Restricted DPHDI P'Q Technical Report r L- KJ r L. E- O

—s, -s REPUBLIC O F MOZAMBIQUE

Promotion of national and local languages

Elements of a Policy for Promotion of National Languages

by Olabiyi Babalola Yai

Serial No . FMR/CLT /CS/82 /174

¡ 11 United Nations Educational, Scientific = = • and Cultural Organization

Paris, 1 9 8 3

PEOPLE'S REPUBLIC OF MOZAMBIQUE

ELEMENTS OF A POLICY

FOR PROMOTION OF

NATIONAL LANGUAGES

by Olabiyi Babalola Yai

Report prepared for the Government of the People's Republic of Mozambique by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (Unesco)

U N E S C O

Technical Report RP/1981-1983/4/1.2/02 FMR/C Lizes/as/]^ (Ya i ) 16 May 1983

© Unesco 1983 Printed .in France

(i)

PREFACE

The mission, undertaken at the request of the Director-General of Unesco, was entrusted to Professor Olabiyi Babalola Yai, consultant, was conducted in Maputo from 9 June to 10 July 1982 and was financed under Unesco's regular programme for 1981-1983. During his stay, the consultant had the opportunity of meeting various political officials and Mozambican and. foreign experts whose current and potential activities require the use of the Mozambican languages. The working sessions were always conducted in an atmostphere of goodwill and sometimes-of enthusiasm with a fair exchange of information throughout.

The terms of reference of the mission" were :

(i) collect information likely to assist the Mozambican authorities in the conception of a relevant policy for the promotion of national languages;

(ii) to prepare a preliminary project with regard to national languages which will be submitted to funding sources.

In analysing the circumstances and in proposing solutions the consultant has paid due consideration to the interests, priorities and general outlook of the People's Republic of Mozambique. (The consultant has also made use of a number of documents bearing directly or indirectly on the problem of the Mozambican languages.) It would be a lengthy task to enumerate the numerous national and international institutions and individuals who so generously assisted the consultant in the accomplishment of his mission. Special mention should be made, none the less, of the United. Nations Development Programme, the authorities of the Eduardo Mondlane University, the Ministry for Education and Culture, the Mozambican National Commis­sion for Unesco, the management of Radio Mozambique, the Gabinete de Communicaçào Social of the Ministry of Information and of the National Institute for Books and Recordings and, last but not least, the fellow linguists of the Núcleo de Estudo de Linguas Mocambicanas, Department for the Study of Mozambican Languages of the Eduardo Mondlane University (NELIMO).

* See'reference notes, page (ii)

(ii)

REFERENCE NOTES

1. Tribos on Grupos Étnicos Moçambicano in Datas e Documentos

da Historia da FRELIMO, 2a Ediçào ; Imprensa Nacional,

Lourenço, Marques 1975.

2. Primeiro Seminario Nacional sobre Ensino da lingua Portuguesa

Comunicado Final.

3. Primeiro Seminario National sobre o Ensino da lingua Portuguesa.

Tema I : 0 papel da lingua portuguesa en Moçambique Formaçào

e informaçào. O papel da lingua Portuguesa na escola. Page 8.

4. 0 Sistema Nacional da Educaçào e a situaçào multilingue do

Pais. República Popular de Moçambique, Ministerio da Educaçào

e Cultura. Maputo, Decembro de 1980. Page 8.

5. ibidem. P. 9.

6. ibidem. P. 9.

7. Alfa Ibrahim Sow : Langues et politiques de langues en Afrique

Noire. L'expérience de 1'Unesco Editions Nubia, page 12.

8. SAMORA Moisés Machel : Fazer da escola urna base para o povo

tomar"o poder. Colecçào Estudo e Orientaçoes N°6, 1979.

9. "0 povo é o real productor da cultura, tal comoé o único e

real productor de riqueza material". "A cultura nao deve ser

encarada como produto de consumo (19) 1978-10-05.

(iii)

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

PREFACE (i)

REFERENCE NOTES (ii)

I.. INTRODUCTION 1

II. LINGUISTIC SITUATION 2

III. PROBLEMS OF LINGUISTIC POLICY 5

IV. STRATEGIC OPTIONS 6

V. IMPLEMENTATION OF THE ADOPTED LINGUISTIC POLICY 11

Annex I - Organigram of the Commission for the Promotion of Mozambican Languages (COPROLIMO) . 20

Annex II - Assistance personnel for the training of managers and the research projects—programming 21

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INTRODUCTION

1. For some thirty years, Unesco has been actively engaged in an experiment involving the promotion of African languages and an overall review of the

linguistic situation in Africa. Three decades that have been marked by expert meetings, consultations, projects, courses, pilot experiments three decades that have led, in programming terms, to the ten-year plan for the systematic study of the oral tradition and the promotion of African languages as media of cultural expression and instruments of ongoing education (1972) and the Unesco Horizon 2000 Project.

2. It would not be unreasonable to suggest that the successes and failures of these endeavours correspond, in their broad outlines, to the patterns of

the history of the peoples of Africa who have been divided up according to artifi­cial criteria and who, nevertheless, are actively engaged in the struggle against colonialism and neo-colonialism with all that it implies in terms of temporary successes and setbacks. The linguistic problem in Africa is, by its very essence, a highly political problem in which what is at stake is the acceptance by the African peoples of their responsibility for their own destiny.

3. The inequality that exists in the development of the struggle for the independence of peoples and of cultural awareness, of which it is a funda­

mental component, accounts for the fact that the states and various geographical areas of the African continent have not been able to benefit in a uniform way from the material and intellectual investment provided by Unesco- in the pursuit of the appropriate solutions for their linguistic problems. This is not to suggest, by any means, that the Organization has not shown its concern for all states and areas alike. Those areas where the African peoples had not yet acquired their political independence were in no way excluded from Unesco's consideration and its projects. This can be illustrated by the fact that the Executive Board of Unesco, in its 87th session (Paris, March 1971), adopted the resolution on assistance to refugees from colonial territories, and other peoples striving to liberate them­selves from colonialism and from all forms of apartheid. The meeting of experts on the promotion of African languages as instruments of culture and ongoing edu­cation, convened by Unesco in Dar es Salaam from 15 to 21 December 1971 also proposed a programme regarding 'Mozambique and other territories under colonial domination' in its draft ten-year plan.

4. Furthermore, the movements for national liberation, especially the FBELIMQ, »have always paid special attention to the problems posed by the use of

African languages in the process of liberation and national unity. This is illustrated by the fact that President Eduardo Mondlane, founder and first president of FRELIMO, iin a document of exceptional concision laid the foundations, as early as 1967, of a dialectic apprehension of the relationship between the various cultures and national unity in Mozambique. The essence of his reasoning was that: 'the positive elements of our cultural life such as our forms of linguis­tic expression, our typical musical and dance forms and the regional peculiarities with regard to our approach to birth, adolescence, love and death will continue, after independence, to blossom and to enhance the life of our nation. There can be no antagonism between the practical aspects of the life of the various ethnic groups and national unity'. (1)

(1) See reference notes at beginning of report.

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5. At the height of the armed struggle for liberation, FRELIMO declared at a seminar organized by Unesco in July 1971 in Dar es Salaam on the. influence of

colonialism on the artists: 'There is no dominant language in our country. The choice of one of the Mozambican languages would be an arbitrary measure which could have serious consequences. What is more, the technical facilities and the numbers of personnel we have at our disposal do not enable us to conduct satisfacto­rily the kind of research required for making a specific language operational, especially in the field of science. We have been obliged to use Portuguese as the language for instruction and communication between ourselves1.

6. When independence was finally achieved in 1975, there arose once again the problem of the part that national languages could play in solving the problems

with which the young Mozambican state was confronted, such as the consolidation of independence, national unity, the fight against illiteracy and underdevelopment in general, the laying of the foundations of socialism and the promotion of a new and firmly"rooted culture.

7. Since 1975, the most significant deliberations within the party and the government on the problems of information (Macomia, First National Seminar

on Information, Maputo, 1977) and of education and culture (4th Central Committee 1978, Sistema Nacional de Eduçào 1981) have been a forum for discussions and general statements on the vital role of national languages in the process of the technical, scientific and cultural development of our country.(2)

8. The recent visit of .the Director-General of Unesco to Mozambique from 12-15 August 1981 also provided the Mozambican authorities with the opportunity

of requesting further support from Unesco for endeavours aimed at defining a • programme for the study and promotion of the national languages.

9. It is evident that the current consultation lies at the confluence of the efforts deployed by Unesco within the context of the Horizon 2000 Project

relating to the promotion of African languages and the general and cultural policies of the Mozambican Government, of which the inspiration goes back to the days of the armed struggle for national liberation.

II. THE LINGUISTIC SITUATION

10. The People's Republic of Mozambique, like most African countries, is a multi­lingual state. Apart from Portuguese which is the official language, all of

the other Mozambican languages belong to the Bantu group. Available information on these languages is not sufficiently accurate for them to be classified according to the guidelines drawn up at the meeting in Conakry (September 1981). Consequently, little is known of the geographical distribution of dialects, the number of people who speak, them, the degree of intercomprehension between the variants which distinguish between languages and dialects, the degree of commonness of languages that are reputed to be a common medium of expression, the areas where they are spoken, etc. Some information of this nature will be available when the results become known of the 1980 population census. It will not, however, eliminate the need for a separate socio-linguistic investigation.

The main languages spoken in Mozambique are the following:

Yao, also spoken in Tanzania;

Makonde, also spoken in Tanzania;

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Makua-lomwe: numerically the most important language (five to six million speakers) although it has been the subject of little scientific research;

Nyanja: also known and studied in Malawi and Zambia;

Chuabo;

Chewa;

Shona, also spoken in Zimbabwe, has been the subject of scientific research;

Changana-ronga, also spoken in the Republic of South Africa and which has been the subject and the medium of expression of a certain quantity of scientific literature.

There are a number of other languages that are less important numerically, and are generally spoken by bilingual people. This is the case of Kiswahili, Bitonga, Chopi, Swati and Zulu.

12. A predominant feature of the People's Republic of Mozambique is that all the main languages, with the exception of the Makua-lomwe group, are also spoken in

the bordering states (Zimbabwe, Malawi, Tanzania and Zambia). A policy for regional co-operation could be envisaged for the promotion of African languages.

13. The policy of assimilation pursued under the colonial regime led to the neglect of research in African studies in general. Furthermore there has been virtually

no research conducted on the Mozambican languages. Therefore, until recently, research work on the Mozambican African languages was almost exclusively carried out by missionaries. There exists a-variety of grammar books, dictionaries, antholo­gies of proverbs and riddles, and other publications of an ethnological nature. There are also various anthologies of tales and other genre in bilingual editions (Mozambican language—Portuguese), together with handbooks on hygience, etc. While these publications may often be unsatisfactory in scientific terms, they constitute a significant achievement which could be profitably used by an approp­riate policy for the promotion of Mozambican languages.

14. While the Mozambican languages have often been neglected in Mozambique, their variants spoken in the neighbouring states, where the former colonial power

had a different colonial language policy, have benefited and are continuing to benefit from a more extensive scientific literature from which the People's Republic of Mozambique could derive some advantage. There'is-already a certain quantity of literature in these languages (Nyanja, Shona, Swahili and Ronga, in particular).

15. After independence, the National Institute for the Development of Education . launched a research programma ón examples of a mix between the Bantu

languages and Portuguese in the speech of schoolchildren, with the aim of improving the teaching of Portuguese. A Department for the Study of Mozambican Languages (Núcleo de Estudo de Linguas Moçambicanas) was set up within the Faculty of Arts of the Eduardo Mondlane University. With a very small staff, especially at the outset, the NELIMO first undertook to draw up a bibliography on the languages of Mozambique. It has also succeeded in drawing up glossaries of scientific and technical terms in the Mozambican languages for the Gabinete de Communicaçào social of the Ministry of Information. It has set up a research project focusing on the description of the Mozambican languages, the question of bilingualism, and the study of dialects. The resources in terms of equipment, and more especially manpower, at the disposal of NELIMO, are nevertheless inadequate in view of the work it has achieved so far, and particularly for its five-year programme.

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The Mozambican languages in the field of information

16.. Radio Mozambique broadcasts in seven national languages. The regional transmitters also broadcast in the languages that are most commonly spoken

in their respective areas. Despite the growing diversity of the broadcasting areas, and an increase in the number of hours of broadcasting devoted to the national languages, the quality of the programmes still leaves much to be desired. This is due to the lack of specialized training of journalists, who have often been trained on the job. In Mozambique, as elsewhere in Africa, the main practice is that of translation journalism, performed by journalists who have neither the training of a translator nor the mastery of a modern, appropriate terminology in the African languages.

17. Mention should be made of the sporadic publication of Jornais do Povo (wall • newspaper) in Mozambican languages, alongside the Portuguese edition. This

initiative has been given official encouragement.

18. The Gabinete de Comraunicaçào Social of the Ministry of Information makes use of the Mozambican languages in its Social Communication Centres and

mobile facilities. Attempts to establish technical glossaries, upon the initiative of the Ministry, have not materialized on account of a shortage of qualified staff.

The Mozambican languages in the field of- literacy

19. As yet, no experiment in literacy instruction in the Mozambican languages, has been officially undertaken since independence. There are undoubtedly a number

of people who have received literacy instruction in nationa'l languages from the missionaries within Mozambic itself and in the neighbouring states. These people, who have reading and sometimes writing skills in the national languages, have & only religious literature at their disposal.

20. In the northern part of the country, there are still many traditionalist literate people who write Ajami. Documents written in Ajami have yet to

be investigated.

21. Even in the community villages (aldeias communais), literacy campaigns are conducted in Portuguese. A general lack of enthusiasm and poor attendance

have been reported in the press and at various regional and national seminars. It would seem that such failure in literacy campaigns can be attributed more to the choice of language of which adults do not have a genuine command, than to difficul­ties of a technical or operational nature, however real they might be.

22. Four centuries of colonialism have generally succeeded in confining the Mozambican languages in the lower reaches of the patterns of communication.

Nevertheless it can be asserted quite unequivocally, despite a dearth of highly accurate statistical socio-linguistic data which could only be supplied by a linguistic planning body, that the broad outlines of the linguistic identity of the People's Republic of Mozambique are already sufficiently familiar for a linguistic policy favourable for the use of the Mozambican languages in all aspects of life to be envisaged.

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III. THE PROBLEMS OF LINGUISTIC POLICY

2 3. The attitude of the Mozambican authorities has been governed by a constant desire to avoid taking any hasty measures in this respect, and to base its

decisions on tangible facts. This is a laudable and responsible attitude which reveals the Mozambican Government's awareness of the gravity of the linguistic, problem.

24. A feature of this attitude is the will, constantly reiterated by the FRELIMO, to endeavour to ensure that the Mozambican languages should play an increasingly

important part in scientific, technical and cultural progress, while confirming that Portuguese is the language of the state,, the party, education and national unity.

25. The Mozambican Government has not yet produced a synopsis of the problems related to the national languages, apart from the declarations of principle

referred to above. Therefore, there is no uniformity in the interpretation of these declarations. As the factors which can contribute to the conception of a linguistic policy are merely at the gestation stage, there have necessarily been a number of inaccuracies and even contradictions in-the use made of the relevant concepts. It would consequently seem opportune to illustrate and redefine certain concepts and general statements within the Mozambican context before assessing the various options open to the.People's Republic of Mozambique.

26. It is quite common to read, or to hear people say, that 'the semantic structure of the national languages reflects traditional feudal society',

and that 'any translation of these languages will inevitably convey religious and feudal metaphysical connotations'. This preconceived idea, a legacy of history, is quite simply untenable in scientific terms. There are no languages whose semantic structure is intrinsically predisposed to reflect feudalism, .capitalism or socialism, etcf, as its various patterns of development correspond to different stages in the history of a people. Language is a praxis, and as such any language is immensely flexible and capable of absorbing within its structure all innovations born of a new praxis of the people that speak it, just as it can discard any notions which the people no longer need. Those limitations which, for translators, are specific and explainable do not constitute limitations for the Mozambican languages.

27. In reference to Portuguese, the notions of a common medium of expression, an official language, a dominant language or a national language, are used

indiscriminately as if they reflected the same features of reality or had the same meaning in all places and at all times. Portuguese is undoubtedly a common medium of expression in Mozambique. However, any assertion of this kind is'meaningless unless it is immediately qualified by an assortment of facts that testify to its firmly rooted position within the Mozambican context. It is undeniable that in a colonial or post-colonial situation, such as that of most African countries, the language of this colonizer is always and inevitably the common medium of expression, if only among the élite of the nation, however small. There are therefore différent kinds of common media of expression, and a typology is required. A common language for the élite cannot be compared with a common medium of expression for the people as a whole. A common, endogenous, native tongue is not an imposed common language. Wolof, which is spoken by over 80 per cent of the Senegalese population is not a common language of the same kind as Portuguese in Mozambique and Sào Tome, or French in Togo and the Congo. .

28. Language, admittedly, is by no means a negligible factor in the. pursuit or consolidation of national unity. This does not mean, however, that there can be a

determinist approach whereby linguistic unity implies political unity. The idea

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that a unity of purpose, in national terms, would result from the adoption of a single, common language is most certainly a myth. Language can only be a factor of unity when it is sufficiently consolidated by other socio-economic and sub-j ective factors.

29. The factors that unite or divide men are not so much languages as specific interests. Unity that is based merely on language is more than likely to be

little more than an artifice. Durable unity is also based on common historical experience, on the joint pursuit of the same ideals, which also requires the deliberate commitment of individuals and nationalities. Such unity is not incompatible with the promotion of national languages, and FRELIMO has laid the foundations for it through joint historic experience of the armed struggle for liberation. All that remains is to reiterate Eduardo Mondlane's word: 'Nao ha antagonismo entre as realidades da existencia de varios grupos étnicos e a unidade nacional'.

30. The various multilingual situations in independent African states are extremely complex, and the functions of the relevant languages, especially

those of the African languages in comparison with the colonial languages, should not be viewed in necessarily antagonistic or manichean terms.

31. Given these clarifications, it would seem opportune to review the various strategic .options open to Mozambique in respect of linguistic policy. However,

it would be wise to recall a number of general features of Mozambique, together with the principal objectives of the government.

32. During the war of liberation, Portuguese was used as a common language in the armed forces for liberation. This would suggest that it should continue

to play a liberating role once the stage of armed conflict is over.

33. Post-colonial Mozambican society is in a process of transition, and the complex nature of the situation may account for the temporary coexistence of

ostensibly contradictory systems of linguistic planning. What matters, over and beyond the contradictions and ambiguities imposed by the colonial heritage, is to provide an accurate definition of the strategic objectives of linguistic policy, and to ensure that the sectoral strategies within the policy do not hinder the achievement of the long-term objectives. In the definition of the strategic objectives, the fact should not be overlooked that the damage caused by four centuries of colonialism with their related cultural alienation and obscurantism cannot be made good within a few years. In linguistic policy, the overriding consideration should be to lay sound foundations, while accepting that the completion of certain tasks will be left to future generations.

34. Strategic options, that is to say the long-term choices, are of a political nature and cannot, therefore, depend on the circumstances of a specific

colonial situation which has precisely to be overcome. On the contrary, it is the long-term options that will fashion the guidelines for research together with the relative scope of efforts to be deployed at every stage of linguistic policy.

IV. STRATEGIC OPTIONS

35. There are three long-term options that can be envisaged for Mozambique:

(a) the promotion of the language inherited from the colonial period, namely Portuguese;

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(b) the adoption of functional bilingualism throughout the country;

(c) the promotion of the Mozambican languages.

These three options will be reviewed briefly in terms of the general policies of the People's Republic of Mozambique and their possible implementation.

The promotion of Portuguese

36. The following reasons have been put forward in favour of this strategy(3)

the argument according to which Portuguese is the language of unity and the fight against 'tribalism';

in the hands of the Mozambican people, in the current political context, 'Portuguese can be viewed as an instrument of liberation';

'the acquisition of scientific and technical knowledge and support for economic and social development, a pre-condition for conquering under­development, can be more easily carried out with Portuguese than with the Mozambican languages, and can encourage the growth of relations between the Mozambican people and other- peoples and solidarity with workers throughout the world'.

37. This option would lead to the disappearance in the long term of the Mozambican languages. It would be a Mozambican version of 'Lusp-tropicalism', which

has been successfully achieved iñ Brasil within an historical context that is totally different from that of Africa. The reasons put forward do not stand up to critical scrutiny and can be easily refuted in view of the general guideline often quoted from the final statement of the First National Seminar on the Teaching of Portguese, according to which the African languages should be called upon to play an increasingly important part in the economic, social and cultural future of the country.

38. The third reason, however, deserves a brief comment: the acquisition of • scientific and technical knowledge can only be achieved more rapidly in

Portuguese by those who already speak it. In actual fact, most of the Mozambican people do not speak Portuguese. This particular suggestion considers as resolve'd that which is precisely the core of the problem.

39. Even if the somewhat unlikely hypothesis is accepted whereby the Mozambican people as a whole would give up its own languages and adopt Portuguese as the

only language for every aspect of everyday life, which would constitute a unique example in history of linguistic suicide, the problem would remain as to whether it_ would be technically possible to help the nation acquire oral and written command of Portuguese to an extent that it could be used for liberating the country from underdevelopment. It is difficult to provide an accurate answer to such a question with statistical indications, assuming that statistics would be of any significance in such a context. It is clear, nevertheless, that for such a hypothesis to be implemented, there are at least two pre-conditions that would be required, apart from massive human and financial resources that would be difficult to find:

the emergence of a new social class which would have an interest in seeking the disappearance of the Mozambican languages and the means of exerting coercion on the masses in order to achieve this ;

(a)

(b)

(c)

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a lapse of time extending over at least six generations. This, of course, would be in complete contradiction with the aspirations of the People's Republic of Mozambique.

Functional bilingualism throughout the country

40. Another long-term option would be the adoption of functional bilingualism throughout the country. This 'would aim at bringing the Mozambican people

to adopt the use of Portuguese not as a substitute for their mother tongues, but in parallel to them'. (4) This would constitute a Luso-Bantu bilingualism. In the minds of its advocates, it would involve the specialization of each of the components of this bilingualism in specific functions of communication, while not excluding a degree of overlapping. In this way, Portuguese would take on the role of the common medium of expression between all Mozambicans and, more particularly, the language of the party and the government, "the civil service and the administration, at all levels, of trade, information and the press, and school education, in other words, the language of communication at a particular level in the community life of every Mozambican1.(5) With regard to the Bantu languages of Mozambique, they, 'will be used by most Mozambicans as instruments of communication and expression in private and family circles, in the everyday life of the village or neighbourhood, in cultural creation and dissemination, and, at regional or local level, as languages of information (radio, local newspapers) and political, technical and scientific training (basic skills, agricultural and public health campaigns, etc.)'(6)

41. At first glance, this option has the advantage of considering the relationship between Portuguese and the African languages in terms not of exclusion but

of complementarity. It" the'ref ore appears more equitable and progressive than the first option, which recommended the supremacy of the language of colonization.

42. None the less, as a long-term option, it proves to be hardly compatible with the declared objectives of the Mozambican Government, particularly as it would

impose unfair limits on the prospects of the Bantu languages of Mozambique by confining them arbitrarily to what would appear to be lowly functions. By attributing to them the exclusive vocation of 'languages of the neighbourhoods and villages' and by confining them to basic skills, this option lends weight to the preconceived idea whereby such languages are incapable of conceptualization, cannot convey concepts other than at the lower levels of mental activity and cannot, therefore be suitable for 'serious' functions (administration, trade, academic life, etc.) for which an incomparably higher degree of abstraction would be required.

43. Conversely, this option awards the lion's share to the Portuguese language, thereby confirmed in its fundamental and prestigious vocation.

44. The very term, 'functional bilingualism' conceals and consolidates the funda­mental inequality between the two components of this particular kind of

bilingualism, that is to say between Portuguese on the one hand, and the African languages on the other. Furthermore, if due consideration is given to the aliena­tion and complexes that arise out of any colonial linguistic situation and which, as everyone knows, die hard, the outcome would not be genuine bilingualism which would be a source of enrichment, but an instrument of ambiguity and schizophrenia, in parallel to and above a language considered to be inferior, the overall result being a situation that constantly generates conflicting approaches.

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45. Furthermore, through the functions of social development which it alone would assume (trade, education, administration), Portuguese would remain, within the

approach of functional bilingualism throughout -the country, the language of the élite, even if the new élite were to be numerically greater than during the colonial era. The consequences would be the strengthening of the status quo through its 1 democratization'.

46. It should be emphasized that if the 'democratization' process were carried to its logical extreme, Portuguese, through its dynamism as the dominant language,

would inevitably encroach on the functions of the Mozambican languages. This would finally lead to a monolingual situation. Thus, functional bilingualism adopted throughout the country reveals its true face: its objective would be no different from that of the first option, for which it would merely constitute a methodical preparation. We may also reflect on the cultural destruction that would ensue from this process.

47. None the less, functional bilingualism adopted throughout the country would lead to the following pattern, according to the most optimistic hypothesis:

PORTUGUESE•* language of: MOZAMBICAN BANTU LANGUAGES = languages of:

the masses

the countryside

family life

folk culture

emotion

it seems hard to perceive how this prospect could contribute to the emergence of a new breed of men (I 'homen novo'), the avowed aim of the national system of education.

48. A degree of functional Luso-Bantu bilingualism (not applied throughout the country) is inevitable, none the less, at this present point in the history

of Mozambique. It would not be strategic or long term, but tactical. It must therefore be seen as no more than a stopgap measure of transitional solution, and should be conceived in such a way as to usher in another linguistic situation of a different nature, that of the promotion of the Mozambican languages.

49. Before providing a brief outline of the third option, a general observation should be made. All linguistic policies that propose the long-term adoption

of the colonial languages in post-colonial Africa are based, regardless of their variants and modes of implementation, on the same preconceived idea and the same philosophical stance. It suggests that the instrument for development can be none other than the European language which they believe, without always admitting it, is the only instrument for the acquisition of scientific knowledge and the key to modernization. The least that can be said of this attitude is that it reveals little confidence in the masses and their aptitudes with regard to their national language.

The option of ensuring the promotion of the Mozambican languages

50. The third option reflects a very different philosophical stance. Its postulate is that the African nations can only extricate themselves from underdevelopment

if the masses themselves, probably with the assistance of some of the élite, endeavour to master, through the languages they speak, and absorb, within their own cultures, the most advanced scientific and technical knowledge and ideas. Just as a man cannot 'think with someone else's brain', a nation cannot develop with a language that is. not its own.

the elite

the towns

the school

culture

reason

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51. This option consists in choosing to promote the Mozambican languages not merely to assume lowly functions in parallel to the official language, but

in such a way as -to assume all possible functions, so that they are used in every aspect of the life of the Mozambican nation, in the home, at school, in trade and in the civil service, etc.

52. An option of this kind, which is necessarily multilingual, would obviously include Portuguese of which a specific variant is in the process of becoming

a Mozambican language, not as-the privileged component of a bi-polar linguistic policy, ineqalitarian and therefore repressive, but as a feature of the multilingual situation.

53. A choice such as this calls for 'a clear vision of the objectives to be attained, extensive and accurate knowledge of the problems to be solved, a

precise assessment of the methods and means to be implemented, and the creation of an institutional framework that is efficient but not cumbersome'.(7)

54. Once the option has been adopted, the authorities will draw up a plan in all its short-, medium- and long-term aspects, based on an accurate appraisal of

the demographical importance, the functions and dynamism of each language. A mere overall scheme cannot suffice, but the details of such a policy are the responsibility of a specialized body.

55. In the short term, the language of each community should serve as the medium for literacy instruction while providing schooling for children in the early

years, where the inter-community/inter-state languages could be taught as school subjects, together with Portuguese which would become the medium for teaching in the higher grades of primary education and in secondary -schools.

56. In the medium-term, the inter-community languages would constitute the medium for education and the civil service at regional level. The other languages .

would be taught as school subjects.

57. In the long-term, the most important Mozambican languages would assume all functions of communication.

58. The option comprising the promotion of the Mozambican languages should make it possible to avoid an uncompromisingly short-term approach which, by seeking

to meet essentially urgent imperatives, would hinder the progress of the masses towards the achievement of the long-term objectives. It is quite feasible and less costly than the other options. It corresponds, first and foremost, to the long-term interests and objectives of the Peoples Republic of Mozambique.

59. In economic terms, the promotion of the Mozambican languages would involve the broad participation of the masses and would thereby make it possible,

through endogenous development, to break out more rapidly from underdevelopment. Literacy instruction in the national languages in the 'aldeias comunais1 or village communities would enable the local rural inhabitants to master rapidly new skills and methods, and would enhance their creative initiative. Industrial development projects set up by the colonial power outside the urban centres will also require labour of either rural or urban origin, composed of individuals who mostly speak only the Mozambican languages. If greater efficiency in the execution ôf the tasks in hand and the appropriate self-confidence for any creative process are to be ensured, the scientific and vocational training of these people can only be undertaken in the Mozambican languages.

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60.* The promotion of the national languages, some of which are spoken in neighbouring states, can be quite1 a decisive factor in the implementation of integrated

economic projects, of which the S.A.D.C.C. (Southern African Development Co-ordinating Conference) is a préfiguration.

61. In educational terms, the short- and medium-term objective for education in the People's Republic of Mozambique is to make it 'an instrument for the masses

which they can make use of for acquiring and exercising political power1. (8) noble aim can only be achieved if education is conducted in the languages that students speak, which will facilitate the learning process, stimulate the spirit of initiative and contribute to bridging the gap between the élite and the masses, the school and the family, and prevent the disintegration of local cultures and the loss of traditional roots.

62. In the long-term, the objective of the People's Republic of Mozambique with regard to education is to fashion a new breed of man. In so far as this type

of man will be different from the representative of the élite, it can be assumed that education conducted in the Mozambican languages should make a substantial contribution to his overall characteristics.

V. IMPLEMENTATION OF THE ADOPTED LINGUISTIC POLICY

63. The 4th session of the central Committee of the FRELIMO put particular emphasis on the idea that 'the people are the authentic author of culture, just as it

is the only genuine source of material wealth'(a) Similarly, 'culture should not be viewed as a consumer good for the masses' (1) This is to say, that the masses ' should always retain the initiative in the field of cultural creation, especially if the process of cultural creation is to be linked to an improvement in the level of scientific and technical knowledge. It is only through the languages which they speak that the masses can retain the initiative in the field of cultural creation and ensure its enrichment. Any alternative solution would reduce the Mozambican cultures to the marginal status of folklore, and lead to the emergence of an elitist culture, which would be the privilege of a few intellectuals.

64. In short, the policy for the promotion of the Mozambican languages is in complete harmony with the aims of the People's Republic of Mozambique in the

political, economic and cultural fields. This option would enable Mozambican men and women to produce more, become more responsible for their future, and attain greater cultural enrichment. The vital problem is. to provide the means for pursuing this policy.

65. The nature of such a linguistic policy, its innovatory character and the scope of the tasks that it requires, are such as to necessitate the establish­

ment of a specialized institution for its implementation. This enterprise cannot be confined within more fragmentary or limited objectives, tantamount to a quite different vocation. We suggest that a Comrnission for the Promotion of the Moz mT-ijcan Languages (Commissâo de Promoçâo das Lingues Moçambicanas = COPROLIMO) be set up.-

66. COPROLIMO would be responsible for the conception and implementation of the new linguistic policy. Its duties would essentially involve linguistic

planning. It would have to draw up a National Plan for the Promotion of the Mozambican Languages in the short-, medium- and long-term and devise projects within each phase, together with the appropriate transitional measures between the various phases.

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67. In the very short-term, COPROLIMO would make a census of the interested parties (missionaries, cultural associations, and individual research-workers and

academics).who, in an anonymous capacity, have a special interest in the Mozambican •languages. It will co-ordinate and channel their endeavours towards the implementa­tion of the plan.

68. The Commission would also ensure the rapid development of activities for encouraging public awareness and dissipating misgivings with regard to the

problem of the national languages,, through lectures and debates, public discussions, radio and television programmes, announcements in the press, the publication of leaflets and literary competitions, etc.

69. In the medium- and long-term, its duties would be as follows:

(a) the drawing-up of a socio-linguistic atlas of'Mozambique ;

(b) the training of executive staff: courses, in-service training and national and regional seminars for all public services interested in the use of the Mozambican languages. The training of administrative and other personnel required for the implementation of the programme defined at each of its stages;

(c) research in applied linguistics. Adaptation of the languages to modern knowledge, scientific glossaries, translations.

(d) the production, in conjunction with the other facilities of the Ministries of Education and Information and the Instituto Nacional de Desenvolvimento da Educacâo: INDE (National Institute for Educational Development), of the educational equipment required for the option for the promotion of the national languages;

(e) the organization of a documentation centre for the languages of Mozambique.

Structure of COPROLIMO

70. It would be premature to plan a definitive structure for the future commission. The organigram which is proposed here (cf. Annex I) is merely an outline which

the Mozambican authorities will improve upon by establishing. COPROLIMO on existing facilities in order that it can draw on all the resources it needs.

71. A number of recommendations may, nevertheless, be formulated for this purpose:

(a) Particularly flexible and simple facilities are called for in Mozambique, a country without a managerial class and with recent administrative traditions. Care should be taken to avoid any bureaucratic apparatus, and facilities should be constantly reviewed as the projects are implemented in the various phases of the programme.

(b) The Secretary-General of the Commission, who would be the principal permanent official, should, as far as is possible, be a Mozambican linguist specialized in socio-Unguis tics.

(c) As regards the sub-units of the structure of the Commission, plans could be made for setting up:

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(i) language committees (Nyanja committee, Makua committee, Chwabo committee, etc.,);

(ii) technical or programme committees, which would include representatives of all the languages according to specializations (textbook committees, scientific terminology committees, etc.).

(d) The language committees could, for obvious reasons, have back-up facilities in the areas where the languages are spoken.

(e) The major government departments would be represented on the managerial committee of the Commission (radio, television, inudstry, the Aldeias Communais Commission, literacy, instruction, universities, etc.).

72. If the action of COPROLIMO is to be efficient, it must be backed up by a sound teaching and linguistic research programme at the Eduardo Mondlane

University. The existing NELIMQ (Department for the Study of Mozambican Languages) will have therefore to be reinforced. It will have to diversify its activities in such a way as to encompass socio-linguistics and the teaching of the Mozambican oral languages and literatures, in particular.

73. Until COPROLIMO is set up and the medium- and long-rterm projects are subseqently formulated, the following project is proposed. It extends over five years and

is divided into four sections: training of managerial personnel, research, plant and equipment, publication and dissemination.

Training of managerial personnel

74. The implementation of a linguistic policy calls for the presence of an adequate number of managers of various kinds, who are both competent and well aware of

what is at stake. However, the colonial regime's policy with regard to managerial personnel has left Mozambique unprovided for. There is evidence enough of this in the fact that the People's Republic of Mozambique, with a population of over twelve million, has only one linguist today, who is still in training. The present project considers managerial training as a special priority. It involves three categories of managers:

academic managers;

middle-managers ;

ancillary managers;

Special care should be taken to select candidates not only in terms of adequate intellectual ability, but also in view of their motivation or sense of vocation, and their mastery of the language in which they intend to work.

Academic managers

75. Two types of training would be envisaged for academic managers:

(a) Training abroad

76. Until such time as the Eduardo Mondlane University has a linguistics department', it would be necessary to train certain high-level managers abroad. Candidates

would be chosen from among those who have obtained the CFP (Curso de Formaçào de Professores: Teacher's Training Diploma), after thirteen years of education,

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irrespective of their subject: exact or natural sciences, Portuguese, Portuguese and English.

77. Before undertaking their studies abroad, candidates would be required to attend a one-year preparatory course at the Eduardo Mondlane University. The course .

would be run by the NELIMO, and the programme would be drawn up after a survey had been carried out in co-operation with the host universities. The preparatory course would commence at the NELIMO in 1983.with a minimum of six students annually.

78. Candidates would therefore pursue their training abroad up to the level of the licence or B.A. in Linguistics or Linguistics and Oral Literature, according

to specific candidates. The course would be of three or four years ' duration according to the host university. Priority would be given to the African universities, preferably those of neighbouring states which possess similar linguistic areas to those of Mozambique (Zambia, Malawi, Zimbabwe and Tanzania). Consideration could also be given to the training facilities of universities in Brazil, Zaire and West Africa.

79. Professional opportunities: managers trained abroad would return to play a major part in the COPROLIMO programmes, the future Department of Linguistics

and Oral Traditions at the Eduardo Mondlane University, and in the teaching of African linguistics at the Institute of Education.

(b) Training in Mozambique

80. Within the context of the planned restructuring of. the Faculty of Arts of the EMU (Eduardo Mondlane University), a Department of Linguistics and Oral

Traditions should be" set up. In respect of the training of managers required for the implementation of the programme for the promotion of Mozambican languages, th.e creation of this department constitutes a priority. The following stages have therefore been planned:

1982 : Conception, within the NELIMO, of the programme for the future

department;

1983 : Discussion and adoption by the authorities of the draft programme;

1984 : Prospection abroad with a view to the recruitment of teaching staff in accordance with- the established programme;

1985 : (February) commencement of teaching in the Department of Linguistics and Oral Traditions at the Eduardo Mondlane University.

81. Study grants would be required for the training abroad of two documentalists who would be in charge of documentation on African languages in general, and

Mozambican languages in particular, in COPROLIMO and at the university.

Training for middle-managers and retraining

82. (a) Aim-to foster greater awareness among the middle-managers of the rele­vant government departments of the problems of the use of national languages and to remedy the overall shortcomings in this respect.

(b) Duration : one year.

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(c) Participants : government employees with part-time student status, comprising:

(i) the future middle-managers of the NELIMO or any alternative facilities (six students).

(ii) the middle-managers of the other departments of government : COPROLIMO, Ministry of Information, Ministry of Education and Culture, NIDE, literacy instruction, Comissào de Apoio Pedagógica, Radio Moçambique, conservation campaign, newspapermen, etc., (fifteen to twenty students).

(d) Content of the course:

(i) Introduction to African linguistics;

(ii) Introduction to the Mozambican languages;

(iii) Socio-linguistics—Bilingualism;

(iv) Applied linguistics: - literacy

- standardization

- modernization of the African languages

- translation;

(v) Oral literature;

(vi) Practical course on the introduction to a Mozambican language;

(vii) Research course in the field.

(e) Instruction : locally available personnel would provide teaching on the following lines :

practical course on the introduction to a Mozambican language;

research courses;

introduction to the Mozambican languages.

Teaching missions would need to be planned for the following subjects:

applied linguistics;

oral literature;

socio-linguisties.

83. Multilateral aid would be scaled according to annual requirements and the availability of managerial personnel in Mozambique.

Non-academic managers of the NELIMO

84. The NELIMO and the department which will replace it would require non-ácademic middle-managers for conducting its research programme, and it would provide for

their training. Six middle-managers would be involved each year, and the training would last* for two years. Successful candidates would follow the training course

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described under paragraph 82 during their first year. During their second year, they could assume the role of supervisors and become involved in the various research projects of the NELIMO or the department- (collection of texts, elementary analysis of the grammatical patterns, documentation, use of equipment, etc.).

85. Middle-managers trained in this way would work for the NELIMO and COPROLIMO in other facilities for the promotion of national languages. The more able

candidates could, after several years' experience, pursue their studies at the university in order to become academic managers.

Ancillary managers

86. Ancillary managers would be chosen from among candidates who have had six years of education. They would be selected according to their mother tongue,

their mastery of this language, and also in accordance with projects in progress. They would be given in-service training to become information technicians and administrative assistants. They would also attend occasional courses in transcrip­tion, oral literature, etc., and technical training (electronics, sound equipment, etc.) would be provided if they are to be responsible for equipment. Eventually they would constitute the personnel of the NELIMO and COPROLIMO for the various linguistic areas.

Research

87. It is superfluous to emphasize the importance of linguistic research for the implementation of linguistic policy. The inadequate number of managers

currently available requires choices to be made and priority objectives to be defined for the period extending to the end of the decade.

Normalization, standardization of alphabets and spelling

88. It has been suggested that during 1983 contracts be offered to specialists in order that they propose alphabets and spelling systems based on phonographic

descriptions for the following languages: Makua, Chwabo, Shona-Dao, Nyanja-Chewa, Tsonga-Changana-Ronga. It would be useful if by late 1983 or early 1984 a regional conference could bring together representatives of all the states of the region which use common languages: Mozambique, Tanzania, Zambia, Malawi, Zimbabwe and the. African National Congress (A.N.G). It would be desirable that the conference be widely attended involving in addition to linguists, representatives of the literacy instruction services, the press, publishing houses, etc. The recommenda­tions of the conference would subsequently be submitted for adoption to the states of the region.

Pilot socio-linguistic study of bi-plurilinguálism

89. This would be an interdisciplinary project aimed at providing a scientifically accurate appraisal, over' and above general and superficial statements, of the

status, functions and potential of the Bantu languages and Portuguese. A study of this kind is indispensable as it would provide valuable information in order to define more accurately the orientations, objectives and justification of the policy for the promotion of the Mozambican languages. The pilot study combining linguists from the EMU and sociologists from the Ministry of Information (Gabinete de Communicaçào Social) would extend over two years, 1983-1984.

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Grammatical surveys

90. Appropriately selected experts would prepare grammatical surveys on the following languages :

Makua: 1984-1985

Shona-Ndao: 1984-1985

Nyanja-Chewa: 1984-1985

Chwabo: 1984-1985

Tsonga-Changana-Ronga: 1983-1984

Basic grammar

91. Grammar books, for which the need is widely recognized, would be drawn up under similar conditions:

Makua: 1984-1989

Shona-Ndao: 1984-1987

Nyanja-Chewa: 1984-1987

Chwabo: 1984-1989

Tsonga-Changana-Ronga: 1983-1986

Dictionaries

92. The project would provide for the preparation in a first phase of bilingual dictionaries (Bantu languages-Portuguese, Portuguese-Bantu languages). The

languages concerned would be:

Makua: 1984-1990

Shona-Ndao: 1984-1990

Chwabo: 1984-1990

Tsonga-Changana-Ronga: 1983-1988

Swahili: 1983-1986.

93. As regards the scheduling of these projects, due consideration has been given to short-term and long-term availability of managerial personnel, together with

the current state of linguistic research in each language.

94. Research work would naturally be conducted within the context of the NELIMO, in co-operation with COPROLIMO, once it has been set up. Other practical aspects

of research (terminology, adaptation of the languages to contemporary knowledge, pedagogical aspects of literacy instruction and the teaching of the Mozambican languages) would be the subject of specific complementary projects within COPROLIMO.

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Ttie implementation of the proposed research programme would require the strengthening of the current teaching and research team in the NELIMO, which is commonly reputed to be absolutely minimal. Each language and research team should be lead by a qualified, experienced linguist.

95. Measures heed to be taken as from 1983-1984, to recruit four linguists to ensure the commencement of the projects described above (one forMakua, one

for Shona-Ndao, one for Nyanja-Chewa and one for Chwabo).

Equipment

96. Within the NELIMO and Department of Linguistics and Oral Traditions, support for research projects would require:

two diesel land-rover vehicles with recording facilities (mini studio) and spare- parts. The choice of two vehicles is warranted in view of the peripheral location of Maputo. The university, which is the centre for research activities, is located in Maputo, in the extreme south of the country. However, a signifi­cant number of the languages to be studied are to be found in the northern half of the country, some 3,000 kilometres away from the capital. It is also planned to set up a second research centre at Nampula, in the north of the country, where research teams would be working on Makua, Chwabo and Nyanja

four (4) 'cross-country1 type 250 c.c. motorcycles (one per team)

one (1) portable electricity generator

four (4) Coleman 30Ö pressure lamps

candles with accessories

four (4) battery-operated torchlights

one (1) photocopying machine with paper (regular)

one (1) typewriter, IBM golf-ball type (standard model)

two (2) 'golf-balls' with the international phonetic alphabet

two (2) 'golf-balls' with the American phonetic alphabet

one (1) 'golf-ball', 'cursive élite' type

two (2) typewriters with .a keyboard to be specified subsequently (for national languages)

five (5) typewriters with a standard Portuguese keyboard.

97. A basic reference library for general and African linguistics is planned. A request for the constitution of the library should be drawn up and presented

by the government for bilateral or multilateral assistance.

98. COPROLIMO would require:

one (1) diesel land-rover vehicle

one (1) photocopying machine with standard paper

one (1) Roneo duplicating machine with ten tubes of ink

three (3) typewriters with keyboards to be specified after adoption of the regional alphabets

o n e (1) typewriter with the appropriate African alphabet keyboard

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one (1) typewriter with an international phonetic keyboard

one (1) Uher tape-recorder

ten (10) portable cassette recorders

hundred (100) sixty-minute cassettes.

99. The paucity of local supplies would warrant the inclusion of spare parts and other accessories on the list of equipment required, as the Mozambican market

is dependent, in this respect, on South African suppliers.

Publication - dissemination

100. Until such time as specialized periodicals have been launched, the results of linguistic research could be publishe'd by the university in the form of

special issues of the publication 'Estudos Moçambicanos'. This would require improvement of the facilities of the University Press of the Eduardo Mondlane University through the provision of appropriate equipment.

101. Teaching materials devised by COPROLIMO (elementary readers, books on reading and arithmetic, basic grammar-books, etc.,) would be published by the INLD

(Instituto Nacional do Livro e do Disco: National Institute for Books and Recordings).

102. The proposed regional meeting on the standardization of alphabets and spelling systems might examine the possibility of setting up regional printing

facilities-for the publication of scientific, educational and cultural materials, on the assumption that no facilities of this kind already exist in any of the states of the subregion.

103. Technicians such as managers of the INLD and the University Press in the fields of composition, finishing and maintenance, might be sent for training on the

spot; it is a better proposition to train them on the spot for a number of reasons, especially as training overseas would make them accustomed to sophisticated machines that are not available in Mozambique.

104. Substantial international aid in raw materials (especially paper) would be required by the INLD for the publication of teaching material, etc., as the

purchase of such raw materials causes a substantial loss of foreign currency that is so valuable for the economy of Mozambique.

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ANNEX I

ORGANIGRAM OF THE COMMISSION FOR THE PROMOTION OF MOZAMBICAN LANGUAGES (COPROLIMO)

. Ministry of Education and Culture

i

Secretary of State for Culture

i

Secretary-General of COPROLIMO

i

Assistant Secretary-General

BOARD OF MANAGEMENT OF COPROLIMO

EMU Technical Committees Language Committees

Comissào Aldens Comunais

Unesco National Commission of the People's Republic of Mozambique

NIDE

NID

Gabinete de Comniunicaçào Social

Literacy instruction

Radio

Television

Miscellaneous

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ANNEX II

ANCILLARY PERSONNEL FOR THE TRAINING OF MANAGERS AND RESEARCH PROJECTS

PROGRAMMING

1984

(a) A mission on the teaching of applied linguistics in the framework of the training of middle-managers. Duration of the mission: 45 days—2 months.

(b) A mission on the teaching of oral literature in the same framework. Duration: 45 days—2 months.

Both missions could be conducted by the same linguist with competence in both fields.

(c) A teacher/researcher for leading the research team on Shona-Ndao.

(d) A teacher/researcher for leading the research team on Nyanja-Chewa.

(e) A teacher/researcher for leading the research team on Chwabo.

Linguists in (c) and (e) could be responsible, in economic terms, for missions (a) and (b) if their specialization were suitable.

1985

(a) Continuation of the 1984 programme. The same personnel may be retained.

Nevertheless, another permanent linguist could be recruited in accordance with the needs of the department.

(b) Mission by two technicians for training managers of the INLD and the University Press of the EMU. Duration to be determined by the host organizations.

1986

(a) As for 1985 (<?.).

(b) Evaluation mission.

1987-1990

As for 1985 (a) .