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Chapter 1

1.1 Introduction

RFID is a wireless link to uniquely identify tags. These systems communicate via radio signals that carry data either unidirectional or bidirectional. The tag is energized by a time varying electromagnetic radio frequency (rf) wave that is transmitted by the reader. This rf signal is called carrier signal. When tag is energized the information stored in the tag is transmitted back to the reader. This is often called backscattering. by detecting the backscattering signal, the information stored in the tag can be fully identified. RFID systems are comprised of two main components rf reader and rf tag the RFID tag, or transponder, is located on the object to be identified and is the data carrier in the RFID system. Typical transponders(transmitters/responders) consist of a microchip that stores data and a coupling element, such as a coiled antenna, used to communicate via radio frequency communication. Transponders may be either Active or Passive.

Active RFID and Passive RFID are fundamentally different technologies. While both use radio frequency energy to communicate between a tag and a reader, the method of powering the tags is different. Active RFID uses an internal power source (battery) within the tag to continuously power the tag and its rf communication circuitry, whereas Passive RFID relies on rf energy transferred from the reader to the tag to power the tag.

Passive RFID either 1) reflects energy from reader or 2) absorbs and temporarily stores a very small amount of energy from the reader’s signal to generate its own quick response. in either case Passive RFID operation requires very strong signals from the reader and the signal strength required from the tag is constrained to very low levels by the limited energya. on the other hand Active RFID allows very low level signals to be received by the tag, and the tag can generate high level signals back to the reader, driven from its internal power source. Active RFID tag is continuously powered, whether in the reader field or not.

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1.2 Toll system A toll road, also known as a turnpike or toll way, is a public or private roadway for which a fee (or toll) is assessed for passage. It is a form of road pricing typically implemented to help recoup the cost of road construction and maintenance, which (on public roads) amounts to a form of taxation.

Toll roads in some form have existed since antiquity, collecting their fees from passing travelers on foot, wagon or horseback; but their prominence increased with the rise of the automobile, and many modern toll ways charge fees for motor vehicles exclusively. The amount of the toll usually varies by vehicle type, weight, or number of axles, with freight trucks often charged higher rates than cars.

Tolls are collected at points known as toll booths,  toll houses, plazas, stations, bars, or gates. Some toll collection points are unmanned and the user deposits money in a machine which opens the gate once the correct toll has been paid. To cut costs and minimize time delay many tolls today are collected by some form of automatic or electronic toll collection equipment which communicates electronically with a toll payer's transponder. Toll booths are usually still required for the occasional users who do not have a transponder. The tolls are often prepaid or collected "automatically" from an affiliated credit card service. Some toll roads have "automated" toll enforcement systems that take photos of drivers who do not pay the tolls and their license plates. They typically get the toll bill along with a fine.

Criticisms of toll roads include the time taken to stop and pay the toll, and the cost of the toll booth operators—up to about one third of revenue in some cases. Automated toll paying systems help minimize both of these. Others object to paying "twice" for the same road: in fuel taxes and with tolls. In addition to toll roads, toll bridges and toll tunnels are also used by public authorities to generate funds to repay the cost of building the structures. Some tolls are set aside to pay for future maintenance or enhancement of infrastructure, or are applied as a general fund by local governments, not being earmarked for transport facilities. This is sometimes limited or prohibited by central government legislation. Also road congestion pricing schemes have been implemented in a limited number of urban areas as a transportation demand management tool to try to reduce traffic congestion and air pollution.

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Fig.1.1 Toll plaza

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Chapter 2

2.1 Electronic toll collection (ETC)

Electronic toll collection (ETC) aims to eliminate the delay on toll collecting roads by tolls electronically. ETC determines whether the cars passing are enrolled in the program, alerts enforcers for those that are not, and electronically debits the accounts of registered car owners without requiring them to stop.

In some urban settings, automated gates are in use in electronic-toll lanes, with 5  mph (8 km/h) legal limits on speed [in other settings, 20 mph (35 km/h) legal limits are not uncommon. However, in other areas such as the Garden State Parkway in New Jersey, and at various locations in California, Florida, Pennsylvania, Delaware, and Texas, cars can travel through electronic lanes at full speed. Illinois' Open Road Tolling program features 274 contiguous miles of barrier-free roadways, where I-PASS or E-ZPass users continue to travel at highway speeds through toll plazas, while cash payers pull off the main roadway to pay at tollbooths. Currently over 80% of Illinois' 1.4 million daily drivers use an I-PASS.

Enforcement is accomplished by a combination of a camera which takes a picture of the car and a radio frequency keyed computer which searches for a drivers window/bumper mounted transponder to verify and collect payment. The system sends a notice and fine to cars that pass through without having an active account or paying a toll.

Factors hindering full-speed electronic collection include significant non-participation, entailing lines in manual lanes and disorderly traffic patterns as the electronic- and manual- collection cars "sort themselves out" into their respective lanes; problems with pursuing toll evaders; need, in at least some current (barrier) systems, to confine vehicles in lanes, while

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Fig.2.1 ETC toll plaza

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interacting with the collection devices, and the dangers of high-speed collisions with the confinement structures; vehicle hazards to toll employees present in some electronic-collection areas; the fact that in some areas at some times, long lines form even to pass through the electronic-collection lanes; and costs and other issues raised when retrofitting existing toll collection facilities. Unionized toll collectors can also be problematic.

Even if line lengths are the same in electronic lanes as in manual ones, electronic tolls save registered cars time: eliminating the stop at a window or toll machine, between successive cars passing the collection machine, means a fixed-length stretch of their journey past it is traveled at a higher average speed, and in a lower time. This is at least a psychological improvement, even if the length of the lines in automated lanes is sufficient to make the no-stop-to-pay savings insignificant compared to time still lost due waiting in line to pass the toll gate. Toll plazas are typically wider than the rest of the highway; reducing the need for them makes it possible to fit toll roads into tight corridors.

2.2 Transaction processing

Transaction processing deals with maintaining customer accounts, posting toll transactions and customer payments to the accounts, and handling customer inquiries. The transaction processing component of some systems is referred to as a "customer service center". In many respects, the transaction processing function resembles banking, and several toll agencies have contracted out transaction processing to a bank.

Customer accounts may be postpaid, where toll transactions are periodically billed to the customer, or prepaid, where the customer funds a balance in the account which is then depleted as toll transactions occur. The prepaid system is more common, as the small amounts of most tolls makes pursuit of uncollected debts uneconomic. Most postpaid accounts deal with this issue by requiring a security deposit, effectively rendering the account a prepaid one.

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Chapter 3Types of ETC place

3.1 Types of ETC place 1) Two piece type

2) Three piece type

3) Built-in type

3.1.1 Two piece type

Fig.3.1 two piece type

This type combines the antenna with the main body including the ETC information processing function and ETC card insertion slot into one package and can be fitted to areas such as the dashboard that will not interfere with wireless communication. This type is commonly referred to as a "two piece type" since it consists of the ETC in-vehicle device and the ETC card.

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3.1.2 Three piece type

Fig.3.2 three piece type

This type has an antenna that is separate from the main body of the device. With the three piece type, a small antenna is fitted to the dashboard and the main body can be fitted anywhere inside the vehicle as long as it does not interfere with handling of the ETC card. This type is commonly referred to as a "three piece type" since it is made from three parts, the main ETC in-vehicle device, the antenna, and ETC card.

3.1.3 Built-in type

Fig.3.1.3 build-in typeThis type sold by automobile manufacturers has a design which is coordinated with the vehicle interior. Various types have been made available by manufacturers such as those with antennas built into the room mirror or those whose main body is fitted inside the center panel. Built-in types come in both two piece types and three piece types.

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Chapter 4

Radio-Frequency Identification (RFID)

RFID stands for Radio-Frequency Identification. The acronym refers to small electronic devices that consist of a small chip and an antenna. The chip typically is capable of carrying 2,000 bytes of data or less.

The RFID device serves the same purpose as a bar code or a magnetic strip on the back of a credit card or ATM card; it provides a unique identifier for that object. And, just as a bar code or magnetic strip must be scanned to get the information, the RFID device must be scanned to retrieve the identifying information.

RFID Works Better Than Barcodes

A significant advantage of RFID devices over the others mentioned above is that the RFID device does not need to be positioned precisely relative to the scanner. We're all familiar with the difficulty that store checkout clerks sometimes have in making sure that a barcode can be read. And obviously, credit cards and ATM cards must be swiped through a special reader. In contrast, RFID devices will work within a few feet (up to 20 feet for high-frequency devices) of the scanner. For example, you could just put all of your groceries or purchases in a bag, and set the bag on the scanner. It would be able to query all of the RFID devices and total your purchase immediately. (Read a more detailed article on RFID compared to barcodes.)

RFID technology has been available for more than fifty years. It has only been recently that the ability to manufacture the RFID devices has fallen to the point where they can be used as a

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Fig. 4.1 RFID reader (a) and RFID tag (b)

Fig.(a)

Fig.(b)

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"throwaway" inventory or control device. Alien Technologies recently sold 500 million RFID tags to Gillette at a cost of about ten cents per tag.

One reason that it has taken so long for RFID to come into common use is the lack of standards in the industry. Most companies invested in RFID technology only use the tags to track items within their control; many of the benefits of RFID come when items are tracked from company to company or from country to country.

Common Problems with RFID

Some common problems with RFID are reader collision and tag collision. Reader collision occurs when the signals from two or more readers overlap. The tag is unable to respond to simultaneous queries. Systems must be carefully set up to avoid this problem. Tag collision occurs when many tags are present in a small area; but since the read time is very fast, it is easier for vendors to develop systems that ensure that tags respond one at a time. See Problems with RFID for more details.

4.1 Working of RFID

A Radio-Frequency Identification system has three parts:

A scanning antenna A transceiver with a decoder to interpret the data A transponder - the RFID tag - that has been programmed with information.

The scanning antenna puts out radio-frequency signals in a relatively short range. The RF radiation does two things:

It provides a means of communicating with the transponder (the RFID tag) It provides the RFID tag with the energy to communicate (in the case of passive

RFID tags).

This is an absolutely key part of the technology; RFID tags do not need to contain batteries, and can therefore remain usable for very long periods of time (maybe decades).

The scanning antennas can be permanently affixed to a surface; handheld antennas are also available. They can take whatever shape you need; for example, you could build them into a door frame to accept data from persons or objects passing through.

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When an RFID tag passes through the field of the scanning antenna, it detects the activation signal from the antenna. That "wakes up" the RFID chip, and it transmits the information on its microchip to be picked up by the scanning antenna.In addition, the RFID tag may be of one of two types. Active RFID tags have their own power source; the advantage of these tags is that the reader can be much farther away and still get the signal. Even though some of these devices are built to have up to a 10 year life span, they have limited life spans. Passive RFID tags, however, do not require batteries, and can be much smaller and have a virtually unlimited life span.

The tag need not be on the surface of the object (and is therefore not subject to

wear)

The read time is typically less than 100 milliseconds

Large numbers of tags can be read at once rather than item by item.

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Chapter 5

Tags & Readers 5.1 Tag

A radio-frequency identification system uses tags, or labels attached to the objects to be identified. Two-way radio transmitter-receivers called interrogators or readers send a signal to the tag and read its response. RFID tags can be either passive, active or battery-assisted passive. An active tag has an on-board battery and periodically transmits its ID signal. A battery-assisted passive (BAP) has a small battery on board and is activated when in the presence of an RFID reader. A passive tag is cheaper and smaller because it has no battery; instead, the tag uses the radio energy transmitted by the reader. However, to operate a passive tag, it must be illuminatedwith a power level roughly a thousand times stronger than for signal transmission. That makes a difference in interference and in exposure to radiation.

Tags may either be read-only, having a factory-assigned serial number that is used as a key into a database, or may be read/write, where object-specific data can be written into the tag by the system user. Field programmable tags may be write-once, read-multiple; "blank" tags may be written with an electronic product code by the user. RFID tags contain at least two parts: an integrated circuit for storing and processing information, modulating and demodulating a radio-frequency (RF) signal, collecting DC power from the incident reader signal, and other specialized functions; and an antenna for receiving and transmitting the signal. The tag information is stored in a nonvolatile memory. The RFID tag includes either fixed or programmable logic for processing the transmission and

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5.2 The selection of tag

The selection of active or passive tag affects factors like range of communication, data storage capacity, sensor ability etc. If the tag is active the reader can spot more tags within seconds than the passive tag, but as the cost is compared the passive tags are cheaper than the active tags. The life of the passive tags are more than the active tag because , active tag requires tag power supply within the chip.

The different frequencies that the tag can work are;

5.2.1 Low frequency (LF)

These tags work at a frequency of around 125 kHz and have a reading range of less than 50 cm. The reading speed is relatively low and the tags are relatively insensitive to interference. This band enjoys relative freedom from regulatory limitations because it has not been reserved as an ISM frequency range, although in this frequency interval other systems operate typically for aeronautical and marine navigational services. Tags in this frequency range have been using now in applications such as access control and animal tracking.

5.2.2 High frequency (HF)

Operate worldwide at 13.56 MHz and can be read at distances of around one meter, but tags use more energy than low frequency tags. Existing uses include tracking books in libraries and baggage at airports. At around 13.56MHz, electromagnetic fields can propagate through water and tissue but cannot penetrate metals. Antennas are made simply of turns of coils of small radius.

5.2.3 Ultra-High frequency (UHF)

These tags work at a range between 433 and 2000 MHz and can be read from further away and at higher speed than HF tags. This makes this frequency the most appropriate for supply chain applications, such as tracking pallets and case

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5.3 Readers

RFID systems can be classified by the type of tag and reader. A Passive Reader Active Tag (PRAT) system has a passive reader which only receives radio signals from active tags (battery operated, transmit only). The reception range of a PRAT system reader can be adjusted from 1–2,000 feet (0–600 m), allowing flexibility in applications such as asset protection and supervision.

5.3.1 Active Reader Passive Tag (ARPT)

system has an active reader, which transmits interrogator signals and also receives authentication replies from passive tags.

5.3.2 Active Reader Active Tag (ARAT)

system uses active tags awoken with an interrogator signal from the active reader. A variation of this system could also use a Battery-Assisted Passive (BAP) tag which acts like a passive tag but has a small battery to power the tag's return reporting signal. Fixed readers are set up to create a specific interrogation zone which can be tightly controlled. This allows a highly defined reading area for when tags go in and out of the interrogation zone. Mobile readers may be hand-held or mounted on carts or vehicles.

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References1. Automatic Identification and Data Collection (AIDC) (http://www.mhi.org/fundamentals/automatic-identification)2. Angell, I., Kietzmann, J. (2006). "RFID and the end of cash?" (PDF). Communications of the ACM. 49 (12): 90–96. doi:10.1145/1183236.1183237. Retrieved 9 November 2013.3. "RFID Forecasts, Players and Opportunities in 2014-2024". IDTechEx.4. Hacking Exposed Linux: Linux Security Secrets & Solutions (third ed.). McGraw-Hill Osborne Media. 2008.p. 298. ISBN 978-0-07-226257-5.5. Stockman, Harry (October 1948), "Communication by Means of Reflected Power", Proceedings of the IRE, 36(10): 1196–1204, doi:10.1109/JRPROC.1948.2262456. "Genesis of the Versatile RFID Tag". RFID Journal. Retrieved 2013-09-22.7. US 3713148 (http://worldwide.espacenet.com/textdoc?DB=EPODOC&IDX=US3713148), Cardullo, Mario W. &William L. Parks, "Transponder apparatus and system", published May 21, 1970, issued Jan 23, 1973IEEE Council on RFID (http://www.ieee-rfid.org/)

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