Elizabeth Mayer, of - MUSCpeople.musc.edu/~elg26/talks/AACR.March2012...Elizabeth Garrett‐Mayer,...

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Elizabeth GarrettMayer, PhD Associate Professor of Biostatistics and Epidemiology Director of Biostatistics, Hollings Cancer Center Medical University of South Carolina

Transcript of Elizabeth Mayer, of - MUSCpeople.musc.edu/~elg26/talks/AACR.March2012...Elizabeth Garrett‐Mayer,...

Page 1: Elizabeth Mayer, of - MUSCpeople.musc.edu/~elg26/talks/AACR.March2012...Elizabeth Garrett‐Mayer, PhD Associate Professor of Biostatistics and Epidemiology Director of Biostatistics,

Elizabeth Garrett‐Mayer, PhDAssociate Professor of Biostatistics and EpidemiologyDirector of Biostatistics, Hollings Cancer CenterMedical University of South Carolina

Page 2: Elizabeth Mayer, of - MUSCpeople.musc.edu/~elg26/talks/AACR.March2012...Elizabeth Garrett‐Mayer, PhD Associate Professor of Biostatistics and Epidemiology Director of Biostatistics,

I have no conflicts or relationships to disclose

I will not discuss off label use and/or investigational use in my presentation

Page 3: Elizabeth Mayer, of - MUSCpeople.musc.edu/~elg26/talks/AACR.March2012...Elizabeth Garrett‐Mayer, PhD Associate Professor of Biostatistics and Epidemiology Director of Biostatistics,

In this case, in Phase II trials, are we asking too much of the patients?

Phase II trials are generally designed at academic institutions or industry, often small companies.

Same care and consideration needs to be given to study design as larger studies. 

Page 4: Elizabeth Mayer, of - MUSCpeople.musc.edu/~elg26/talks/AACR.March2012...Elizabeth Garrett‐Mayer, PhD Associate Professor of Biostatistics and Epidemiology Director of Biostatistics,

Would a phase III study without early stopping considerations be acceptable?

Why should the standard be less in Phase II?

If the study is a bust, why enroll more patients?

If there is early evidence of strong efficacy, shouldn’t we stop assigning patients to an inferior arm?

If a treatment regimen is too toxic, why assign more patients? 

FUTILITY STOPPING

SAFETY STOPPING

EFFICACY STOPPING

Page 5: Elizabeth Mayer, of - MUSCpeople.musc.edu/~elg26/talks/AACR.March2012...Elizabeth Garrett‐Mayer, PhD Associate Professor of Biostatistics and Epidemiology Director of Biostatistics,

Focus is on treatment trials

Assumption that the primary aim regards evaluating the efficacy of one or more treatment regimens

“data dependent” stopping.  There are lots of other reasons studies could stop.

Page 6: Elizabeth Mayer, of - MUSCpeople.musc.edu/~elg26/talks/AACR.March2012...Elizabeth Garrett‐Mayer, PhD Associate Professor of Biostatistics and Epidemiology Director of Biostatistics,

They tell if we have “answered the question’” earlier than expected.

They make clinical research ETHICAL They help to avoid exposure of patients to ineffective agents Stopping early will serve to better utilize “resources” for other trials▪ money▪ time▪ patients!

Page 7: Elizabeth Mayer, of - MUSCpeople.musc.edu/~elg26/talks/AACR.March2012...Elizabeth Garrett‐Mayer, PhD Associate Professor of Biostatistics and Epidemiology Director of Biostatistics,

Futility vs. efficacy

Misunderstanding? 

What do stopping rules “look” like?

Page 8: Elizabeth Mayer, of - MUSCpeople.musc.edu/~elg26/talks/AACR.March2012...Elizabeth Garrett‐Mayer, PhD Associate Professor of Biostatistics and Epidemiology Director of Biostatistics,

0 50 100 150 200

-4-2

02

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Sample size accrued

Crit

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Trt A > Trt B

Trt B > Trt A

look 1 look 2 look 3 look 4

Efficacy Stopping

Page 9: Elizabeth Mayer, of - MUSCpeople.musc.edu/~elg26/talks/AACR.March2012...Elizabeth Garrett‐Mayer, PhD Associate Professor of Biostatistics and Epidemiology Director of Biostatistics,

0 50 100 150 200

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Sample size accrued

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look 1 look 2 look 3 look 4

Trt A = Trt B

Efficacy and Futility  Stopping

Page 10: Elizabeth Mayer, of - MUSCpeople.musc.edu/~elg26/talks/AACR.March2012...Elizabeth Garrett‐Mayer, PhD Associate Professor of Biostatistics and Epidemiology Director of Biostatistics,

Consider a single arm trial with clinical response (i.e., PR +CR) as the outcome. The standard of care has a 20% response rate You expect (i.e., hope) your new treatment has at least a 40% response rate.

Page 11: Elizabeth Mayer, of - MUSCpeople.musc.edu/~elg26/talks/AACR.March2012...Elizabeth Garrett‐Mayer, PhD Associate Professor of Biostatistics and Epidemiology Director of Biostatistics,

Futility stopping allows you to stop the study early if there is strong evidence that the null hypothesis will NOT be rejected.

Huh? Our example: H0:  p = 0.20 H1:  p = 0.40

Page 12: Elizabeth Mayer, of - MUSCpeople.musc.edu/~elg26/talks/AACR.March2012...Elizabeth Garrett‐Mayer, PhD Associate Professor of Biostatistics and Epidemiology Director of Biostatistics,

Single arm phase II:  usually one‐sided test H0:  p ≤ 0.20 (null) H1:  p > 0.40 (alternative)

Type I (α) and Type II  (β) errors rates?  5‐10% With α =0.05 and power= 0.90, we need N=44.

Rejection rule:  if 14 or more patients respond (≥32%), reject the null hypothesis.

Page 13: Elizabeth Mayer, of - MUSCpeople.musc.edu/~elg26/talks/AACR.March2012...Elizabeth Garrett‐Mayer, PhD Associate Professor of Biostatistics and Epidemiology Director of Biostatistics,

24 patients have been treated. 5 patients have responded Response rate = 21%. What are the chances that this trial will go on to be successful?

Should the study be stopped? Well, was there consideration given to early stopping?

Page 14: Elizabeth Mayer, of - MUSCpeople.musc.edu/~elg26/talks/AACR.March2012...Elizabeth Garrett‐Mayer, PhD Associate Professor of Biostatistics and Epidemiology Director of Biostatistics,

What are the implications of a. unplanned early looks?b. statistical inferences from data based on early 

looks? Should you stop?  You didn’t plan to, but it just doesn’t seem right to keep enrolling patients.

Design properties (e.g., power, p‐values) essentially go out the window 

Page 15: Elizabeth Mayer, of - MUSCpeople.musc.edu/~elg26/talks/AACR.March2012...Elizabeth Garrett‐Mayer, PhD Associate Professor of Biostatistics and Epidemiology Director of Biostatistics,

Include early stopping rules in your protocol. A simple solution to our current problem:  Simon two‐stage design. look at the data once, about halfway through stop if the response rate is ‘low’ relative to the alternative

Page 16: Elizabeth Mayer, of - MUSCpeople.musc.edu/~elg26/talks/AACR.March2012...Elizabeth Garrett‐Mayer, PhD Associate Professor of Biostatistics and Epidemiology Director of Biostatistics,

Simon’s optimal design for our scenario: H0:  p ≤ 0.20 ; H1:  p > 0.40  one‐sided α=0.05; power = 90%

In the 1st stage, enroll 20 patients if 5 or more respond, continue to stage 2 if 4 or fewer respond, stop the study

In the 2nd stage, enroll 29  more patients  At the end of the 2nd stage, reject H0 if 15 or more (of 49 patients) respond

Page 17: Elizabeth Mayer, of - MUSCpeople.musc.edu/~elg26/talks/AACR.March2012...Elizabeth Garrett‐Mayer, PhD Associate Professor of Biostatistics and Epidemiology Director of Biostatistics,

Increased type I error? Not at all! Common misconception  Early looks for futility DECREASE the power of the study (all else equal).

To maintain the power, you generally need to increase the sample size a modest amount:

Our example:   N=45 without interim futility analysis N=49 with interim futility analysis

Page 18: Elizabeth Mayer, of - MUSCpeople.musc.edu/~elg26/talks/AACR.March2012...Elizabeth Garrett‐Mayer, PhD Associate Professor of Biostatistics and Epidemiology Director of Biostatistics,

Simon’s two‐stage designs allow one early look There are other frequentist approaches with >2 (and even continuous) looks.

Bayesian and likelihood approaches: can implement multiple looks or continuous monitoring

if the evidence is ever ‘strong enough’ to conclude that either (a) the null will not be disproved, or (b) the alternative is unlikely to be true, then the study can be stopped

sometimes we hear about “conditional power”

Page 19: Elizabeth Mayer, of - MUSCpeople.musc.edu/~elg26/talks/AACR.March2012...Elizabeth Garrett‐Mayer, PhD Associate Professor of Biostatistics and Epidemiology Director of Biostatistics,

0 10 20 30 40

Sample Size

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Page 20: Elizabeth Mayer, of - MUSCpeople.musc.edu/~elg26/talks/AACR.March2012...Elizabeth Garrett‐Mayer, PhD Associate Professor of Biostatistics and Epidemiology Director of Biostatistics,

Patient number

Like

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1/32

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Favors Alternative

Favors Null

Page 21: Elizabeth Mayer, of - MUSCpeople.musc.edu/~elg26/talks/AACR.March2012...Elizabeth Garrett‐Mayer, PhD Associate Professor of Biostatistics and Epidemiology Director of Biostatistics,

Patient number

Like

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1/32

1/16

1/8

1/4

1/2

1

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8

16

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0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50

Favors Alternative

Favors Null

Page 22: Elizabeth Mayer, of - MUSCpeople.musc.edu/~elg26/talks/AACR.March2012...Elizabeth Garrett‐Mayer, PhD Associate Professor of Biostatistics and Epidemiology Director of Biostatistics,

Other paradigms (likelihood, Bayesian) do not evaluate evidence in the same way as the frequentist paradigm

But, they do have ways of controlling or bounding error rates.

Page 23: Elizabeth Mayer, of - MUSCpeople.musc.edu/~elg26/talks/AACR.March2012...Elizabeth Garrett‐Mayer, PhD Associate Professor of Biostatistics and Epidemiology Director of Biostatistics,

Considered single arm binary Number of arms? one vs. two or more comparative vs. non‐comparative

Outcome of interest? binary continuous time to event (e.g. PFS)

Page 24: Elizabeth Mayer, of - MUSCpeople.musc.edu/~elg26/talks/AACR.March2012...Elizabeth Garrett‐Mayer, PhD Associate Professor of Biostatistics and Epidemiology Director of Biostatistics,

What if you have two arms in your trial and one appears to be more efficacious at the interim look? 

You should a) continue the study with no changesb) stop enrolling to the sub‐optimal armc) stop enrolling to both arms.

Answer?  it depends

Page 25: Elizabeth Mayer, of - MUSCpeople.musc.edu/~elg26/talks/AACR.March2012...Elizabeth Garrett‐Mayer, PhD Associate Professor of Biostatistics and Epidemiology Director of Biostatistics,

Are the arms both experimental treatments? Is one arm the standard of care ? is the standard of care the superior or inferior arm?

If both are experimental: drop the inferior arm. If one is experimental: if the standard of care arm is superior: stop the study if the experimental arm is superior:  continue as is.

If both are standards of care:  stop the study.

Page 26: Elizabeth Mayer, of - MUSCpeople.musc.edu/~elg26/talks/AACR.March2012...Elizabeth Garrett‐Mayer, PhD Associate Professor of Biostatistics and Epidemiology Director of Biostatistics,

Increasingly common to see progression‐free survival (PFS) as a phase II endpoint in oncology (instead of response)

For some cancers, we often use OS (e.g., brain cancer) even in Phase II

Challenges:  it may take longer to evaluate

Page 27: Elizabeth Mayer, of - MUSCpeople.musc.edu/~elg26/talks/AACR.March2012...Elizabeth Garrett‐Mayer, PhD Associate Professor of Biostatistics and Epidemiology Director of Biostatistics,

Example 1:   randomized two‐arm study of two agent combination vs. three 

agent combination first line treatment in metastatic pancreatic cancer Median PFS 6 months Accrual time of 18 months

Planned interim analysis at 12 months: 2/3 of patients accrued 50% of those on study have been followed for at least 6 months Early stopping for futility can avoid exposure to ineffective 

(additional) therapy for remaining patients

Page 28: Elizabeth Mayer, of - MUSCpeople.musc.edu/~elg26/talks/AACR.March2012...Elizabeth Garrett‐Mayer, PhD Associate Professor of Biostatistics and Epidemiology Director of Biostatistics,

Example 2: maintenance therapy [24 months] vs. standard of care (no treatment) patients with relapsed chronic lymphocytic leukemia who have 

responded to induction therapy Median PFS is about 30 months Accrual time of 40 months

Planned interim analysis at 44 months all of the patients have been enrolled What does interim analysis provide? If there is evidence to stop:

▪ for efficacy: early recommendation that maintenance therapy works▪ for futility: discontinuation of maintenance therapy for those on that arm

Page 29: Elizabeth Mayer, of - MUSCpeople.musc.edu/~elg26/talks/AACR.March2012...Elizabeth Garrett‐Mayer, PhD Associate Professor of Biostatistics and Epidemiology Director of Biostatistics,

4 Choice of Trial Design 35 4.1 Trial Aim: Treatment Selection . 35

4.1.1 Activity alone. 35 4.1.1.1 Binary outcome measure 35

a.Including a control arm 35 Two stage designs . 35 Phase II/III designs where the same outcome measure is used at phase II and phase III 36 Phase II/III designs where a different outcome measure is used at phase II and phase III 39

b. Not including a control arm 41 One stage designs . 41 Two stage designs . 42 Multi-stage designs . 44 Phase II/III designs where the same outcome measure is used at phase II and phase III 44 Response adaptive randomisation design 45

4.1.1.2 Continuous outcome measure 46 a. Including a control arm . 46

Two stage designs . 46 Multi stage designs . 47 Phase II/III designs where the same outcome measure is used at phase II and phase III 48 Phase II/III designs where a different outcome measure is used at phase II and phase III 50

b. Not including a control arm 52 One stage designs . 52

4.1.1.3 Order category outcome measure 53 a. Including a control arm . 53

One stage designs . 53 Two-stage designs . 53

4.1.1.4 Time to event outcome measure 55 a. Including a control arm . 55

Phase II/III designs where the same outcome measure is used at phase II and phase III 55 Phase II/III designs where a different outcome measure is used at phase II and phase III 55

b. Not including a control arm 57 One stage designs . 57 Multi stage designs . 57 Continuous monitoring designs 57

4.1.2 Activity and toxicity . 58 4.1.2.1 Binary outcome measures 58

Multi stage designs . 58 Continuous monitoring designs 58

4.1.2.2 Ordered categorical outcome measures 59 Two stage designs . 59

Brown et al. Designing phase II trials in cancer: a systematic review BJC 105:194‐199 (2011)

Page 30: Elizabeth Mayer, of - MUSCpeople.musc.edu/~elg26/talks/AACR.March2012...Elizabeth Garrett‐Mayer, PhD Associate Professor of Biostatistics and Epidemiology Director of Biostatistics,

Critically important to include safety stopping guidelines

Often, the phase II study dose may be based on a small phase I study with imprecise recommendation of the phase II dose.

Page 31: Elizabeth Mayer, of - MUSCpeople.musc.edu/~elg26/talks/AACR.March2012...Elizabeth Garrett‐Mayer, PhD Associate Professor of Biostatistics and Epidemiology Director of Biostatistics,

Consider accrual rates and time of endpoint evaluation (per patient)

Think about the ethical implications of the results of an interim look for every current patient for potential future patients think about the consent form:  does the stated purpose still apply?

Page 32: Elizabeth Mayer, of - MUSCpeople.musc.edu/~elg26/talks/AACR.March2012...Elizabeth Garrett‐Mayer, PhD Associate Professor of Biostatistics and Epidemiology Director of Biostatistics,

Consider all possible interim look inferences: should the study stop? should one arm stop (and/or cross‐over)? should the study continue? what would treatment options be if the study stopped vs. continued for those on or off study?

You may conclude that your design should have no early stopping rules? only futility stopping? only efficacy stopping? both?

Page 33: Elizabeth Mayer, of - MUSCpeople.musc.edu/~elg26/talks/AACR.March2012...Elizabeth Garrett‐Mayer, PhD Associate Professor of Biostatistics and Epidemiology Director of Biostatistics,

Piantadosi (2005). Treatment effects monitoring (Ch. 14).  Clinical Trials: A Methodologic Perspective.

Simon (1989) Optimal two‐stage designs for phase II clinical trials.  Controlled Clinical Trials.

Lee (200) A predictive probability design for phase II cancer clinical trials.  Clinical Trials.

Brown et al. (2011) Designing phase II trials in cancer:  A systematic review.  British Journal of Cancer (2011)

Stallard et al. (2001) Stopping rules for phase II studies.  British Journal of Clinical Pharmacology.