhe exercises according to the law (Bince the soul has ceased tobe his image), that so far as it is dependent upon him, so far itis perfect in every faculty, and conducted to universal and absolute ends, and its lower powers and degrees, by its means, arethe sarne; but so far 38 it ceases to be his image and likeness,so far it becomes impelfect in aU its faculties, and lapses awayfrom the nobler ends. 260. The jir8t ends, as well a8 the midle and ultimate ends,according to which cause8 jollow in provi8ive and given ordertilt they arrive at the ultimate effect, appear to be present to it,and iMerent within it, simultaneously and in8tantly. Thisfollows from the law, that the antecedent is formed for the use This sentence appears to be Imperfect ln the original: an attempt h here made toaupply the sense. - (Tr.) 24. ON THE FORM.ATION OF THE CHIeK, ETC. 229of the consequent (n. 252); but there would he nothing conform-able in the antecedcnt, unless this use or end had been beforerepresented. Were not this the case, the rudimentary spinalmarrow could not be adapted from the beginning to the condi-tions of aU the members; the heart could not be fonned with aview to the conditions of the arteries and veins, nor yet with aview to the condition of subserving the lungs; the lungs couldnot he constituted for the reception and expiration of theilatmospherc; nor the trachea, fauces, tongue, teeth, and lips, forthe articulation of sound; nor the eye for the enjoyment of sight,and by sight, of the universe; nor the ear fOI the reception {Iftones. The same observation applies to a11 the other members,in each of which the use and end is always foreseen before it isactuaUy present. To repeat my formel comparison (n. 248),unless the archer take a Iight aim with his eye at first, the an(Wat the end of its flight will he found vastly wide of the m:uk.But when distant and ultimate ends are kept in vicw as if theywere present, intermediate ends are comprehended at once, nndare carried onwards with a fixed aim and an llnCrrLIlg directIon.Thus when the formative force or substance by a kind of intui-tion, if 1 may so speak, comprehends the ultimate end, then theintermediate ends are at the same time contnined within it, ex-tending to the end foreseen and pointed at; that is, they 1!win an unerring order. 1 am aware, that in speaking of first and ultimate ends assimultaneously present and involved in the same substance andforce, 1 am using terms that are not fully intelligible so long aswe are ignorant of the mode in which they are present and in-volved. Yet 1 must have recourse to these terms, 8nce scarl;t!lyanything adequate can be predicated of this force and substance. (n. 256.) For it is in the first principles of its things, and in acertain intuition of aIl ends, or replesentntion of its univerlle. We cannot by any other means speak more adcquately of it,3ince it lies heyond the sphere of common words, and of aUsuch as are applied to the comprehension of the lower S(IltlCS. But how the intuition of ends can accomplish sach an e1f((t,- how it can form a rea11y connected and actua11y corporeal /lYs- tem, - this is not more eusy to understand th an is the manner in which the intuition of the mind (which is also an intuition ofVOL. I. 20 25. 230THE ECONOMY OF THE ANIM.4L KINGIJOM.enda) is enabled to rouse a11 the mUAc]p,s of thp, hody to palpa.ble motion, or in which a bare will is enabled to determineitself into real actions. Here we would only observe, that inthis formative substance, ends are at once preBent and involved jnot that all things that can ever be in it are in it at once, butthat they will be communicated to it, and thus are in it. Wemay fitly illustrate the case by an algebraic equation, whichsimultaneously comprises ratios, analogies, and harmonies inindefinite number, each of which may be successively educedand evolved, and again successively reduced into the sarneequation. And it will be seen in the sequeI, that different endamay be present and involved in it, or the same ends in a different manner. This is true in the finite sphere. But in theInfinite Being, aU things that can ever by possibility be involved,are involved at once; and this of themselves or essentiaUy, andnot successively. Of Him, therefore, change of state is neverpredicable, although it is predicable of a11 natural and finitethings, and even of the formative substance itself.261. Oonsequently this substance or force represents to itselfthe state about to be formed,just as if it were astate alreadyformed,. and inilee the state alreay formed as astate alJoutto be formed. For if the ultimate ends are in it, together withthe middle and first, then the state that has been formed is represented as present in the state that is to be formed, and thestate that is to be formed in the state that has been formed; theone being involved with the other in momentaneous presence.The case is the same as when the mind embraces sorne ultimateobject in its plans; for then it sees this object as if it were present, or when the means are furnished, contemplates it as already accomplisfted and realized: and how much more is thistrue in this higher faculty, where the principle of the mindsreason resides, or the force of forces, and the substance of substances! That this substance represents to itself the state which is tobe formed as already formed, is in sorne measure evident fromthe methodical distribution of the motive fibres in the body; somethodical indeed, that conformably to the slightest hint of thewill, a11 things rush into effect. For the motive fibres are 1;0fitly ~ombined in the muscles, s,nd the muscles in the body, that 26. ON THE FORMATION OF THE Cl1IOK, ETC. 231the mere nod and breath of the will is sufficient, in less than amoment, to excite and animate the associate ministers of actionto the motion intended; that is to say, when this substance orforce, for whose disposaI they are thus prepared, determinesfrom its principles. This we may see exemplified in the case ofdancers, harlequins, buffoons, posture masters, athletes, harpers,songstresses, &c., whose lungs, trachea, larynx, tongue, mouth,fingers, eyes, features, feet, arms, chest, and abdomen, act in moststupendous concert; not to mention other instances. Is therenot here a represE.ntation of the thing formed, like as of thething about to be fonned, since the obedience of the whole is soready and so easy; into which obedience all that is formednaturally falls, by vll"tue of the same principle of action. Forunle88 what is formed represented itself in what is to be formed.,a similitude and concordance so great never could exist. Andthis is the reason why this substance, in the state of formation,always also persiste in the thing formed, nor ever desists fromthis until the thread of life is broken. Wherefore the truth ofthe rule is evident, that subsistence is perpetuaI existence. 262. That this substance represents to itself the state formedas astate yet to be formed, is a consequence of the formertruth; for this substance is always in a state of formation andexistence; otherwise what is formed could not subsist. This isshown in a lively instance in the case of parental love or storg;for parente regard their infants as themselves in the infants, oras most united other selves, and not as separate until long afterbirth: a sign, as it would seem, that the very force and substance that was in the parent, is trnnsplanted into the offspring.If this be the case, then the sarne substance, always sirrlar toitselt; cannot ad otherwise in that which is formed., than in that,namely, in the parent, which had previously been fOlmed. 263. Moreover the series of all the contingents, in the orerin which they successively appear f01 the pmpose of c01npktingthe work of formation, is instantly present to it, and as it wereinherent within it. Those things appear as contingent, whichare successively to become present, in order that the process offormation may be rightly completed; and which, if they wereDot present, would occasion the work to stop, and the connection to be broken and continued no farther. Renee, when 27. 232THE ECONOMY OF THE ANIMAL KINGDOM. during the state of fonnation these contingents do not present themselves in their just proportion and rightful mode, the parts of the system are connected together in accordance with those contingents which are presented: as we see evidenced in mon strous bilths. (n. 255.) For in the egg and the !Comb, all things that can p08swly be contingently present, are alreay present,provided, and prepare. For everything that is wanted is in volved in the albumen and yolk of the egg; and this, with such exactitude of arrangement, that each particular can be caUedforth and come in the proper order. The yolk also itself is distinct from the albumen, and within it lie the ingredients of the red blood. The like is the case in the womb, where the embryodraws from the mothers general store whatever its nature reqlliJ:es: thus it is provided and as it were foreseen that nothingin the chain or series of contingents shall by any chance bewanting. We may likewise instance parental love as a contingent, without which the slender and early thread of the infantframe could never be drawn out to the period of adult age.These things, 1 have said, appear as contingents, inasmuch asthey must present themeelves successively; but they are regarded as necessarily consequent, since theyare present in thething formed, and thus are already provided. Thus one or theother of them being given, the effect cannot be otherwise thanin conformity to it; for instance, warmth and fotus being given,other results present themselves of neccssity. The same ruleobtains in all other cases: for example, aIl the use of the heartis marked out before the heart is completed; and indeed by thelittle spinal marrow, before the heart appears. So likewise thelungs are designed in the heart, before the latter is doubledback upon itself into the form it is ultilnately to assume. Successiveness gives an appearance as if use then first contingentlybegan to determine itself to a consequent, when it is present ina previous organ aIready fOlmed j but that the case is otherwise,is clear both from what 1 have here adduced, and from n. 260and 261. So again it is plovided that the ovulum be roIleddown fi"Om the ovaries through the Fallopian tubes, the fimbriated extremities of which embrace and forward it, and that having reached the uterus, it should be sUlTounded with the membrancs and liquor amnii; and by means of the placenta shoula 28. ON THE FORMATION OF THE CHICK, ETC. 233 emulge the blood: so that if only the contingent is provided, namely, the presence of the seed, aIl the other things necessarily follow.264. Since a11 thcse things follow by inevitable connection,what shaH we think of the fortuitous events, as they are ca11ed,that happen in civillife ? It is not our province here to consider whether these are present and involved priori, or not.At aU events they are hidden from our view, just as the chrysalis and butterfly states are hidden from the silk-worm, theprocess of formation from the embryo and chick, and theeconomic functions of the body from ourselves. Notwithstanding our ignorance in these respects, we are nevCltheless. constrained to admire the wonderful connection of ends within us,whenever they become revealed by the development of the ultimate end. But this matter cannot be fully explained, becausethe above are effects of the Divine Providence, and it is requisite that we should first inquire into the nature and effects offree-will. 265. According to the nature and 8tate of thi8 formative8OO8tance, and auitaJJly to it8 intuition or repre8entation, caUBe8jlOUJ into their ejfect8. That diversity and change of state arepredicable of this substance, is a truth which l do not wish toprove by philosophical arguments, but by inductions derivedfrom experience. l would here observe only, that everythingnatural and finite is capable of successively assuming differentstates, and when thus assumed, of holding them simultaneously:but l do not here propose to consider the quality of these states,but oo1y to declare, that according to the nature llnd state ofthe formative substance, causes and effects f1.ow conformably tothe intuition or representation of enda.266. A8 appears from the dijferent forma of animals. Toenumerate all the animaIs and their different forma, wouldrequire me to traverse ocean, earth, and ail. For there areaquatic, ten-estrial, and winged animaIs. Of each of these thereare genera and species. There are moreover insects, multitudesof which elude the sight when unassisted by glasses. Of thesemsects there is as great a diversity as of the soils that produce,the leaves that nourish, and the sunbeams that vivify them.They have each thcir own proper form, and each their own20 29. 234THE EOONOMY OF THE ANIiIlAL KINGDOM.proper formative substance. This formative substance COllstructs the effigy in accordance with the nature derived fiomthe parent, rarely deviating from the mode!. Inasmuch asthis is obvious to the senses, it remains only to conclude fromthese data the reason why fOl-mS are produced so dissimilaramong themselves, and yet bearing such extreme resemblanceto the one common parent. 1 ask, then, whether the rationalmind cao arrive at any other conclusion in this case, than thatthere is a formative substance and force, which in conformitywith its nature and state establishes such forms and laws of~gimen as are suitable to the government proper to its king-dom; and that the body thus formed is an image of the representations of its soul ? 267. From the imaginatilJeforce in pregnantfemales, causing corre8ponng marks on the liule body of the embryo. Forin case the mother experience any great alalm, or any inordinateemotions of terror or longing, and in this state the representation of anything be vividly made to her mind, it will immediately descend to the brains of the embryo through thevascular and fibrous passages, and (if 1 am not mistaken in theconjecture) through the innermost coat of the arteries and theoutermost coat of the veins, and thence through the spirituousfiuid and the purer blood. In this manner we find impressedupon the tender body of the embryo, figures of strawberries,chenies, phuns, rape-seed, figs, apples, pomegranates, herbs, earsof corn, grapes, roses, parsley, lettuces, mushrooms, caulifiowers,finger-marks, weals, rods, Hies, spiders; hence also arise darkctivity, wbence arises a variety, of wbicb tbe most perfect bar- Illony may be predicated. Tbis, bowever, is imperceptible to the human understanding, since tbe diffelences, degrees, or mo- ments, are inexpressible by common numbers. For an aura of this description, formed 10 receive the forces of tbe most perfect J1ature, possesses within it aH possibility of applying itself to{very inconceivable minutia of variety, and consequently, of~oncurring witb every possible determination; so tbat there isDotbing whatever witbin it tbat admits of any comparison witbI1umber, nor is tbere any surd or irrational, wbicb it cannotsupply witb its own unit, degree, or moment. For it is weillmown that every number, whetber io.tegral or fractional,rational or irrational, bas relation to its own units, and fromthese to its numbers and ratios, as bomogeneous. It is weillmown tbat by tbe more simple units, a number of wbicb eitberconstitutes or proximately defines a given unit, we can approxi-mate ta a true ratio in an irrational quantity, and we arrive thenearer to it, in proportion as tbe simplicity of tbe said unit ismore unassignable: thus we come very neady to tbe propor-tion wbich tbe diameter bears to tbe circle, and tbe diagonal tothe side of a square. Consequently, if tbe inmvidual paits ofthis aura are susceptible of every variety, wbilst its essence andattributes remain tbe same, tben tbere never can be any disbar-mony in tbe derivatives and compounds, whicb tbey cannotrender barmonious; and indeed in tbings absolutely irrational,they can approximate so nearly to a proportional, tbat tbe dif-ference is of no account, or may be said to vanisb; especiaHywben tbis unassignable minimum, or least quantity, whicb bas inpotency aH tbe units wbicb it is to put on, is compared witb itsunassignable maximum or greatest quantity, tbat is, tbe mun-dane system. Let us take our explanation of harmonious varietyfiom a nearer object, and let tbe air serve as our example. Noindividual part of this air is equal to anotber. Tbe parts of itwbicb occupy tbe bigher region, are more expanded, conse- 58. .22 THE ECONOMY OF THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.quently ligbter, and act less by their vis inerti and more bytheir vis activa. Yet they are so conjoined with each otbert.hroughout the whole atmospbere by contiguity, that the resultis harmonious variety. J 605. From this aura we may now advance to the filSt sub.stance of the mundane system, and inquire whether a similarharmonious variety may be attributed to this also. It seemsindeed that this substance must be acknowledged to possess thehighellt degree of constancy and permanency in regard to itsessence and attributes; and that in regard to its other faculties,which in the subsequent substances are caUcd accidents andmodes, it possesses the most perfect harmonious variety: other-wise we could not possibly understand anything to be containedin it beyond a most fixed oneness. This 1 believe to be themeaning of the celebrated Wolff, when he describes substanceas the subject of intrinsic, constant, and variable determinations,and 88 that in which dwell tbe same essentials and attributes,while modes successively vary. (n. 589.) By reason of the in-sufficiency of telms, instead of harmonious variety being prcdi-cated of this substance or first aura, harmony alone seemspredicllble of it, without the addition of varicty; for althoughvariety is not inconsistent with it, yet that term is not adequateto express the true idea. The view of the subject developed both here and in theforegoing observations, seems to have been favored by sorneancient philosophera; as by Anaximencs, and Diogenes ofApollonia, who held, that the first elements of aU forms weresusceptible and flexible. By Xenophanes of Colophon, andMelissus (who was opposed by Aristotle), who held, that onething is infinite, one finite: where he seems to have usedthe term infinite, not instead of God, who impressed those prin-ciples on things, but instead of the terms indefinite and unas-signable, for he does not specificaUy define what his infinite is. By Anaximander, who held that a certain infinite principle was founded on the infinity of things in the world, one of which continually produced another. By Pythagoras, who held that there is hannony and agreement, and thus unity. By Arche- laus, the Athenian, who held that there is an infinite aura, from which aU things were brought forth. By Anaxagoras of 59. AN INTRODUC1fON TO RA.TIONAL PSYCHOLOGY.23Clazomene, who held that there are certain similar substances,by the composition of which aUthings are produced, &c. Thusthe.idea of them aU seems to have been similar, although notexpressed in similar tenns; for it is only by a slow progress thatnames or terms attain their peculiar bearings, and are distinctlyexplained. The ancients, who lived nearer to the golden ageof truths, seem to have been content simply to describe the barething itself; not to circumscribe it with any oroate investitureof words. 606. Thus in these respects, the animal microcosm, or littleworld, is similar to the macrocosm, or world at large; viz., itsfluids, especially the purest, are in the most perfect harmoniousvariety; as are also the substances and auras of the mundanesystem, particularly the first and purest; the harmonious varietyof which, in consequence of the defectiveness of language, cannot possibly be expressed in adequate terms. (n. 650.) IV.607. By this process the corporeal system is constructed and pCifected; in which one thing remains fixed in such a state of subordination 00, and coordination with, another, that ail indi Vidually respect and depend upon each other; in such a manner, that the more simple substances are rendered conscious of every change which takes place in the compound series and sub stances; and whatever is determined into aet, is effected by.the more simple, either determining, or concurring, or consent ing. Moreover this is aecomplished according to natural order, proeeeding from an inferior substance to one pro):imately su perim, or from a superior to one proximately inferior; but notfrom the supreme to the ultimate except by intermediates.608. By this process the corporeal system is constructed andperfectedj in which one thing remains jixed in such a state ofsubordination to, and coordination with, another, that all individually respect and depend 1.pon each other. This law prevailsuniversally and perpetually in the animal body; as also, in thevegetable and mineraI kingdoms, and in the world at large, asthe eomplex of aIl. The first substance of every kingdom, 60. 24 THE ECONOllfY OF THE ANUfAL KINGDOM.I:lpecies, and subject, is what gives being [esse] ta the lest; itis that, also, by which, and for the sake of which, the lesthave existence, sa that there is nothing in the whole serieswhich bas not respect ta it, botb as tbe beginning and end of thewbole, and as that under wbich everytbing else exists in astateof subordination. Tbus, there is nothing but what is an intermediate ta sorne further use and end, in such a way, tbat, beingplaced between tbe things wbicb precede and those wbich followit, it bath contains tbe relation of the tbings which follow it,and is itself in relation ta tbose wbicb precede it, on which itdepends, and for tbe sake of wbich it exists in tbat and in nootber manner. (n. 252.) See also n. 248-253,257-298. Tbusin every series there ia established a kind of circ1e, in vJtue ofwhich tbe first tbing can have reference ta the last, and the lastta the first. Tbus in tbe human body it is the soul ta which aIltbings in the body refer as tbeir first substance, by which, andfor the sake of wbicb, they exist. The purposes, state, and bappiness, of the soul, tberefore, are the abjects which all theseregard: and to tbe intent that its pmposes may be carried on,there must be something which bas precedence, or whicb isprior and superior, by wbich, and for tbe sake of whicb, the soulexists. Thus notbing terminates in tbe finite universe, but anthings universally in the first Ens of created tbings, in respectta wbom tbere is nothing in the whole compass of nature andof the mnndane system, which is not a medium or intermediate,He being, preminently, the Beginning and the End; for whichreason also aU things fiow, in a most wondelful manner, froman end, through ends, ta an end. (n. 296-298.) Thus it is thateven tbe universe itself is distinguished into its series. (n. 584586.) And thus in every series there is a similar cbain of subordination, arder, and form of rule, so that each, whilst accornplishing, inclivic1ually, its own purpose, is accornplishing, also, thecam mon and bence the universal purpose of all.%609. In such a manner, that the m01e simple substances arerenderecl consciy the jirst auraof the /lJ()rld. This follows as a consequence, if the parts of thisfluid are a series, and in the series of the univeree; sineenothing is prior, superior, more univereal, more pelfect, thaothe aura immediately formed fiom the ti~t substances, fromwhich it possesscsall its poteocy - a poteocy which is soarcelymore expressible than is that of the parent substance itselt; 00which, as their firet principle, the principles of natural thiDgsare impressed by the Deity. (n. 591.) For the firet aura is theveriest form of the forces of the created universe, to which thequalities of the inferior auras cao be asoribed only by way ofemineoce; such as detenninability, modLficability, fluidity, elasticity, with several othere; for this aura is the very and mostperfect force of nature in form. But whether the individnalpalticles of the spirituous fiuid are formed by the determinationof that aura, 80 as to he the tiret and most perfect series of theanimal kingdom, can ooly he concludcd from the knowledge ofeffects, or seen as it were by reflection in a mirror; for themind [men8] cannot be elevated into the knowledge of thingswhich are above itself; hence it must aim at the higher by beginning from the lowest; consequently, it must hegin wit~ thephenomena which indicate in what manner the inferior auras 76. 40 THE ECONOMY OF THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.ftow into the life of an animal; - as first, in what manner theair flows in, next, in what manner the ether, then in whatmanner the superior aura, and lastly, the supreme: for thatthere are four in order is shown in various parts of our W ork.(n. 53-58, 65-68, 584.) With regard to the air, it expendsall the natural potency and force it possesses in sustaining theanimal body. It exercises, for instance, the potencyand forceof pressure on its surface, that the parts may be held togetherin connection with the whole: its potency and force of fluencyupon the lungs, that they may respire, and enable the parts ofthe body, in connection one with the other, to live: its potencyand force of producing modifications upon the windpipe, larynx,and tongue: its potency and force of receiving modificationsupon the ear, the whole structure of which most artificially corresponds to its modes or modulations; nay, it also assists in thecomposition of the red blood. (n. 43-45, 50-52, 91, 92.) With regard to the ether, or more eminent air, this also employs its potencies and forces in holding together in connection, and in giving animation to, the parts con-esponding adequately to its nature; as might be proved by numerous examples which it 8 not necessary here to adduce. 1 will mention only, that this ether modifies its own organ, or the eye, whence cornes vision as the analogue of hearing: it produces also modifica tions in those animaIs that spontaneously excite for themselves light in dlllkn()ss, as cats, dormice, &c.; beside which it con tributes to the existence of the purer or middle blood. (n. 53 57.) With regard to the superior et/ter, that it supplies to the purer organs similar aids for their activity and life, is sufficientIy evinced by the subordination of the organs and sensations of the body to those of the bmin, - a subordination, which,on comparing the instincts of the higher with those of themore imperfect 01 brute animais, whose spirituous fluid is determined by this ether, is seen to be different in different species.With regard to the buman spirituous fluid, tbis is determinedby an aura still more eminent and celestial, aIl things in whichare inexpressible, because incomprehensible, and as it were continuous, to the inferior sensory. (n. 623, 624.) Thus as byaladder composed of so many steps, we in a manner ascendfrom the sphere of visible effects or comprehensible deter 77. NINTRODUOTION TO RATIONAL PSYOHOLOGY. 41minations, to the supreme sphere; and this, acco~in~ the maxiI!1S 9f.tb_e~p~iloso~hers, who have asserted that s?-~~orl)things do_not suifer themselves tQJ:>e kno!nt except. by reflection,andm::~Jfec~ as their mirror. The C~lllan, Egy~jan, Gre~k,and ~n philosophers, wer~of opimon th~~lli~._are ~~"!alJ~...@s, by which they meant the circumfluent unive~e:- Mercurius Trismegistua, ~ Jamblicus, and Alcinous;believedtho~eav.ens to~he ill~ and anim~ted? andcong~co@eiveth~m ta have reason, togetber with virtuous aDaViclOus inclinations. Aristotle says, indeed, that theyare animated (De CO?1o,lib. ii., cap. .), but he attributes to them an assistant soul withoutintellect;" exactly according to our meaning in this theorem.636. Whence it obtains BUch a nature, as to be a substancc capahle offorming its own body,. a faculty and vitue which havebeen treated of in Chapter III. By the nature of a thing, 1 mean,acoording to the definition of the philosopher [AristatleJ, its principle ofmotion and rest,- a nature in which it is ofitself, and notby its accidents (Natural. Auscult., lib. ii., cap. i.). According tothe same author, there are three principles to everything, viz.,matter, form, and privation, from which exists its nature, so asta be the cause of the things in its series. The first aura istherefore the matter from which other things are derived; fromthe determination of this ama results its form; ta this matterand form may be added the third principle, or that ofprivation, tothe end that a substance may erist which subsists by itself, havingin it a nature which is its principle of motion and rest, in whichnature it is of itself, and not by its accidents. Thus the samephilosopher says, that by natural things he means a body resulting from the union and composition of matter and ofform.t637. And to have in it life, and consequently sout, which is the principle of the things existing in the whole of that series. Ofthis subject we have treated in Chaptel III. Aristotle defines thesoul ta be the first perfection of the natural organic body, havinglife and potency (De Anima, lib. ., cap. i.); also, as the principleby which we first live, feel, are moved, and understand (Ibid., cap.i.) ; but that its extraction is more noble and exalted. He furtheraffirma, that soul and form are thefirst perfection ofbody, and that See edltlon of Arlstotle, Paris, 4 vols. fol., illM; vol. 1., p. 64, ln the Srnop.u dMl. Doct. Peripatet., also arlett1e, Na4ural. Awcult., lib. 1., llIIp. vii.t Bee the s~e SlInqpBB, Ibid.4 78. 42THE ECONOMY OF THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.its second are the functions and operations which depend uponthe first." These things are furthel treated of in n.647. 638. Materiality cannot be ascribed to the human spirituousBuid. For when we speak of form, and the matter or Tnateriaea: qu, in qui1 et circa quam [WoUf, Ontol., n. 949), to whichmatter are assigned its parts, which are such that quantitycannot be predicated of them, we mean, with the andente,some things in opposition to no things; in which sense, thephilosopher saye, that matter ie the first subject from whicb aUthings subsist, which are born originally of themselvee, and notthlough the medium of another; and that it is the ultimatepart into which things are resolved, and in which they terminate: wherefore also amongst principles he leckons mattel andform. But th.e same term, applied to substances, is at this dayapplicable to compounde, as having vis inerti and extension.Wolff says: "Matter is an extense endowed with vis inerti "it is modified by variation of figure; and is that which is determined in a compound entity." (Jos1nol., 140, 146; Ontol., 948.) This very Buid itself; in which is life, is determinedfrom the most eminent aura of the world, and has nothingin it of inertness; because tbat aura is the most perfect forceof nature in a form, and knows nothing either of resistance,or of weight~ and its correlative lightness; for it is itself thefirst principle of weight and lightness, consequently of inenoess. The heavens, says Aristotle, have neither weight norlightness: wherefore a11 materiality, as being inert and a telrestrial phenomenon, must be abstracted from force as the firstprinciple of weight, consequently fioro the tirst aur~ and frOIDits most noble determinate. Thus active and living force answers to gravity, as its analogue, or fellow by way of eminence.But al as 1 how difficult it is for the Undellltanding to exercisesuch a degree of abstraction, as not to retain, in thinking offirst principles, notions which it has conceived fiom the entire effect. (n. 650.) Owing to this cause it is that the velY minditselt; whose activity in its body is in no case pure, is often at variance both with itself and with others: and thus that one and the same thing, wben not similarly conceived as in tbe succession of things dependent on it, gives rise to great disagree ment, especially if derived from things which are said to be in cluded in the principles. 79. nT INTRODUOTION TO R..dTlONAL PSYOHOL 0 GY.48 IX. 639. If we woilld explore the efficient, rational, and prin-cipal causes of the operations and effects existing in the animalbody, it will be necessary first to inquire what things, in asuperior degree, correspond to those which are in an inferiordegree, and by what name they are to be called; which is awork demanding both a knowledge of facts and skill in judgingof them. For in proportion as nature ascends by her degrees,so she laises herself from the sphere of particular a:ld commonexpressions to that of universaI and eminent ones; till, at length,in the supreme region of the animal kingdom, where the humansoul is, there is no corporeal language which can adequately ex-press its nature, and much less the nature of tbings still supe.rior. Wberefore a matbematical philosopby of universals mustbe invented, which, by characteristic marks and letters, in theirgeneral form not very unlike the algebraic analysis of infinites,may be capable of expressing those tbings wbicb are inexpres-sible by ordinary language. Such a philosopby, if well digested,will be, in a manner, the one science of all the natural sciences,becnuse it is the complex: of aIl 640. Hefore proceeding to an explication of this part of oursubject, it will be necessary to premise a brief description of thabrain and its substances. For to deduce, priori, the modflin which the soul 1l0ws into its mind, and tne mind intoits body, would be to act like an augur who should utter hispredictions before he hnd inspected the entrails of the victim;or, if 1 may use the sirolle, would be like describing, from theegg, the body which has yet to be formed, instead of takingtbe description from tbe body itself aft.er it bas been alreadyformed. 641. From tbe two braina, of whicb one differs from tbeotber in Bize and function, and of wbicb one is called tbe cere-broum, tbe other tbe cerehel1um, 1l0w and are derived tbe twomedull,. the Buperior of which baying a common connection The paragraphs lrom n. Ml to Mtl are markcd ln the original by loverted commu: whlchperhaps ImpUes ~hat they are extracted from the aothors great Work onthe Braln. -(71.) 80. 44 THE EOONOMY OF THE ANIMAL KINGDOM. with both the brains, and distinctIy deriving its origin from each, is called the medulla oblongata,. and the inferior, which is Il continuation of the superior, is called the medulla spinalis. From the two medllll flow and are derived the nerves, and from the nerves ail the texture of the adjoined body. The connection and composition of the body are such, that the body acts and suffers according to the impulse, and ut the pleasure, of the brains; und the connection and composition of the brain urc such, that the brain knows whatever is passing in the body, 110 that everything which occurs in the latter may be undcr its regulation, and that everywhere there may he unanimity and concord in performing the several offices resulting from the several divisions of labor. For this reason the superior me dulla, as to a great part of it, appears to be a continuation, appendix, and ofThpring of the brains; the inferior medulla to he a continuation, appendix, and offspring of the superior; the nerves to be a continuation, appendix, and offspring of the medull; and the body to be a continuation, appendix, and oa8pring of the nerves.642. Each brain and each medulla is encompassed with its coats and membranes, which are called matres and meninges.That which forms the outermost surface, and lnes the inside of the skull, is the dura mater, or crassa menime ,. that which occu pies the place next to the braina, is the pia mater, or tenuismenime. Another covering al50 intervenes, of a reticular form,C;8.11ed the arachnoid, which, like a lymphatic duct projectedioto a plane, encloses the better lymph, or nervous juice, anddispenses and distributes it into the beginnings of the nerves,wherever there is need of it. These membranes, matre", ormeninges, as COlDmon coverings, accompany the nerves, which,on leaving the medull, gradually assume and superinduce fromthem a coat as a sheath: and thus clad, as they proceed intothe provinces of the body, and descend iuto its hollows and valleys, they gradually lay their coats aside agaiu. The nervesthemselves, with their membranes, become finer and finer intheir progress, till they attain their extremities and the inmostparts of the viscera, where at length they are possessed of sucha deHcacy, form, face, and expansion, that they are affected bythe slightest modes, changes, and differences, answering to 81. AN INTROIJUOTION TO RATIONAL PSYOHOLOGY.45similar ones in the brains to which they retum. Thus the brain,in its first principle, is made sensible of whatever is transactingin all the extremities of its kingdom. 643. Each brain and each medulla consista principally ofthree substances,. the first of which, when occupying the outermost region of the brains, is called the cortical substance, andwhen occupying the inner region, as in the medullm, is calledthe cineritious substance. The second is called the meul1aryor white sUbstance, and is always in continuity with the corticalor cineritious. The third is produced from the minute arteries,which, accompanying the meninx, penetrate into the brain, andunfold themselves everywhere in its minute spaees. 644. The cortical substance, either when lying proximatelybeneath the pia mater, and watered, nOUlished, and cherishedby the purer blood, or when, under the name of the cineritioussubstance, it occupies various tracts more remote from the surfce, may, by thc naked eye, and morc plainly still by the helpof glasses, be seen to cons8t entirely of minute spherules nearlyapproaching to an oval form. The cerebrum and cerebellumthemselves, also approach nearly to the spherical and oval form,and thus assume a shape like that of their paIts. Renee theseminute organic substances, inasmuch as they are like their whole,and have the same potency individually, which, conjointly andaggregately, is exerciscd in the compound, metit the name ofcerebellula. The eye, also, by artificial aid, is enabled to discoyer that these fonns, spherules, or cerebellula, are clothedwith, and enclosed in, a membrane or meninx, much in the samemanner as the brain itaelf, except that their membrane or meninxdeserves the title of pia in the superlative degree, and that theyare distinguished from their neighboring and associate sphernlesof the same kind. It may also be diseerned, that these mostdelicate coats are composed of villi and capillary shoots, of mostminute arteries, in multitude innumerable, in determination wonderful, and in order most beautiful; which diffuse in aIl directions a volatile and spirituous fluid, educed from the blood, andconceived by eminent generation in their most pure wombs.These cerebellula appear to be the internaI sensolies, which receive impressions and modifications from the external sensories,and which convey them afterwards higher up to the judgment 82. 46THE .JWONOillY OF THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.scat of the mind. These ccrebellula being again collected intotori or masscs of dl1ferent forms, and encompassed by a complication of minute vessels, construct and constitute a kind ofsecond dimension of organic parts.645. Whcn, therefore, animal nature, in this last and firstend of i arteries, nerves, and tunics, has first moulded iorganic elements into spheres of the most perfect fonn, BO thatfrom these, as from its summits or centres, it can survey whatever is passing within the range of its appendages; it nexthecomes nece883ry, in order for it to contemplate the state of itseconomy in and from these organic elements, to emit rad intothe whole circumference of its dominion: it therefore puts forthminute fibrils frorn each of these conglomerated spherules, bymeans of which it continues itself to aIl the ultimates of itskingdom; much in the sarne manner as the brain, which is thecomplex of aIl the sphendcs, continues itself, on a larger scale,into its medulla oblongata and medulla spinalis, and thcnce intothe nerves. Those cineritiolls particles clothe the flbrils emittedfrom themselves, with coats, in an order similar to that in whichthe brain at large clothcs its medullm and emissary nerves.Rence, whatever of a fibrillary nature is visible in the medullaryor white substance, is derived from the cortical and cineritioussubstance, as its parent. Many of these minute fibrils collectedinto a fascicle, and clothed in like manner with a membrane,originate a second dimension of fibril, corresponding to a collection of the sarne number of cortical spherules. In the samemanner is originated also a third dimension enveloped withtunics; to which answers the brain itself, which, with these, proceeds through the foramen magnum of the occiput into the cavity formed by the vertebrre, down to the os sacrum and os cocoygis; and which from this cavity, through the vertebral holes and notches, proceeds onward, to excite and strengthen the whole machinery of determinations, which the formative substance aims at forming according to the exact mode and law of its own power and representation.Inasmuch as the arteries of the brain continually divide themselves, until they become most minute capillary tubes and filaments, and are continued into all the cortical substance; the cortical and cineritious substances depend fiom the shoots of 83. .A.N INTRODUCTION TO R.A.TIONAL PSYCHOLOGY.47their minute arteries, like mulberries and elderbenies from thetender stalks of their boughs, or like clusters from the branchesof the vine, or else like other fonllS according to the differentspecies of the animaIs, so that they seem to be similar to theultimate effects in shrubs, and to resemble, as it were, the littleseeds, in which the most precious juice, issuing fiom a richvein, terminates and concentrates itself; just as in citron andother precious fiuit-trees, in which one citron or other fruit perpetually comes to its birth as another drops off; that it mayalways have something from which to begin anew, and in whichto enclose and transmit its alkahest and most highly refinedessence; and also that it may represent most purely what is thequality of the whole, and at what quality it aims while tendingfrom its first principle to its last effect. 646. Thus the brain is so determined from, and constructedo~ little vessels and fibres, as to contain the principles or beginnings of the things existing in the body in so active and livinga state, as from its hemispheres to enlighten as it were everyparticular part, and compel it to action whenever it pleases:these paits being thus subject to the brain, refer to it every oneof their changes, so that, from consciousness and foresight,there may be determination to action. Nay, the human brainis endowed with intelligence, or the power of examining, consulting, and judging, previous to acting; as likewise with thepower of restraining from action, until reason persuades andoccasion requires. The brain has, in general, two offices to perform: the first,to will what it knows, and to know what it wills; the second,to transmit into the blood, contained in the sinuses at its base,a certain most noble fluid, elaborated in its cOltical spherules.To theflrst kind of these offices are appointed a11 the organicparts which encompass and constitute the surface like a cortexor bark. To the second are appointed its members, which,taken collectively, form a Rort of chemical laboratory, of whichVe have spoken in n. 360, 861, 556. These members of thebrain, 01, if the reader prefer the term, these chemical organs,ought t be carefully distinguished fiom its sensitive and intellectual organs; they are moreover so separated by an intervening septum or fence, that one cannot enter into the province ofthe other, except by a most general mode of acting. 84. lt8 THE EOONOMY OF THE ANL.lfAL KINGDOM.I~ however, we would see how, by a most wonderful contrivance, aIl things are arranged in their respective order, wemust conceive of the whole brain as formed in motion and formotion, or represent it to ourselves as having an animation;that is, an alternate expansion and contraction. For thus weshaIl see what is the function, cause, and mode of acting, propelto each part; since the individual palts are so arranged in reference to each other, under the more general, and these under themost general, that whilst the whole draws its breath, there is nopart but is drawing its breath at the same time, or contributingto the animation of the whole; for which reason, we have beenled to say, that aIl the parts of the brain are situated in thestream of its motion. (n. 219, 258, 281, 287, 557.)The brain is constructed with a view to reciprocate the alternations of its animation in so ordeily a manner, that wheneverit spirates and respirates, it refers itself fiom hs surfaces toits planes, from its plancs to its axes, and from its axes to itscentres.For its surfaces are severaI. Its outermost is constituted bythe dura mater or crassa meninx; the next by the thin membrane caIled the pia mater; and the next by the membranecalled the arachnoid. U nder this threeCold surface is depositedthe cortical substance; which being the part that encompassesthe centrum ovale or medullary nucleus, discharges as a sort of cortex the office of a surface.The common or