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Title: The Tectonic Evolution of Penisular India: A 3.5 Billion Year Odessy

Article Type: Special issue: Biswal

Keywords: India; Precambrian; tectonics; craton; Gondwana

Corresponding Author: Mr. Jonathan Banks, B.A.

Corresponding Author's Institution: University of Florida

First Author: Jonathan C Banks, BA

Order of Authors: Jonathan C Banks, BA; Jonathan Banks, B.A.; Robert Sirianni, BA; Misty Stroud,

MS; Vimal R Pradhan, MS; Brittany Newstead, BS; Jennifer Gifford, MS; Manoj K Pandit, Ph.D.;

Joseph G Meert, Ph.D.

Abstract: Abstract

The Precambrian through Mesozoic geologic history of peninsular India covers nearly 3.5

billion years of time. India is presently attached to the Eurasian continent although it remains (for

now) a separate plate. It is comprised of 5 major cratonic nuclei known as the Aravall-

Bundelkhand, Eastern Dharwar, Western Dharwar, Bastar and Singhbhum cratons along with the

southern granulite province. Cratonization of India was polyphase, but a stable configuration

between the major elements was largely complete by 2.5 Ga. Each of the major cratons was

intruded by various age granitoids, mafic dykes and ultramafic bodies throughout the Proterozoic.

The Vindhyan, Chhattisgarh, Cuddapah, Prahnita-Godavari, Indravati, Bhima-Kaladgi, Kurnool and

Marwar basins are the major Meso to Neoproterozoic sedimentary repositories on the

subcontinent. The Paleozoic-Mesozoic age Gondwana sequence covers much of central India.

Major episodes of 'trap' volcanism occurred during the Mesozoic with the eruption of the Rajhmahal

and Deccan traps.

India is thought to have played a role in a number of supercontinental cycles including (from

oldest to youngest) Ur, Columbia, Rodinia, Gondwana and Pangea. This paper gives an overview

of the deep history of Peninsular India as an introduction to this special TOIS volume.

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Jonathan Banks1, Robert Sirianni1, Misty Stroud1, Vimal R. Pradhan1, 5Brittany Newstead1, Jennifer Gifford1, Manoj K. Pandit2 and Joseph G. 6

Meert178

1University of Florida, Department of Geological Sciences, 241 Williamson Hall, 9Gainesville, FL 32611 USA10

Department of Geology, University of Rajasthan, Jaipur 302004, Rajasthan, India111213

Draft April 20091415

* ManuscriptClick here to view linked References

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Introduction16

The Indian subcontinent covers approximately 5,000,000 square kilometers. 17

Although India is connected geographically to the Eurasian continent, the sub-18

continent and Himalayan sectors make up a distinct lithospheric plate. Our goal in 19

this paper is to describe the Precambrian through Mesozoic geology of Peninsular 20

India. Such an effort would require a tome-length treatise (e.g. Naqvi and Rogers, 21

1987; Naqvi, 2005; Balasubrahmanyan, 2006; Ramakrishnan and Vaidyanadhan, 22

2008) and we apologize at the outset for any over simplifications and omissions. 23

In this paper we summarize the geologic history of the subcontinent from 24

oldest (the cratons) to youngest (Deccan Traps). We cover 3.5 billion years of 25

geologic history and hope to give the reader an overview of this important 26

continental block. Elsewhere in this volume, are accounts of the Cenozoic history of 27

the Himalayan region (reference) and the surrounding Indian Ocean (reference). 28

The Odyssey begins with a view of the cratonic nuclei that collectively form 29

Peninsular India (Aravalli-Bundelkhand cratons, Singhbhum and Bastar cratons, the 30

Western and Eastern Dharwar cratons and the Southern Granulite province; figure31

#1). The description of each craton includes a discussion of the progressive 32

stabilization of the block, post-stabilization intrusive events including mafic dyke 33

swarms and a description of Proterozoic sedimentary basins developed within the 34

cratons. We use ‘stabilization’ in the same manner as Rogers an Santosh (2003) and 35

consider a craton stabilized when it is intruded by undeformed plutons, closure of 36

whole rock isotopic systems and the deposition of platform sediments on the newly 37

formed basement. The Paleozoic and Mesozoic histories of the Indian sub-continent 38

are described and limited to Gondwana sedimentation, Mesozoic sedimentation in 39

the subcontinent and the eruptive histories of the Rajhmahal and Deccan traps. We 40

conclude with a summary of the drift history of India and its position in the 41

Supercontinents of Columbia, Rodinia and Gondwana.42

Geochronologic studies on the Indian subcontinent have a long history, but 43

many of the published ages are of the older whole-rock Rb-Sr and K-Ar variety that 44

are considered less reliable by modern standards. Wherever possible, we state 45

more recent vintage U-Pb, Pb-Pb, Ar-Ar and Sm-Nd ages. We caution that wherever 46

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65

the older studies are cited, they reflect our attempt to provide some broad 47

constraints. 48

Aravalli and Bundelkhand Cratons 49

The Aravalli-Bundelkhand protocontinent (figure 2) occupies the north-50

central region of the Indian sub-continent. The Great Boundary Fault (GBF) divides 51

the protocontinent into two blocks: the Aravalli cratonic block to the west of the 52

GBF and the Bundelkhand-Gwalior block to the east of the GBF. These cratons are 53

bounded to the north-east by the Mesoproterozoic-aged Vindhyan basin and the 54

Indo-Gangetic alluvium and to the south by the northern edge of the Deccan Traps 55

volcanic rocks. The Bundelkhand and Aravalli cratons are also separated from the 56

Bastar and Singhbhum cratons (to the west) by the Narmada Son lineament 57

(Goodwin, 1991; Naqvi and Rogers, 1987).58

Most of the Aravalli craton is underlain by the 3.5 Ga Banded Gneiss Complex 59

(hereafter BGC; Naqvi and Rogers, 1987). The BGC is composed of charnockites, 60

migmatites, gneisses, pelites and metasedimentary rocks. The BGC in the Aravalli 61

region is bounded by the Aravalli and Delhi fold Belts. Age constraints on both the 62

Aravalli and Delhi Belts are only poorly constrained to 2.5 - 1.9 Ga and 1.8 - 0.85 Ga 63

respectively (Kaur et al., 2007). 64

The age of metamorphism in the Aravalli craton are better constrained. Roy 65

et al. (2005) argue that the main pulse of metamorphism took place between 1725 -66

1621 Ma at the outset of the Delhi Orogenic Cycle. Buick et al. (2006) also obtained 67

metamorphic ages of ~1720 Ma for part of the Aravalli Belt that was formerly 68

thought to be part of the BGC. Lastly, Kaur et al. (2007) determined two distinct 69

ages of granitoid intrusions in the Aravalli Range. The best constrained of these 70

magmatic events took place between 1711 - 1660 Ma supported by the 207Pb/206Pb 71

and U/Pb isotopic data and appears to be coincident with the main phase of 72

metamorphism documented by both Buick et al. (2006) and Roy et al. (2005). The 73

ion microprobe 207Pb/206Pb zircon studies by Wiedenbeck et al. (1996), strongly 74

suggest a ~2.5 Ga stabilization age for the southern segment of the Aravalli craton 75

based on the uniformity of the Late Archaean and Early Proterozoic crystallization 76

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65

ages. The younger Aravalli Supergroup sediments were unconformably deposited 77

on this stabilized landmass.78

Buick et al. (2006) also report a younger metamorphic (shear) episode that 79

took place between ~950 - 940 Ma based on their 235U/206Pb isotopic ratios on the 80

metasedimentary rocks of the Mangalwar complex and suggested that these ages 81

may be part of a larger metamorphic and igneous event that occurred during the 82

990 - 940 Ma interval. Support for this metamorphic event is also observed in 83

detrital zircon spectra from the Sonia and Girbakhar sandstones in the Marwar 84

Supergroup of Rajasathan (Malone et al., 2008). Subsequent tectono-metamorphic 85

events in the Aravalli region are described in Deb et al. (2001) and Roy (2001). 86

These include a metallogenic event at around 990 Ma followed by a tectonothermal 87

event between 990 - 836 Ma. This was followed by the onset of Malani felsic 88

intrusive and extrusive igneous activity (820 - 750 Ma; Deb et al., 2001; Torsvik et 89

al., 2001a,b Gregory et al., 2008; Van Lente et al., 2008). The Malani felsic province 90

is overlain by the Neoproterozoic Marwar Supergroup.91

The Bundelkhand craton is a less well studied region to the east of the 92

Aravalli-Delhi fold belt (Figure 1). Sharma and Rahman (2000) divide the 93

Bundelkhand craton into three distinct litho-tectonic units: (1) Archaean enclaves 94

constituted by highly deformed older gneisses-greenstone components – the 95

Enclave suite of Soni and Jain (2001); (2) Undeformed multiphase granitoid plutons 96

and associated quartz reefs – the Granite Suite of Soni and Jain (2001); and (3) Mafic 97

dyke swarms and other intrusions – the Intrusive suite of Soni and Jain (2001). The 98

Archaean enclave suite is composed of intensely deformed basement rocks 99

predominantly, schists, gneisses, banded iron formations, mafic volcanic rocks and 100

quartzites. These basement rocks are intruded by the Bundelkhand Igneous 101

Complex that constitutes about 80% of the outcrop of the Bundelkhand Craton 102

(Goodwin, 1991). Three generations of gneisses are thought to have formed at 3.2 103

Ga, 2.7 Ga and 2.5 Ga respectively revealed from the 207Pb/206Pb isotopic data 104

(Mondal et al., 1997). The latter 2.5 Ga age is also considered as the stabilization age 105

of the Bundelkhand massif. The ages of the enclaves are not known, but there are a 106

few ages on the granites that intrude them. The Bundelkhand granite is dated to 107

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2492 10 Ma (Mondal et al., 2002) and the Berach Granite to 2530 3.6 Ma using 108

U-Pb isotopic dating (Tucker, personal communication). Numerous mafic dykes 109

intrude the Bundelkhand Igneous Complex. Rao (2004) suggests that most of these 110

mafic dykes were emplaced in two phases one at 2.15 Ga and the second at 2.0 Ga 111

based on their 40 Ar/39 Ar isotopic analyses. The paleomagnetic directions on the 112

other hand demonstrate at least three generations of dykes in the BGM (Pradhan et 113

al., under review) that is consistent with the cross cutting relationships and the 114

available geochronological data. Ahmad et al. (1996) correlate the Bundelkhand 115

mafic dykes to the Aravalli mafic dykes based on the similarity in their composition 116

and ages, but neither the ages nor the geochemistry are robust enough to confirm 117

such a connection. 118

Overlying these rocks are the 1854 7 Ma Hindoli Group (equivalent to the 119

Gwalior Group) and the sedimentary sequences in the Vindhyan Basin (~1700 -120

1000 Ma; Ray et al., 2002; Rasmussen et al., 2002; Sarangi et al., 2004; Ray et al., 121

2003; Malone et al., 2008). The Upper part of the Vindhyan basinal sequence is 122

intruded by the 1073 13.7 Ma Majhgawan kimberlite (Gregory et al., 2006). The 123

Marwar basin, developed west to the Aravalli Range in northwestern Rajasthan, lies 124

unconformably over the Malani Igneous Suite (MIS) and had been assigned an age of 125

Neoproterozoic to Early Cambrian (Pandit et al., 2001; Mazumdar et al., 2006; 126

Kumar and Pandey, 2008).127

Intrusive events in Aravalli-Bundelkhand cratons128

Two high grade Paleo-Mesoproterozoic tectono-thermal events in the 129

Aravalli – Bundelkhand Craton took place around 2.5 Ga and 2.0 Ga. These events 130

are recorded by the emplacement of several mafic intrusions. The oldest known 131

mafic representatives intruding the greenstone sequence of Precambrian Aravalli 132

crust are Mavli amphibolites having a Sm-Nd isochron age of 2828 ± 46 Ma (Gopalan 133

et al., 1990; Upadhyaya et al., 1992). 134

A second suite of dykes that intrude the BGC show a chemical affinity to the135

island arc tholeiites and are thought to have formed during the ensialic opening of 136

Aravalli basin. 137

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There are other relatively minor dyke intrusions in the Aravalli craton 138

including the norite dykes of the Sandmata complex (~1720 Ma old; Sarkar et al., 139

1989); dykes intruding the nepheline syenite pluton of Kishangarh; felsic dyke 140

swarms of Sirohi and the albitite dykes in the NW part of the Aravalli Mountain 141

(Ray, 1987 & 1990; Fareeduddin and Bose, 1992). None of these minor dyke 142

swarms have good age control. 143

The MIS unconformably overlies Paleo- to Mesoproterozoic metasediments, 144

and basement granite gneisses and granodiorites (Pandit et al., 1999); and is 145

unconformably overlain by the latest Neoproterozoic to Cambrian Marwar 146

Supergroup made up of red-bed and evaporite sedimentary sequences (Pandit et al., 147

2001; Torsvik et al., 2001a).148

The Malani Igneous Suite (MIS) to the west of Aravalli Mountains form the 149

largest felsic volcanic province of India (Figure 2). is the MIS is characterized by 150

voluminous magmatism that occurred in three phases. The first phase commenced 151

with basaltic and felsic flows, granitic intrusions dominate the second phase of 152

igneous activity within the MIS. Predominately felsic and minor mafic dike swarms 153

mark the third and final phase of the MIS cycle. The MIS is often explained as 154

‘anorogenic magmatism’ related either to crustal melting during extension or to an 155

active hot spot (Bhushan, 2000; Sharma, 2004). Alternatively MIS magmatism can 156

be interpreted in the context of an Andean-type active margin (Torsvik et al., 2001a; 157

Torsvik et al., 2001b, Ashwal et al., 2002; Gregory et al., 2008). In their 158

reconstructions, Gregory et al. (2008), relate the MIS activity to the nearby arc 159

activity observed in the Seychelles islands and northeastern Madagascar.160

Previously reported ages for the Malani magmatism ranges from 680-780 Ma 161

spanning a period of 100 Ma. Dhar et al. (1996) and Rathore et al. (1999) reported 162

whole-rock Rb-Sr isochron ages for felsic volcanic rocks and granite plutons, 163

emplaced during the first two stages of activity in the MIS, ranging from 779 ± 10 to 164

681 ± 20 Ma. Torsvik et al. (2001a) cited precise U-Pb ages of 771 ± 2 and 751 ± 3 165

Ma for rhyolite magmatism in the MIS although analytical data for those ages were 166

never presented. . Gregory et al. (2008) provide a more robust U-Pb concordia age 167

of 771 ± 5 Ma (MSWD = 1.5) for felsic volcanism in the Malani sequence. Additional 168

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constraints on igneous activity come from a variety of sources. Van Lente et al. (in 169

press) provide U-Pb ages for the Sindreth felsic volcanics of 767 2.9 Ma, 765.9 170

1.6 Ma and 761 16 Ma. The Sindreth felsic rocks in Rajasthan were thought to be 171

correlative to the Malani felsic units and these new ages seem to cement their 172

relationship. Van Lente et al. (in press) also report ages of 800 2 Ma and 873 3 173

Ma for tonalitic basement rocks in the region. Pradhan et al (in review) report an 174

age of 827 8.8 Ma for the Harsani granodiorite that also lies beneath the MIS. 175

These data suggest that Malani volcanism was preceded by a protracted interval of 176

granitic intrusion ranging from ~875-800 Ma. 177

The Bundelkhand craton in the Central Indian shield is also characterized by 178

various extrusive and intrusive events during the Proterozoic. The NE-SW trending 179

quartz reefs are the most spectacular feature in the Bundelkhand granitic massif 180

(Basu, 1986). The majority of these quartz reefs are concentrated in the area 181

bounded by Jhansi on the NW, Supa to the NE, Khajuraho on the SE and Tikamgarh 182

to the SW (Figure 3). These giant quartz reefs and veins along the brittle ductile 183

shear zones and fault planes mark extensive hydrothermal fluid activity following 184

the crystallization of the granite plutons. The quartz reefs and associated 185

hydrothermal activity are argued to have taken place in three phases based on the K 186

– Ar geochronology: (1) 1480 ± 35 to 1660 ± 40 Ma, (2) 1790 ± 40 to 1850 ± 35 Ma 187

and (3) 1930 ± 40 to 2010 ± 80 Ma (after V.Finko cf Pati et al., 1997). The broad age 188

ranges reported here testify to the need for more robust dating of these intrusive 189

events. 190

There are numerous mafic dykes and dyke swarms intruding the BGM. A vast 191

majority of these dykes trend NW-SE, although a few dykes including the ‘Great 192

Dyke of Mahoba’ strike in a NE-SW direction (Fig. 1). Rao (2004) suggests that most 193

of the mafic dykes were emplaced in two phases one at 2.15 Ga and the second at 2.0 194

Ga based on their 40 Ar/39 Ar isotopic analyses. Paleomagnetic data suggest that at 195

least three generations of dykes intrude the BGM (Pradhan et al., under review). 196

Sedimentary Basins 197

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65

There are two large intracratonic basins of Mesoproterozoic – Paleozoic age 198

that outcrop between the Aravalli and Bundelkhand Province of the North Indian 199

shield: (1) The Vindhyan basin located in central peninsular India, and (2) The 200

Marwar Supergroup in the western part of the Aravalli mountain range in Rajasthan 201

(Fig. 2)202

Vindhyan Basin203

The Vindhyan basin is one of several “Purana” (ancient) sedimentary basins 204

of the Indian subcontinent. The Vindhyan is a sickle-shape basin that outcrops 205

between the Archaean Aravalli-Bundelkhand province to the north and east and the 206

Cretaceous Deccan traps to the south and by the Great Boundary Fault to the west 207

((Mazumdar et al., 2000; Figure 1). The Vindhyan basin is composed of several 208

smaller sub-basins, the largest of these are referred to as the Rajasthan sector and 209

the Son Valley sector (Figure 4). 210

The trondjhemitic gneisses of the Bundelkhand Igneous complex act as a 211

basement ridge between the Rajasthan and the Son valley sectors (Prasad and Rao, 212

2006). In the western sector, the Vindhyan Basin is thought to have been deposited 213

as an infill of the failed rifts on the Aravalli craton (Mondal et al., 2002). Rifting 214

thinned part of the crust along a series of east to west trending faults in a dextral 215

transtensional setting (Bose et al., 2001). The observed volcaniclastic units, faults 216

and paleoseismic sedimentary deformation in the lower part of the Vindhyan 217

section supports the rift origin of the basin but is also the source of some 218

controversy (Bose et al., 2001). In a recent contribution, Raza et al. (in press) 219

looked at the geochemistry of the basal volcanic sequence (Khairmalia and Jungel) 220

and linked the formation of the Vindhyan Basin beginning at ~1800 Ma to collisional 221

events in the Aravalli-Delhi Fold belt and the Central Indian tectonic zone (CITZ). 222

Stratigraphically, Vindhyan basin can be divided into two sequences: The 223

Lower Vindhyan Sequence formed by Semri Group and the Upper Vindhyan 224

Sequence sub-divided into the Kaimur, Rewa and Bhander Groups, respectively 225

(Chaudhari et al., 1999; Malone et al., 2008). 226

Age control on Vindhyan sedimentation is still the subject of considerable 227

controversy as are the ages of the other Purana basins (Patranabis-Deb et al., 2007; 228

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65

Basu et al., 2008; Azmi et al., 2008; Gregory et al., 2006; Malone et al., 2008). In 229

general, the age of sedimentation for the Lower Vindhyan is far better constrained 230

than that of the Upper Vindhyan. The lower Vindhyan units are collectively 231

designated the Semri Group. The Semri Group is made up of five alternating 232

formations of shale and carbonates with areas of sandstones and volcaniclastic 233

units. The Semri sediments unconformably overlie basement rock of either the 234

1854 +/- 7 Ma Hindoli Group (Deb et al, 2002) or the 2492 +/- 10 Ma Bundelkhand 235

granites (Mondal et al., 2002). Ages from the Semri Group include a Pb-Pb isochron 236

from the lower Kajrahat Limestone of 1721 90 Ma (Sarangi et al., 2004); U-Pb 237

zircon ages from the Porcellanites and Rampur shale ranging from 1630.7 4 to 238

1599 8 Ma. The Rohtas limestone in the upper part of the Lower Vindhyan has Pb-239

Pb ages of 1599 and 1601 Ma (Ray et al., 2003; Sarangi et al., 2004; Rasmussen et al., 240

2002a,b). Most authors (see Azmi et al., 2008 for an alternative view) agree with a 241

Mesoproterozoic age for Lower Vindhyan sedimentation (~1750-1500 Ma). A basin 242

wide unconformity between Rohtas limestone of the Semri Group and the Kaimur 243

Group of the Upper Vindhyan separates those two sequences. 244

The Semri Group is separated from the Upper Vindhyan by a basin wide 245

unconformity between the Rohtas limestone and the overlaying Kaimur Group. The 246

Kaimur is intruded by the 1073 +/- 13.7 Ma Majhgawan kimberlite (Gregory et al, 247

2006), that cross-cuts both the Semri and Kaimur Groups and is currently exposed 248

in the Kaimur Group (Baghain). Up-section is the Rewa Group, a series of shale and 249

sandstone formations that, in areas, contain kimberlite derived diamondiferous 250

conglomerates (Rau and Soni, 2003). A thin shale unit marks the transition into the 251

Bhander Group. The Bhander Group contains the only major carbonate unit in the 252

upper Vindhyan system, a unit containing stromatolites, ooids, and micritic layers 253

known as the Bhander or Lakheri limestone (Bose et al, 2001). The overlying lower 254

Bhander sandstone marks a transition into shallower marine, sometimes fluvial, 255

sandstone typical of the Bhander Group (Bose et al, 2001). The Sirbu shale overlies 256

the lower Bhander sandstone, and is in turn overlain by the upper Bhander 257

sandstone. 258

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65

Age control on the Upper Vindhyan sequences is more problematic. The best 259

age estimates come from the Majhgawan kimberlite, that intrudes the Lower 260

Vindhyan and into the Baghain sandstone (Kaimur Group – Upper Vindhyan) near 261

Panna. Possible Ediacara fossils have been described in the Lakheri and Sirbu 262

formations of the Bhander Group and could indicate an age <635 Ma for the 263

Bhander (De, 2003; De, 2006). The Ediacaran disks reported by De (2003, 2006) 264

have been challenged both in terms of their biologic nature (MacGabhann, 2007) as 265

well as their age (Gibsher et al., in review). However, a Mesoproterozoic age for 266

these discoidal organisms would lead to questions regarding the depth of metazoan 267

evolution. In an attempt to further constrain the age of the uppermost Vindhyan, 268

Malone et al. (2008) conducted a study of detrital zircon populations from the 269

Bhander and Rewa Groups in the Rajasthan sector along with samples from the 270

Lower Marwar Supergroup in Rajasthan. In that study, Malone et al. note that the 271

youngest population of zircons from the Upper Bhander is older than 1000 Ma. That 272

observation, coupled with the similarity in paleomagnetic directions from the Upper 273

Vindhyan and Majhgawan kimberlite led Malone et al. (2008) to conclude that 274

Upper Vindhyan sedimentation was completed by ~1000 Ma a result consistent 275

with recent data from another of the Purana basins to the south (Patranabis-Deb et 276

al., 2007).277

Marwar Basin278

This Neoproterozoic to Cambrian age asymmetric intracratonic sedimentary 279

basin lies unconformably over the Malani Igneous Suite (MIS) and the rocks of Delhi 280

Supergroup. The Marwar Supergroup outcrops in western Rajasthan and the basin 281

trends to the NNE–SSW with a slight westerly tilt. The type section of the Marwar 282

Supergroup is represented by undeformed to mildly folded sediments up to 2 km in 283

thickness (Roy, 2001). Lithostratigraphically, Marwar Supergroup overlies the 284

basement rocks of Malani Igneous Suite and Delhi Supergroup and consists of Lower 285

Jodhpur Group, Middle Bilara and Hanseran evaporite Group and the Upper Nagaur 286

Group. The tectonic and thermal events in NW Rajasthan suggest that the Marwar 287

Supergroup was developed by the reactivation of the NNE-SSW trending lineaments 288

of Archaean and Proterozoic age.289

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65

The sedimentary sequences of the Marwar Supergroup interpreted as 290

“Trans- Aravalli Vindhyans” (Heron, 1932) were correlated to the Upper Vindhyan 291

Sequence and the Salt Range of Pakistan bracketing their age between Late 292

Neoproterozoic – Cambrian (Raghav et al., 2005; Khan, 1973; Pareek, 1981). The 293

Marwar Supergroup is a predominately deltaic to shallow marine facies sequence 294

composed of evaporites, carbonates and sandstones. The total thickness of the 295

Marwar Supergroup reaches a maximum of ~ 2 km (Pandit et al., 2001). At the base 296

of the Marwar Supergroup is the Pokaran boulder bed containing cobbles of Malani 297

and older igneous rocks (Vaidyanadhan. & Ramakrishnan. 2008; Chakrabarti et al, 298

2004). The nature of the Pokaran boulder bed is the subject of some debate, but 299

given the recent age estimates for the Lower Marwar, it may represent a glacial 300

deposit formed during either the Gaskiers (c. 580 Ma) or Marinoan (c. 635 Ma) 301

glaciation.302

The middle section contains evaporitic (boreholes only) and carbonate facies 303

that are capped by sandstones. The age of the Marwar is considered to be of 304

Ediacaran-Cambrian (~635-515 Ma; Naqvi and Rogers, 1987; Pandit et al., 2001) 305

but there are no robust radiometric ages. Recent discoveries of medusoid fossils 306

and traces in the lower section (Raghav et al., 2005) along with trilobite traces in the 307

uppermost section (Kumar and Pandey, 2008) are consistent with the earlier 308

estimates. 309

Recently, the 238U/206Pb isotopic analyses on the detrital zircon grains 310

extracted from the Sonia and Girbakhar sandstone member of the Marwar 311

Supergroup by Malone et al. (2008) yielded a major age peak for the Marwar 312

Supergroup centered between 800 and 900 Ma. These ages have been interpreted to 313

reflect sedimentary input from the igneous rocks in the South China craton, juvenile 314

crust formed in the Arabian-Nubian shield or igneous rocks emplaced along the 315

western margin of the Delhi – Aravalli fold belt (Deb et al., 2001; Jiang et al., 2003; 316

Xiao et al., 2007; Pradhan et al., in review; Van Lente et al., in press). 317

Singhbhum Craton318

The Singhbhum Craton (also called the Singhbhum-Orissa craton; Figure 5) 319

lies along the eastern coast of India and borders the Mahanadi graben to the west, 320

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65

the Narmada-Son lineament, and the Indo-Gangetic plain. It is comprised of three 321

major geologic provinces: (1) a nucleus at the southern edge known as the 322

Singhbhum nucleus; (2) the Singhbhum-Dhalbhum mobile belt; and (3) the 323

Chhotnagpur terrain of gneisses and granite (Naqvi & Rogers, 1987). 324

Older Metamorphic Group-Singhbhum Nucleus325

The Singhbhum nucleus is composed mainly of Archaean granitoid 326

batholiths, including the Singhbhum Granite Complex. The batholiths are 327

surrounded by several supracrustal rock complexes, the oldest of these is known as 328

the Older Metamorphic Group (OMG). The OMG consists mainly of remnants in the 329

form of micaceous schists, quartzites, calc-silicates, and para- and 330

orthoamphibolites (Naqvi & Rogers, 1987). Tonalite-trondhjemite gneisses (TTG’s) 331

are found along the contacts with some of the amphibolites (Fig xx). Unfortunately, 332

reliable age dates within the Singhbhum Craton are sparse. U-Pb zircon dating in 333

the OMG supracrustal suite yields ages of 3.5, 3.4, and 3.2 Ga (Mondal et al., 2007). 334

Gneisses in the OMG enclaves yield ages of 3.8 Ga with Sm-Nd dating and 3.2 Ga with 335

Rb-Sr techniques (Naqvi & Rogers, 1987). The most comprehensive attempt to date 336

the OMG is described by Misra et al. (1999). Detrital zircons from the OMG yielded 337

age ranges between 3.5-3.6 Ga and other zircons have peaks at 3.4 and 3.2 Ga. Misra 338

et al. conclude that the younger ages represent two distinct metamorphic events in 339

the OMG. Basu et al. (1996) describe a Pb-loss event at 3352 26 Ma in the OMG 340

most likely related to the intrusion of the Singhbhum granite (see below). The 341

scarcity and nature of the OMG rocks make their relationship to surrounding rocks 342

difficult to determine and numerous widely varied hypotheses exist that we 343

consider too poorly constrained to merit discussion in this review paper.344

Singhbhum Granite345

The OMG is intruded by the approximately 10,000 km2 Singhbhum Granite 346

complex. The complex includes 12 domal magmatic bodies that are independent of 347

one another. Whether these bodies were emplaced in one magmatic event or several 348

remains a subject of debate; however recently acquired data suggests polyphase 349

emplacement (Naqvi & Rogers, 1987).350

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65

The Singhbhum Granite complex includes two different types of granite. One 351

set of granites displays HREE depletion and is dated at 3300 ± 7 Ma using U-Pb 352

dating on zircons (Mondal et al., 2007). The other variety of granites produce a 353

fractionated LREE pattern and flat HREE and are dated at ~3.1 Ga using whole rock 354

Pb-Pb techniques (Mondal et al., 2007). Misra et al. (1999) report an 3328 7 Ma 355

age for the Signhbhum ‘phase II” granites and an ages of 3080 8 Ma and 3092 5 356

Ma for the Mayurbhanj granite. Reddy et al. (2008) report SHRIMP U-Pb and Pb-Pb 357

ages from the Singhbhum granite. They report a discordia upper intercept for the 358

Singhbhum granite of 3302 14 Ma and a more robust 207Pb-206Pb age for the most 359

concordant zircons of 3288 28

Ma. The Sushin nepheline syenite body yielded the 360

youngest ages from the SG complex of 922.4 10.4 Ma (Reddy et al., 2008). The 361

geochronological data from the Singhbhum granites therefore favors a 3-stage 362

emplacement. The oldest intrusions of granites at ~3.3 Ga followed by a secondary 363

emplacement at 3.1 Ga and the youngest inrusive event at ~0.9 Ga. Acharyya et al. 364

(2008) report U-Pb ages from an ‘earliest’ phase of Singhbhum granite intrusion. 365

Two concordant ages of 3527 17 Ma and 3448 19 Ma would represent the 366

earliest phases of granitic intrusion coeval with the formation of the Iron Ore Group 367

(described below).368

Iron Ore Group369

The cratonisation of the Singhbhum region appears to have occurred 370

contemporaneously with the formation of a greenstone-gneiss terrane known as the 371

Iron Ore Group (IOG) (Eriksson et al., 2006; Mondal et al., 2007). The entire IOG 372

occurs as a supracrustal suite composed of three fold belts: the Jamda-Koira, the 373

Gorumahishani-Badampahar, and the Tomka-Daitari (Mondal et al., 2007). It is 374

divided into two sections, an Older and a Younger, with similar compositions but 375

differing ages.376

The Older IOG is comprised of clastic sedimentary rocks, proposed by 377

Eriksson et al. (2006) to have a shallow marine depositional source, and of 378

syndepositional volcanic rocks which imply large scale rifting (Eriksson et al., 2006). 379

The Older IOG formed prior to the Singhbhum Granite and was thought to have an 380

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65

age range between 3.3 and 3.1 Ga, based solely on associations to nearby rocks and 381

available ages for related rocks (Mondal et al., 2007; Eriksson et al., 2006). A recent 382

geochronologic study of the IOG (Mukhopadhyay et al., 2008) yielded an age for a 383

dacitic lava of 3506.8 2.3 Ma and confirms that the IOG formed prior to the 384

Singhbhum granites. Detrital zircons found in the TTG suite (see above) may have 385

been derived from the IOG.386

The Younger Iron Ore Group formed after the Singhbhum Granite 387

cratonisation event and has a suggested depositional age >2.55 and <3.0 Ga. It is 388

comprised of shallow or shelfal marine greenstone deposits with BIF (Eriksson et 389

al., 2006).390

Simlipal Basin391

The relatively undeforemd Simlipal Basin is a volcano-sedimentary basin 392

composed mainly of tuffs, lavas, quartzites, arkoses and shales and is intruded by 393

the fractionally crystallized Amjori Sill and various smaller intrusive bodies. The 394

volcanic complex displays shows evidence of caldera collapse features as units show 395

dips toward the center of the basin. Early attempts at dating the complex yielded 396

Rb-Sr ages of 2085 Ma (Naqvi & Rogers, 1987). This age appears to be too young as 397

the Simlipal basinal rocks (including the Simlipal Complex) is intruded by the ~3.1 398

Ga Mayubhanj granite.399

Mafic Dyke Swarms400

Newer Dolerites401

Dyke swarms found within the Singhbhum granitic pluton vary in rock type 402

from mafic to intermediate. The largest suite of dykes are the so-called “Newer 403

Dolerites” (Bose, 2008). 404

Nearly every group of rocks in the Singhbhum Nucleus has been intruded by 405

the widespread Newer Dolerites. The Newer Dolerites are subdivided into at least 406

two distinct generations, related by cross-cutting relationships and distinct 407

geochemical signatures. Emplacement ages are poorly constrained, ranging from 408

1600 to 950 Ma, based mainly on K-Ar dating (Naqvi & Rogers, 1987; Bose, 2008; 409

Srivastava et al., 2000). Bose (2008; and sources therein) suggests three distinct 410

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65

pulses of magmatism, based mainly on available K-Ar data, at 2100 ± 100 Ma, 1500 411

± 100 Ma, and 1100 ± 200 Ma. 412

The dykes vary from a few meters to 700 m in thickness and can extend for 413

several kilometers. They predominantly strike NNE-SSW or NNW-SSE. The dolerites 414

consist of a variety of textures including fine, medium and coarse grained 415

specimens, though the majority show medium grain size. The main minerals seen in 416

the slightly metamorphosed dolerites are augite and labradorite (Verma et al., 417

1974).418

Chotanagpur Terrain419

The Proterozoic Chotanagpur Granite Gneiss Complex (CGGC) occurs in the 420

northern part of the Singhbhum mobile belt and consists of granitic gneisses, 421

quartzo-feldspathoids, and intermittent mafic intrusives, all of which display 422

varying degrees of metamorphism and tectonic deformation (Mahmoud et al., 423

2008). The age constraints for the 200 km wide by 500 km long terrain range from 424

1500 to 800 Ma on the basis of K-Ar dating, but these ages most certainly reflect 425

disturbance of the K-Ar system (Naqvi & Rogers, 1987).426

The CGGC boasts a wide variety of magmatic rocks, both mantle and crustal 427

derived, that took part in the 2.1 billion year long cratonisation process. The 428

magmatism of the CGGC was largely controlled by intra-continental rift zones 429

leading to extensional tectonic activity and magmatic intrusions (Ghose et al., 2008). 430

The features displaying high-grade metamorphism characteristically contain 431

intrusive pegmatites that display both concordant and discordant foliation. The 432

pegmatites are thought to have occurred over a long time span and display 433

indications of each of the different deformation episodes known to have occurred in 434

the area (Mahmoud et al., 2008). Two of the most prominent deformation features 435

are the large geo-anticline of metamorphic schists and the shear zone that deforms 436

the geo-anticline along its overfolded southern limb (Dunn & Dey, 1942). 437

Proterozoic Sedimentation438

Paleo-Mesoproterozoic History439

Proterozoic sedimentation and volcanism found in the Singhbhum Craton is 440

divided into several formations (Figure 6) including (from oldest to youngest) the 441

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65

Dhanjori Basin the Singhbhum Group (composed of the older Chaibasa and younger 442

Dhalbhum Formations), the Dalma Formation, and the Chandil Formation (Eriksson 443

et al., 2006; Mazumder, 2005). The oldest two formations (Dhanjori and Chaibasa) 444

represent periods of transgression and regression onto the continent, while the 445

younger supracrustal units (Dhalbhum, Dalma, and Chandil Formations) reflect a 446

possible mantle plume event at ca. 1.6 Ga (Eriksson et al., 2006). Mazumder (2005) 447

suggested that the cooling of the massive Singhbhum Granite Complex induced 448

isostatic readjustment within the craton and led to a new tectonic regime of 449

tensional stresses and deep-seated fractures that in turn influenced the deposition 450

of the Proterozoic formations.451

The Dhanjori Basin formed unconformably over the Archaean basement and 452

is the oldest sedimentary basin in the Singhbhum Craton. It is a terrestrial, primarily 453

fluvial sequence composed of clastic sedimentary rocks overlain by mafic-ultramafic 454

volcanic and volcaniclastic rocks (Eriksson et al., 2006; Mazumder, 2005). Both 455

massive and schistose, amygdaloidal basalts are present in the formation. These 456

low-Al tholeiites have been folded into a first order syncline (Naqvi & Rogers, 1987). 457

Based on field and preliminary geochronologic results, Acharyya et al. (2008) 458

propose a late-Archean to Early Paleoproterozoic age for the Dhanjori (~2.5 Ga).459

Stratigraphically above the Dhanjori Formation is the Chaibasa Formation, 460

the lower sequence of the Singhbhum Group, marked by a transgressive lag 461

representing a major transgression on the Singhbhum Craton (Mazumder, 2005). 462

The formation is comprised of tidal sandstones, a heterolithic facies generated by 463

deposition during stormy and fair weather, and an offshore shale facies (Eriksson et 464

al., 2006).465

Unconformably overlying the Chaibasa Formation is the Dhalbhum 466

Formation. It is composed of a layer of phyllites, shales, and quatzites overlain by a 467

layer of volcanic tuff. Ultramafic-mafic intrusions and thin basaltic to komatiitic lava 468

flows occur through the section (Eriksson et al., 2006). The depositional 469

environment for the formation is though to be largely fluvial and aeolian 470

representing an overall terrestrial depositional history and a sequence boundary at 471

the Chaibasa-Dhalbhum contact (Mazumder, 2005).472

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65

The Dalma Formation conformably overlies the Dhalbhum Formation and 473

consists of ultramafic-mafic volcanic rocks. This thick sequence contains numerous 474

lenses of high Mg agglomerates (Eriksson et al., 2006). A period of concurrent 475

sedimentation and volcanism is inferred for the Dalma Formation (Mazumder, 476

2005). The formation shows evidence of a major folding event and displays 477

widespread metamorphism (Dunn & Dey, 1942). The depositional history of the 478

Dalma Formation is widely debated with hypotheses ranging from island arc to 479

back-arc basinal settings or alternatively from continental volcanism to 480

intracontinental rifting. A plume related origin also attracts many supporters, 481

although no one theory has become generally accepted (Eriksson et al., 2006 and 482

references therein). 483

The Chandil Formation exists as a belt of metamorphosed sedimentary rock 484

and volcanic rocks that separate the Dalma sequence to the south from the 485

Chotanagpur Granite Gneiss Complex to the north. Original depositional settings 486

areinterpreted as a combination of fluvial-aeolian and shallow marine 487

sedimentation (Eriksson et al., 2006). The Chandil tuffs are dated to 1484 44 Ma 488

(Rb-Sr; Sengupta et al., 2000); however, this age is challenged and generally 489

regarded as a metamorphic resetting rather than an eruptive age (Eriksson et al., 490

2006; Mazumder, 2005). Whole rock Rb-Sr dating on a cluster of granites intruding 491

the Chandil yielded an age of 1638 ± 38 Ma providing a poorly constrained younger 492

limit for the Chandil Formation . (Mazumder, 2005).493

The Kolhan Group494

In the southern part of the Singhbhum craton, there is a minor supracrustal 495

suite known as the Kolan Group. The age of the Kolhan Group is unconstrained, but 496

Mukhopadhyay et al. (2006) argued that sedimentation likely began at about 1.1 Ga. 497

The Kolhan Group formed in an intracratonic basin with a westward slope and 498

subsequently deformed into a synclinal structure. Elongate domes and basins and 499

dome-in-dome structures dominate the eastern part of the basin (Naqvi & Rogers, 500

1987). The Kolhan Group is subdivided into three different formations; the Mungra 501

sandstone (25 m thick), the Jinkphani limestone (80 m thick) and the Jetia shale 502

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65

(1000 meters) As a whole, the Kolhan Group is a transgressive feature that is 503

interpreted as having formed in a rift setting that is perhaps related to the 504

fragmentation of the Rodinia supercontinent (Bandopadhyay et al., 2004; 505

Mukhopadhyay et al., 2006).506

Bastar Craton507

The Bastar Craton (Figure 7; also known as the Bhandara or Central Indian 508

Craton) is bordered by the Godavari rift (to the south), the Mahandi Rift (in the 509

northeast), the Satpura mobile belt (in the north), the Eastern Ghats mobile belt (to 510

the east) and Deccan traps cover (to the west). The craton consists mainly of 511

granites and granitic gneisses and contains three major features: (1) a trio of 512

supracrustal sequences, (2) mafic dyke swarms, and (3) the Satpura orogenic belt 513

(Naqvi & Rogers, 1987; Srivastava et al., 2004). 514

The “Gneissic Complex” is dominated by TTG assemblages dated to between 515

2500-2600 Ma that are interpreted to reflect a major interval of crustal accretion 516

(Vaidyanadhan and Ramakrishnan, 2008). A tonalite sample yielded a U-Pb upper 517

intercept age of 3561 11 Ma (Ghosh, 2004) thought to reflect the oldest age of the 518

gneissic protolith. Sarkar et al. (1993) report an age of 3509 +14/-7 Ma for another 519

gneissic complex.520

Supracrustal Sequences521

The Bastar Craton contains three major supracrustal sequences of rocks 522

(Figure 8), the Dongargarh, the Sakoli, and the Sauser suites. Of the three suites, only 523

the Dongargarh Supergroup has been dated. 524

Dongargarh Supergroup525

The Dongargarh Supergroup extends from the Chattisgarh basin in the east 526

to the Sakoli in the west and is composed of three smaller groups of rocks, the 527

Amagaon, Nandgaon, and Khairagarh groups. 528

The Amagaon granites and gneisses are presumed to have formed during the 529

Amagaon Orogeny at ca. 2.3 Ga. The group consists mainly of gneisses with 530

secondary schists and quartzites (Naqvi & Rogers, 1987). 531

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65

The Nandgaon Group contains two volcanic suites, the Bijli and Pitepani 532

suites, are rhyolite dominated with secondary dacites, andesites, and basalts that 533

show signs of fractionation (Neogi et al., 1996). The Bijli rhyolite has been dated 534

using Rb-Sr techniques at 2180 ± 25 Ma and 2503 35 Ma (Sarkar et al., 1981; 535

Krishnamurthy et al., 1988) and has localized inclusions of Amagaon granite (Naqvi 536

& Rogers, 1987). The Dongarhgarh volcanic rocks have Rb-Sr ages of 2465 22 Ma 537

and 2270 90 Ma (Sarkar et al., 1981; Krishnamurthy et al., 1988). Chakraborty 538

and Sensarma (2008) largely dismiss the inconsistency within the Rb-Sr data and 539

argue, on the basis of correlation with well-dated units in the Singhbhum craton that 540

the Namdgoan Group was developed ~2.5 Ga. 541

The Khairagarh Group unconformably overlies the Nandgaon and consists of 542

shales, sandstones, and igneous rocks. The basal formations are broken into the 543

Basal Shale, the Bortalao formation, and an intertrappean shale, all conformably 544

overlying each other (Naqvi & Rogers, 1987). It also contains two overlying volcanic 545

suites, the Sitagota and Mangikhuta, that are dominated by more primitive tholeiitic 546

basalts that are relatively unfractionated (Neogi et al., 1996). The volcanic suites are 547

broken up by the Karutola sandstone (Naqvi & Rogers, 1987). The four volcanic 548

suites within the Dongargarh Group erupted periodically between ca. 2462 and 549

1367 Ma (Neogi et al., 1996).550

Sakoli Group551

The Sakoli Group consists mainly of low grade metamorphic rocks of 552

undetermined age in a large synclinorium. The Group is a significant volcano-553

sedimentary deposit comprised of (Youngest to oldest) slates and phyllites, bimodal 554

volcanic suite and schists, metabasalts and cherts and conglomerates and Banded 555

Iron Formations (BIF’s; Bandyopadhyay et al., 1990). Two stages of deformation are 556

thought to have occurred, creating a sequence of overfolded bedding and a period of 557

progressive metamorphism followed by retrogression (Naqvi & Rogers, 1987). 558

Unconformably overlying the Sakoli Group are the Permo-Triassic Gondwana 559

Supergroup and the Late Cretaceous Deccan basalts.560

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65

The age of the Sakoli Group is not known. Rb-Sr ages on metavolcanics and tuffs 561

yield ages of 1295 ± 40 and 922 ± 33 Ma but the interpretation of these ages is 562

fraught with difficulty (Bandyopadhyay et al., 1990).563

Sausar Group564

The Sausar Group of metamorphosed sediments and manganese-bearing 565

ores were once thought to be the oldest formations in central India. The Sausar 566

polymetamorphic belt that contains the sediments is part of the larger Central 567

Indian Tectonic Zone (CITZ) and is approximately 300 kilometers in length and 70 568

kilometers in width (Naqvi and Rogers, 1987). Detailed geochronologic studies are 569

lacking within this belt; however, Roy et al. (2006) argue that the main phase of 570

metamorphism (amphibolite-grade) took place between 800-900 Ma based on Rb-571

Sr and Sm-Nd geochronology. They also noted that the Sausar Belt was bounded on 572

the north and south by granulite belts of different ages. The southern granulite belt 573

hosts a charnockite that yielded a Sm-Nd isochron age of 2672 54 Ma. A mafic 574

granulite within the southern belt yielded a Sm-Nd age of 1403 99 Ma. The 575

northern granulite yielded a Sm-Nd age of 1112 77 Ma. The granulites in the 576

north and south also yield Rb-Sr isochron ages in the range of 800-900 Ma. 577

Roy et al. (2006) developed a tectonic model for the region whereby the 578

Dharwar and Bastar cratons were juxtaposed with the Bundelkhand craton during 579

the younger Sausar orogenic cycle as part of the larger assembly of Rodinia. 580

In contrast Stein et al. (2004) argue that the juxtaposition between the 581

northern and southern Indian cratonic along the CITZ took place during the earliest 582

Paleoproterozoic based on Re-Os ages from within the Sausar Belt (Malanjkhand 583

granitoid batholith). They report ages of 2490 2 Ma for the granitoid that is nearly 584

identical to U-Pb zircon ages of 2478 9 Ma and 2477 10 Ma (Ranigrahi et al., 585

2002). Mineralization ages associated with the intrusions ranged from 2446-2475 586

Ma (Stein et al., 2004). Stein et al. (2004) note that the region underwent significant 587

~1100-1000 Ma reworking, but the main assembly of cratons occurred during the 588

earliest Paleoproterozoic along the Sausar Belt (e.g. CITZ). 589

Mafic Dyke Swarms590

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65

Mafic dyke swarms are indicators of crustal extension and can represent 591

supercontinent assembly and/or dispersal, subduction, large igneous province 592

emplacement, and crust/mantle interaction (Subba Rao et al., 2008). The Bastar 593

Craton is intruded by numerous mafic dyke swarms, spanning an area of at least 594

17,000 km3, which cross cut the various granitoids and supracrustal rocks of the 595

region (French et al., 2008). The swarms are given regional names, but many may 596

belong to the same intrusive episode. These include the Gidam-Tongpal swarm, the 597

Bhanupratappur-Keskal swarm, the Narainpur-Kondagaon swarm and the Bijapur-598

Sukma swarm (Ramachandra et al., 1995). A majority of the southern dykes trend 599

NW-SE, paralleling the Godavari rift, and the dykes are thought to have exploited 600

preexisting faults. The northern dykes are oblique to the Mahanadi rift in a NNW-601

SSE direction (French et al., 2008).602

Geochronologic constraints on many of the swarms are poor although recent 603

work suggests a major episode of igneous activity and dyke intrusion around 1.9 Ga 604

(French et al., 2008). The Paleoproterozoic dyke swarms are dated using U-Pb 605

baddeleyite/zircon techniques at 1891.1 0.1 Ma and 1883 1.4 Ma and include 606

boninite-norite and sub-alkaline mafic dykes, most of which display some degree of 607

metamorphism (Srivastava, 2008; Srivastava et al., 2004; French et al., 2008). 608

French et al. (2008) and Srivastava et al. (2008 and 2004) interpret the 609

Precambrian dyke swarms as remnants of a large igneous province. French et al. 610

(2008) noted that this activity is coeval with mafic magmatism in both the Superior 611

craton of North America and along the northern margin of the Kaapvaal craton 612

although the did not link the regions together paleogeographically and instead 613

argued for a mantle upwelling on a global scale. Srivastava and Singh (2003) linked 614

the dykes to Laurentia and Antartica in a “Columbia-type” paleogeography. 615

The younger dyke swarms represent the youngest igneous events in the 616

Bastar Craton and mainly include metagabbros and metadolerites (Subba Rao et al., 617

2008). A different interpretation is presented for the Proterozoic dyke swarms. 618

Hussain et al. (2008) postulate that these dykes were derived from subduction 619

constituents that had been altered in the mantle lithosphere. A subduction related 620

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65

genesis is theorized due to the increased incompatible lithophile elements seen in 621

the geochemical analysis (Subba Rao et al., 2008). 622

Sedimentary Basins623

The Bastar Craton contains two major Proterozoic basins, the Chattisgarh 624

Basin, the Indravati Basin and six minor basins. 625

Chattisgarh Basin626

The 36,000 km2 Chattisgarh Basin is comprised of an ~1500 meter thick 627

sedimentary layer (the Chattisgarh Supergroup) of conglomerates, orthoquartzites, 628

sandstones, shales, limestones, cherts, and dolomites (Naqvi & Rogers, 1987). The 629

sedimentary sequence has been divided into a basal Chandarpur series and an 630

upper Raipur series (Naqvi & Rogers, 1987; Patranabis-Deb et al., 2007). The 631

Chandarpur Group consists of a shale-dominated sequence containing conglomerate 632

and coarse arkose sandstone formed as coalescing fan-fan delta deposits, storm-633

dominated shelf deposits, and high-energy shoreface deposits. The Raipur Group, 634

however, underwent outer shelf, slope and basin deposition and consists of a 635

limestone-shale dominated sequence (Chaudhuri et al., 2002). 636

In the eastern part of the basin lies the “Purana” succession. The Purana 637

contains a proximal conglomerate-shale-sandstone assemblage and a distal 638

limestone-shale assemblage. The conglomerate-shale-sandstone assemblage 639

unconformably overlies the basement and is thought to correspond to the 640

Chandarpur group. The limestone-shale assemblage, on the other hand, is thought to 641

correspond to the Raipur series (Deb, 2004).642

Recently, the timing of deposition of the Chattisgarh Supergroup is the topic 643

of debate. A current ‘consensus’ places the dates of deposition in the Chhattisgarh 644

between the Neoproterozoic to as young as 500 Ma (Naqvi, 2005). However, 645

rhyolitic tuffs near the top of the Chhattisgarh sequence (the Sukhda and Sapos 646

Tuffs) yielded ages of 1011 19 Ma and 990 23 Ma (Sukhda tuff) and 1020 15 647

Ma (Sapos tuff) using U-Pb SHRIMP techniques on magmatic zircons (Patranabis-648

Deb et al, 2007). This led the authors of that paper to conclude that the Purana 649

basins may up to 500 Ma older than the ‘consensus’ agreement. This conclusion is 650

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65

also supported by recent geochronologic studies from the lower part of the 651

Chattisgarh basin by Das et al. (2009). In particular, zircon ages from the Khariar 652

tuff show a concentration of ages around 1455 Ma. 653

Indravati Basin654

The 9000 km2 Indravati Basin consists of unmetamorphosed, unfossiliferous, 655

largely undeformed shales, dolomites, sandstones, quartz arenites, limestones, and 656

conglomerates. The sediments are thought to have a shallow marine or lagoonal 657

depositional environment (Maheshwari et al., 2005). The basin is lithologically 658

similar to the Chattisgarh and it is postulated that at one point the two were 659

connected and later eroded into discrete basins (Naqvi & Rogers, 1987). The 660

sandstone member is correlated with the sandstone of the Chopardih Formation of 661

the Chattisgarh Basin, that has been dated using K/Ar methods at 700-750 Ma 662

(Maheshwari et al., 2005). Given the recent dating of the tuffaceous layers in the 663

Chhattisgarh basin, these K-Ar ages should be viewed with skepticism.664

Eastern Dharwar Craton665

The Dharwar craton is split into two separate cratons, an east and west, with 666

major differences in lithology and ages of rock units. The western boundary of the 667

Eastern Dharwar craton (EDC) is poorly defined and is constrained to a 200 km 668

wide lithologic transitional zone from the peninsular gneisses of the Western 669

Dharwar craton to the Closepet Granite. The Closepet granite is a good 670

approximation of the western boundary and is used as such in this paper 671

(Vaidyanadhan and Ramakrishnan, 2008). The EDC is bounded to the north by the 672

Deccan traps and the Bastar craton, to the east by the Eastern Ghats mobile belt, and 673

to the south by the Southern Granulite terrane (Balakrishnan et al., 1999). The 674

craton is composed of the Dharwar Batholith (dominantly granitic), greenstone 675

belts, intrusive volcanics, and middle Proterozoic to more recent sedimentary basins 676

(Figure 9; Naqvi and Rogers, 1987; Vaidyanadhan and Ramakrishnan, 2008).677

Greenstone Belts 678

Greenstone and schist belts of the EDC are concentrated in the western half 679

of the craton and are stretched into linear arrays. The belts continue to the east 680

where they are covered by the Proterozoic Cuddapah basin. The general trend of 681

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65

the belts is N-S and related belts are classified into supergroups (Vaidyanadhan and 682

Ramakrishnan, 2008). Metamorphism of the belts is generally limited to 683

greenschist to amphibolite facies with lower grades occurring in the larger belts and 684

in the interior of smaller ones (Chadwick et al., 2000). Balakrishnan et al. (1990) 685

used whole rock Pb/Pb dating to constrain the age of the Kolar schist belt between 686

2900-2600 Ma. Nutman et al. (1996) and Nutman (1998) used SHRIMP U-Pb zircon 687

methods to obtain ages of ~2725-2550 Ma. Age trends in the belts indicate 688

younging from west to east (Vaidyanadhan and Ramakrishnan, 2008). These schist 689

belts are all, to some degree, intruded by syn- and post-tectonic felsic melts 690

(Chadwick et al., 2000). Some of the more important greenstone-schist belts and 691

supergroups that will be discussed briefly below include: Sandur schist belt, 692

Ramagiri-(Penakacherla-Sirigeri)-Hungund superbelt (RPSH), Kolar-Kadiri-693

Jonnagiri-Hutti superbelt (KKJH), and Veligallu-Raichur-Gadwal superbelt (VRG).694

The Sandur schist belt is characterized by dominant greenschist facies with 695

amphibolites grade occurring at the margins (Naqvi and Rogers, 1987). It is located 696

at the northern end of the Closepet granite and differs from most of the belts in that 697

it is not a thin N-S trending belt (Figure 9). Granites in the center of the belt were 698

dated using SHRIMP U-Pb and found to be between 2600-2500 Ma (Vaidyanadhan 699

and Ramakrishnan, 2008). Rhyolites from the Sandur greenstone belt have a 700

SHRIMP zircon U-Pb age of 2658 14 Ma (Nutman et al., 1996) and Naqvi et al. 701

(1996) report Sm-Nd ages for basalts and komatiites of 2706 84 Ma.702

The RPSH consists of two discontinuous schist belts, the Ramagiri-703

Penakacherla-Sirigeri and the Hungund. The majority of metamorphism is at 704

greenschist facies. The belts are intruded by a series of granites and gneisses that 705

provide age constraints. Basalts from the Ramigiri greenstone belt are dated to 706

2746 64 Ma (Pb-Pb; Zachariah et al., 1995). This result is consistent with ages of 707

rhyolitic, basaltic and komatiitic lavas from the nearby Sandur greenstone.708

The KKJH superbelt is located in the southern portion of the EDC and is a 709

discontinuous band of linear belts (Figure. 9). The southern portion of the superbelt 710

grades into a characteristic charnockitic terrain, while the north end (Kadiri belt) 711

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65

disappears beneath the Cuddapah basin. The Kolar region contains mostly 712

amphibolite grade metamorphism with various textures (granular, massive, tufted, 713

and schistose). As with the other greenstone belts of the region, the KKJH is 714

intruded by various felsic dykes that provide age constraints. Pb-Pb isochron data 715

provides and upper estimate for the group at 2700 Ma. This age is consistent with 716

SHRIMP U-Pb zircon analysis of granites and gneisses located in the belt 717

(Vaidyanadhan and Ramakrishnan, 2008). A second age of ~2550 Ma was found in 718

various units within the KKJH using SHRIMP U-Pb zircons and provides a younger 719

limit for the supergroup (Rogers et al., 2007).720

The VRG supergroup is located to the south of, beneath, and north of the 721

Cuddapah basin (Figure 9). The group is split to the south of the basin and emerges 722

to the north as a single unit before diverging again. The southern portion is divided 723

by granite and is composed of metabasaltic amphibolites. The northern portion 724

contains pillowed metabasalts and boninites that are typically formed during the 725

early stages of subduction. 726

In summary, age constraints on the greenstone belts in the Eastern Dharwar 727

craton are known from only a few locations and all appear to be Neoarchean in age 728

as compared to those in the Western Dharwar craton described below.729

Dharwar Batholith730

The Dharwar Batholith is a term first used by Chadwick et al. (2000) to 731

describe a series of parallel plutonic belts. Previous works consistently used the 732

term 'Peninsular Gneisses' to describe the majority of the EDC; however, it is 733

compositionally different than the WDC gneisses, more granitic than gneissic, and 734

hence the new terminology is more appropriate (Vaidyanadhan and Ramakrishnan, 735

2008). Peninsular gneisses also suggest an early Archaean origin, whereas the 736

granitic gneisses of the Dharwar Batholith are much younger in age. The plutonic 737

belts are approximately 15-25 km wide, hundreds of miles long and separated by 738

greenstone belts (described above). They trend NW to SE except for in the south 739

where the trend becomes predominately a N-S orientation. The belts are mostly 740

mixtures of juvenile multipulse granites and diorites, and are wedge-shaped with 741

steep granitic dyke intrusives (Chadwick et al., 2000; Vaidyanadhan and 742

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65

Ramakrishnan, 2008). Dating for this unit comes from SHRIMP U-Pb zircon 743

measurements and constrain the emplacement of the Dharwar Batholith to 2700-744

2500 Ma (Nutman et al., 1996; Nutman, 1998; Friend and Nutman, 1991; Krogstad 745

et al., 1995). Ages for granitic units appear to decrease from west to east; however, 746

gneissic protolith ages of >2900 Ma outcrop at various locations and correspond to 747

the main thermal event of the WDC (Pradhan et al., 2008). 748

Closepet Granite749

The Closepet Granite is located on the western margin of the EDC and is a 750

linear feature trending ~N-S. The granite is 400 km long and approximately 20-30 751

km wide with shear zones on both sides. Recent works suggest that the similar 752

convexity of adjacent schist belts and granitic plutons may indicate that the Closepet 753

is a 'stitching granite' formed during the suturing of the Eastern and Western 754

Dharwar cratons (Figure. 10; Vaidyanadhan and Ramakrishnan, 2008). The 755

exposed rock is divided into northern and southern components by a portion of the 756

Sandur Schist belt; however, both sections appear to be similar lithologically at the 757

outcrop level (Naqvi and Rogers, 1987). The Closepet granite is dated to 2513 ± 5 758

Ma (Friend and Nutman, 1991) and appears to be part of a widespread Neoarchean 759

phase of plutonism (Mojzsis et al., 2003) in both the eastern and western Dharwar 760

cratons.761

Cratonization History762

Balakrishnan et al. (1999), Manikyamba et al. (2005), and others propose 763

that the eastern portion of the Dharwar craton formed as a result of island arcs 764

accreting to an older (>3500 Ma), solid western craton through transpression. The 765

linear schist belts represent back arc basin environments that have been 766

metamorphosed during the accretion. The Eastern Ghats mobile belt is thought to be 767

the closure point during amalgamation of the EDC. Chadwick et al. (1996, 1999, and 768

2000) suggest a similar idea; however, their model involves the ‘Dharwar batholith’. 769

This term indicates that separate island arcs or granitic plutons have already 770

formed a solid landmass. The Dharwar batholith obliquely converged with the WDC 771

causing sinistral transpressive shear systems at the margins of most belts. 772

Greenstone belts developed as a result of intra-arc basins associated with the 773

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65

batholith (Fig. 12). Proposed timing of this collisional history is between 2750-2510 774

Ma. These models suggest the Closepet granite has been accreted onto the WDC, in 775

contrast with arguments below. 776

Jayananda et al. (2000), Chardon et al. (2002), and others propose that the 777

most likely mechanism of formation of the EDC was through vertical tectonics. The 778

plume model suggests a large mantle plume situated just beneath the EDC/WDC 779

boundary in an enriched mantle. Further east, the plume introduces melting to a 780

colder and more depleted mantle. Induced melting from the plume is suggested to 781

emplace juvenile magmas around 2500 Ma in the EDC (Figure 11). The greenstone 782

belts are a result of inverse diapirism and resulting metamorphism. This model 783

suggests that the Closepet granite is a batholith rather than an accreted island arc or 784

a stitching pluton between the EDC/WDC.785

Post-Cratonization Intrusive Events786

The majority of intrusive events of the Eastern Dharwar craton (EDC) are 787

represented by mafic dykes, kimberlites and lamproites. Many of the clusters occur 788

around the Cuddapah basin and have three main trends: NW-SE, E-W, and NE-SW. 789

These trends are associated with various paleostress orientations during the 790

Proterozoic to Late Cretaceous (Srivastava et al., 2008). Most of the dykes disappear 791

beneath the Cuddapah basin, indicating that intrusion of the host granitic-gneiss 792

took place before the basin developed. These dykes all formed after the migmatitic 793

activity of the host granitoids and are virtually free of any effects of metamorphism 794

and deformation (Chakrabarti et al., 2006). Five major dyke clusters of the EDC, 795

described below, include: (1) Hyderabad, (2) Mahbubnagar, (3) 796

Harohalli/Bangalore, (4) Anantapur and (5) Tirupati (Figure 9).797

The Hyderabad cluster is located to the north of the Cuddapah basin (Figure798

9). Wide spaced NNE-SSW to N-S trending dykes traverse ENE-WSW and WNW-ESE 799

oriented dykes. The majority of the dykes present are doleritic in composition 800

(Murthy, 1995). Whole rock K-Ar ages of local dykes indicate emplacement 801

between 1471 ± 54 Ma and 1335 ± 49 Ma (Mallikarjuna et al., 1995), but these well 802

may reflect a younger isotopic disturbance as at least some of the dykes in the 803

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65

Hyderabad cluster may be related to either the 1.9 Ga swarm in the Bastar craton 804

(French et al., 2008) or the ~2.2 Ga swarm near Mahbubnagar (French et al., 2004). 805

Located to the NW of the Cuddapah basin (Figure 9), the Mahbubnagar dyke 806

swarm intrudes local granitic gneisses with ages of 2.5-2.4 Ga and 2.2-2.1 Ga (Rb-807

Sr). The mafic dykes are predominantly gabbro; however, dolerite and808

metapyroxenite are also present. They are oriented NW-SE and can be up to 50 km 809

long and average 5-30 m wide. Chilled margins are common with coarse aphyic or 810

plagioclase-phyic interiors. Pooled regression results from Sm-Nd analysis gives an 811

emplacement age of 2173 ± 64 Ma (Pandey et al., 1997). These results are 812

duplicated by French et al. (2004), who obtained ages of ~2180 Ma using U-Pb 813

techniques on near-by dykes.814

The Harohalli/Bangalore swarm is located between the southwestern 815

portion of the Cuddapah basin and the southeastern limb of the Closepet granite 816

(Figure 9). The dyke cluster is split into an older group made up of dolerites, 817

trending E-W (Bangalore dyke swarm), and a younger group of alkaline dykes that 818

trend approximately N-S (Harohalli alkaline dykes; Pradhan et al., 2008). The 819

Bangalore dyke swarm has been dated by Halls et al. (2007) and French et al. (2004) 820

to be between 2366 and 2365 Ma using U-Pb methods. Initial dating of the Harohalli821

alkaline dykes constrained ages to 850-800 Ma through Rb-Sr whole rock 822

measurements from Ikramuddin and Steuber (1976) and Anil-Kumar et al. (1989). 823

However, recent U-Pb ages of 1192 ± 10 Ma produced by Pradhan et al. (2008) on 824

the alkaline dykes challenge these earlier estimates. 825

Just west of the Cuddapah basin is the Anantapur dyke swarm and south of 826

the basin is the Tirupati swarm (Figure 9). These two clusters are less studied than 827

other areas; however, ages are available. The NE-SW and ENE-WSW oriented dykes 828

of the Anantapur swarm are dated using K-Ar measurements and are poorly 829

constrained between 1900-1700 Ma and 1500-1350 Ma respectively (Mallikarjuna 830

Rao et al., 1995; Murthy et al., 1987). More recently, Pradhan et al., in review) dated 831

the NE-SW trending ‘Great Dyke of Bukkapatnam’ using U-Pb methods to 1027 13 832

Ma. 833

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65

Dykes in the Tirupati swarm show two trends, the dominant trend is E-W 834

and there are subordinate NW-SE trending dykes. There are K-Ar and Ar-Ar age 835

determinations on dykes in the Tirupati swarm. The E-W trending dykes have K-Ar 836

ages of 1073 and 1349 Ma and one Ar-Ar total fusion age of 1333 4 Ma. NW-SE 837

trending dykes have K-Ar ages of 935 and 1280 Ma (Mallikarjuna Rao et al., 1995). 838

Although there is a bit of agreement between two of the E-W dyke ages at ~1340 839

Ma, there was no clear plateau in the argon spectra making it likely that the 840

reported K-Ar ages are integrating multiple episodes of disturbance. 841

Kimberlites and Lamproites are present in substantial amounts in four 842

areas within the EDC (NW of, N of, SW of, and in the Cuddapah Basin; Kumar et al., 843

2007;Figure 9). They are characteristically potassic volcanic rocks, which 844

sometimes bear diamonds. The main areas of kimberlite-lamproite intrusions are 845

known as the Wajrakur, Narayanpet, Krishna and Mallamalai fields (Kumar et al., 846

2007). Each of these fields contains multiple pipes. There are excellent age 847

constraints on many of these fields. The Wajrakur field is probably the best dated of 848

the four. Rb-Sr ages on the Wajrakur field form a tight cluster between 1091-1102 849

Ma and a recent U-Pb age on perovskite is 1124 +5/-3 Ma (Kumar et al., 2007). A 850

newly discovered cluster at Sidanpalli (north of Wajrakur) yielded a Rb-Sr whole-851

rock mineral isochron age of 1093 4 Ma (Kumar et al., 2007). Miller and 852

Hargraves (1994) report a U-Pb perovskite age for the Muligiripalle pipe of 1079 853

Ma, but analytical details were not provided. Rb-Sr ages on kimberlites from the 854

Kotakanda and Mudabid kimberlite intrusions yielded ages of 1084 14 and 1098 855

12 Ma (Kumar et al., 2001). It should be noted that there are 40Ar/39Ar ages from 856

the Kotakanda kimberlite that are much older. Chalapathi-Rao et al., (1999) 857

obtained plateau ages of 1401 5 Ma for a phlogopite separate from Kotakanda and 858

1417 8 Ma from a lamproite at Chelima. The discrepancy in the Rb-Sr and 859

40Ar/39Ar ages from Kotakanda are addressed recently by Gopalan and Kumar 860

(2008) who applied K-Ca dating to samples from the Kotakanda swarm and 861

obtained ages of 1068 19 Ma. Gopalan and Kumar (2008) argue that the 40Ar/39Ar 862

results of Chalapathi Rao et al. (1999) are affected by excess argon and the 863

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65

Kotakanda field is ~1100 Ma. It is unclear if the lamproite in Chelima represents an 864

older suite of lamproitic intrusion. 865

Proterozoic Sedimentation866

Cuddapah Basin867

The Cuddapah basin, located in the eastern portion of the EDC, is one of the 868

most well studied basins in India (Figure 10). It covers an area of approximately 869

44,500 km2 and the convex western margin spans nearly 440 km. The eastern 870

margin of the basin is represented by a thrust fault while all other boundaries are 871

part of the Eparchaean Unconformity (a nonconformity associated with undisturbed 872

contact to older Archaean rocks). Sediments and minor volcanic of the basin are 873

estimated to be approximately 12 km thick and made up of two distinct groups. The 874

Cuddapah Supergroup is the older unit and is present throughout. The Kurnool 875

Group is deposited unconformably over the Cuddapah and is located in the western 876

portion of the basin. The basin is surrounded by granitic gneisses, dykes, and sills, 877

all of which terminate at the basin boundary and appear to have formed before 878

deposition. The most recent presence of igneous activity in the basin is the 879

kimberlite and lamproite field located in the center (Figure 10 Chakrabarti et al., 880

2006). Figure 12 provides a stratigraphic section of the Cuddapah basin. 881

Initiation of the basin deposition currently has two main hypotheses. 882

Chatterjee and Bhattacharya (2001) propose that the basin was formed due to a 883

mantle induced thermal trigger. Evidence for this comes from the presence of a 884

large subsurface basic body in the southwestern portion of the basin that could have 885

provided episodic magmatism to form the abundant dykes and lava flows in and 886

around the basin. These mantle flows may have been a result of collisional tectonics 887

involving the Eastern Ghats Mobile Belt. The other idea is introduced by Chaudhuri 888

et al. (2002). This hypothesis suggests that deep, basin margin faults have played a 889

major role in controlling the evolution of the basin. Evidence for these faults comes 890

from seismic sections and Bouguer anomaly data that indicate a possible rifting 891

environment. A lower limit for the basin is given by a mafic dyke on the southwest 892

border, dated by Chatterjee and Bhattacharya (2001), using 40Ar/3940 methods to 893

obtain an age of 1879 ± 5 Ma. This age is similar to the 1882 Ma U-Pb ages on the 894

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65

Pullivendla sill by French et al. (2008). Pradhan et al. (in review) note the similarity 895

in paleomagnetic directions between the ~1.9 Ga Bastar dykes and the Cuddapah 896

traps volcanics. The preponderance of the evidence suggests a thermal pulse of 897

~1.9 Ga for the initiation of basin formation in the Cuddapah basin. Cuddapah basin 898

sedimentation was discontinuous with numerous unconformities within the 899

Cuddapah Supergroup and a major unconformity between the Cuddapah 900

Supergroup and the Kurnool Group. Age constraints on the Kurnool Supergroup are 901

lacking, but Goutham et al. (2006) correlate the Kurnool Group sediments with 902

those in the Upper Vindhyan and assign all to the Neoproterozoic, but such a 903

correlation is based more in tradition than in strong correlative evidence and 904

radiometric dating.905

Prahnita-Godavari Basin 906

The Prahnita-Godavari (P-G) basin is made up of two NW-SE trending 907

subparallel basins sandwiched between the Dharwar and Bastar cratons (fig 7). It is 908

one of several Purana basins formed (at least partially) on the Dharwar craton. The 909

Cuddapah (see above) lies to the south of the P-G basin and the Bhima (discussed 910

below) basin lies to the southwest. Extensive Paleozoic-Mesozoic ages Gondwana 911

sediments lie between the eastern and western portions of the P-G basin 912

(Chaudhuri, 2003; Ramakrishnan and Vaidyanadhan, 2008). The sedimentary 913

sequence within the basin consists of a series of unconformity-bounded packages 914

reaching and aggregate thickness of ~6000 m (Ramakrishnan and Vaidyanadhan, 915

2008). The rocks are mildly deformed and weakly metamorphosed. Age constraints 916

are lacking within the basin although Chaudhuri (2003) gives a range between 917

1330-790 Ma for the sequence. 918

There are numerous stratigraphic interpretations (and names) for the P-G 919

sequence, but we present the version favored by Chaudhuri (2003). Chaudhuri 920

(2003) presents the alternative stratigraphic groupings in his paper. According to 921

his classification, the basinal sediments are collectively referred to as the Godavari 922

Supergroup and contain three unconformity-bounded groups (from oldest to 923

youngest) known as the Pakhal Group, the Albaka Group and the Sullavai Group.924

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65

In the southwestern basin, the basal Pakhal Group is composed of two 925

subunits called the Mallampalli and Mulug Subgroups. The Mallampi is 926

predominately limestone and quartzarenite whereas the Mulug subgroup contains a927

basal conglomerate followed by a carbonate-rich shelfal sequence. Unconformably 928

overlying the Pakhal Group is the Albaka Group composed of mature sandstones 929

and shales. The uppermost Sullavai Group is floored by a conglomerate and 930

sandstones of a primarily aeolian nature (Chaudhuri, 2003). 931

The northeastern basin contains only the Albaka and Sullavai Group 932

sediments although a few authors have noted small outcrops of the Pakhal Group 933

(see Chaudhuri, 2003 for a complete discussion).934

The Proterozoic sedimentary sequence is unconformably overlain the the 935

Paleozoic-Mesozoic aged Gondwana Supergroup.936

Bhima Basin937

The Bhima basin is located between the northern margin of the EDC and the 938

Deccan Trap flows. The basin is much smaller than the Cuddapah and covers 5,200 939

km2 with the longest portion having an axis of 160 km (NE-SW). The southern 940

portion of the basin is bounded by an unconformity with the underlying granitic 941

gneisses while the E-W and NW-SE borders are bounded by faults. The full extent of 942

the basin is unknown due to the Deccan Trap covering the basin in the north. The 943

Bhima group is predominantly composed of limestones; however, sandstone and 944

conglomerate subformations do exist between the basement and the upper 945

sequence limestones. The oldest age for the formation of the Bhima basin is 946

constrained by the underlying granitic gneisses to ~2500 Ma (Sastry et al., 1999). It 947

is currently under debate as to whether the basin formed during the Meso or 948

Neoproterozoic (Malone et al., 2008; Patranabis-Deb et al., 2007).949

Western Dharwar Craton950

The Western Dharwar craton (WDC) is located in south-west India (Figure951

13). It is bounded to the east by the Eastern Dharwar craton, to the west by the 952

Arabian Sea, and to the south by a transition into the co-called “Southern Granulite 953

terrane.” The remaining boundary to the north is buried under younger sediments 954

and the Cretaceous Deccan Traps. The division between the Western and Eastern 955

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65

Dharwar cratons is based on the nature and abundance of greenstones, as well as 956

the age of surrounding basement and degree of regional metamorphism (Rollinson 957

et al., 1981). The Closepet granite batholith is thought to be the border between the 958

WDC and the EDC, and has been age dated by Friend and Nutman (1991) using 959

SHRIMP U-Pb dating on zircon providing an age of 2513 ± 5 Ma. 960

Cratonization961

The Archean tonalitic-trondhjemitic-granodioritic (TTG) gneisses are found 962

throughout the WDC, dated at 3.3 to 3.4 Ga via whole rock Rb-Sr and Pb-Pb methods 963

(Pitchamuthu and Srinivasan, 1984; Bhaskar Rao et al., 1991; Naha et al., 1991). U-964

Pb zircon ages have also been published with ages ranging from 3.5 – 3.6 Ga. Three 965

generations of volcanic-sedimentary greenstone sequences are present in the WDC: 966

the 3.1 – 3.3 Ga Sargur Group, the 2.6 – 2.9 Ga Dharwar Supergroup (Radhakrishna 967

and Vaidyanadhan, 1997) and 2.5 – 2.6 Ga calc-alkaline to high potassic granitoids, 968

the largest of which is the Closepet Granite (Jayananda et al., 2008). The Dharwar 969

supracrustal rocks uncomformably overlie widespread gneiss-migmatite of the 970

Peninsular Gneiss Complex (3.0 – 3.3 Ga), that encloses the Sargur schist belts 971

(Naqvi and Rogers, 1987).972

The WDC shows an increase in regional metamorphic grade from greenschist 973

and amphibolite facies in the north and granulite facies in the south. The 974

metamorphic increase corresponds to a paleopressure increase from 3 – 4 kbar in 975

the amphibolite facies to as much as 9 – 10 kbar (35 km paleodepth) in the highest-976

grade granulite-transition zone along the southern margin of the craton (Mojzsis et 977

al., 2003). A nearly continuous cross section of Late Archean crust that has been 978

tectonically upturned and channeled by erosion is exposed in the western Dharwar 979

Craton.980

The Sargur Group981

The Sargur Group greenstone belts display well-preserved volcano-982

sedimentary sequences. Generally these comprise of ultramafic to mafic volcanic 983

rocks (komatiitic to tholeiitic sources) that transition to felsic volcanic rocks up-984

section, often interpreted to be related to a calc-alkaline source (e.g. Naqvi, 1981; 985

Charan et al., 1988; Srikantia and Bose, 1985; Srikantia and Venkataramana, 1989; 986

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65

Srikantia and Rao, 1990; Venkata Dasu et al., 1991; Devapriyan et al., 1994; Subba 987

Rao and Naqvi, 1999; Paranthaman, 2005). These include the Ghattihosahalli, the 988

J.C. Pura, the Bansandra area, the Kalyadi area, and the Nuggihalli belt (Jayananda et 989

al., 2008). 990

The Sargur Group developed from several distinct geodynamic processes 991

across a span of millions of years. Detrital zircons from the schist yield a direct 992

evaporation age of ~ 3.3 Ga. SHRIMP U-Pb analysis yielded ages between 3.1 – 3.3 993

Ga, with some analyses yielding a 3.6 Ga age inherited from the protolith. Sm-Nd 994

model ages of ~ 3.1 Ga were calculated from the ultramafic units. Rb-Sr dating on 995

anorthosite fell into this range as well, resulting in a 3.1 Ga age for the unit. When 996

taken together, this geochronologic dataset helps to constrain the age of the Sargur 997

group to 3.1 Ga. The older ages present in these analyses are likely inherited from 998

the basement material, and may represent the lower limit to the group. The Sargur 999

unit appears to have formed in a subduction setting, likely derived from the melting 1000

of oceanic slab materials (Martin, 1986). Komatiites found in the Sargur Group are 1001

interpreted by Jayananda et al. (2008) to be related to plume events, and may have 1002

originally been elements of oceanic plateaus. These accreted oceanic plateaus then 1003

served as a base for further subduction related processes, represented by the series 1004

of mafic to felsic volcanic units emplaced over and intruded the ultra-mafic plateau 1005

sequences (Jayananda et al., 2008).1006

Two commonly suggested single stage methods of generating the observed 1007

rock in the WDC are suggested: 1) massive partial melting related to a plume event, 1008

and 2) magmatism related to subduction processes. The ultramafic rock in the 1009

greenstone belts shows evidence of high (1600 – 1700° C) eruption temperatures as 1010

well as elevated Mg, depletion in Al and low concentrations of incompatible 1011

elements. Most komatiite samples analyzed also show elevated Ni and Cr values, 1012

absent or positive Nb anomalies, and negative Hf anomalies (Jayananda et al., 2008). 1013

Many authors (e.g. Campbell et al., 1989; Ohtani et al., 1989; Griffith and Campbell, 1014

1992; Arndt et al., 1997; Arndt, 1994, 2003; Chavagnac, 2004) suggest that these 1015

characteristics are most easily explained by decompression melting of a mantle 1016

plume head at depth. Problems with a plume model arise, however, when the 1017

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65

chemistry of associated felsic volcanics and TTG basement rock is considered 1018

(Jayananda et al., 2008). The subduction generation hypothesis offers a contrasting 1019

view, passed on the assumption that lateral accreation of crust was a major factor in 1020

the formation of the cratonic continental nuclei (Martin and Moyen, 2002; Smithies 1021

et al, 2003). Taylor and McLennan (1985) proposed that continental crust, on the 1022

average, is andesitic in composition. Following this logic, many workers have 1023

suggested that subduction zones represent major sites of crustal formation. Drury 1024

(1983) suggested that the mafic volcanic rocks of the WDC were formed through 1025

arc-related processes. The geochemical data, however, do not support this idea.1026

The ultramafic volcanics display Al-depletion, absent or positive Nb anomalies, and 1027

ratios of Nb-U, Nb-Th, Nb-La, Th-U that are not consistent with an arc setting 1028

(Jayananda et al., 2008). Also, even assuming the elevated Archean geothermal 1029

gradient, it is difficult to explain the high eruption temperatures indicated by the1030

ultramafic volcanic units in such an environment. Given the failure of one mode of 1031

generation to explain all of these features, a more complicated model must be 1032

considered.1033

The extensive ultra-mafic to basaltic flows present in the WDC may 1034

represent accreted oceanic plateau crust; indeed, the high degree of melting needed 1035

to form such plateaus reveal the enhanced thermal potential of a plume source. 1036

Isotopic and geochemical data of the volcanics are inconsistent with the assimilation 1037

of older, felsic crust into the komatiitic magmas erupting to form the ocean plateau 1038

sequences (Jayananda et al., 2008). The absence of such contamination by 1039

continental material suggests that the plume must have melted beneath and erupted 1040

onto oceanic lithosphere. Ubiquitous pillow lava textures are evidence of the 1041

oceanic character of the crust seen in the ultra-mafic units, diagnostic of submarine 1042

flows. Peucat et al (1995) and Jayananda (2008) conclude that ~ 50 Ma separate 1043

the formation of the oceanic plateau ultra-mafic sequences and the formation of the 1044

subduction related felsic to mafic volcanic sequences above them on the basis of 1045

isotopic work (Jayananda et al., 2008). This thickened plateau crust, as well as the 1046

restite in the lithospheric mantle root beneath the plateau left over from the melting 1047

event, is unsubductable and likely to accrete against any continental margin 1048

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65

encountered (Abbot and Mooney, 1995; Cloos, 1993). The accretion of such a 1049

plateau along a continent would jam the existing subduction zone, forcing a “jump” 1050

in subduction from the old continental margin to the outboard plateau margin 1051

(Jayananda et al., 2008). This would subsequently result in the formation of a new 1052

igneous arc on the plateau, represented in the WDC as the felsic to mafic volcanic 1053

sequence (Figure 11). The deeper level intrusions emplaced beneath the remnant 1054

oceanic plateau are interpreted to serve as the protolith for the TTG’s of the WDC 1055

basement (Jayananda et al., 2008).1056

The komatiitic-tholiitic volcanism observed in the WDC is part of a larger 1057

scale process that led to the growth of the proto-craton. The 3.35 Ga (Jayananda et 1058

al., 2008) volcanism appears to have been penne-contemporaneous with the 1059

formation of the TTG basement, and provided hosting for the intrusion of the TTG 1060

protoliths (Jayananda et al., 2008). The melting events that lead to the ultra-mafic 1061

volcanism occurred over a range of depths and co-existed with mantle pertidotite; 1062

however, evidence for the presence of garnet in the residue is unclear (Jayananda et1063

al., 2008). Trace element and Nd isotope data rule out the assimilation of 1064

continental materials into the magma (Boyet and Carlson, 2005). Instead, the 1065

komatiite magmas show the characteristic geochemical evidence of a depleted 1066

mantle source (Boyet and Carlson, 2005). This mantle depletion at 3.35 Ga is 1067

significant. It suggests that the earlier extraction of enriched materials from the 1068

mantle had depleted the upper mantle prior to 3.35 Ga (Jayananda et al., 2008). A 1069

mantle plume is the most likely culprit to form such a massive volume of komatiitic 1070

magma; however, the later felsic to mafic igneous activity bears the signature of 1071

subduction processes (Jayananda et al., 2008).1072

The Dharwar Supergroup1073

The Dharwar supergroup is exposed in 2 large schist belts that have been 1074

divided into two sub-sections, the Bababudan Group and the Chitradurga Group. 1075

The Bababudan Group is spread over a 300 km long and 100 – 150 km wide area, 1076

and is made up of the Babadudan schist belt, Western Ghats belt, and the Shimoga 1077

schist belt. The Bababudan Schist belt covers an area of approximately 2500 km2. 1078

The base of this unit is represented by the Kartikere conglomerate, which extends 1079

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65

along the southern margin of the belt discontinuously for ~ 40 km. This unit grades 1080

into a quartzite unit. The detrital zircon population from the quartzite suggests that 1081

the main source of sediment was derived from the Chikmagalur granodiorite. The 1082

overlying formations typically consist of metabasalts with intercalated 1083

metasedimentary units, with occasional gabbroic sills, minor BIF, and phyllites. 1084

These are thought to represent a variety of terrestrial environments, ranging from 1085

braided fluvial systems to sub-aerial lava flows. The Western Ghats Belt is a large 1086

schist belt about 2200 km2 in extent, and about 150 km by 15 km in dimension. The 1087

stratigraphy closely resembals the Babaudan belt; however, a major group of 1088

basalts, felsic volcanics, and pyroclastic units is also seen in the upper levels. The 1089

Shimoga Schist Belt is a large (25,000 km2) NW trending belt separated from the 1090

previous two by outcropping TTG basement gneiss. The contact between these 1091

basement gneisses and the scist belt is observed as a zone of high grade 1092

metamorphism, often with kyanite and garnet phases present. Granitioid intrusions 1093

are also present in the north of the belt. 1094

Proterozoic Dyke Swarms1095

Mafic dyke swarms intrude many areas of the WDC, showing a variety of 1096

orientations and variable density. Murthy et al. (1987) noted that the dykes are 1097

prevalent north of latitude 13°N and east of longitude 78°E, but that the dykes trend 1098

out towards latitude 12°N and are nearly gone south of latitude 11°N. All of the 1099

dykes post-date migmatitic activity in the host granitoids and are thus free of 1100

overprints of deformation and metamorphism. 1101

There are three main dyke swarms in the Western Dharwar craton of 1102

Proterozoic age known as the (1) Hasan-Tiptur dykes; (2) Mysore dykes and (3) 1103

“Dharwar” dykes (Radhakrishna and Mathew (1993). 1104

The Hassan-Tiptur dyke swarm contains two suites of dykes an older 1105

amphibolite and epidioritic swam and younger and more widespread doleritic 1106

dykes. Age constraints are lacking on both suites of dykes.1107

The Mysore dykes trend E-W and form a dense swarm near the town of 1108

Mysore. The dykes are not dated. 1109

Proterozoic Sedimentary Basins1110

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65

The Kaladgi-Badami basin is the only significant Proterozoic intracratonic 1111

basin of the Western Darwar craton, occupying an E-W trending position on the 1112

northern edge of the craton (Dey et al., In Press). This basin formed on TTG gneisses 1113

and greenstones of Archean age. The Kaladgi supergroup preserves the record of 1114

sedimentation in the basin, and consists of sandstones, mudstones and carbonates 1115

(Dey et al., In Press). The textural and mineralogical maturity of this basin increased 1116

over time, indicating that the regional relief surrounding the basin declined over 1117

time, with the clastic sediments being derived from the local gneiss and greenstone 1118

rock (Dey et al., In Press). An angular unconformity between the two constituent 1119

groups (The lower Bagalkot and overlying Badami) suggests a period of uplift in the 1120

basin’s history (Jayaprakash et al., 1987). Deformation in Bagalkot group is 1121

significant, whereas the upper group only exhibited mild deformation (Kale and 1122

I'hansalkar, 1991).1123

Granitic Intrusions1124

Late to post-tectonic Dharwar potassic granite plutons (~ 2.5-2.6 Ga) that 1125

denote crustal reworking in WDC (Jayananda et al., 2006), occur as isolated discrete 1126

intrusions cutting across the foliation and banding of the Peninsular Genisses (~ 3.0 1127

Ga). In many cases, these plutons occur as distinct types either separately or as 1128

parts of larger composite intrusions, likely related to the generation of melts at 1129

differing depths within the crust (Sylvester, 1994). Several classes of TTG’s are 1130

present as well, broadly split into classical TTG and transitional TTG, which formed 1131

500 Ma later (Jayananda et al., 2006). These transitional TTG’s are believed to be 1132

lower crustal derived melts, and share the garnet residue signal of the high K 1133

granites; however, this similarity may also indicate a mixing between these two 1134

melts (Jayananda et al., 2006). There is still uncertainty as to the role the late K 1135

granites played in the cratonization of the WDC. Jayananda et al. (2006) suggests 1136

that they may be related either to a thermal event prior to the termination of craton 1137

stabilization, or that they actually represent part of long term (100 Ma) stabilization. 1138

Age data from Taylor et al. (1984) for the various intrusions range from 3080 ± 110 1139

Ma (Rb-Sr) and 3175 ± 45 Ma (Pb-Pb Isochron) for the Chikmagalur Granite to 2605 1140

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65

± 18 Ma (Pb-Pb Isochron). Much of the data is based on older, whole rock isotopic 1141

work.1142

The Chitradurga Granite is an elongate, lenticular body of late to post-1143

tectonic granite, about 60 km long and 15 km wide. The granite is clearly intrusive 1144

into the Jogimaradi lavas of the Bababudan Group as well as into the TTG basement. 1145

The Chitradurga is biotite granite grading into granodiorite and quartz monzonite. 1146

Chadwick et al. (2007) dated the granite using Pb-Pb and Rb-Sr isochrones yielding 1147

an age of ~ 2.6 Ga, as well as SIMS U-Pb zircon age dating of ~ 2610 Ma. The 1148

Jampalnaikankote Granite is roughly oval shaped pluton which intrudes into the 1149

Chitradurga schist belt. Rb-Sr ages put it at ~ 2.6 Ga. The Arsikere and Banavara 1150

Granites are thought to be from a single pluton that is connected at depth. The 1151

Arsikere granitic batholith is oval in shape of approximately 75 sq. km. The 1152

intrusion is primarily a potassic biotite granite which yields a Rb-Sr age of ~ 2.6 Ga, 1153

and a SIMS U-Pb zircon age of ~ 2615 Ma. The Chamundi Granite is another 1154

potassic pluton, with associated radial and parallel dykes, that intrudes the 1155

peninsular gneiss. The granite has been dated via Rb-Sr at ~ 800 Ma.1156

Southern Granulite Province1157

India’s Southern Granulite provence (SG) consists of three late Archaean to 1158

Neoproterozeric, high grade metamorphic blocks, joined together by a series of 1159

Neoproterozoic(?) shear zones. The Northern Block (NoB) is situated at the 1160

southern tip of the Dharwar Craton (DC) and is bounded to the south and east by the 1161

Moyar-Bhavani Shear Zone (MBSZ). The MBSZ is a complex network of mobile belts 1162

that form the northern boundary of the Central Block (CB), that is divided by a SW-1163

NE trending branch of the MBSZ into the Nilgiri Block (NiB) in the west and the 1164

Madras Block (MaB) in the east. The MaB is bordered to the south by Palghat-1165

Cauvery Shear Zone (PCSZ), marking the suture between the Archaean NoB and CB 1166

and the Proterozoic Madurai Block (MdB). The NW-SE trending Achankovil Shear 1167

Zone (ACSZ) separates the MdB from the southernmost Trivandrum Block (TB) 1168

(Figure 14).1169

Northern Block1170

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65

The Salem Block (also known as the Northern Block) of the Southern 1171

Granulites consists of a granulite massif at the southern edge of the Dharwar Craton. 1172

The block is located between the ‘Fermor line’ and the Palghat-Cauvery shear zone 1173

(PCSZ; Figure 14). Lithologies present in the Salem include, pyroxene-bearing 1174

granites (charnockites), granite gneisses, and migmatites (Devaraju et al., 2007; 1175

Clark et al., in press). Sm-Nd ages of 3.3 – 2.68 Ga suggest the DC as protoliths for 1176

these rocks (Devaraju et al, 2007). Geothermobarometric studies indicate that these 1177

rocks have formed at 700 ± 30o C and 5-7 kbar (Harris et al, 1982). A gradational 1178

increase in metamorphic grade from the granite-greenstone belts (greenschist and 1179

amphibolite facies) of the DC to the granulite massif of the Salem Block, as well as a 1180

lack of a surficial structural break, call into question whether or not the Salem Block 1181

is a crustal block distinct from the DC. Seismic studies indicate, however, a 1182

bivergent reflection pattern at the boundary between the NoB and the DC (with 1183

reflections dipping towards the boundary), a thicker crust (~46km) beneath the 1184

Salem Block, and a pattern of tectonically induced imbricate faulting in the lower 1185

crust and upper mantle of this region (Rao et al., 2006). These observations are 1186

indicative of a collisional environment in which the Salem Block was accredited onto 1187

the DC in the mid-Archaean. 1188

Most recently, Clark et al. (in press) dated charnockitic rocks within the 1189

Salem block to 2538 6 Ma and 2529 7 Ma (SHRIMP Pb-Pb). SHRIMP-dated rims 1190

from the same zircons showed statistically distinct 2473 8 Ma and 2482 15 Ma 1191

ages. Clark et al. (in press) considered the Archaean-ages crystallization ages for the 1192

charnockitic protolith and the younger ages as partial melting that occurred during 1193

the accretion of the SB to the Dharwar craton. 1194

Palghat-Cauvery Shear Zone 1195

The PCSZ is the suture between the Archaean granulite blocks to the north and 1196

the Neoproterozoic blocks to the south. It is the northernmost manifestation of 1197

Gondwanan orogenies on the Indian Peninsula (Harris et al., 1994). This shear zone 1198

has been correlated with the Bongolava-Ranotsara Shear Zone (De Wit et al., 1995; 1199

Clark et al., in press), the Madagascar Axial High-Grade Zone (Windley et al., 1994), 1200

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65

and the East Antarctic Napier and Rayner Complexes (Harris et al., 1994). Drury et 1201

al. (1984) and Meert (2003) have established the PCSZ as a strike-slip zone related 1202

to the final assembly of East Gondwana. Sm-Nd garnet pair samples yield isochrons 1203

of 521±8 Ma, while biotite pair Rb-Sr data show ages of 485±12 Ma (Meissner et al., 1204

2002). 1205

Nilgiri Block1206

The Niligiri Block (NiB) is a triangular block consisting mostly of garnetiferous, 1207

enderbitic granulites wedged between the segments of the Palghat-Cauvery Shear 1208

zone. Kyanite-gneisses, quartzites, and gabbroic to anorthositic pyroxenites are also 1209

interspersed throughout the block (Raith et al., 1999). A preponderance of 1210

evidence, including whole rock Sm-Nd and Rb-Sr analyses indicates granulite facies 1211

metamophism as late as 2460±81 Ma (Raith et al., 1999). These dates are supported 1212

by U-Pb data from overgrowths in detrital zircon found in enderbites that show 1213

metamorphic pulses at 2480-2460 Ma (Buhl, 1987). The NiB is believed to be the 1214

deepest exhumed crust on the Indian Penninsula; paleo-depths range from ~22 km 1215

in the southwest (6-7 kbar) to ~35km (9-10kbar) at the MSZ (Raith, 1999). The age 1216

of metamorphism is identical to that observed in the Salem Block to the north (Clark 1217

et al., in press)1218

Madras Block1219

The MaB is situated between segments of the Palghat-Cauvery Shear Zone to 1220

the east of the NiB. The MaB consists of medium to high-pressure charnockites and 1221

gneisses, which are squeezed into a long, thin band of gneisses, migmatites 1222

presumably resulting from shearing in the PCSZ. Included in this area are the 1223

Maddukarai Supracrustals, which display broad doming, complex folding, and 1224

extreme hinge line variation caused by Neoproterozoic-Ordovician suturing along 1225

the PCSZ (Chetty and Rao, 2006). Retrograde amphibolite facies appear at the 1226

boundaries of the shear zones (Santosh et al., 2002). A variety of methods, including 1227

U-Pb in zircons and whole rock Sm-Nd and Rb-Sr sampling have been used to 1228

constrain the age of granulite formation to 2600-2500 Ma (Vinagradov et al., 1964; 1229

Crawford, 1969; Bernard-Griffiths et al., 1987). Electron microprobe analysis 1230

(EPMA) of zircons and monazites support these dates and reveal a second thermal 1231

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65

impulse at 2000-1700 Ma (Santosh et al., 2002).1232

Madurai Block1233

The MdB is largest of the Southern Granulite Blocks. The western part of the 1234

block, consisting almost entirely of charnockite massifs, displays UHP and UHT 1235

metamorphism at 8-11kbar and 1000o-1100oC. These conditions are manifested in 1236

the field by the presence of sapphirine-spinel-quartz assemblages present in the 1237

rocks (Braun et al., 2007). The eastern part of block is composed of basement 1238

gneisses and related meta-sedimentary complexes (Braun et al., 2007). Zircons 1239

found in the gneisses have a bimodal age distribution of 2100-1600 Ma and 1200-1240

600 Ma. Only the younger of these populations is found in the charnockites. 1241

Monazites display a more constrained bimodal age range at 950-850 Ma and 600-1242

450 Ma (Braun, 2007; Santosh et al., 2002). Braun et al. (2007) speculated that the 1243

bimodal distribution of monazite ages indicated two distinct high-grade 1244

metamorphic intervals one at c. 900 Ma and the other at c. 550 Ma. 1245

Collins et al. (2007) dated a number of zircons from a quartzite unit and found 1246

detrital populations of 2700, 2260, 2100 and 1997 Ma and a metamorphic overprint1247

at 508.3 9.0 Ma. They attributed the Cambrian ages to high-grade metamorphism 1248

during the final stages of Gondwana assembly. 1249

1250

Anchankovil Shear Zone1251

The ACSZ is a NW-SE trending, subrectangular shear zone stretching more 1252

than 120km NW-SE and up to 50km wide (Rajesh et al., 2006) that forms the 1253

boundary between the MdB in the north and the TB to the south. The ACSZ contains 1254

a variety of lithologies, including highly migmatized biotite-garnet gneisses, 1255

cordierite-opx gneisses, aluminous metapelites, mafic granulites, and calc silicates 1256

(Rajesh et al., 2006). Model Sm-Nd ages from a selection of samples suggest a 1257

protolith age of 1700-1500 Ma, significantly younger than the protoliths for either of 1258

the adjacent granulite blocks (Brandon and Mean, 1995; Bartlett et al., 1998, Cenki 1259

et al., 2005). Individual zircons and monazites, analyzed by CHIME and SHRIMP 1260

show metamorphic events between 525 and 508 Ma (Collins and Santosh, 2004; 1261

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65

Santosh et al., 2004). Minerals analyzed through EPMA give chemical ages between 1262

520 and 590 Ma (Braun and Broecker, 2004). Further U-Pb dating methods on 1263

zirconalite found in an ultramafic suite, as well as K-Ar studies in biotite show 1264

metamorphism continuing in the ACSZ until the Ordovician (478-445 Ma) (Rajesh et 1265

al, 2004; Somesh et al., 1982). Broad overlap between ages given by a variety of 1266

minerals with dissimilar closing temperatures suggests rapid cooling in the shear 1267

zone (Rajesh et al., 2004).1268

Trivandrum Block1269

Also known as the Kerala Khondalite belt, the TB is comprised of an 1270

extensive array of UHT supracrustal rocks, including sillimanite granulites, garnet-1271

opx granulites, two pyroxene granulites, garnet-biotite gneisses, and calc-silicates 1272

(Santosh et al., 2006). A large charnockite massif at the southern end of the TB is 1273

often referred to as the Nagercoil Block (NaG). Extensive studies of individual 1274

zircons throughout the TB have revealed significant information regarding the 1275

formation of continental crust and supercontinents (Santosh et al., 2006: Spear and 1276

Pyle, 2002; Montel et al., 2000; Bindu et al., 1998; Braun et al., 1998). Zircon cores 1277

dated as old as 3460±20 Ma are relicts of some of the earliest forming continental 1278

crust (Zeger et al., 1996). Ages of other mineral grain cores and ages of overgrowths 1279

on older grains cluster around 1600 Ma, 1000 Ma, and 600-400 Ma. These dates 1280

appear to be related to the assembly of the supercontinents Columbia, Rodinia, and 1281

Gondwana/Pangaea, respectively (Santosh et al., 2006).1282

Mobile Belts (North of the Southern Granulite Province)1283

Peninsular India comprises a mosaic of five Precambrian terranes, the 1284

Eastern Dharwar, Western Dharwar, Aravalli-Bundelkhand, and Bastar-Singhbhum 1285

cratons in addition to the Southern Granulite terrane. These cratons are separated 1286

by suture zones, mobile belts, and rifts. The Closepet Granite separates the Eastern 1287

and Western Dharwar cratons and is considered to be a stitching pluton of Late 1288

Archean age (Friend and Nutman, 1991). The composite Dharwar craton is 1289

separated from the Bundelkhand craton to the north by the Central Indian Tectonic 1290

Zone (CITZ) and from the Bastar-Singhbhum craton to the east by the Godavari Rift. 1291

The CITZ also separates the Bundelkhand craton from the Bastar-Singhbhum 1292

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65

composite craton (Mall et al., 2008). The Bhavani-Palghat mobile belt separates the 1293

composite Dharwar terrane to the north from the Southern Granulite terrane to the 1294

south (Reddy and Rao, 2000).1295

Mobile Belts1296

Central Indian Tectonic Zone1297

The Central Indian Tectonic Zone (CITZ) (Figure 15), also referred to as the 1298

Satpura Mobile Belt, is a Proterozoic complex orogenic belt that formed during the 1299

accretion of the Bastar-Singhbhum craton to the northern Bundelkhand craton 1300

(Radhakrishna, 1989). The mobile belt was originally named after the Satpur Hills 1301

and is bounded by the Narmanda-Son North Fault (NSNF) and to the south by the 1302

Central Indian Shear Zone (CISZ). The gneissic tectonic zone comprises three sub-1303

parallel E-W trending supracrustal belts that are separated from each other by 1304

crustal scale shear zones (Blue India Book). The belts from north to south are the 1305

Mahakoshal belt, the Betul belt, and the Sausar belt. The Narmada-Son South Fault 1306

(NSSF) separates the Mahakoshal and Betul belts while the Tan Shear Zone (TSZ) 1307

separates the Betul and Sausar belts.1308

Central Indian Suture1309

The Central Indian Suture (CIS) (Figure 15) is a brittle-ductile shear zone 1310

that delineates the southern boundary of the CITZ and forms the boundary between 1311

the Bundelkhand craton to the north and the Bastar craton to the south 1312

(Leelandandam et al., 2006). The suture zone separates the high-grade Sausar 1313

metasedimentary and granulite frocks to the north from the low-grade 1314

Proterozoicvolcanogenic rocks to the south. Silicified, brecciated, and mylonitized 1315

rocks typify the CIS which extends from the SE of Nagpur for almost 500 km to the 1316

ESE of Balaghat (Mishra et al., 2000). Yedekar et al. (1990) suggested the CIS 1317

underwent the following tectonic history: 1) oceanic crust between the 1318

Bundelkhand and Bastar cratons started to subduct at ca. 2.3Ga; 2) initiation of the 1319

calc-alkaline plutonism to result in the Malanjkhand and Dongargarh plutons; 3) at 1320

2.1 Ga, the Sakoli and Nandgaon volcalnics formed and island arc in the southern 1321

block; 4) the two blocks collided from ~2.1 Ga to 1.7 Ga forming the CIS; 5) the 1322

Sausar fold belt developed during the1.7 to 1.5 Ga interval; and finally 6) back arc 1323

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65

extension ensued resulting in the Khairagarh group accompanied by bimodal 1324

volcanism continuing from 1.0 to 0.7 Ga.1325

Mahakoshal Belt 1326

The Mahakoshal belt (MB) extends about 600 km from Barmanghat to 1327

Rihand Dam and trends in an ENE_WSW fashion. The NSNF delineates the northern 1328

boundary to the MB and separates it from the Vindyan basin to the north. The 1329

southern boundary, mostly covered by the Deccan Traps, is demarked by the NSSF 1330

that separates the MB from the Proterozoic granites of the CITZ (Indian Blue Book). 1331

Quartzites, carbonitites, chert, bandied iron formations, greywacke-argillite and 1332

mafic volcanic rocks dominate the MB. The MB exhibits evidence of three phases of 1333

deformation with an overall ENE-WSW trend. The first phase produced upright 1334

isoclinal folds with steep southward dipping axial planes. The second phase of 1335

deformation resulted in vertical to recline, E-W striking folds with axial planes 1336

dipping to the south and pronounced crenulation cleavage. The third phase is 1337

evident by broad folds an N-S striking axial planes (India Blue Book). 1338

Betul Belt1339

The Betul belt (BB) trends ENE-SWS and extends about 135 km from Betul to 1340

Chhindwara and has a width of about 15-20 km. The BB is located between the MB 1341

to the north and the SB to the south. TheBetul Belt is thought to represent a 1342

continental arc setting based on the presence of bimodal volcanism with younger 1343

calc-alkaline granitoids. The occurrence of ~1500Ma syntectonic granites and~850 1344

Ma late-to-post tectonic granite indicate the BB and the MB bay be 1345

penecontemporaneous where the BB represent the arc and the MB represent s the 1346

back-arc at eh old continental margin (India blue book). 1347

Sausar Mobile Belt1348

The Sausar Mobile belt is generally accepted to be part of the CIS, although it is 1349

widely debated that a sutureis present thorough the entire length of the CITZ (e.g., 1350

Mishra et al., 2000; Yedekar et al., 1990; Jain et al., 1991; Rao and Reddy, 2002; and 1351

Roy and Prasas, 2001. Rocks within the Sausar belt record a protracted history of 1352

convergent margin activities for ca. 1400 Ma to ca. 800 ma (Roy et al., ??). The 1353

Sausar metasedimentary rocks are metamorphose to upper amphibolite to granulite 1354

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65

facies and have undergone migmatization. The CIS contains granulite lenses of 1355

~0.5-0.7 km length and 0.2-2.0 width within the Tirondi gneisses (Jain et al., 1991).1356

Eastern Ghats Mobile Belt 1357

The Eastern Ghats mobile belt (EGMB) is a Proterozoic granulite belt that 1358

extends for ~1000km from theBramani River in the north to Ongole in the south 1359

(Figure 15). The extent of the southern and northern margins of the EGMB is not 1360

well constrained and thus multiple interpretations have been proposed for the 1361

relationship to major orogenic belts to the north and south (e.g., Radhakrishna and 1362

Naqvi, 1986; Mukhopadhyay, 1987; and Radhakrishna, 1989). The Eastern Ghats 1363

terrane comprises metapelite and enderbitic gneisses and enderbitic and 1364

charnockitic intrusions, two-pyroxene mafic and calc-silicate granulites (Stein et al., 1365

2004) and contains two Phanerozoic rift valleys, the Mahanadi rift in the north and 1366

the Godavari rift in the south (Biswal et al., 2007). 1367

Ramakrishna et al. (1998) divided the EGMB into five lithotectonic units 1368

consisting of the Transition zone (TZ), the Western Charnockite zone (WCZ), the 1369

Western Khondalite zone (WKZ), the Eastern Khondalite zone (EKZ), and the 1370

Central Migmatitic zone (CMZ). The TZ consist of a mixture of lithologic unites 1371

belonging to both cratonic India and the EGMB. The SCZ comprises charnockites 1372

quarts-feldspar-orthopyroxene), enderbites (quartz-plagioclase-orthopyroxene), 1373

mafic granulites (plagioclase-clinopyroxene-orthopyroxene-garnet) and banded 1374

iron formations. The WCZand the EKZ consist of khondalites (garnet-sillimanite-1375

graphite gneisses) intercalated with quartzite, calc-granulites (diopside-garnet-1376

plagioclase), and high Mg-Al granulites (sapphirine-cordierite-spinel-1377

orthopyroxene). The CMZ is composed of migmatitic gneisses with intrusions of 1378

charnockite-enderbite, granite and anorthosite (Nanda and Pati, 1989).1379

The EGMB exhibits northeasterly structural trends attributed to early coaxial 1380

folding along a NE-SW axis (Murthy et al., 1971; Biswal et al., 1998). Dome and 1381

basin structures in conjunction with sheath folds of various sizes are readily 1382

observed in the EGMB (Natarajan and Nanda, 1981; Biswal et al., 1998). The mobile 1383

belt is characterized by several ductile and brittle-ductile shear zones, of which the 1384

Terrane Boundary shear zone (TBSZ) is the most prominent. The TBSZ delineates 1385

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65

the tectonic boundary between the EGMB and the surrounding cratons (Biswal et al., 1386

2000). 1387

Three distinct metamorphic events occurred in the EGMB, the first of which 1388

is the UHT granulite facies metamorphism represented by sapphirine-spinel-1389

orthopyroxene-garnet-quartz-assemblages in enclaves of khondalite. Gneisses 1390

fabrics in the rocks were produced during metamorphic differentiation and partial 1391

melting during the early phases of folding and granulite facies metamorphism. P-T 1392

conditions for the first metamorphic event have been reportedat 8-12 kbar and 100-1393

1100°C (Lal et al., 1987; Kamineni and Rao, 1988; Rickers et al., 2001). The UHT 1394

metamorphism is followed by the second metamorphic event that represents 1395

granulitefacies metamorphism at 8.0-8.5 kbar and 850°C (Dasgupta et al., 1992). 1396

The third metamorphic event is characterized by retrograde amphibolites facies 1397

where P-T conditions are reported at 5 kbar and 600°C (Dasgupta et al., 1994).Sm-1398

Nd, Rb-Sr, and Pb-Pb data indicate the rocks of the EGMB have crustal residence 1399

ages of 2.5-3.9 Ga. Rickers et al. (2001) interpret this to represent variable mixing 1400

of Archean and Proterozoic crustal material within an active continental setting. 1401

Mezger and Cosca (1999) provide a revised tectonothermal history of the 1402

EGMB, based on U-Pb zircon and monazite in addition to 40Ar/39Ar hornblende data, 1403

wherein the Western Charnockite zone’s tectonic history is distinct from that of the 1404

other units within the EGMB. The other regions (WCZ, EKZ, and CMZ) were 1405

undergoing granulitefacies metamorphism at ca. 960 Ma, while the WCZ had already 1406

cooled below the Ar diffusion temperature for hornblende. These results imply a 1407

major discontinuity between these regions of the EGMB. The updated mineral ages 1408

of Mezger and Colsca (1999) indicate at least one of the high-grade metamorphic 1409

events preserved in the EGMB occurred during the late stage of the global 1410

Grenvillian orogeny ca. 960 Ma. This late Grenvillian orogenic episode is 1411

alsopresent in Rayner Complex of Antarctica (Paul et al., 1990; Shaw et al., 1997) 1412

and thus lends credence to the SWEAT model of Moores (1991), Dalziel (1991), and 1413

Hoffman (1991) wherein India and Antarctica are juxtaposed.1414

Mezger and Cosca (1999) also report the central units of the EGMB to have a 1415

major thermal overprint during the Pan-Africa orogeny at ca. 500-550 Ma. A 1416

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65

hornblende 40Ar/39Ar age of ca. 1100 Ma from an amphibolite in the Godavari rift 1417

indicates that the Pan Africa thermal event was weaker, if at all present, in the WCZ. 1418

Granulitefacies metamorphism of 500 - 550 Ma age also occurs in Sri Lanka (Kroner 1419

and Williams, 1993; Kriegsman, 1995). 1420

Most recently Chatterjee et al. (2008) reported ages on the Chilka Lake1421

anorthosite of 983 2.5 Ma. They correlated the emplacement of this anorthosite 1422

with charnockitic activity in the presumably adjacent Rayner province of East 1423

Antarctica. Dating of monazite cores and rims in the same region yielded ages of 1424

714 11 and 655 12 Ma respectively. These ages were considered to reflect 1425

metamorphism during an oblique collision between India and NW Australia 1426

although new data from Gregory et al. (2009) and van Lente et al. (2009) argue 1427

against such a scenario.1428

Gondwana Supergroup1429

The Gondwana Supergroup outcrops in a series of small basins in eastern 1430

and central India (Figure 16). The age of the Gondwana succession is thought to 1431

range from early Permian to early Cretaceous (Dutta, 2002). There is considerable 1432

controversy regarding the stratigraphic age and sequences within and across the 1433

various Gondwana sub-basins (Dutta, 2002; Dutta, 1994; Kutty et al., 1987).1434

For simplicity, we accept the conclusions of Dutta (2002) for the general 1435

sequence of Gondwana sedimentation (Figure 16) with Facies A and B constrained 1436

to the Late Carboniferous to Permian and Facies C and D confined to the Triassic and 1437

Early Jurassic. The lower section (A & B facies) are composed of tillites, 1438

conglomerates shales, coal measures and sandstones. The Upper (C & D facies) are 1439

feldspathic sandstones, redbeds and quartz-rich sandstones. 1440

Summary1441

The assembly of Peninsular India began with the cratonization process of the 1442

individual nuclei discussed above. The geochronologic constraints on this process 1443

need improvement, but the current data indicates that nearly all of the nuclei had 1444

stabilized at about 2.5-2.6 Ga. Furthermore, it is also suggested that this same time 1445

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65

interval is coincident with the welding together of most of these cratons to form 1446

‘proto-India’ (with the exception of some blocks in the southern granulite province). 1447

Major Proterozoic basin formation (the so-called “Purana” basins) appears to 1448

have occurred during three main pulses. These include a Mesoproteozoic phase of 1449

basin formation (Lower Vindhyan, Lower Chattisgarh and Cuddapah basins); a early 1450

Neoproterozoic phase of basin formation (Upper Vindhyan, Upper Chattisgarh 1451

basins) and a late Neoproterozoic phase of basin formation (Marwar basin, Kurnool 1452

Group of the Cuddapah basin). Other basins in India have only poor age constraints 1453

though many (Bhima, Kaladgi and Indravati) are traditionally thought to be late 1454

Neoproterozoic in age.1455

Major pulses of mafic dyke intrusions are also widespread in Peninsular 1456

India (see table 1). Age constraints on many of the dykes are only poorly known, 1457

but several Paleoproterozoic and Mesoproterozoic pulses are now dated using U-Pb 1458

zircon and baddelyite (see discussions above). Ultramafic intrusions in India are 1459

concentrated at about 1.1 Ga.1460

Peninsular India is thought to have been part of 5 different supercontinental 1461

configurations. The oldest of these “expanded-Ur” (Rogers, 1996) is composed of 1462

the Dharwar and Singhbhum cratons in India, the Kaapvaal craton of South Africa 1463

and the Pilbara and Yilgarn cratons of Australia along with small blocks of Archean 1464

cratonic material in East Antarctica (fig 19-a). Tests of the “Ur” configuration are 1465

problematic as paleomagnetic data are mostly lacking and where data do exist (for 1466

example in the Kaapvaal and Pilbara cratons), the proposed configuration of “Ur” 1467

does not hold although it is possible that a ‘mega-craton’ of Vaalbara existed (see 1468

Zegers et al., 1998 and Wingate, 1998 for more complete discussion).1469

Depending on the exact model chosen, India is also placed adjacent to coastal 1470

East Antarctica, Madagascar, North China, Kalahari and Australia in a modified 1471

Gondwana fit in the “Columbia” supercontinent (Fig 19-b; Zhao et al., 1994, Rogers 1472

and Santosh, 2002). Paleomagnetic tests of the Columbia supercontinent are also 1473

problematic although the model itself is based mainly on a preponderance of 2.1-1.8 1474

Ga orogenic belts across the globe (Zhao et al., 1994; Meert, 2002; Pesonen et al., 1475

2003).1476

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65

The exact makeup of the late Mesoproterozoic-Neoproterozoic1477

supercontinent of Rodinia is fluid (see Li et al., 2008 for a full review). In the 1478

‘archetypal’ reconstructions of Rodinia, India is placed in a configuration nearly 1479

identical to its position within East Gondwana (fig 19-c). Paleomagnetic data 1480

supporting such a position for India is non-existent and, in fact, the extant 1481

paleomagnetic data argue against such a configuration (Meert, 2003; Gregory et al., 1482

2009; Torsvik et al., 2001; Meert and Lieberman, 2008). There is also a 1483

considerable body of evidence indicating a polyphase assembly of East Gondwana 1484

during the Cambrian (see Meert, 2003 for a summary) and also negating the 1485

‘archetypal’ Rodinia reconstructions (see Meert and Torsvik, 2003). Alternative 1486

views to the piecemeal assembly of eastern Gondwana can be found in Squires et al. 1487

(2006) and Veevers (2004).1488

By the end of the Cambrian, India was part of the large southern continent of 1489

Gondwana (Figure 17-d) and remained a part of the Gondwana supercontinent until 1490

its breakup in Mesozoic times. The Gondwana basins were developed within India 1491

during the Paleozoic and early Mesozoic. Eruptions of the Rajhmahal and Deccan 1492

traps volcanic rocks took place during the breakup of Gondwana. 1493

During the Cenozoic, India began its rapid journey at the trailing end of the 1494

Tethyan plate and was incorporated into the Eurasian continent. This concludes the 1495

most recent 3.5 billion years of history for the Indian subcontinent. 1496

1497

Acknowledgements: This work was partially supported by a grant to JGM from the National Science 1498

Foundation (EAR04-09101). The paper originated from a graduate seminar class and authorship 1499

order for this paper was based on drawing names from a hat. We thank TK Biswal for his efforts in 1500

putting together this special issue.1501

1502

1503

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2353Figure Legends2354

Figure 1: Generalized tectonic map of Indian subcontinent: Precambrian Cratons, 2355Mobile belts and Lineaments. AFB = Aravalli Fold Belt, DFB = Delhi Fold Belt, EGMB 2356= Eastern Ghat Mobile Belt, SMB=Satpura Mobile Belt, NSL = Narmada Son 2357lineament, CIS = Central Indian Suture and BPMP = Bhavani Palghat Mobile Belt. 2358(Modified from Vijaya Rao and P.R. Reddy; 2001).2359

2360Figure 2: Sketch map of the major units in the Aravalli-Bundelkhand craton, NW 2361India (after Naqvi and Rogers,1987 and Ramakrishnan and Vaidyanadhan, 2008).2362

2363Figure 3: Sketch map of the Bundelkhand craton showing mafic dyke swarms 2364including the Great Dyke of Mahoba (white-dashed line; after Malviya et al., 2006).2365

2366Figure 4: Lithologies of the Vindhyan supergroup in the Rajasthan sector and the 2367Son valley sector with previous age estimates (Malone et al., 2008).2368

2369Figure 5: Sketch map of the Singhbhum craton (NE India) showing major elements 2370comprising the craton. IOG=Iron Ore Group; OMG=Older metamorphic Group (after 2371Naqvi and Rogers, 1987; Mondal et al., 2007 and Ramakrishnan and Vaidyanadhan, 23722008).2373

2374Figure 6: Lithologies of the Singhbhum craton after Ramakrishnan and 2375Vaidyanadhan, 2008.2376

2377Figure 7: Sketch map of the Bastar craton after Naqvi and Rogers, 1987 and 2378Ramakrishnan and Vaidyanadhan, 2008.2379

2380Figure 8: Lithologies of the Bastar craton after Ramakrishnan and Vaidyanadhan, 23812008.2382

2383

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65

Figure 9: Sketch map of the Eastern Dharwar Craton. Archaen assemblages 2384associated with cratonization are shown here. Abbreviations for schist belts are as 2385follows: Sa = Sandur, KKJH = Kolar-Kadiri=Jonnagiri-Hutti, RPSH+ Ramagiri-2386(Penakacheria-Sirigeri)-Hungund, and VPG = Veligallu-Raichur-Gadwal superbelt. 2387The dotted and dashed line indicates possible location under the basin. Dashed 2388lines represent Paleozoic to more recent sedimentary cover (Modified from Naqvi 2389and Rogers, 1987). Dyke intrusions into the EDC are H&B=Harohalli and Bangalore 2390swarm; A=Anantapur swarm; M=Mahbubnagar swarm; H=Hyderabad swarm.2391

2392Figure 10: a. Model of cratonization of the Dharwar batholith. The WDC is believed 2393to be the overriding plate and foreland contribution. The Dharwar batholith 2394represents a series of juvenile granites sutured at the schist belts. b. Superplume 2395model for creating the granitic gneisses of the EDC. The mantle transitions from an 2396enriched area near the plume to a depleted zone beneath the Kolar schist belt. 2397Partial metling of the lower lithosphere creates plutons that form the mainland of 2398the EDC (Modified from Jayananda et. al., 2000).2399

2400Figure 11: Vertical tectonic plume model for the Eastern Dharwar craton after 2401Jayananda et al. (2000), Chardon et al. (2002). The plume model suggests a large 2402mantle plume situated just beneath the EDC/WDC boundary in an enriched mantle. 2403Further east, the plume introduces melting to a colder and more depleted mantle. 2404Induced melting from the plume is suggested to emplace juvenile magmas around 24052500 Ma in the EDC. The greenstone belts are a result of inverse diapirism and 2406resulting metamorphism. This model suggests that the Closepet granite is a 2407batholith rather than an accreted island arc or a stitching pluton between the 2408EDC/WDC.2409

24102411

Figure 12: Lithologies of the Cuddapah basin (eastern India) after Naqvi and 2412Rogers, 1987 and Ramakrishnan and Vaidyanadhan, 2008.2413

2414Figure 13: Sketch map of the western Dharwar craton showing major lithologic 2415boundaries after Naqvi and Rogers, 1987 and Ramakrishnan and Vaidyanadhan, 24162008.2417

2418Figure 14: Sketch map of the southern granulite province blocks and associated 2419shear zones after Naqvi and Rogers, 1987 and Ramakrishnan and Vaidyanadhan, 24202008.2421

2422Figure 15: Major Precambrian sedimentary basins of India and fold belts (after 2423Naqvi and Rogers,1987 and Ramakrishnan and Vaidyanadhan, 2008).2424

2425Figure 16: (a) Map of the major Gondwana basins in central India (after Dutta, 24262002) (b) Proposed correlations between Gondwana sediments in the various sub-2427basins (DB=Damodar Basin; PGB=Prahnita-Godavari Basin; SB=Son basin; 2428SPB=Saptura Basin).2429

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65

2430Figure 17: (a) Expanded “Ur” after Rogers and Santosh (2004); DM=Dronning Maud 2431land; NP=Napier Complex; VE=Vestfold Hills; (b) Paleoproterozoic supercontinent 2432Columbia after Zhao et al. (2004) numbered orogenic belts can be found in Zhao et 2433al. (2004); (c) Rodinia after Li et al. (2008); (d) Gondwana after Gray et al. (2007) 2434and Meert and Lieberman (2008).2435

24362437

2438

2439

2440

Marwar

Terra

in

Aravall

i Crat

on

Bundelkhand

Craton

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arCrat

on

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raton SinghbhumCraton

EGMB

LEGEND

Himalayas

Deccan Traps

Rajmahal Traps

Proterzoic Basins

Cuddapah Basin

Bastar Basin

Chattisgarh Basin

Vindhyan Basin

CuB:

Ba :

ChB:Southern

Granulites

BPMB

CuB

EGMB

ChBSMB

CIS

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AF

B

GB

MB

Kolkata

Hyderabad

Mumbai

Delhi

KBNSL

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0 200 400200

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12

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20

24

32

3668 72 76 80 84 88 92 96

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Fig. #1

Figure #1

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Fig 8

Figure #8

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ern

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Southern Granulites

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200 km

Deccan Basalts

Dharwar Batholith

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Closepet Granite

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CuddapahBasin

A

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M

H

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Figure9

Converg

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irection

WDCDharwar Batholith

Figure 10a

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Ma

ntle

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st

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C

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C

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Cooling Rate

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sepet

BangaloreHoskote-Kolar

Figure 10b

Figure #10

3300 Ma Felsic Volcanics

3320 Ma TTG> 3400 Ma

Microcontinent

Komatiite Magma

Mantle

Stage: 2

3350-3300 Ma

Ghattihosahalli

J.C. Pura

Banasandra

Stage: 3

3300-3200 Ma

3250 Ma Felsic Volcanics

3300-3200 Ma TTG3300-3200 Ma TTG

> 3400 Ma

Microcontinent

Mantle

Stage: 1

3400-3350 Ma

Ghattihosahalli

J.C. Pura

Banasandra Komatiites

Holenarsipur

Kalyadi

Nuggihalli

Oceanic Plateau

Figure11

Pa

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Quartzite and Conglomerate

Dolomitic Mudstone

Conglomerate/Quartzose Sandstone

Dolomitic Shale

Shale and Quartzite

Quartzite and Slate

Alternating Dolomite and Slate

Quartzite

Conglomerate

Quartzite

Shale

Limestone

Silty Claystone and Quartzites

Quartz Arenite

Limestone

Shaly Limestone

Gulcheru Quartzite

Vempalle Formation

Pulivendla Quartzite

Tadpatri Formation

Gandikota Quartzite

Bairenkonda/NagariQuartzite

Cumbum Formation

Srisailam Quartzite

BandanapalliFormation

Narji Limestone

Owk Shale

Paniam Quartzite

Kolikuntala Limestone

Nandyal Shale

Paraconformity

Unconformity (?)

Unconformity

Unconformity

Paraconformity

Fig 12

Figure #12

Closepet Granites

Peninsular TTG Gneisses

3,000-m.y. Intrusive Rocks

Gneiss-Granulite Transition Zone

Dharwar Supergroup - Greenschist-Facies

Sargur Schist Belts

X

X X

XXX

XXX

XXX

XX

XXX

100 km

Cenozoic

Deccan Trapps

Undeformed Proterozoic Basins

Weste

rn

Dharw

ar

Aravalli

Singhbhum

Deccan Bhandara

EasternDharwar

Granulite

Eastern

Ghats

Himalayas

N

Figure #13

Mar

aw

r

erra

i

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n

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l C

on

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ali

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ton

s

ao

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r cr

tn

SinghbhumCraton

EGM

B

LEGEND

Himalayas

Deccan Traps

Rajmahal Traps

Proterzoic Basins

Cuddapah Basin

Bastar Basin

Chattisgarh Basin

Vindhyan Basin

CuB:

Ba :

ChB:Southern

ranlite

s

Gu

BPMB

CuB

EG

MB

ChBSMB

CIS

NSL

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AF

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GB

MB

Kolkata

Hyderabad

Mumbai

Delhi

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Chennai

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AY

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8

12

16

20

24

32

3668 72 76 80 84 88 92 96

N

R

CB

SA

H

M

VB:CG: Closepet Granite

Study Area

Dharwar Craton

PCSZ

MBSZ

Trivandrum

Block

Granulite

Terraines

Shear ZonesMBSZ: Moyar-Bhavani

PCSZ: Palghat-Cauvery

ACSZ: Achankovil

Granite-

Greenstone

Terraines

Phanerozoic

Sediment

Cover

Interspersed

Granites

and GneissesAdapted from Tamashiro,

et. al., 2004

Legend

ACSZ

Nilgiri

Block

Madras

Block

Madhurai

Block

Northern

Block

10

o N

12

o N

76o E 78o E

0 50 Km

Figure #14

Marwar

Terra

in

Aravall

i Crat

on

Bundelkhand

Craton

Dharw

arCrat

on

Bastar c

raton SinghbhumCraton

EGMB

LEGENDCuddapah Basin

Chattisgarh Basin

Vindhyan Basin

CuB:

ChB:

Southern

Granulites

BPMB

CuB

ChBSMB

CIS

NSL

DFB

AF

B

GB

MB

Kolkata

Hyderabad

Mumbai

Delhi

NSL

BB

Chennai

B A Y

O FB E

N G

A L

A R A B I A N S E A

Km

0 200 400200

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A

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VB

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8

12

16

20

24

32

3668 72 76 80 84 88 92 96

N

CB

SA

H

M

VB:

CG: Closepet Granite

Aravalli Fold BeltAFB:

DFB: Delhi Fold Belt

EGMB: Ghats Mobile BeltEastern

SMB: Satpura Mobile Belt

NSL: Narmada Son Lineament

CIS: Central Indian Suture

BPMP: Bhavani Palghat Mobile Belt

Figure #15

(a)

(b)

Fig 16

Figure #16

Ka

ap

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al

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ba

bw

e Mad

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dia

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ralia

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NP

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(a)

(c)

(d)

++

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+ +

+

+ + ++ +

++

+ +

+ ++

+

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+

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Figure17

Table 1: Summary of the Precambrian History of India

Craton Oldest Age Stabilization Age Metamorphic Events Igneous Events Sedimentary BasinsAravalli ~3.5 Ga ~2.5 Ga ~2.0 Ga (t)

1.7-1.6 Ga (t)950-940 Ma (s)990-836 Ma (t)

1711-1660 Ma (g)820-750 Ma (g,d)

Marwar (<635 Ma)

Bundelkhand ~3.3 Ga ~2.5 Ga 3.3 Ga (t)2.7 Ga (t)2.5 Ga (t)

2.15 Ga (d)2.00 Ga (d)1.1 Ga (k)

Vindhyan 1.8-1.0 Ga

Singhbhum ~3.5-3.8 Ga ~2.5 Ga 3.3 Ga (g)3.1 Ga (g)3.5 Ga (v)2.1 Ga (d)1.5 Ga (d)1.1 Ga (d)900 Ma (v)

Dhanjori (~2.5 Ga)Kolhan (~1.1 Ga)

Bastar ~3.5 Ga ~2.5 Ga 2.5 Ga (t)2.3 Ga (t)1.1 Ga (t)

2.5 Ga (v)1.9 Ga (d)

Chhattisgarh (~1.1 Ga)Indravati (1.1 Ga ?)

E. Dharwar ~2.7 Ga ~2.5 Ga 2.7-2.5 Ga (t) 2.5 Ga (g)2.4 Ga (d)2.2 Ga (d)1.9 Ga (d)1.2 Ga (d)1.1 Ga (k,l)1.0 Ga (d)

Cuddapah (~1.8-1.0 Ga)Kurnool (< 600 Ma?)Prahnita-Godavari (1.1 Ga)Bhima (1.1-0.6 Ga ?)

W. Dharwar ~3.6 Ga ~2.5 Ga 3.3 Ga (t)3.1 Ga (t)

3.35 Ga (v)2.6 Ga (g)2.5 Ga (g)?(d)

Kaladgi (1.1-0.6 Ga ?)

Table1

S. Granulite ~3.5 Ga ~2.5 Ga ~2.5 Ga (t)800-900 Ma (t,s)500-600 Ma (t,s)

500 Ma (g) None

Abbreviations: (t)=tectonothermal; (s) shear; (d) dyke intrusion (k) kimberlite/lamproite intrusion (g) granitic and/or mafic intrusions; (v) volcanism