electrical_project_chandresh_report on laser Transmitter and Receiver_ final report matter

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

[1]

1 INTRODUCTION OF PROJECT

11 PROJECT DEFINITION

Laser as a communication medium can provide a good substitute for the present day

communication systems as the problem of interference faced in case of electromagnetic waves is not

there and high deal of secrecy is available

Laser communications offers a viable alternative to RF communications for inter satellite

links and other applications where high-performance links are a necessity High data rate small

antenna size narrow beam divergence and a narrow field of view are characteristics of laser

communications that offer a number of potential advantages for system design

The present paper involves the study of wireless open channel communication system using

laser a carrier for voice signals

[2]

12 PROJECT OVERVIEW

Using this circuit we can communicate with your own neighbours wirelessly Instead of RF

signals light from a laser torch is used as the carrier in the circuit The laser torch can transmit

light up to a distance of about 500 meters The phototransistor of the receiver must be accurately

oriented towards the laser beam from the torch If there is any obstruction in the path of laser

beam no sounds will be heard from the receiver

The transmitter circuit comprises condenser microphone transistor amplifier BC548 (T1)

followed by an pomp stage built around μA741 (IC1) The gain of the op-amp can be controlled

with the help of 1MΩ potentiometer VR1The AF output from IC1 is coupled to the base of

transistor BD139 (T2) which in turn modulates the laser beam

The transmitter uses 9V power supply However the 3-volt laser torch (after removal of its

battery) can be directly connected to the circuitmdashwith the body of the torch connected to the

emitter of BD139 and the spring-loaded lead protruding from inside the torch to circuit ground

The receiver circuit (Fig 2) uses an NPN phototransistor as the light sensor that is followed by a

two-stage transistor preamplifier and LM386-based audio Power amplifier The receiver does

not need any complicated alignment Just keep the phototransistor oriented towards the remote

transmitterrsquos laser point and adjust The volume control for a clear sound To avoid 50Hz

humming noise in the speaker keep the phototransistor away from AC light sources such as

bulbs The reflected sunlight however does not cause any problem But the sensor should not

directly face the sun

[3]

CHAPTER 2

BLOCK DIAGRAM AND ITS

DESCRIPTION

[4]

21 BASIC BLOCK DIAGRAM

Fig21Basic Block Diagram

[5]

CONDERSER MIC TRANSMITTING SECTION

LASER TORCH

RECEIVING SECTION

LOUD SPEAKER

22 BLOCK DIAGRAM DESCRIPTION

221 CONDENSER MICROPHONE

It is also called a capacitor or electrostatic microphone Condenser means capacitor which

stores energy in the form of an electric field Condenser microphones require power from a battery

or external source Condenser also tends to be more sensitive and responsive than dynamic making

them well suited to capturing subtle nuances in a sound

The diaphragm vibrates when struck by sound waves changing the distance between the two

plates and therefore changing the capacitance Specifically when the plates are closer together

capacitance increases and a charge current occurs and this current will be used to trigger the

transmitting section

222 TRANSMITTING SECTION

The transmitter section comprises condenser microphone transistor amplifier BC548

followed by an op-amp stage build around IC1 The gain of the op-amp can be controlled with the

help of 1MΩ potentiometer VR1 The AF output from IC1 is coupled to the base of transistor

BD139 which is turn modulates the laser beam The transmitter uses 9V power supply However

the 3V laser torch(after the removal of its battery) can be directly connected to the circuit with the

body of the torch connected to the emitter of BD139 and the spring loaded lead protruding from

inside the torch to circuit ground

223 LASER TORCH

Here we use the light rays coming from laser torch as the medium for transmission Laser

had potential for the transfer of data at extremely high rates specific advancements were needed in

component performance and systems engineering particularly for space-qualified hardware Free

space laser communications systems are wireless connections through the atmosphere They work

similar to fibre optic cable systems except the beam is transmitted through open space The laser

systems operate in the near infrared region of the spectrum The laser light across the link is at a

wavelength of between 780 - 920 nm Two parallel beams are used one for transmission and one for

reception

[6]

224 RECEIVING SECTION

The receiver circuit uses an NPN phototransistor as the light sensor that is followed by a two

stage transistor preamplifier and LM386-based audio power amplifier The receiver doesnt need any

complicated alignment Just keep the phototransistor oriented towards the remote transmitters laser

point and adjust the volume control for a clear sound

225 LOUD SPEAKER

A loudspeaker (or speaker) is an electro acoustic transducer that converts an electrical

signal into sound The speaker moves in accordance with the variations of an electrical signal and

causes sound waves to propagate through a medium such as air or water

[7]

CHAPTER 3

SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM

[8]

CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION

There are two main part of the circuit

31 Transmitter Circuit

32 Receiver Circuit

33 Microphone

31 TRANSMITTER CIRCUIT

Fig31 Transmitter Circuit

[9]

A laser diode needs a certain value of current called the threshold current before it emits

laser light A further increase in this current produces a greater light output The relationship

between output power and current in a laser diode is very linear once the current is above the

threshold giving a low distortion when the beam is amplitude modulated For example the 650 nm

5mW laser diode used in this project has a typical threshold current of 30 mA and produces its full

output when the current is raised by approximately 10 mA above the threshold to 40 mA

Further increasing the current will greatly reduce the life of the laser diode and exceeding the

absolute maximum of 80 mA will destroy it instantly Laser diodes are very fragile and will not

survive electrostatic discharges and momentary surges However if used within specifications the

typical life of one of these lasers is around 20000 hours In the transmitter circuit (Fig31) the laser

diode is supplied via an adjustable constant-current source Note that the metal housing for the laser

diode and the lens also acts as a heat sink The laser diode should not be powered without the metal

housing in place The increasing the voltage at VR1 reduces the laser current The setting of VR1

determines the quiescent brightness of the laser beam and therefore the overall sensitivity of the

system The electric microphone is powered through R1 and is coupled to the non inverting input of

1C1 via capacitor This input is held at a fixed DC voltage to give a DC output to bias

[10]

32 RECEIVER CIRCUIT

Fig32 Receiver Circuit

The transmitted signal is picked up by the photo detector diode in the receiver (shown in

Fig32) The output voltage of this diode is amplified by the common emitter amplifier around T4

This amplifier has a gain of 20 or so and connects via VR2 to IC2 an LM386 basic power amplifier

IC with a gain internally set to 20This IC can drive a speaker with a resistance as low as four ohms

and 35OmW when the circuit is powered from a 9V supply Increasing the supply voltage will

[11]

increase the output power marginally Incidentally the photodiode used for this project has a special

clear package so it responds to visible light and not just infrared

33 MICROPHONE

Sound is an amazing thing All of the different sounds that we hear are caused by minute

pressure differences in the air around us Whats amazing about it is that the air transmits those

pressure changes so well and so accurately over relatively long distances It was a metal

diaphragm attached to a needle and this needle scratched a pattern onto a piece of metal foil

The pressure differences in the air that occurred when you spoke toward the diaphragm moved

the diaphragm which moved the needle which was recorded on the foil When you later ran the

needle back over the foil the vibrations scratched on the foil would then move the diaphragm

and recreate the sound The fact that this purely mechanical system works shows how much

energy the vibrations in the air can have All modern microphones are trying to accomplish the

same thing as the original but do it electronically rather than mechanically A microphone wants

to take varying pressure waves in the air and convert them into varying electrical signals There

are five different technologies commonly used to accomplish this conversion We use condenser

microphone in our project


A condenser microphone is essentially a capacitor with one plate of the capacitor moving in

response to sound waves The movement changes the capacitance of the capacitor and these

changes are amplified to create a measurable signal Condenser microphones usually need a

small battery to provide a voltage across the capacitor

[12]

CHAPTER 4

HARDWARE DESIGN AND DESCRIPTION

[13]

[14]

41 WORKING

In all of the laser communicators on this page the laser light is amplitude modulated This

simply means that the amount of light the laser emits varies over time

To understand what is going on it helps to consider how a loudspeaker makes sound A

loudspeaker is a paper cone attached to a coil of wire that sits in a magnetic field from a strong

permanent magnet When an electric current flows in the loudspeaker coil the coil becomes an

electromagnet and it moves toward or away from the permanent magnet As it moves the paper

cone pushes on the air around it compressing the air in front of it and expanding the air behind it

Waves of compressed and expanded air travel to your ear and cause your eardrum to move in time

to the movements of the paper cone The laser communicator adds two components to the

loudspeaker concept We take the electrical signal that goes to the loudspeaker and connect it

instead to the laser so the laser gets brighter and dimmer as the electric current varies

The second component is the receiver which converts the light back into an electric current

This current varies in time with the first current because the amount of light that it receives is

varying in time This second electric current is used to move the paper cone of a loudspeaker just as

before However now the loudspeaker can be quite a distance away from the original electric

current without any wires connecting the two

[15]

42 LIST OF COMPONENTS

a Operational Amplifier

b VR (potentiometerresistance VariacTrimmer)

c Capacitor

d Digital Multimeter

e Battery (9V)

f Laser Torch

g Microphone

h Integrated Circuit

i Photodiodes

j Phototransistor

k Light Emitting Diode (LED)

[16]

CHAPTER 5

DESCRIPTION OF COMPONENT

[17]

51 OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER

An op-amp is a high-gain direct-coupled differential linear amplifier whose response

characteristics are externally controlled by negative feedback from the output to the input OP-amps

widely used in

computers can

perform mathematical

operations such

as summing

integration and

differentiation

OP-amps are also used as

video and audio

amplifiers

oscillators etc

in the communication

electronics

[18]

Fig51 Symbol of Op-Amp

Because of their versatility op-amps are widely used in all branches of electronics both in digital

and linear circuits OP-amps lend themselves readily to IC

manufacturing techniques Improved IC manufacturing techniques

the op-amps adaptability and extensive use in the design of new

equipment have brought the price of IC ops amps from very high to

very reasonable levels These facts ensure a very substantial role for

the IC op-amp in electronics

Fig (51) shows the symbol for an op-amp Note that the operational amplifier has two inputs

marked (-) and (+) The minus input is the inverting input A signal applied to the minus terminal

will be shifted in phase 180deg at the output The plus input is the non-inverting input A signal

applied to the plus terminal will appear in the same phase at the output as at the input Because of

the complexity of the internal circuitry of an op amp the op amp symbol is used exclusively in

circuit diagrams

511 IC-741

An operational amplifier often referred to as op Amp is a very high gain high performance

amplifier designed to amplify ac and dc signal voltages Modern integrated circuit technology and

large-scale production techniques have brought down the prices of such amplifiers within reach of

all amateurs experimenters and hobbyists The Op Amp is now used as a basic gain element like an

elegant transistor in electronic circuits Fig511 (a) IC-741

The availability of two input terminals simplifies feedback circuitry and makes the

operational amplifier a highly versatile device If a feedback is applied from the output to the

inverting input terminal the result is a negative feedback which gives a stable amplifier with

precisely controlled gain characteristics On the other hand if the feedback is applied to the non-

[19]

inverting input the result is positive feedback which gives oscillators and multivibrator Special

effects are obtained by combination of both types of feedback

Fig511 (b)

512 NEGATIVE FEEDBACK

CONTROL

The above figure shows the basic circuit including the negative feedback loop of an op amp

The output is fed back to the inverting input terminal in order to provide negative feedback for the

amplifier The input signal is applied to the inverting input As a result the output will be inverted

It is possible to operate

the op amp as a non-

inverting amplifier

by applying the signal

to the plus input In

this circuit the

feedback network is

still connected

to the inverting input

In more recent times negative feedback has been used extensively in the electronics industry

to confer among other things electrical stability to electronic devices In fact without negative

[20]

feedback considerable

swathes of modern

technology would not be

able to function

Given the ubiquity of

negative feedback in

man-made devices

Fig512

Negative feedback control

It should therefore come as no surprise to discover that living systems employ feedback at

many levels ranging from gene regulatory network signaling network metabolic networks to

neural networks and hormonal control systems

It is possible to do a simple analysis which illustrates some of the essential properties

conferred by negative feedback We can represent a negative feedback system using the following

block diagram

Block diagram illustrating negative feedback yo is the output yi is called the reference or set

point that the output yo must match lsquodrsquo is a disturbance acting on the controller A lsquokrsquo represents

the fraction of output yo returned to yi as feedback The block diagram shown above can be

expressed in algebraic form

[21]

yo = (A + d)(yi 1048576 kyo)

where it is assumed that the disturbance d adds to the controller By rearrangement we obtain

yo = yi(A + d) kd + kA

If we assume that the gain in the controller A and the feedback k are strong that is Ak _ 0

then the expression is simplified to

yo = yi k

This equation highlights a number of effects the first is that the controller A and any

disturbances d are eliminated from the equation and that the output yo is a linear function of the set

point yi The performance of the feedback is therefore dependent on the quality of the feedback

mechanism k and is independent of either the controller or any disturbances

In relation to actual devices such as a stream engine this is a desirable property It means

that the performance of the steam engine is independent of the load and any component variation in

the construction of the engine the only requirement is that the feedback mechanism is reliable

Classical control theory has an extensive framework for analyzing feedback systems

however the terminology and sometimes the methodology does not always translate easily to

biological systems In this section we will examine the use of control coefficients and elasticities to

understand the properties of negative feedback

52 VARIABLE RESISTANCE

Variable resistors consist of a resistance track with connections at both ends and a wiper which

moves along the track as you turn the spindle The track may be made from carbon cermet (ceramic

and metal mixture) or a coil of wire (for low resistances) The track is usually rotary but straight

track versions usually called sliders are also available

Variable resistors may be used as a rheostat with two connections (the wiper and just one end of

the track) or as a potentiometer with all three connections in use Miniature versions called presets

are made for setting up circuits which will not require further adjustment

Variable resistors are often called potentiometers in books and catalogues They are specified

by their maximum resistance linear or logarithmic track and their physical size The standard

spindle diameter is 6mm

[22]

The resistance and type of track are marked on the body

4K7 LIN means 47 k linear track

1M LOG means 1 M logarithmic track

Some variable resistors are designed to be mounted directly on the circuit board

Fig52 Variable resistance

But most are for mounting through a hole drilled in the case containing the circuit with

stranded wire connecting their terminals to the circuit board

The potentiometer is a resistor of variable resistance It has three terminals a fixed resistance

is found between two of the terminals and the third terminal slides along the fixed resistor Often it

is used to control the volume in an audio amplifier

53 CAPACITOR

The capacitor plays a crucial role in electronics -- it

stores electrons for when they are needed most

Capacitors consist of two conducting plates placed

near each other Inside the capacitor the terminals

connect to two metal plates separated by a dielectric

The dielectric can be air paper plastic or anything

else that does not conduct electricity and keeps the plates from touching each other

[23]

A capacitor stores electric charge It does not allow direct current to flow through it and it

behaves as if alternating current does flow through In its simplest form it consists of two parallel

metal plates separated by an insulator called the dielectric The symbols for fixed and variable

capacitors are given in fig Polarized types must be connected so that conventional current enters

their positive terminal Non-polarized types can be connected either way round

Fig53 Capacitor

The capacitance (C) of a

capacitor measures its ability to store

charge and is stated in farads (f) The

farad is sub-divided into smaller more

convenient units

1 microfarad (1microF) = 1

millionth of a farad = 10-6 F

1 nanofarad (1 nF) = 1

thousand- millionth of a farad = 10-9 F

1 picofarad (1pF ) = 1 million-millionth of a farad = 10-12 F

In practice capacitances range from 1 pF to about 150 000 microF they depend on the area A of

the plates (large A gives large C) the separation d of the plates (small d gives large C) and the

material of the dielectric (eg certain plastics give large C)

When selecting a particular job the factors to be considered are the value (again this is not

critical in many electronic circuits) the tolerance and the stability There are two additional factors

a THE WORKING VOLTAGE

[24]

The largest voltage (dcor lead ac) which can be applied across the capacitor and is

often marked on it eg 30V wkg It is exceeded the dielectric breaks down and permanent

damage may result

b THE LEAKAGE CURRENT

No dielectric is a perfect insulator but the loss of charge through it as leakage currentrsquo

should be small

531 FIXED CAPACITORS

Fixed capacitors can be classified according to the dielectric used their properties depend on

this The types described below in (i) (ii) and (iii) are non-polarized those in (iv) are polarized

5311 POLYESTER

Two strips of polyester film (the plastic dielectric) are wound between two strips of

aluminum foil (the plates) Two connections one to each strip of foil form the capacitor leads In

the metallized version films of metal are deposited on the plastic and act as the plates Their good

all-round properties and small size make them suitable for many applications in electronics Values

range from 001microF to 10microF or so and are usually marked (in pF) using the resistor colour code

Polycarbonate capacitors are similar to the polyester type they have smaller leakage currents and

better stability but cost more

5312 MICA

Mica is naturally occurring mineral which splits into very thin sheets of uniform thickness

Plates are formed by depositing a silver film on the mica or by using interleaving sheets of

aluminum foil Their tolerance is low ( + 1 ) stability and working voltage high leakage current

low but they are used in radio frequency tuned circuits where low loss is important and are pictured

in figs Polystyrene capacitors have similar though not quite so good properties as mica types but are

cheaper

[25]

5313 CERAMIC

There are several types depending on the ceramic used One type has similar properties to

mica and is used in radio frequency circuits In another type high capacitance values are obtained

with small size but stability and tolerance are poor they are useful where exact values are not too

important They may be disc rod- or plate-shaped A disc-shaped capacitor is shown in fig Values

range from 10pF to 1microF

5314 ELECTROLYTE

In the aluminum type the dielectric is an extremely thin layer of aluminum oxide which is

formed electrolytically Their advantages are high values (up to 150 000microF) in a small volume and

cheapness Their disadvantages are wide tolerance (-20 to + 100 of the value printed on them)

high leakage current and poor stability but they are used where these factors do not matter and high

values are required eg in power supplies Examples are shown in Fig

Electrolytes are polarized Usually their positive terminal is marked with a +VE or by a groove

often the aluminum can is the negative terminal The dc leakage current maintains the oxide layer

otherwise reversed polarity (or disuse) will cause the layer to deteriorate

Tantalum electrolytic capacitors can be used instead of aluminum in low voltage circuits where

values do not exceed about 100 uF They have lower leakage currents

[26]

Fig53 Capacitors

54 DIGITAL VOLTMETER

A multimeter or a multitester also known

as a voltohm meter or VOM is an electronic

measuring instrument that combines several measurement functions in one unit A typical

multimeter may include features such as the ability to measure voltage current and resistance

Multimeters may use analog or digital circuitsmdashanalog multimeters and digital multimeters (often

abbreviated DMM or DVOM) Analog instruments are usually based on a microammeter whose

pointer moves over a scale calibration for all the different measurements that can be made digital

instruments usually display digits but may display a bar of a length proportional to the quantity

measured

Fig54 Digital voltmeter

A multimeter can be a hand-held device useful for basic fault finding and field service work or a

bench instrument which can measure to a very high degree of accuracy They can be used to

troubleshoot electrical problems in a wide array of industrial and household devices such as

electronic equipment motor controls domestic appliances power supplies and wiring systems

[27]

Modern multimeters are often digital due to their accuracy durability and extra features In a

digital multimeter the signal under test is converted to a voltage and an amplifier with electronically

controlled gain preconditions the signal A digital multimeter displays the quantity measured as a

number which eliminates parallax errors

Modern digital multimeters may have an embedded computer which provides a wealth of

convenience features Measurement enhancements available include

a Auto-ranging which selects the correct range for the quantity under test so that the most

significant digits are shown For example a four-digit multimeter would automatically

select an appropriate range to display 1234 instead of 0012 or overloading Auto-ranging

meters usually include a facility to freeze the meter to a particular range because a

measurement that causes frequent range changes is distracting to the user Other factors

being equal an auto-ranging meter will have more circuitry than an equivalent non-auto-

ranging meter and so will be more costly but will be more convenient to use

b Sample and hold which will latch the most recent reading for examination after the

instrument is removed from the circuit under test

c Current-limited tests for voltage drop across semiconductor junctions While not a

replacement for a transistor tester this facilitates testing diodes and a variety of transistor

types

d A graphic representation of the quantity under test as a bar graph This makes gono-go

testing easy and also allows spotting of fast-moving trends

e A low-bandwidth oscilloscope

f Automotive circuit testers including tests for automotive timing and dwell signals

g Simple data acquisition features to record maximum and minimum readings over a given

period or to take a number of samples at fixed intervals

h Integration with tweezers for surface-mount technology

[28]

i A combined LCR meter for small-size SMD and through-hole components

55 BATTERY (9VOLT)

An electrical battery is one or more electrochemical

cells that convert stored chemical energy into electrical

energy Since the invention of the first battery (or voltaic

pile) in 1800 by Alessandro Volta batteries have become a common power source for many

household and industrial applications

Electrons collect on the negative terminal of the battery If you connect a wire between the

negative and positive terminals the electrons will flow from the negative to the positive terminal as

fast as they can (and wear out the battery very quickly -- this also tends to be dangerous especially

with large batteries so it is not something you want to be doing) Normally you connect some type

of load to the battery using the wire Fig55 Battery

(9volt)

Inside the battery itself a chemical reaction produces the electrons The speed of electron

production by this chemical reaction (the batterys internal resistance) controls how many electrons

can flow between the terminals Electrons flow from the battery into a wire and must travel from

the negative to the positive terminal for the chemical reaction to take place That is why a battery

can sit on a shelf for a year and still have plenty of power unless electrons are flowing from the

negative to the positive terminal the chemical reaction does not take place Once you connect a

wire the reaction starts

[29]

If you look at any battery youll notice that it has two terminals One terminal is marked

positive (+VE) while the other is marked negative (-VE) In normal flashlight batteries the ends of

the battery are the terminals In a large car

battery there are two heavy lead posts that act

as the terminals

56 LASER TORCH

For this project we have removed the laser

assembly from a small laser pointer The power

supply circuit is the green board attached to the

brass laser head We carry similar laser pointers in our catalog that are easily disassembled for this

project The power supply circuit came conveniently marked with a plus and a minus next to two

holes in the board We solder the black negative lead from the battery clip to the hole marked minus

We solder one of the coil leads to the hole marked plus We solder the red positive lead of the

battery clip to the other lead from the coil Fig56 Laser

torch

57 MICROPHONE

Sound is an amazing thing All of the different sounds that wehear are caused by minute


pressure changes so well and so accurately over relatively long distances It was a metal diaphragm

attached to a needle and this needle scratched a pattern onto a piece of metal foil The pressure

differences in the air that occurred when you spoke toward the diaphragm moved the diaphragm

which moved the needle which was recorded on the foil

[30]

When you later ran the needle back over the foil the vibrations scratched on the foil would then

move the diaphragm and recreate the sound The fact that this purely mechanical system works

shows how much energy the vibrations in the air can have All modern microphones are trying to

accomplish the same thing as the original but do it electronically rather than mechanically A

microphone wants to take varying pressure waves in the air and convert them into varying electrical

signals There are five different technologies commonly used to accomplish this conversion We use

condenser microphone in our project



response to sound waves

Condenser means capacitor

an electronic component which

stores energy in the form of an

electrostatic field The term

condenser is actually obsolete

but has stuck as the name for

this type of microphone which

uses a capacitor to convert

acoustical energy into electrical

energy

Condenser microphones require power from a battery or external source The resulting audio

signal is stronger signal than that from a dynamic Condensers also tend to be more sensitive and

responsive than dynamics making them well-suited to capturing subtle nuances in a sound They are

not ideal for high-volume work as their sensitivity Fig571

Condenser Microphone

A capacitor has two plates with a voltage between them In the condenser mic one of these

plates is made of very light material and acts as the diaphragm The diaphragm vibrates when struck

by sound waves changing the distance between the two plates and therefore changing the

[31]

capacitance Specifically when the plates are closer together capacitance increases and a charge

current occurs When the plates are further apart capacitance decreases and a discharge current

occurs

A voltage is required across the capacitor for this to work This voltage is supplied either by

a battery in the mic or by external phantom power

The electrets condenser mic uses a special type of capacitor which has a permanent voltage

built in during manufacture This is somewhat like a permanent magnet in that it doesnt require any

external power for operation However good electrets condenser mics usually include a pre-

amplifier which does still require power

Other than this difference you can think of an electret condenser

microphone as being the same as a normal condenser

58 INTEGRATED CIRCUIT

An integrated circuit is a pre-made circuit shrunk down to small size and put on a chip ICrsquos

save circuit makers time by serving common purposes like amplifying a signal which would

otherwise have to be done by a new circuit built from scratch every time

Fig58 Integrated circuit

59 PHOTODIODES

If a conventional silicon diode is connected in the reverse-biased circuit negligible current will

flow through the diode and zero voltage will develop across R1 If the diode casing is now carefully

removed so that the diodes semiconductor junction is revealed and the junction is then exposed to

[32]

visible light in the same circuit the diode current will

rise possibly to as high as 1 mA producing a

significant output across R1

Further investigation will show that the diode

current (and thus the output voltage) is directly

proportional to light intensity and that the diode is

therefore photosensitive

In practice all silicon junctions are photosensitive and a photodiode can be regarded as a

conventional diode housed in a case that lets external light reach its photosensitive semiconductor

junction

In use the photodiode is reverse biased and the output

voltage is taken from across a series-connected load resistor

This resistor may be connected between the diode and ground or

between the diode and the positive supply line

The human eye is sensitive to a range of light radiation It

has a peak spectral response to the color green which has a

wave length of about 550 nm but has a relatively low

sensitivity to the color violet (400 nm) at one end of the spectrum and to dark red (700 nm) at the

other Photodiodes also have spectral response characteristics and these are determined by the

chemistry used in the semiconductor junction material

Fig59 Photodiode Circuit

Photodiodes have a far lower light-sensitivity than cadmium-sulphide LDRs but give a far

quicker response to changes in light level Generally LDRs are ideal for use in slow- acting direct-

coupled light-level sensing applications while photodiodes are ideal for use in fast-acting AC-

coupled signaling applications Typical photodiode applications include IR remote-control circuits

[33]

A photodiode is a semiconductor diode that functions as a photo detector Photodiodes are

packaged with either a window or optical fibre connection in order to let in the light to the sensitive

part of the device They may also be used without a window to detect vacuum UV or X-rays

A phototransistor is in essence nothing more than a bipolar transistor that is encased in a

transparent case so that light can reach the base-collector junction The phototransistor works like a

photodiode but with a much higher sensitivity for light because the electrons that are generated by

photons in base-collector junction are injected into the base this current is then amplified by the

transistor operation A phototransistor has a slower response time than a photodiode however

591 PRINCIPLE OF OPERATION

A photodiode is a p-n junction or p-i-n structure When light with sufficient photon energy

strikes a semiconductor photons can be absorbed resulting in generation of a mobile electron and

electron hole If the absorption occurs in the junctions depletion region these carriers are swept

from the junction by the built-in field of the depletion region producing a photocurrent

Photodiodes can be used in either zero bias or reverse bias In zero bias light falling on the

diode causes a voltage to develop across the device leading to a current in the forward bias

direction This is called the photovoltaic effect and is the basis for solar cells mdash in fact a solar cell

is just a large number of big cheap photodiodes

Diodes usually have extremely high resistance when reverse biased This resistance is

reduced when light of an appropriate frequency shines on the junction Hence a reverse biased

diode can be used as a detector by monitoring the current running through it Circuits based on this

effect are more sensitive to light than ones based on the photovoltaic effect

Avalanche photodiodes have a similar structure however they are operated with much

higher reverse bias This allows each photo-generated carrier to be multiplied by avalanche

breakdown resulting in internal gain within the photodiode which increases the effective response

of the device

[34]

Because of their greater band gap silicon-based photodiodes generate less noise than

germanium-based photodiodes but germanium photodiodes must be used for wavelengths longer

than approximately 1 microm

592 APPLICATIONS

a P-N photodiodes are used in similar applications to other photodetectors such as

photoconductors charge-coupled devices and photomultiplier tubes

b Photodiodes are used in consumer electronics devices such as compact disc players smoke

detectors and the receivers for remote controls in VCRs and televisions

c In other consumer items such as camera light meters clock radios (the ones that dim the

display when its dark) and street lights photoconductors are often used rather than

photodiodes although in principle either could be used

d Photodiodes are often used for accurate measurement of light intensity in science and

industry They generally have a better more linear response than photoconductors

510 PHOTOTRANSISTORS

The standard symbol of a phototransistor which can be regarded as a conventional transistor

housed in a case that enables its semiconductor junctions to be exposed to external light The device

is normally used with its base open circuit in either of the configurations and functions as follows

In practice the collector and emitter current of the transistor are virtually identical and since the

base is open circuit the device is not subjected to significant negative feedback Consequently the

alternative circuit in which R1 is connected to Q1 emitter gives a virtually identical performance to

that of fig The sensitivity of a phototransistor is typically one hundred times greater than that of a

photodiode but is useful maximum operating frequency (a few hundred kilohertz) is proportionally

lower than that of a photodiode by using only its base and collector terminals and ignoring the

emitter

[35]

Phototransistors are solid-state light detectors

with internal gain that are used to provide analog or

digital signals They detect visible ultraviolet and

near-infrared light from a variety of sources and are

more sensitive than photodiodes semiconductor

devices that require a pre-amplifier Phototransistors

feed a photocurrent output into the base of a small

signal transistor For each illumination level the area of

the exposed collector- base junction and the DC

current gain of the transistor define the output than

that of a photodiode by using only its base and

collector terminals and ignoring the emitter

Fig5101 Phototransistor Circuit

The base current from the incident photons is amplified by the gain of the transistor

resulting in current gains that range from hundreds to several thousands Response time is a function

of the capacitance of the collector-base junction and the value of the load resistance

Photodarlingtons a common type of phototransistor have two

stages of gain and can provide net gains greater than 100000

Because of their ease of use low cost and compatibility

with transistor-transistor logic (TTL) phototransistors are

often used in applications where more than several hundred

nanowatts (nW) of optical power are available Selecting

phototransistors requires an analysis of performance

specifications

Collector current is the total amount of current that flows into the collector terminal

Collector dark current is the amount of collector current for which there is no optical input

Typically both collector current and collector dark current are measured in milliamps (mA) Peak

wavelength the wavelength at which phototransistors are most responsive is measured in

[36]

nanometers (nm) Rise time the time that elapses when a pulse waveform increases from 10 to

90 of its maximum value is expressed in nanoseconds (ns) Collector-emitter breakdown voltage

is the voltage at which phototransistors conduct a specified (nondestructive) current when biased in

the normal direction without optical or electrical inputs to the base Power dissipation a measure of

total power consumption is measured in milliwatts (mW)

511 LED (LIGHT EMITTING DIODE)

Light emitting diode (LED ) is basically a P-N junction semiconductor diode particularly

designed to emit visible light There are infra-red emitting LEDs which emit invisible light The

LEDs are now available in many colour red green and yellow

A normal LED emit at 24V and consumes MA of current The LEDs are made in the form of flat

tiny P-N junction enclosed in a semi-spherical dome made up of clear coloured epoxy resin The

dome of a LED acts as a lens and diffuser of light The diameter of the base is less than a quarter of

an inch The actual diameter varies somewhat with different makes It is similar to the conventional

rectifier diode symbol with two arrows pointing out

LEDs often have leads of dissimilar length

and the shorter one is the cathode This is not

strictly adhered to by all manufacturers

Sometimes the cathode side has a flat base If

there is doubt the polarity of the diode should

be identified A simple bench method is to use

the ohmmeter incorporating 3-volt cells for

ohmmeter function When connected with the

ohmmeter one way there will be no deflection

and when connected the other way round there

will be a large deflection of a pointer When

this occurs the anode lead is connected to the negative of test lead and cathode to the positive test

lead of the ohmmeter

[37]

Fig5112 Working Of LED

1 ACTION

An LED consists of a junction diode made from the semiconducting compound gallium

arsenide phosphide It emits light when forward biased the colour depending on the composition

and impurity content of the compound At present red yellow and green LEDs are available When

a p-n junction diode is forward biased electrons move across the junction from the n-type side to

the p-type side where they recombine with holes near the junction The same occurs with holes

going across the junction from the p-type side Every recombination results in the release of a

certain amount of energy causing in most semiconductors a temperature rise In gallium arsenide

phosphide some of the energy is emitted as light which gets out of the LED because the junction is

formed very close to the surface of the material An LED does not light when reverse biased and if

the bias is 5 V or more it may be damaged

[38]

2 EXTERNAL RESISTOR

An LED must have a resistor connected in series to limit the current through the LED

otherwise it will burn out almost instantly

The resistor value R is given by

R = (VS - VL) I

VS = supply voltage

VL = LED voltage (usually 2V but 4V for blue and white LEDs)

I = LED current (eg 10mA = 001A or 20mA = 002A)

Make sure the LED current you choose is less than the maximum permitted and convert the current

to amps (A) so the calculation will give the resistor value in ohms ( )

To convert mA to A divide the current in mA by 1000 because 1mA = 0001A

If the calculated value is not available choose the nearest standard resistor value which is greater

so that the current will be a little less than you chose In fact you may wish to choose a greater

resistor value to reduce the current (to increase battery life for example) but this will make the

LED less bright

For example

If the supply voltage VS = 9V and you have a red LED (VL = 2V) requiring a current I = 20mA =

0020A

R = (9V - 2V) 002A = 350 so choose 390 (the nearest standard value which is greater)

3 DECIMAL DISPLAY

Many electronic calculators clocks cash registers and measuring instruments have seven-

segment red or green LED displays as numerical indicators Each segment is an LED and

depending on which segments are energized the display lights up the numbers 0 to 9 Such

[39]

displays are usually designed to work on a 5 V supply Each segment needs a separate current-

limiting resistor and all the cathodes (or anodes) are joined together to form a common connection

5111 ADVANTAGES

a Efficiency LEDs emit more light per watt than incandescent light bulbs Their efficiency is

not affected by shape and size unlike fluorescent light bulbs or tubes

b Color LEDs can emit light of an intended color without using any color filters as traditional

lighting methods need This is more efficient and can lower initial costs

c Size LEDs can be very small (smaller than 2 mm2) and are easily populated onto printed

circuit boards

d OnOff time LEDs light up very quickly A typical red indicator LED will achieve full

brightness in under a microsecond LEDs used in communications devices can have even

faster response times

e Cycling LEDs are ideal for uses subject to frequent on-off cycling unlike fluorescent lamps

that fail faster when cycled often or HID lamps that require a long time before restarting

f Dimming LEDs can very easily be dimmed either by pulse-width modulation or lowering

the forward current

g Cool light In contrast to most light sources LEDs radiate very little heat in the form of IR

that can cause damage to sensitive objects or fabrics Wasted energy is dispersed as heat

through the base of the LED

h Slow failure LEDs mostly fail by dimming over time rather than the abrupt failure of

incandescent bulbs

i Lifetime LEDs can have a relatively long useful life One report estimates 35000 to 50000

hours of useful life though time to complete failure may be longer Fluorescent tubes

typically are rated at about 10000 to 15000 hours depending partly on the conditions of

use and incandescent light bulbs at 1000ndash2000 hours

j Shock resistance LEDs being solid state components are difficult to damage with external

shock unlike fluorescent and incandescent bulbs which are fragile

[40]

k Focus The solid package of the LED can be designed to focus its light Incandescent and

fluorescent sources often require an external reflector to collect light and direct it in a usable

manner

5112 SEVEN SEGMENT DISPLAY

A seven-segment display or seven-segment indicator is a form of electronic display device

for displaying decimal numerals that is an alternative to the more complex dot-matrix displays

Seven-segment displays are widely used in digital clocks electronic meters and other electronic

devices for displaying numerical information

A seven segment display as its name indicates is composed of seven elements

Individually on or off they can be combined to produce simplified representations of the Arabic

numerals

Often the seven segments are arranged in an

oblique (slanted) arrangement which aids

readability In most applications the seven segments

are of nearly uniform shape and size (usually

elongated hexagons though trapezoids and

rectangles can also be used) though in the case of

adding machines the vertical segments are longer

and more oddly shaped at the ends in an effort to

further enhance readability

Each of the numbers 0 6 7 and 9 may be represented by two or more different glyphs on

seven-segment displays

The seven segments are arranged as a rectangle of two vertical segments on each side with

one horizontal segment on the top middle and bottom Additionally the seventh segment bisects

the rectangle horizontally There are also fourteen-segment displays and sixteen-segment displays

(for full alphanumerics) however these have mostly been replaced by dot-matrix displays

[41]

The segments of a 7-segment display are referred to by the letters A to G as shown to the

right where the optional DP decimal point (an eighth segment) is used for the display of non-

integer numbers

The animation to the left cycles through the

common glyphs of the ten decimal numerals and

the six hexadecimal letter digits (AndashF) It is an

image sequence of a LED display which is

described technology-wise in the following

section Notice the variation between uppercase

and lowercase letters for AndashF this is done to

obtain a unique unambiguous shape for each letter

(otherwise a capital D would look identical to a 0

(or less likely O) and a capital B would look

identical to an 8)

Fig5112 (b) Seven Segment Display Showing 16 Hex Digits

[42]

CHAPTER 6

PCB DESIGN AND FABRICATION

[43]

61 PCB DESIGN

Designing of PCB is a major step in the production of PCB is a major It forms a distinct factor

in electronic performance and reliability The productivity of a PCB its assembly and service ability

also depends on the design

The designing of a

PCB consists of designing

of the layout followed by

the preparation of the

artwork The layout

should include all the

relevant aspects in details

of the PCB design while

the art work preparation

brings it to the form

required for the

production process The

layout can be designed

with the help of any one

of the standard layout edition softwares such as Eagle Orcad or Edwin XP

Hence a concept clearly defining all the details of the circuits and partly of the equipment is a

prerequisite and the actual layout can start Depending on the accuracy required the artwork might

be produced a 11 or 21 even 41 scale It is best prepared on a 11 scale

[44]

62 PCB FABRICATION

PCB fabrication involves the following steps

a First the layout of the PCB is generated using the software ORCAD First step involves

drawing the circuit CIS which is a section of ORCAD

b Then the layout is obtained using layout plus This layout is printed on a paper

c This printed layout is transferred to a Mylar sheet and touched with black ink

d The solder side of the Myler sheet is placed on the shining side of the copper board and is

placed in a frame It is than exposed to sunlight with the Mylar sheet facing the sunlight

e The exposed copper board is put in hydrogen peroxide solution It is then put in hot water

shook till unexposed region becomes transparent

f This is put in cold water and then the rough side is struck in to the skill screen This is then

pressed and dried well

g The plastic sheet of the five - star is removed leaving the pattern on the screen

h A copper clad sheet is cut to the size and cleaned This is then placed under the screen

i Acid resist ink is spread on the screen So that the pattern of the tracks and pad is obtained

on the copper clad sheet It is dried

j The dried sheet is then etched using ferric chloride solution till all the unwanted copper is

etched away

k The unwanted resist ink is removed using sodium hydroxide solution holes are then drilled

The components are soldered neatly on the board without dry soldering

[45]

63 PRINTED CIRCUIT BOARD (PCB) LAYOUT

631 TRANSMITTER PRINTED CIRCUIT BOARD

Fig631 PCB Of Transmitter Circuit

[46]

632 RECEIVER PRINTED CIRCUIT BOARD

Fig632 PCB of Receiver Circuit

[47]

CHAPTER 7

LIST OF REQUIRED TOOLS AND

INSTRUMENT

[48]

71 Following tools and instruments are used for preparing the project

a Soldering iron

b Desoldering pump

c Drill Machine

d Multimeter

e Filer

f Tweezers

g Screw driver

h Dual power supply

i Flux

j Desoldering wick

k Petrol

l Brush

m Soldering Wire

[49]

CHAPTER 8

COMPONENT REQUIRED

[50]

81 COMPONET REQUIRED FOR TRANSMITTER

Table81

Sl No Name of the component Quantity

1 Resistance (82 KΩ) 2

2 Resistance (18 MΩ) 1


4 Resistance (15 KΩ 2

5 Resistance (82 Ω) 1

6 Variable Resistance (1 MΩ) 1

7 Capacitor (1 mf) 1




11 Semiconductor T1 BC548 1

12 Semiconductor T2 BD139 1

13 Condenser MIC 1

14 IC UA741 1

15 PCB 1

82 COMPONENT REQUIRED FOR RECEIVER

[51]

Table82


1 Resistor (68 470 KΩ) 1

2 Resistor (47MΩ) 1

3 Resistor (22 KΩ) 2



6 Variable resistor (50 KΩ) 1


8 Capacitor(47 pf) 1




12 Capacitor(10mf) 1

13 Capacitor(470 mf) 1

14 Semiconductor 2N5777 1

15 Semiconductor BC549 2

16 PCB 1

[52]

CHAPTER 9

CONSTRUCTION AND TESTING

91 CONSTRUCTION

As the photos show both the transmitter and the receiver are built on silk- screened PCBS As

usual fit the resistors pots and capacitors first taking care with the polarity of the electrolytic IC

[53]

sockets are not essential although servicing is obviously made easier if they are used In which case

fit these next followed by the transistors and photo transistors

The photo diode transistors is mounted directly on the receiver PCB When first mounted the

active side of the diode (Black Square inside the package) will face towards the centre of the board

You then bend the diode over by almost 180 so the active surface now faces outwards The

polarized microphone element solders directly to the transmitter PCB The negative lead is marked

with a minus sign and is the lead that connects to the metal case The laser diode is also polarized

and has three leads Of these only two are used shown on the circuit Take care when soldering the

laser in place as too much heat can destroy it

The diode can be mounted on the board or connected with leads to it Connect a clip lead to the

inside of the laser pointer where the battery touched Usually there is a small spring to which you

can attach the clip lead The other end of the battery usually connects to the case of the laser Since

there are many different styles of laser pointer you may have to experiment with clip lead

placement to get the laser to work with the new external battery pack You may also have to hold

down the lasers push button switch by wrapping a rubber band or some wire around it Finally

connect the speaker and 9V battery clips then check over the boards for any soldering errors or

incorrectly installed components

92 TESTING

[54]

First of all its most important that you dont look directly into the laser beam If you do it could

cause permanent eye damage Also you are responsible for the safety of others near the laser which

means you must stop others from also looking into the beam and take all necessary safety steps

This is covered by legislation

Both the receiver and the transmitter can be powered by separate 9V batteries or suitable DC

supplies Before applying power to the transmitter PCB set VRI to its halfway position to make

sure the laser current is not excessive To be totally sure you could set VRI fully anticlockwise as

this setting will reduce the laser current to zero Then apply power to the board If the laser doesnt

produce light slowly adjust VRI clockwise The laser diode should emit a beam with an intensity

adjustable with VRI At this stage keep the beam intensity low but high enough to clearly see If

you are not getting an output check the circuit You wont see the laser beam intensity change with

the modulating signal

To check that the system is working place the two PCBs on the workbench spaced a meter or

go apart You might need to put a sheet of paper about 2Omm in front of the photodiode to reduce

the intensity of light from the laser beam Set the volume control of the speaker to about halfway If

the volume control setting is too high youll get acoustic feedback

Move the laser diode assembly so the beam points at the receivers photodiode Its useful to

adjust the beam so its out of focus at the photodiode to make alignment even easier You should

now be able to hear the speaker reproducing any audio signal picked up by the microphone

[55]

CHAPTER 10

SETTING UPLINK AND PRECAUTION

101 SETTING UPLINK

[56]

Once youve tested the link youll probably be keen to put it to use For a short link of say 100

meters all you need do is position the receiver so the laser beam falls on the photodiode Once the

link is established adjust VRI higher the laser current the shorter will be its life If you have an

ammeter connect it to measure the current taken by the transmitter board Most of the current is

taken by the laser so adjust VRI to give a total current consumption of no more than 45Ma Also

focus the laser so all of the beam is striking the photodiode At close range theres probably no need

to focus the beam In fact because of the high output power (5mW) of the laser diode excellent

results will be obtained over reasonably short distances (20 meters or so) with rough focusing and

quiescent current adjustments

But the longer the distance between the transmitter and the receiver the more critical the

adjustments For example for distances over 20 meters you might have to put a piece of tube over

the front of the photodiode to limit the ambient light falling on it This diode is responsive to visible

light so a high ambient light could cause it to saturate For very long distances say half a kilometer

youll probably need a parabolic reflector for the laser beam to focus it directly onto the photodiode

For short ranges (a meter or so) or for educational or testing purposes you can use a

conventional red LED Adjust the quiescent current with VR1

LED is not focused and simply spreads everywhere so a reflector might help the sensitivity

Warnings The laser diode in this project is a class 3B laser and you should attach a warning label

to the transmitter Remember that as for any hazardous device the owner of a laser is responsible

for its proper use

102 PRECAUTION

[57]

a Safety instructions for lasers Laser beams may damage the eyes severely or may cause

blindness if they radiate into the eyes directly or indirectly Therefore the laser electronics

must be installed in such a manner that radiation into the eyes will be impossible neither

directly nor indirectly via marrows in the room When using lasers with an output power

higher than 1 mW you should check about the legal regulations for prevention of accidents

and be very careful

b Normal laser pointers sold in shops have typically output power of 15 mW (power depends

on laser pointer model and what country regulations say on maximum power) This power

level is normally not very hazardous but can cause permanent dotages your eye if you stare

at the beam We should be very careful with higher power lasers and lasers on that power

range that emit invisible radiation because they can cause immediate eye damage (and very

high power lasers can cause skin burns or fire)

c With any high power laser make sure that you have safe operating environment necessary

regulationspermissions and somebody that takes care that these legal regulations are

observed Lasers use coherent light which has very different properties to a standard lighting

effect This is what makes lasers one of the most beautiful forms of light but also one of the

most dangerous light sources if not used with proper cautions

d In the transmitter schematic no ballast resistor is shown because most small LASER power

supplies already have one built in Yours may differ and a resistor may be needed

[58]

CHAPTER 11

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES

111 ADVANTAGES

[59]

a Less costly

b Circuit can be easily constructed

c High data rate

d No communication licenses required

e The laser transmission is very secure because it has a narrow beam

f There are no recurring line costs

g Compatibility with copper or fiber interfaces and no bridge or router requirements

h Lasers can also transmit through glass however the physical properties of the glass have to

be considered

i Narrow beam divergence

112 DISADVANTAGES

To avoid 50Hz hum (humming) noise in the speaker keep the phototransistor away from AC

light sources such as bulbs The reflected sunlight however does not cause any problem But the

sensor should not directly face the sun

[60]

CHAPTER 12

PROBLEM FACED

121 PROBLEM FACED

[61]

Although this project was successfully completed however a few hurdles that came during the

construction of the circuit were the breaking of the thin electrical wires after it had been soldered

and the breaking of the photodiode receiverrsquos leg leading to an error in reception of data

Moreover the connections with the OP-AMP chip have to be dealt with very carefully because

one wrong connection may damage the whole chip If the supply to laser is greater than it will not

glow

All these things are to be taken care of for the efficient working of the project

[62]

CHAPTER 13

APPLICATIONS

13 APPLICATIONS

[63]

a Using this circuit we can communicate with our neighbors wirelessly

b It can be used in inaccessible areas

c In future it can be commissioned in satellites for communication

d It can be used in conference halls

CONCLUSION

[64]

After the successful working of the project it can be concluded that this project is suitable

for easily communication There can be further up gradations in the project which could lead to a

much better system for communication Some of the possible ways are as follows-

Instead of the short range laser high range lasers can be used which range a few hundred

meters

Provisions have to be made for cases when there is no heavy traffic

REFERENCES

[65]

a Choudhary DRoy Jain Shalin B Linear Integrated Circuits New Age Internationl

Publishers Third Edition 2009

b Gupta JB Electronics Device amp Circuits SK Kataria amp Sons First Edition Dec 2000 -

Vol 1

c Kumar N Suresh Electronics Device amp Circuits

d Mehta VK Principles Of Electronics

e Navas KA Electronics Lab Manual Rajath Publishers 2008 - Vol 1amp2

f Rai A Vallave Electronics Device amp Circuits- 2007

g Wilson J amp Hawkes JFB (1987) Lasers Principles and Applications Prentice Hall

International Series in Optoelectronics

h Siegmen Anthony E Lasers University Science Books US

APPENDIX

[66]

BC 546547548549550

[67]

[68]

[69]

UA741

GENERAL PURPOSE OF SINGLE OP-AMP

[70]

[71]

[72]

[73]

[74]

[75]

L 14F1 L 14F2

[76]

1 INTRODUCTION OF PROJECT

11 PROJECT DEFINITION

Laser as a communication medium can provide a good substitute for the present day

communication systems as the problem of interference faced in case of electromagnetic waves is not

there and high deal of secrecy is available

Laser communications offers a viable alternative to RF communications for inter satellite

links and other applications where high-performance links are a necessity High data rate small

antenna size narrow beam divergence and a narrow field of view are characteristics of laser

communications that offer a number of potential advantages for system design

The present paper involves the study of wireless open channel communication system using

laser a carrier for voice signals

[2]

12 PROJECT OVERVIEW




















[3]

CHAPTER 2


DESCRIPTION

[4]



[5]


LASER TORCH

RECEIVING SECTION

LOUD SPEAKER



















223 LASER TORCH








reception

[6]






225 LOUD SPEAKER




[7]

CHAPTER 3

SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM

[8]

CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION



32 Receiver Circuit

33 Microphone



[9]

















[10]

32 RECEIVER CIRCUIT







[11]



33 MICROPHONE



















[12]

CHAPTER 4


[13]

[14]

41 WORKING

















[15]




c Capacitor


e Battery (9V)

f Laser Torch

g Microphone


i Photodiodes

j Phototransistor


[16]

CHAPTER 5


[17]




widely used in

computers can


operations such

as summing

integration and

differentiation


video and audio

amplifiers

oscillators etc


electronics

[18]














circuit diagrams

511 IC-741










[19]



Fig511 (b)


CONTROL






inverting amplifier



this circuit the

feedback network is

still connected




[20]


swathes of modern


able to function



man-made devices

Fig512







block diagram





[21]

yo = (A + d)(yi 1048576 kyo)





yo = yi k























[22]











53 CAPACITOR








[23]






Fig53 Capacitor





convenient units












[24]



damage may result



should be small




5311 POLYESTER








5312 MICA






cheaper

[25]

5313 CERAMIC






5314 ELECTROLYTE











[26]

Fig53 Capacitors










measured






[27]


















types








[28]


55 BATTERY (9VOLT)











(9volt)








[29]





as the terminals

56 LASER TORCH









torch

57 MICROPHONE







[30]




















energy









[31]



occurs














59 PHOTODIODES




[32]










junction
















[33]

























of the device

[34]




592 APPLICATIONS




















emitter

[35]
























specifications





[36]




























[37]


1 ACTION











[38]

2 EXTERNAL RESISTOR




R = (VS - VL) I

VS = supply voltage









LED less bright

For example


0020A


3 DECIMAL DISPLAY




[39]



5111 ADVANTAGES






circuit boards







the forward current





incandescent bulbs







[40]



manner








numerals
















[41]



integer numbers











identical to an 8)


[42]

CHAPTER 6


[43]

61 PCB DESIGN




The designing of a




artwork The layout






required for the








[44]

62 PCB FABRICATION

















etched away



[45]




[46]



[47]

CHAPTER 7


INSTRUMENT

[48]


a Soldering iron

b Desoldering pump

c Drill Machine

d Multimeter

e Filer

f Tweezers

g Screw driver

h Dual power supply

i Flux

j Desoldering wick

k Petrol

l Brush

m Soldering Wire

[49]

CHAPTER 8

COMPONENT REQUIRED

[50]


Table81














13 Condenser MIC 1

14 IC UA741 1

15 PCB 1


[51]

Table82

















16 PCB 1

[52]

CHAPTER 9


91 CONSTRUCTION



[53]


















92 TESTING

[54]




















[55]

CHAPTER 10


101 SETTING UPLINK

[56]




















for its proper use

102 PRECAUTION

[57]






and be very careful














[58]

CHAPTER 11


111 ADVANTAGES

[59]

a Less costly


c High data rate






be considered


112 DISADVANTAGES




[60]

CHAPTER 12

PROBLEM FACED

121 PROBLEM FACED

[61]






glow


[62]

CHAPTER 13

APPLICATIONS

13 APPLICATIONS

[63]





CONCLUSION

[64]





meters


REFERENCES

[65]




Vol 1








APPENDIX

[66]

BC 546547548549550

[67]

[68]

[69]

UA741


[70]

[71]

[72]

[73]

[74]

[75]

L 14F1 L 14F2

[76]

12 PROJECT OVERVIEW




















[3]

CHAPTER 2


DESCRIPTION

[4]



[5]


LASER TORCH

RECEIVING SECTION

LOUD SPEAKER



















223 LASER TORCH








reception

[6]






225 LOUD SPEAKER




[7]

CHAPTER 3

SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM

[8]

CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION



32 Receiver Circuit

33 Microphone



[9]

















[10]

32 RECEIVER CIRCUIT







[11]



33 MICROPHONE



















[12]

CHAPTER 4


[13]

[14]

41 WORKING

















[15]




c Capacitor


e Battery (9V)

f Laser Torch

g Microphone


i Photodiodes

j Phototransistor


[16]

CHAPTER 5


[17]




widely used in

computers can


operations such

as summing

integration and

differentiation


video and audio

amplifiers

oscillators etc


electronics

[18]














circuit diagrams

511 IC-741










[19]



Fig511 (b)


CONTROL






inverting amplifier



this circuit the

feedback network is

still connected




[20]


swathes of modern


able to function



man-made devices

Fig512







block diagram





[21]

yo = (A + d)(yi 1048576 kyo)





yo = yi k























[22]











53 CAPACITOR








[23]






Fig53 Capacitor





convenient units












[24]



damage may result



should be small




5311 POLYESTER








5312 MICA






cheaper

[25]

5313 CERAMIC






5314 ELECTROLYTE











[26]

Fig53 Capacitors










measured






[27]


















types








[28]


55 BATTERY (9VOLT)











(9volt)








[29]





as the terminals

56 LASER TORCH









torch

57 MICROPHONE







[30]




















energy









[31]



occurs














59 PHOTODIODES




[32]










junction
















[33]

























of the device

[34]




592 APPLICATIONS




















emitter

[35]
























specifications





[36]




























[37]


1 ACTION











[38]

2 EXTERNAL RESISTOR




R = (VS - VL) I

VS = supply voltage









LED less bright

For example


0020A


3 DECIMAL DISPLAY




[39]



5111 ADVANTAGES






circuit boards







the forward current





incandescent bulbs







[40]



manner








numerals
















[41]



integer numbers











identical to an 8)


[42]

CHAPTER 6


[43]

61 PCB DESIGN




The designing of a




artwork The layout






required for the








[44]

62 PCB FABRICATION

















etched away



[45]




[46]



[47]

CHAPTER 7


INSTRUMENT

[48]


a Soldering iron

b Desoldering pump

c Drill Machine

d Multimeter

e Filer

f Tweezers

g Screw driver

h Dual power supply

i Flux

j Desoldering wick

k Petrol

l Brush

m Soldering Wire

[49]

CHAPTER 8

COMPONENT REQUIRED

[50]


Table81














13 Condenser MIC 1

14 IC UA741 1

15 PCB 1


[51]

Table82

















16 PCB 1

[52]

CHAPTER 9


91 CONSTRUCTION



[53]


















92 TESTING

[54]




















[55]

CHAPTER 10


101 SETTING UPLINK

[56]




















for its proper use

102 PRECAUTION

[57]






and be very careful














[58]

CHAPTER 11


111 ADVANTAGES

[59]

a Less costly


c High data rate






be considered


112 DISADVANTAGES




[60]

CHAPTER 12

PROBLEM FACED

121 PROBLEM FACED

[61]






glow


[62]

CHAPTER 13

APPLICATIONS

13 APPLICATIONS

[63]





CONCLUSION

[64]





meters


REFERENCES

[65]




Vol 1








APPENDIX

[66]

BC 546547548549550

[67]

[68]

[69]

UA741


[70]

[71]

[72]

[73]

[74]

[75]

L 14F1 L 14F2

[76]

CHAPTER 2


DESCRIPTION

[4]



[5]


LASER TORCH

RECEIVING SECTION

LOUD SPEAKER



















223 LASER TORCH








reception

[6]






225 LOUD SPEAKER




[7]

CHAPTER 3

SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM

[8]

CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION



32 Receiver Circuit

33 Microphone



[9]

















[10]

32 RECEIVER CIRCUIT







[11]



33 MICROPHONE



















[12]

CHAPTER 4


[13]

[14]

41 WORKING

















[15]




c Capacitor


e Battery (9V)

f Laser Torch

g Microphone


i Photodiodes

j Phototransistor


[16]

CHAPTER 5


[17]




widely used in

computers can


operations such

as summing

integration and

differentiation


video and audio

amplifiers

oscillators etc


electronics

[18]














circuit diagrams

511 IC-741










[19]



Fig511 (b)


CONTROL






inverting amplifier



this circuit the

feedback network is

still connected




[20]


swathes of modern


able to function



man-made devices

Fig512







block diagram





[21]

yo = (A + d)(yi 1048576 kyo)





yo = yi k























[22]











53 CAPACITOR








[23]






Fig53 Capacitor





convenient units












[24]



damage may result



should be small




5311 POLYESTER








5312 MICA






cheaper

[25]

5313 CERAMIC






5314 ELECTROLYTE











[26]

Fig53 Capacitors










measured






[27]


















types








[28]


55 BATTERY (9VOLT)











(9volt)








[29]





as the terminals

56 LASER TORCH









torch

57 MICROPHONE







[30]




















energy









[31]



occurs














59 PHOTODIODES




[32]










junction
















[33]

























of the device

[34]




592 APPLICATIONS




















emitter

[35]
























specifications





[36]




























[37]


1 ACTION











[38]

2 EXTERNAL RESISTOR




R = (VS - VL) I

VS = supply voltage









LED less bright

For example


0020A


3 DECIMAL DISPLAY




[39]



5111 ADVANTAGES






circuit boards







the forward current





incandescent bulbs







[40]



manner








numerals
















[41]



integer numbers











identical to an 8)


[42]

CHAPTER 6


[43]

61 PCB DESIGN




The designing of a




artwork The layout






required for the








[44]

62 PCB FABRICATION

















etched away



[45]




[46]



[47]

CHAPTER 7


INSTRUMENT

[48]


a Soldering iron

b Desoldering pump

c Drill Machine

d Multimeter

e Filer

f Tweezers

g Screw driver

h Dual power supply

i Flux

j Desoldering wick

k Petrol

l Brush

m Soldering Wire

[49]

CHAPTER 8

COMPONENT REQUIRED

[50]


Table81














13 Condenser MIC 1

14 IC UA741 1

15 PCB 1


[51]

Table82

















16 PCB 1

[52]

CHAPTER 9


91 CONSTRUCTION



[53]


















92 TESTING

[54]




















[55]

CHAPTER 10


101 SETTING UPLINK

[56]




















for its proper use

102 PRECAUTION

[57]






and be very careful














[58]

CHAPTER 11


111 ADVANTAGES

[59]

a Less costly


c High data rate






be considered


112 DISADVANTAGES




[60]

CHAPTER 12

PROBLEM FACED

121 PROBLEM FACED

[61]






glow


[62]

CHAPTER 13

APPLICATIONS

13 APPLICATIONS

[63]





CONCLUSION

[64]





meters


REFERENCES

[65]




Vol 1








APPENDIX

[66]

BC 546547548549550

[67]

[68]

[69]

UA741


[70]

[71]

[72]

[73]

[74]

[75]

L 14F1 L 14F2

[76]



[5]


LASER TORCH

RECEIVING SECTION

LOUD SPEAKER



















223 LASER TORCH








reception

[6]






225 LOUD SPEAKER




[7]

CHAPTER 3

SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM

[8]

CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION



32 Receiver Circuit

33 Microphone



[9]

















[10]

32 RECEIVER CIRCUIT







[11]



33 MICROPHONE



















[12]

CHAPTER 4


[13]

[14]

41 WORKING

















[15]




c Capacitor


e Battery (9V)

f Laser Torch

g Microphone


i Photodiodes

j Phototransistor


[16]

CHAPTER 5


[17]




widely used in

computers can


operations such

as summing

integration and

differentiation


video and audio

amplifiers

oscillators etc


electronics

[18]














circuit diagrams

511 IC-741










[19]



Fig511 (b)


CONTROL






inverting amplifier



this circuit the

feedback network is

still connected




[20]


swathes of modern


able to function



man-made devices

Fig512







block diagram





[21]

yo = (A + d)(yi 1048576 kyo)





yo = yi k























[22]











53 CAPACITOR








[23]






Fig53 Capacitor





convenient units












[24]



damage may result



should be small




5311 POLYESTER








5312 MICA






cheaper

[25]

5313 CERAMIC






5314 ELECTROLYTE











[26]

Fig53 Capacitors










measured






[27]


















types








[28]


55 BATTERY (9VOLT)











(9volt)








[29]





as the terminals

56 LASER TORCH









torch

57 MICROPHONE







[30]




















energy









[31]



occurs














59 PHOTODIODES




[32]










junction
















[33]

























of the device

[34]




592 APPLICATIONS




















emitter

[35]
























specifications





[36]




























[37]


1 ACTION











[38]

2 EXTERNAL RESISTOR




R = (VS - VL) I

VS = supply voltage









LED less bright

For example


0020A


3 DECIMAL DISPLAY




[39]



5111 ADVANTAGES






circuit boards







the forward current





incandescent bulbs







[40]



manner








numerals
















[41]



integer numbers











identical to an 8)


[42]

CHAPTER 6


[43]

61 PCB DESIGN




The designing of a




artwork The layout






required for the








[44]

62 PCB FABRICATION

















etched away



[45]




[46]



[47]

CHAPTER 7


INSTRUMENT

[48]


a Soldering iron

b Desoldering pump

c Drill Machine

d Multimeter

e Filer

f Tweezers

g Screw driver

h Dual power supply

i Flux

j Desoldering wick

k Petrol

l Brush

m Soldering Wire

[49]

CHAPTER 8

COMPONENT REQUIRED

[50]


Table81














13 Condenser MIC 1

14 IC UA741 1

15 PCB 1


[51]

Table82

















16 PCB 1

[52]

CHAPTER 9


91 CONSTRUCTION



[53]


















92 TESTING

[54]




















[55]

CHAPTER 10


101 SETTING UPLINK

[56]




















for its proper use

102 PRECAUTION

[57]






and be very careful














[58]

CHAPTER 11


111 ADVANTAGES

[59]

a Less costly


c High data rate






be considered


112 DISADVANTAGES




[60]

CHAPTER 12

PROBLEM FACED

121 PROBLEM FACED

[61]






glow


[62]

CHAPTER 13

APPLICATIONS

13 APPLICATIONS

[63]





CONCLUSION

[64]





meters


REFERENCES

[65]




Vol 1








APPENDIX

[66]

BC 546547548549550

[67]

[68]

[69]

UA741


[70]

[71]

[72]

[73]

[74]

[75]

L 14F1 L 14F2

[76]



















223 LASER TORCH








reception

[6]






225 LOUD SPEAKER




[7]

CHAPTER 3

SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM

[8]

CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION



32 Receiver Circuit

33 Microphone



[9]

















[10]

32 RECEIVER CIRCUIT







[11]



33 MICROPHONE



















[12]

CHAPTER 4


[13]

[14]

41 WORKING

















[15]




c Capacitor


e Battery (9V)

f Laser Torch

g Microphone


i Photodiodes

j Phototransistor


[16]

CHAPTER 5


[17]




widely used in

computers can


operations such

as summing

integration and

differentiation


video and audio

amplifiers

oscillators etc


electronics

[18]














circuit diagrams

511 IC-741










[19]



Fig511 (b)


CONTROL






inverting amplifier



this circuit the

feedback network is

still connected




[20]


swathes of modern


able to function



man-made devices

Fig512







block diagram





[21]

yo = (A + d)(yi 1048576 kyo)





yo = yi k























[22]











53 CAPACITOR








[23]






Fig53 Capacitor





convenient units












[24]



damage may result



should be small




5311 POLYESTER








5312 MICA






cheaper

[25]

5313 CERAMIC






5314 ELECTROLYTE











[26]

Fig53 Capacitors










measured






[27]


















types








[28]


55 BATTERY (9VOLT)











(9volt)








[29]





as the terminals

56 LASER TORCH









torch

57 MICROPHONE







[30]




















energy









[31]



occurs














59 PHOTODIODES




[32]










junction
















[33]

























of the device

[34]




592 APPLICATIONS




















emitter

[35]
























specifications





[36]




























[37]


1 ACTION











[38]

2 EXTERNAL RESISTOR




R = (VS - VL) I

VS = supply voltage









LED less bright

For example


0020A


3 DECIMAL DISPLAY




[39]



5111 ADVANTAGES






circuit boards







the forward current





incandescent bulbs







[40]



manner








numerals
















[41]



integer numbers











identical to an 8)


[42]

CHAPTER 6


[43]

61 PCB DESIGN




The designing of a




artwork The layout






required for the








[44]

62 PCB FABRICATION

















etched away



[45]




[46]



[47]

CHAPTER 7


INSTRUMENT

[48]


a Soldering iron

b Desoldering pump

c Drill Machine

d Multimeter

e Filer

f Tweezers

g Screw driver

h Dual power supply

i Flux

j Desoldering wick

k Petrol

l Brush

m Soldering Wire

[49]

CHAPTER 8

COMPONENT REQUIRED

[50]


Table81














13 Condenser MIC 1

14 IC UA741 1

15 PCB 1


[51]

Table82

















16 PCB 1

[52]

CHAPTER 9


91 CONSTRUCTION



[53]


















92 TESTING

[54]




















[55]

CHAPTER 10


101 SETTING UPLINK

[56]




















for its proper use

102 PRECAUTION

[57]






and be very careful














[58]

CHAPTER 11


111 ADVANTAGES

[59]

a Less costly


c High data rate






be considered


112 DISADVANTAGES




[60]

CHAPTER 12

PROBLEM FACED

121 PROBLEM FACED

[61]






glow


[62]

CHAPTER 13

APPLICATIONS

13 APPLICATIONS

[63]





CONCLUSION

[64]





meters


REFERENCES

[65]




Vol 1








APPENDIX

[66]

BC 546547548549550

[67]

[68]

[69]

UA741


[70]

[71]

[72]

[73]

[74]

[75]

L 14F1 L 14F2

[76]






225 LOUD SPEAKER




[7]

CHAPTER 3

SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM

[8]

CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION



32 Receiver Circuit

33 Microphone



[9]

















[10]

32 RECEIVER CIRCUIT







[11]



33 MICROPHONE



















[12]

CHAPTER 4


[13]

[14]

41 WORKING

















[15]




c Capacitor


e Battery (9V)

f Laser Torch

g Microphone


i Photodiodes

j Phototransistor


[16]

CHAPTER 5


[17]




widely used in

computers can


operations such

as summing

integration and

differentiation


video and audio

amplifiers

oscillators etc


electronics

[18]














circuit diagrams

511 IC-741










[19]



Fig511 (b)


CONTROL






inverting amplifier



this circuit the

feedback network is

still connected




[20]


swathes of modern


able to function



man-made devices

Fig512







block diagram





[21]

yo = (A + d)(yi 1048576 kyo)





yo = yi k























[22]











53 CAPACITOR








[23]






Fig53 Capacitor





convenient units












[24]



damage may result



should be small




5311 POLYESTER








5312 MICA






cheaper

[25]

5313 CERAMIC






5314 ELECTROLYTE











[26]

Fig53 Capacitors










measured






[27]


















types








[28]


55 BATTERY (9VOLT)











(9volt)








[29]





as the terminals

56 LASER TORCH









torch

57 MICROPHONE







[30]




















energy









[31]



occurs














59 PHOTODIODES




[32]










junction
















[33]

























of the device

[34]




592 APPLICATIONS




















emitter

[35]
























specifications





[36]




























[37]


1 ACTION











[38]

2 EXTERNAL RESISTOR




R = (VS - VL) I

VS = supply voltage









LED less bright

For example


0020A


3 DECIMAL DISPLAY




[39]



5111 ADVANTAGES






circuit boards







the forward current





incandescent bulbs







[40]



manner








numerals
















[41]



integer numbers











identical to an 8)


[42]

CHAPTER 6


[43]

61 PCB DESIGN




The designing of a




artwork The layout






required for the








[44]

62 PCB FABRICATION

















etched away



[45]




[46]



[47]

CHAPTER 7


INSTRUMENT

[48]


a Soldering iron

b Desoldering pump

c Drill Machine

d Multimeter

e Filer

f Tweezers

g Screw driver

h Dual power supply

i Flux

j Desoldering wick

k Petrol

l Brush

m Soldering Wire

[49]

CHAPTER 8

COMPONENT REQUIRED

[50]


Table81














13 Condenser MIC 1

14 IC UA741 1

15 PCB 1


[51]

Table82

















16 PCB 1

[52]

CHAPTER 9


91 CONSTRUCTION



[53]


















92 TESTING

[54]




















[55]

CHAPTER 10


101 SETTING UPLINK

[56]




















for its proper use

102 PRECAUTION

[57]






and be very careful














[58]

CHAPTER 11


111 ADVANTAGES

[59]

a Less costly


c High data rate






be considered


112 DISADVANTAGES




[60]

CHAPTER 12

PROBLEM FACED

121 PROBLEM FACED

[61]






glow


[62]

CHAPTER 13

APPLICATIONS

13 APPLICATIONS

[63]





CONCLUSION

[64]





meters


REFERENCES

[65]




Vol 1








APPENDIX

[66]

BC 546547548549550

[67]

[68]

[69]

UA741


[70]

[71]

[72]

[73]

[74]

[75]

L 14F1 L 14F2

[76]

CHAPTER 3

SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM

[8]

CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION



32 Receiver Circuit

33 Microphone



[9]

















[10]

32 RECEIVER CIRCUIT







[11]



33 MICROPHONE



















[12]

CHAPTER 4


[13]

[14]

41 WORKING

















[15]




c Capacitor


e Battery (9V)

f Laser Torch

g Microphone


i Photodiodes

j Phototransistor


[16]

CHAPTER 5


[17]




widely used in

computers can


operations such

as summing

integration and

differentiation


video and audio

amplifiers

oscillators etc


electronics

[18]














circuit diagrams

511 IC-741










[19]



Fig511 (b)


CONTROL






inverting amplifier



this circuit the

feedback network is

still connected




[20]


swathes of modern


able to function



man-made devices

Fig512







block diagram





[21]

yo = (A + d)(yi 1048576 kyo)





yo = yi k























[22]











53 CAPACITOR








[23]






Fig53 Capacitor





convenient units












[24]



damage may result



should be small




5311 POLYESTER








5312 MICA






cheaper

[25]

5313 CERAMIC






5314 ELECTROLYTE











[26]

Fig53 Capacitors










measured






[27]


















types








[28]


55 BATTERY (9VOLT)











(9volt)








[29]





as the terminals

56 LASER TORCH









torch

57 MICROPHONE







[30]




















energy









[31]



occurs














59 PHOTODIODES




[32]










junction
















[33]

























of the device

[34]




592 APPLICATIONS




















emitter

[35]
























specifications





[36]




























[37]


1 ACTION











[38]

2 EXTERNAL RESISTOR




R = (VS - VL) I

VS = supply voltage









LED less bright

For example


0020A


3 DECIMAL DISPLAY




[39]



5111 ADVANTAGES






circuit boards







the forward current





incandescent bulbs







[40]



manner








numerals
















[41]



integer numbers











identical to an 8)


[42]

CHAPTER 6


[43]

61 PCB DESIGN




The designing of a




artwork The layout






required for the








[44]

62 PCB FABRICATION

















etched away



[45]




[46]



[47]

CHAPTER 7


INSTRUMENT

[48]


a Soldering iron

b Desoldering pump

c Drill Machine

d Multimeter

e Filer

f Tweezers

g Screw driver

h Dual power supply

i Flux

j Desoldering wick

k Petrol

l Brush

m Soldering Wire

[49]

CHAPTER 8

COMPONENT REQUIRED

[50]


Table81














13 Condenser MIC 1

14 IC UA741 1

15 PCB 1


[51]

Table82

















16 PCB 1

[52]

CHAPTER 9


91 CONSTRUCTION



[53]


















92 TESTING

[54]




















[55]

CHAPTER 10


101 SETTING UPLINK

[56]




















for its proper use

102 PRECAUTION

[57]






and be very careful














[58]

CHAPTER 11


111 ADVANTAGES

[59]

a Less costly


c High data rate






be considered


112 DISADVANTAGES




[60]

CHAPTER 12

PROBLEM FACED

121 PROBLEM FACED

[61]






glow


[62]

CHAPTER 13

APPLICATIONS

13 APPLICATIONS

[63]





CONCLUSION

[64]





meters


REFERENCES

[65]




Vol 1








APPENDIX

[66]

BC 546547548549550

[67]

[68]

[69]

UA741


[70]

[71]

[72]

[73]

[74]

[75]

L 14F1 L 14F2

[76]

CIRCUIT DESCRIPTION



32 Receiver Circuit

33 Microphone



[9]

















[10]

32 RECEIVER CIRCUIT







[11]



33 MICROPHONE



















[12]

CHAPTER 4


[13]

[14]

41 WORKING

















[15]




c Capacitor


e Battery (9V)

f Laser Torch

g Microphone


i Photodiodes

j Phototransistor


[16]

CHAPTER 5


[17]




widely used in

computers can


operations such

as summing

integration and

differentiation


video and audio

amplifiers

oscillators etc


electronics

[18]














circuit diagrams

511 IC-741










[19]



Fig511 (b)


CONTROL






inverting amplifier



this circuit the

feedback network is

still connected




[20]


swathes of modern


able to function



man-made devices

Fig512







block diagram





[21]

yo = (A + d)(yi 1048576 kyo)





yo = yi k























[22]











53 CAPACITOR








[23]






Fig53 Capacitor





convenient units












[24]



damage may result



should be small




5311 POLYESTER








5312 MICA






cheaper

[25]

5313 CERAMIC






5314 ELECTROLYTE











[26]

Fig53 Capacitors










measured






[27]


















types








[28]


55 BATTERY (9VOLT)











(9volt)








[29]





as the terminals

56 LASER TORCH









torch

57 MICROPHONE







[30]




















energy









[31]



occurs














59 PHOTODIODES




[32]










junction
















[33]

























of the device

[34]




592 APPLICATIONS




















emitter

[35]
























specifications





[36]




























[37]


1 ACTION











[38]

2 EXTERNAL RESISTOR




R = (VS - VL) I

VS = supply voltage









LED less bright

For example


0020A


3 DECIMAL DISPLAY




[39]



5111 ADVANTAGES






circuit boards







the forward current





incandescent bulbs







[40]



manner








numerals
















[41]



integer numbers











identical to an 8)


[42]

CHAPTER 6


[43]

61 PCB DESIGN




The designing of a




artwork The layout






required for the








[44]

62 PCB FABRICATION

















etched away



[45]




[46]



[47]

CHAPTER 7


INSTRUMENT

[48]


a Soldering iron

b Desoldering pump

c Drill Machine

d Multimeter

e Filer

f Tweezers

g Screw driver

h Dual power supply

i Flux

j Desoldering wick

k Petrol

l Brush

m Soldering Wire

[49]

CHAPTER 8

COMPONENT REQUIRED

[50]


Table81














13 Condenser MIC 1

14 IC UA741 1

15 PCB 1


[51]

Table82

















16 PCB 1

[52]

CHAPTER 9


91 CONSTRUCTION



[53]


















92 TESTING

[54]




















[55]

CHAPTER 10


101 SETTING UPLINK

[56]




















for its proper use

102 PRECAUTION

[57]






and be very careful














[58]

CHAPTER 11


111 ADVANTAGES

[59]

a Less costly


c High data rate






be considered


112 DISADVANTAGES




[60]

CHAPTER 12

PROBLEM FACED

121 PROBLEM FACED

[61]






glow


[62]

CHAPTER 13

APPLICATIONS

13 APPLICATIONS

[63]





CONCLUSION

[64]





meters


REFERENCES

[65]




Vol 1








APPENDIX

[66]

BC 546547548549550

[67]

[68]

[69]

UA741


[70]

[71]

[72]

[73]

[74]

[75]

L 14F1 L 14F2

[76]

















[10]

32 RECEIVER CIRCUIT







[11]



33 MICROPHONE



















[12]

CHAPTER 4


[13]

[14]

41 WORKING

















[15]




c Capacitor


e Battery (9V)

f Laser Torch

g Microphone


i Photodiodes

j Phototransistor


[16]

CHAPTER 5


[17]




widely used in

computers can


operations such

as summing

integration and

differentiation


video and audio

amplifiers

oscillators etc


electronics

[18]














circuit diagrams

511 IC-741










[19]



Fig511 (b)


CONTROL






inverting amplifier



this circuit the

feedback network is

still connected




[20]


swathes of modern


able to function



man-made devices

Fig512







block diagram





[21]

yo = (A + d)(yi 1048576 kyo)





yo = yi k























[22]











53 CAPACITOR








[23]






Fig53 Capacitor





convenient units












[24]



damage may result



should be small




5311 POLYESTER








5312 MICA






cheaper

[25]

5313 CERAMIC






5314 ELECTROLYTE











[26]

Fig53 Capacitors










measured






[27]


















types








[28]


55 BATTERY (9VOLT)











(9volt)








[29]





as the terminals

56 LASER TORCH









torch

57 MICROPHONE







[30]




















energy









[31]



occurs














59 PHOTODIODES




[32]










junction
















[33]

























of the device

[34]




592 APPLICATIONS




















emitter

[35]
























specifications





[36]




























[37]


1 ACTION











[38]

2 EXTERNAL RESISTOR




R = (VS - VL) I

VS = supply voltage









LED less bright

For example


0020A


3 DECIMAL DISPLAY




[39]



5111 ADVANTAGES






circuit boards







the forward current





incandescent bulbs







[40]



manner








numerals
















[41]



integer numbers











identical to an 8)


[42]

CHAPTER 6


[43]

61 PCB DESIGN




The designing of a




artwork The layout






required for the








[44]

62 PCB FABRICATION

















etched away



[45]




[46]



[47]

CHAPTER 7


INSTRUMENT

[48]


a Soldering iron

b Desoldering pump

c Drill Machine

d Multimeter

e Filer

f Tweezers

g Screw driver

h Dual power supply

i Flux

j Desoldering wick

k Petrol

l Brush

m Soldering Wire

[49]

CHAPTER 8

COMPONENT REQUIRED

[50]


Table81














13 Condenser MIC 1

14 IC UA741 1

15 PCB 1


[51]

Table82

















16 PCB 1

[52]

CHAPTER 9


91 CONSTRUCTION



[53]


















92 TESTING

[54]




















[55]

CHAPTER 10


101 SETTING UPLINK

[56]




















for its proper use

102 PRECAUTION

[57]






and be very careful














[58]

CHAPTER 11


111 ADVANTAGES

[59]

a Less costly


c High data rate






be considered


112 DISADVANTAGES




[60]

CHAPTER 12

PROBLEM FACED

121 PROBLEM FACED

[61]






glow


[62]

CHAPTER 13

APPLICATIONS

13 APPLICATIONS

[63]





CONCLUSION

[64]





meters


REFERENCES

[65]




Vol 1








APPENDIX

[66]

BC 546547548549550

[67]

[68]

[69]

UA741


[70]

[71]

[72]

[73]

[74]

[75]

L 14F1 L 14F2

[76]

32 RECEIVER CIRCUIT







[11]



33 MICROPHONE



















[12]

CHAPTER 4


[13]

[14]

41 WORKING

















[15]




c Capacitor


e Battery (9V)

f Laser Torch

g Microphone


i Photodiodes

j Phototransistor


[16]

CHAPTER 5


[17]




widely used in

computers can


operations such

as summing

integration and

differentiation


video and audio

amplifiers

oscillators etc


electronics

[18]














circuit diagrams

511 IC-741










[19]



Fig511 (b)


CONTROL






inverting amplifier



this circuit the

feedback network is

still connected




[20]


swathes of modern


able to function



man-made devices

Fig512







block diagram





[21]

yo = (A + d)(yi 1048576 kyo)





yo = yi k























[22]











53 CAPACITOR








[23]






Fig53 Capacitor





convenient units












[24]



damage may result



should be small




5311 POLYESTER








5312 MICA






cheaper

[25]

5313 CERAMIC






5314 ELECTROLYTE











[26]

Fig53 Capacitors










measured






[27]


















types








[28]


55 BATTERY (9VOLT)











(9volt)








[29]





as the terminals

56 LASER TORCH









torch

57 MICROPHONE







[30]




















energy









[31]



occurs














59 PHOTODIODES




[32]










junction
















[33]

























of the device

[34]




592 APPLICATIONS




















emitter

[35]
























specifications





[36]




























[37]


1 ACTION











[38]

2 EXTERNAL RESISTOR




R = (VS - VL) I

VS = supply voltage









LED less bright

For example


0020A


3 DECIMAL DISPLAY




[39]



5111 ADVANTAGES






circuit boards







the forward current





incandescent bulbs







[40]



manner








numerals
















[41]



integer numbers











identical to an 8)


[42]

CHAPTER 6


[43]

61 PCB DESIGN




The designing of a




artwork The layout






required for the








[44]

62 PCB FABRICATION

















etched away



[45]




[46]



[47]

CHAPTER 7


INSTRUMENT

[48]


a Soldering iron

b Desoldering pump

c Drill Machine

d Multimeter

e Filer

f Tweezers

g Screw driver

h Dual power supply

i Flux

j Desoldering wick

k Petrol

l Brush

m Soldering Wire

[49]

CHAPTER 8

COMPONENT REQUIRED

[50]


Table81














13 Condenser MIC 1

14 IC UA741 1

15 PCB 1


[51]

Table82

















16 PCB 1

[52]

CHAPTER 9


91 CONSTRUCTION



[53]


















92 TESTING

[54]




















[55]

CHAPTER 10


101 SETTING UPLINK

[56]




















for its proper use

102 PRECAUTION

[57]






and be very careful














[58]

CHAPTER 11


111 ADVANTAGES

[59]

a Less costly


c High data rate






be considered


112 DISADVANTAGES




[60]

CHAPTER 12

PROBLEM FACED

121 PROBLEM FACED

[61]






glow


[62]

CHAPTER 13

APPLICATIONS

13 APPLICATIONS

[63]





CONCLUSION

[64]





meters


REFERENCES

[65]




Vol 1








APPENDIX

[66]

BC 546547548549550

[67]

[68]

[69]

UA741


[70]

[71]

[72]

[73]

[74]

[75]

L 14F1 L 14F2

[76]



33 MICROPHONE



















[12]

CHAPTER 4


[13]

[14]

41 WORKING

















[15]




c Capacitor


e Battery (9V)

f Laser Torch

g Microphone


i Photodiodes

j Phototransistor


[16]

CHAPTER 5


[17]




widely used in

computers can


operations such

as summing

integration and

differentiation


video and audio

amplifiers

oscillators etc


electronics

[18]














circuit diagrams

511 IC-741










[19]



Fig511 (b)


CONTROL






inverting amplifier



this circuit the

feedback network is

still connected




[20]


swathes of modern


able to function



man-made devices

Fig512







block diagram





[21]

yo = (A + d)(yi 1048576 kyo)





yo = yi k























[22]











53 CAPACITOR








[23]






Fig53 Capacitor





convenient units












[24]



damage may result



should be small




5311 POLYESTER








5312 MICA






cheaper

[25]

5313 CERAMIC






5314 ELECTROLYTE











[26]

Fig53 Capacitors










measured






[27]


















types








[28]


55 BATTERY (9VOLT)











(9volt)








[29]





as the terminals

56 LASER TORCH









torch

57 MICROPHONE







[30]




















energy









[31]



occurs














59 PHOTODIODES




[32]










junction
















[33]

























of the device

[34]




592 APPLICATIONS




















emitter

[35]
























specifications





[36]




























[37]


1 ACTION











[38]

2 EXTERNAL RESISTOR




R = (VS - VL) I

VS = supply voltage









LED less bright

For example


0020A


3 DECIMAL DISPLAY




[39]



5111 ADVANTAGES






circuit boards







the forward current





incandescent bulbs







[40]



manner








numerals
















[41]



integer numbers











identical to an 8)


[42]

CHAPTER 6


[43]

61 PCB DESIGN




The designing of a




artwork The layout






required for the








[44]

62 PCB FABRICATION

















etched away



[45]




[46]



[47]

CHAPTER 7


INSTRUMENT

[48]


a Soldering iron

b Desoldering pump

c Drill Machine

d Multimeter

e Filer

f Tweezers

g Screw driver

h Dual power supply

i Flux

j Desoldering wick

k Petrol

l Brush

m Soldering Wire

[49]

CHAPTER 8

COMPONENT REQUIRED

[50]


Table81














13 Condenser MIC 1

14 IC UA741 1

15 PCB 1


[51]

Table82

















16 PCB 1

[52]

CHAPTER 9


91 CONSTRUCTION



[53]


















92 TESTING

[54]




















[55]

CHAPTER 10


101 SETTING UPLINK

[56]




















for its proper use

102 PRECAUTION

[57]






and be very careful














[58]

CHAPTER 11


111 ADVANTAGES

[59]

a Less costly


c High data rate






be considered


112 DISADVANTAGES




[60]

CHAPTER 12

PROBLEM FACED

121 PROBLEM FACED

[61]






glow


[62]

CHAPTER 13

APPLICATIONS

13 APPLICATIONS

[63]





CONCLUSION

[64]





meters


REFERENCES

[65]




Vol 1








APPENDIX

[66]

BC 546547548549550

[67]

[68]

[69]

UA741


[70]

[71]

[72]

[73]

[74]

[75]

L 14F1 L 14F2

[76]

CHAPTER 4


[13]

[14]

41 WORKING

















[15]




c Capacitor


e Battery (9V)

f Laser Torch

g Microphone


i Photodiodes

j Phototransistor


[16]

CHAPTER 5


[17]




widely used in

computers can


operations such

as summing

integration and

differentiation


video and audio

amplifiers

oscillators etc


electronics

[18]














circuit diagrams

511 IC-741










[19]



Fig511 (b)


CONTROL






inverting amplifier



this circuit the

feedback network is

still connected




[20]


swathes of modern


able to function



man-made devices

Fig512







block diagram





[21]

yo = (A + d)(yi 1048576 kyo)





yo = yi k























[22]











53 CAPACITOR








[23]






Fig53 Capacitor





convenient units












[24]



damage may result



should be small




5311 POLYESTER








5312 MICA






cheaper

[25]

5313 CERAMIC






5314 ELECTROLYTE











[26]

Fig53 Capacitors










measured






[27]


















types








[28]


55 BATTERY (9VOLT)











(9volt)








[29]





as the terminals

56 LASER TORCH









torch

57 MICROPHONE







[30]




















energy









[31]



occurs














59 PHOTODIODES




[32]










junction
















[33]

























of the device

[34]




592 APPLICATIONS




















emitter

[35]
























specifications





[36]




























[37]


1 ACTION











[38]

2 EXTERNAL RESISTOR




R = (VS - VL) I

VS = supply voltage









LED less bright

For example


0020A


3 DECIMAL DISPLAY




[39]



5111 ADVANTAGES






circuit boards







the forward current





incandescent bulbs







[40]



manner








numerals
















[41]



integer numbers











identical to an 8)


[42]

CHAPTER 6


[43]

61 PCB DESIGN




The designing of a




artwork The layout






required for the








[44]

62 PCB FABRICATION

















etched away



[45]




[46]



[47]

CHAPTER 7


INSTRUMENT

[48]


a Soldering iron

b Desoldering pump

c Drill Machine

d Multimeter

e Filer

f Tweezers

g Screw driver

h Dual power supply

i Flux

j Desoldering wick

k Petrol

l Brush

m Soldering Wire

[49]

CHAPTER 8

COMPONENT REQUIRED

[50]


Table81














13 Condenser MIC 1

14 IC UA741 1

15 PCB 1


[51]

Table82

















16 PCB 1

[52]

CHAPTER 9


91 CONSTRUCTION



[53]


















92 TESTING

[54]




















[55]

CHAPTER 10


101 SETTING UPLINK

[56]




















for its proper use

102 PRECAUTION

[57]






and be very careful














[58]

CHAPTER 11


111 ADVANTAGES

[59]

a Less costly


c High data rate






be considered


112 DISADVANTAGES




[60]

CHAPTER 12

PROBLEM FACED

121 PROBLEM FACED

[61]






glow


[62]

CHAPTER 13

APPLICATIONS

13 APPLICATIONS

[63]





CONCLUSION

[64]





meters


REFERENCES

[65]




Vol 1








APPENDIX

[66]

BC 546547548549550

[67]

[68]

[69]

UA741


[70]

[71]

[72]

[73]

[74]

[75]

L 14F1 L 14F2

[76]

[14]

41 WORKING

















[15]




c Capacitor


e Battery (9V)

f Laser Torch

g Microphone


i Photodiodes

j Phototransistor


[16]

CHAPTER 5


[17]




widely used in

computers can


operations such

as summing

integration and

differentiation


video and audio

amplifiers

oscillators etc


electronics

[18]














circuit diagrams

511 IC-741










[19]



Fig511 (b)


CONTROL






inverting amplifier



this circuit the

feedback network is

still connected




[20]


swathes of modern


able to function



man-made devices

Fig512







block diagram





[21]

yo = (A + d)(yi 1048576 kyo)





yo = yi k























[22]











53 CAPACITOR








[23]






Fig53 Capacitor





convenient units












[24]



damage may result



should be small




5311 POLYESTER








5312 MICA






cheaper

[25]

5313 CERAMIC






5314 ELECTROLYTE











[26]

Fig53 Capacitors










measured






[27]


















types








[28]


55 BATTERY (9VOLT)











(9volt)








[29]





as the terminals

56 LASER TORCH









torch

57 MICROPHONE







[30]




















energy









[31]



occurs














59 PHOTODIODES




[32]










junction
















[33]

























of the device

[34]




592 APPLICATIONS




















emitter

[35]
























specifications





[36]




























[37]


1 ACTION











[38]

2 EXTERNAL RESISTOR




R = (VS - VL) I

VS = supply voltage









LED less bright

For example


0020A


3 DECIMAL DISPLAY




[39]



5111 ADVANTAGES






circuit boards







the forward current





incandescent bulbs







[40]



manner








numerals
















[41]



integer numbers











identical to an 8)


[42]

CHAPTER 6


[43]

61 PCB DESIGN




The designing of a




artwork The layout






required for the








[44]

62 PCB FABRICATION

















etched away



[45]




[46]



[47]

CHAPTER 7


INSTRUMENT

[48]


a Soldering iron

b Desoldering pump

c Drill Machine

d Multimeter

e Filer

f Tweezers

g Screw driver

h Dual power supply

i Flux

j Desoldering wick

k Petrol

l Brush

m Soldering Wire

[49]

CHAPTER 8

COMPONENT REQUIRED

[50]


Table81














13 Condenser MIC 1

14 IC UA741 1

15 PCB 1


[51]

Table82

















16 PCB 1

[52]

CHAPTER 9


91 CONSTRUCTION



[53]


















92 TESTING

[54]




















[55]

CHAPTER 10


101 SETTING UPLINK

[56]




















for its proper use

102 PRECAUTION

[57]






and be very careful














[58]

CHAPTER 11


111 ADVANTAGES

[59]

a Less costly


c High data rate






be considered


112 DISADVANTAGES




[60]

CHAPTER 12

PROBLEM FACED

121 PROBLEM FACED

[61]






glow


[62]

CHAPTER 13

APPLICATIONS

13 APPLICATIONS

[63]





CONCLUSION

[64]





meters


REFERENCES

[65]




Vol 1








APPENDIX

[66]

BC 546547548549550

[67]

[68]

[69]

UA741


[70]

[71]

[72]

[73]

[74]

[75]

L 14F1 L 14F2

[76]

41 WORKING

















[15]




c Capacitor


e Battery (9V)

f Laser Torch

g Microphone


i Photodiodes

j Phototransistor


[16]

CHAPTER 5


[17]




widely used in

computers can


operations such

as summing

integration and

differentiation


video and audio

amplifiers

oscillators etc


electronics

[18]














circuit diagrams

511 IC-741










[19]



Fig511 (b)


CONTROL






inverting amplifier



this circuit the

feedback network is

still connected




[20]


swathes of modern


able to function



man-made devices

Fig512







block diagram





[21]

yo = (A + d)(yi 1048576 kyo)





yo = yi k























[22]











53 CAPACITOR








[23]






Fig53 Capacitor





convenient units












[24]



damage may result



should be small




5311 POLYESTER








5312 MICA






cheaper

[25]

5313 CERAMIC






5314 ELECTROLYTE











[26]

Fig53 Capacitors










measured






[27]


















types








[28]


55 BATTERY (9VOLT)











(9volt)








[29]





as the terminals

56 LASER TORCH









torch

57 MICROPHONE







[30]




















energy









[31]



occurs














59 PHOTODIODES




[32]










junction
















[33]

























of the device

[34]




592 APPLICATIONS




















emitter

[35]
























specifications





[36]




























[37]


1 ACTION











[38]

2 EXTERNAL RESISTOR




R = (VS - VL) I

VS = supply voltage









LED less bright

For example


0020A


3 DECIMAL DISPLAY




[39]



5111 ADVANTAGES






circuit boards







the forward current





incandescent bulbs







[40]



manner








numerals
















[41]



integer numbers











identical to an 8)


[42]

CHAPTER 6


[43]

61 PCB DESIGN




The designing of a




artwork The layout






required for the








[44]

62 PCB FABRICATION

















etched away



[45]




[46]



[47]

CHAPTER 7


INSTRUMENT

[48]


a Soldering iron

b Desoldering pump

c Drill Machine

d Multimeter

e Filer

f Tweezers

g Screw driver

h Dual power supply

i Flux

j Desoldering wick

k Petrol

l Brush

m Soldering Wire

[49]

CHAPTER 8

COMPONENT REQUIRED

[50]


Table81














13 Condenser MIC 1

14 IC UA741 1

15 PCB 1


[51]

Table82

















16 PCB 1

[52]

CHAPTER 9


91 CONSTRUCTION



[53]


















92 TESTING

[54]




















[55]

CHAPTER 10


101 SETTING UPLINK

[56]




















for its proper use

102 PRECAUTION

[57]






and be very careful














[58]

CHAPTER 11


111 ADVANTAGES

[59]

a Less costly


c High data rate






be considered


112 DISADVANTAGES




[60]

CHAPTER 12

PROBLEM FACED

121 PROBLEM FACED

[61]






glow


[62]

CHAPTER 13

APPLICATIONS

13 APPLICATIONS

[63]





CONCLUSION

[64]





meters


REFERENCES

[65]




Vol 1








APPENDIX

[66]

BC 546547548549550

[67]

[68]

[69]

UA741


[70]

[71]

[72]

[73]

[74]

[75]

L 14F1 L 14F2

[76]




c Capacitor


e Battery (9V)

f Laser Torch

g Microphone


i Photodiodes

j Phototransistor


[16]

CHAPTER 5


[17]




widely used in

computers can


operations such

as summing

integration and

differentiation


video and audio

amplifiers

oscillators etc


electronics

[18]














circuit diagrams

511 IC-741










[19]



Fig511 (b)


CONTROL






inverting amplifier



this circuit the

feedback network is

still connected




[20]


swathes of modern


able to function



man-made devices

Fig512







block diagram





[21]

yo = (A + d)(yi 1048576 kyo)





yo = yi k























[22]











53 CAPACITOR








[23]






Fig53 Capacitor





convenient units












[24]



damage may result



should be small




5311 POLYESTER








5312 MICA






cheaper

[25]

5313 CERAMIC






5314 ELECTROLYTE











[26]

Fig53 Capacitors










measured






[27]


















types








[28]


55 BATTERY (9VOLT)











(9volt)








[29]





as the terminals

56 LASER TORCH









torch

57 MICROPHONE







[30]




















energy









[31]



occurs














59 PHOTODIODES




[32]










junction
















[33]

























of the device

[34]




592 APPLICATIONS




















emitter

[35]
























specifications





[36]




























[37]


1 ACTION











[38]

2 EXTERNAL RESISTOR




R = (VS - VL) I

VS = supply voltage









LED less bright

For example


0020A


3 DECIMAL DISPLAY




[39]



5111 ADVANTAGES






circuit boards







the forward current





incandescent bulbs







[40]



manner








numerals
















[41]



integer numbers











identical to an 8)


[42]

CHAPTER 6


[43]

61 PCB DESIGN




The designing of a




artwork The layout






required for the








[44]

62 PCB FABRICATION

















etched away



[45]




[46]



[47]

CHAPTER 7


INSTRUMENT

[48]


a Soldering iron

b Desoldering pump

c Drill Machine

d Multimeter

e Filer

f Tweezers

g Screw driver

h Dual power supply

i Flux

j Desoldering wick

k Petrol

l Brush

m Soldering Wire

[49]

CHAPTER 8

COMPONENT REQUIRED

[50]


Table81














13 Condenser MIC 1

14 IC UA741 1

15 PCB 1


[51]

Table82

















16 PCB 1

[52]

CHAPTER 9


91 CONSTRUCTION



[53]


















92 TESTING

[54]




















[55]

CHAPTER 10


101 SETTING UPLINK

[56]




















for its proper use

102 PRECAUTION

[57]






and be very careful














[58]

CHAPTER 11


111 ADVANTAGES

[59]

a Less costly


c High data rate






be considered


112 DISADVANTAGES




[60]

CHAPTER 12

PROBLEM FACED

121 PROBLEM FACED

[61]






glow


[62]

CHAPTER 13

APPLICATIONS

13 APPLICATIONS

[63]





CONCLUSION

[64]





meters


REFERENCES

[65]




Vol 1








APPENDIX

[66]

BC 546547548549550

[67]

[68]

[69]

UA741


[70]

[71]

[72]

[73]

[74]

[75]

L 14F1 L 14F2

[76]

CHAPTER 5


[17]




widely used in

computers can


operations such

as summing

integration and

differentiation


video and audio

amplifiers

oscillators etc


electronics

[18]














circuit diagrams

511 IC-741










[19]



Fig511 (b)


CONTROL






inverting amplifier



this circuit the

feedback network is

still connected




[20]


swathes of modern


able to function



man-made devices

Fig512







block diagram





[21]

yo = (A + d)(yi 1048576 kyo)





yo = yi k























[22]











53 CAPACITOR








[23]






Fig53 Capacitor





convenient units












[24]



damage may result



should be small




5311 POLYESTER








5312 MICA






cheaper

[25]

5313 CERAMIC






5314 ELECTROLYTE











[26]

Fig53 Capacitors










measured






[27]


















types








[28]


55 BATTERY (9VOLT)











(9volt)








[29]





as the terminals

56 LASER TORCH









torch

57 MICROPHONE







[30]




















energy









[31]



occurs














59 PHOTODIODES




[32]










junction
















[33]

























of the device

[34]




592 APPLICATIONS




















emitter

[35]
























specifications





[36]




























[37]


1 ACTION











[38]

2 EXTERNAL RESISTOR




R = (VS - VL) I

VS = supply voltage









LED less bright

For example


0020A


3 DECIMAL DISPLAY




[39]



5111 ADVANTAGES






circuit boards







the forward current





incandescent bulbs







[40]



manner








numerals
















[41]



integer numbers











identical to an 8)


[42]

CHAPTER 6


[43]

61 PCB DESIGN




The designing of a




artwork The layout






required for the








[44]

62 PCB FABRICATION

















etched away



[45]




[46]



[47]

CHAPTER 7


INSTRUMENT

[48]


a Soldering iron

b Desoldering pump

c Drill Machine

d Multimeter

e Filer

f Tweezers

g Screw driver

h Dual power supply

i Flux

j Desoldering wick

k Petrol

l Brush

m Soldering Wire

[49]

CHAPTER 8

COMPONENT REQUIRED

[50]


Table81














13 Condenser MIC 1

14 IC UA741 1

15 PCB 1


[51]

Table82

















16 PCB 1

[52]

CHAPTER 9


91 CONSTRUCTION



[53]


















92 TESTING

[54]




















[55]

CHAPTER 10


101 SETTING UPLINK

[56]




















for its proper use

102 PRECAUTION

[57]






and be very careful














[58]

CHAPTER 11


111 ADVANTAGES

[59]

a Less costly


c High data rate






be considered


112 DISADVANTAGES




[60]

CHAPTER 12

PROBLEM FACED

121 PROBLEM FACED

[61]






glow


[62]

CHAPTER 13

APPLICATIONS

13 APPLICATIONS

[63]





CONCLUSION

[64]





meters


REFERENCES

[65]




Vol 1








APPENDIX

[66]

BC 546547548549550

[67]

[68]

[69]

UA741


[70]

[71]

[72]

[73]

[74]

[75]

L 14F1 L 14F2

[76]




widely used in

computers can


operations such

as summing

integration and

differentiation


video and audio

amplifiers

oscillators etc


electronics

[18]














circuit diagrams

511 IC-741










[19]



Fig511 (b)


CONTROL






inverting amplifier



this circuit the

feedback network is

still connected




[20]


swathes of modern


able to function



man-made devices

Fig512







block diagram





[21]

yo = (A + d)(yi 1048576 kyo)





yo = yi k























[22]











53 CAPACITOR








[23]






Fig53 Capacitor





convenient units












[24]



damage may result



should be small




5311 POLYESTER








5312 MICA






cheaper

[25]

5313 CERAMIC






5314 ELECTROLYTE











[26]

Fig53 Capacitors










measured






[27]


















types








[28]


55 BATTERY (9VOLT)











(9volt)








[29]





as the terminals

56 LASER TORCH









torch

57 MICROPHONE







[30]




















energy









[31]



occurs














59 PHOTODIODES




[32]










junction
















[33]

























of the device

[34]




592 APPLICATIONS




















emitter

[35]
























specifications





[36]




























[37]


1 ACTION











[38]

2 EXTERNAL RESISTOR




R = (VS - VL) I

VS = supply voltage









LED less bright

For example


0020A


3 DECIMAL DISPLAY




[39]



5111 ADVANTAGES






circuit boards







the forward current





incandescent bulbs







[40]



manner








numerals
















[41]



integer numbers











identical to an 8)


[42]

CHAPTER 6


[43]

61 PCB DESIGN




The designing of a




artwork The layout






required for the








[44]

62 PCB FABRICATION

















etched away



[45]




[46]



[47]

CHAPTER 7


INSTRUMENT

[48]


a Soldering iron

b Desoldering pump

c Drill Machine

d Multimeter

e Filer

f Tweezers

g Screw driver

h Dual power supply

i Flux

j Desoldering wick

k Petrol

l Brush

m Soldering Wire

[49]

CHAPTER 8

COMPONENT REQUIRED

[50]


Table81














13 Condenser MIC 1

14 IC UA741 1

15 PCB 1


[51]

Table82

















16 PCB 1

[52]

CHAPTER 9


91 CONSTRUCTION



[53]


















92 TESTING

[54]




















[55]

CHAPTER 10


101 SETTING UPLINK

[56]




















for its proper use

102 PRECAUTION

[57]






and be very careful














[58]

CHAPTER 11


111 ADVANTAGES

[59]

a Less costly


c High data rate






be considered


112 DISADVANTAGES




[60]

CHAPTER 12

PROBLEM FACED

121 PROBLEM FACED

[61]






glow


[62]

CHAPTER 13

APPLICATIONS

13 APPLICATIONS

[63]





CONCLUSION

[64]





meters


REFERENCES

[65]




Vol 1








APPENDIX

[66]

BC 546547548549550

[67]

[68]

[69]

UA741


[70]

[71]

[72]

[73]

[74]

[75]

L 14F1 L 14F2

[76]














circuit diagrams

511 IC-741










[19]



Fig511 (b)


CONTROL






inverting amplifier



this circuit the

feedback network is

still connected




[20]


swathes of modern


able to function



man-made devices

Fig512







block diagram





[21]

yo = (A + d)(yi 1048576 kyo)





yo = yi k























[22]











53 CAPACITOR








[23]






Fig53 Capacitor





convenient units












[24]



damage may result



should be small




5311 POLYESTER








5312 MICA






cheaper

[25]

5313 CERAMIC






5314 ELECTROLYTE











[26]

Fig53 Capacitors










measured






[27]


















types








[28]


55 BATTERY (9VOLT)











(9volt)








[29]





as the terminals

56 LASER TORCH









torch

57 MICROPHONE







[30]




















energy









[31]



occurs














59 PHOTODIODES




[32]










junction
















[33]

























of the device

[34]




592 APPLICATIONS




















emitter

[35]
























specifications





[36]




























[37]


1 ACTION











[38]

2 EXTERNAL RESISTOR




R = (VS - VL) I

VS = supply voltage









LED less bright

For example


0020A


3 DECIMAL DISPLAY




[39]



5111 ADVANTAGES






circuit boards







the forward current





incandescent bulbs







[40]



manner








numerals
















[41]



integer numbers











identical to an 8)


[42]

CHAPTER 6


[43]

61 PCB DESIGN




The designing of a




artwork The layout






required for the








[44]

62 PCB FABRICATION

















etched away



[45]




[46]



[47]

CHAPTER 7


INSTRUMENT

[48]


a Soldering iron

b Desoldering pump

c Drill Machine

d Multimeter

e Filer

f Tweezers

g Screw driver

h Dual power supply

i Flux

j Desoldering wick

k Petrol

l Brush

m Soldering Wire

[49]

CHAPTER 8

COMPONENT REQUIRED

[50]


Table81














13 Condenser MIC 1

14 IC UA741 1

15 PCB 1


[51]

Table82

















16 PCB 1

[52]

CHAPTER 9


91 CONSTRUCTION



[53]


















92 TESTING

[54]




















[55]

CHAPTER 10


101 SETTING UPLINK

[56]




















for its proper use

102 PRECAUTION

[57]






and be very careful














[58]

CHAPTER 11


111 ADVANTAGES

[59]

a Less costly


c High data rate






be considered


112 DISADVANTAGES




[60]

CHAPTER 12

PROBLEM FACED

121 PROBLEM FACED

[61]






glow


[62]

CHAPTER 13

APPLICATIONS

13 APPLICATIONS

[63]





CONCLUSION

[64]





meters


REFERENCES

[65]




Vol 1








APPENDIX

[66]

BC 546547548549550

[67]

[68]

[69]

UA741


[70]

[71]

[72]

[73]

[74]

[75]

L 14F1 L 14F2

[76]



Fig511 (b)


CONTROL






inverting amplifier



this circuit the

feedback network is

still connected




[20]


swathes of modern


able to function



man-made devices

Fig512







block diagram





[21]

yo = (A + d)(yi 1048576 kyo)





yo = yi k























[22]











53 CAPACITOR








[23]






Fig53 Capacitor





convenient units












[24]



damage may result



should be small




5311 POLYESTER








5312 MICA






cheaper

[25]

5313 CERAMIC






5314 ELECTROLYTE











[26]

Fig53 Capacitors










measured






[27]


















types








[28]


55 BATTERY (9VOLT)











(9volt)








[29]





as the terminals

56 LASER TORCH









torch

57 MICROPHONE







[30]




















energy









[31]



occurs














59 PHOTODIODES




[32]










junction
















[33]

























of the device

[34]




592 APPLICATIONS




















emitter

[35]
























specifications





[36]




























[37]


1 ACTION











[38]

2 EXTERNAL RESISTOR




R = (VS - VL) I

VS = supply voltage









LED less bright

For example


0020A


3 DECIMAL DISPLAY




[39]



5111 ADVANTAGES






circuit boards







the forward current





incandescent bulbs







[40]



manner








numerals
















[41]



integer numbers











identical to an 8)


[42]

CHAPTER 6


[43]

61 PCB DESIGN




The designing of a




artwork The layout






required for the








[44]

62 PCB FABRICATION

















etched away



[45]




[46]



[47]

CHAPTER 7


INSTRUMENT

[48]


a Soldering iron

b Desoldering pump

c Drill Machine

d Multimeter

e Filer

f Tweezers

g Screw driver

h Dual power supply

i Flux

j Desoldering wick

k Petrol

l Brush

m Soldering Wire

[49]

CHAPTER 8

COMPONENT REQUIRED

[50]


Table81














13 Condenser MIC 1

14 IC UA741 1

15 PCB 1


[51]

Table82

















16 PCB 1

[52]

CHAPTER 9


91 CONSTRUCTION



[53]


















92 TESTING

[54]




















[55]

CHAPTER 10


101 SETTING UPLINK

[56]




















for its proper use

102 PRECAUTION

[57]






and be very careful














[58]

CHAPTER 11


111 ADVANTAGES

[59]

a Less costly


c High data rate






be considered


112 DISADVANTAGES




[60]

CHAPTER 12

PROBLEM FACED

121 PROBLEM FACED

[61]






glow


[62]

CHAPTER 13

APPLICATIONS

13 APPLICATIONS

[63]





CONCLUSION

[64]





meters


REFERENCES

[65]




Vol 1








APPENDIX

[66]

BC 546547548549550

[67]

[68]

[69]

UA741


[70]

[71]

[72]

[73]

[74]

[75]

L 14F1 L 14F2

[76]


swathes of modern


able to function



man-made devices

Fig512







block diagram





[21]

yo = (A + d)(yi 1048576 kyo)





yo = yi k























[22]











53 CAPACITOR








[23]






Fig53 Capacitor





convenient units












[24]



damage may result



should be small




5311 POLYESTER








5312 MICA






cheaper

[25]

5313 CERAMIC






5314 ELECTROLYTE











[26]

Fig53 Capacitors










measured






[27]


















types








[28]


55 BATTERY (9VOLT)











(9volt)








[29]





as the terminals

56 LASER TORCH









torch

57 MICROPHONE







[30]




















energy









[31]



occurs














59 PHOTODIODES




[32]










junction
















[33]

























of the device

[34]




592 APPLICATIONS




















emitter

[35]
























specifications





[36]




























[37]


1 ACTION











[38]

2 EXTERNAL RESISTOR




R = (VS - VL) I

VS = supply voltage









LED less bright

For example


0020A


3 DECIMAL DISPLAY




[39]



5111 ADVANTAGES






circuit boards







the forward current





incandescent bulbs







[40]



manner








numerals
















[41]



integer numbers











identical to an 8)


[42]

CHAPTER 6


[43]

61 PCB DESIGN




The designing of a




artwork The layout






required for the








[44]

62 PCB FABRICATION

















etched away



[45]




[46]



[47]

CHAPTER 7


INSTRUMENT

[48]


a Soldering iron

b Desoldering pump

c Drill Machine

d Multimeter

e Filer

f Tweezers

g Screw driver

h Dual power supply

i Flux

j Desoldering wick

k Petrol

l Brush

m Soldering Wire

[49]

CHAPTER 8

COMPONENT REQUIRED

[50]


Table81














13 Condenser MIC 1

14 IC UA741 1

15 PCB 1


[51]

Table82

















16 PCB 1

[52]

CHAPTER 9


91 CONSTRUCTION



[53]


















92 TESTING

[54]




















[55]

CHAPTER 10


101 SETTING UPLINK

[56]




















for its proper use

102 PRECAUTION

[57]






and be very careful














[58]

CHAPTER 11


111 ADVANTAGES

[59]

a Less costly


c High data rate






be considered


112 DISADVANTAGES




[60]

CHAPTER 12

PROBLEM FACED

121 PROBLEM FACED

[61]






glow


[62]

CHAPTER 13

APPLICATIONS

13 APPLICATIONS

[63]





CONCLUSION

[64]





meters


REFERENCES

[65]




Vol 1








APPENDIX

[66]

BC 546547548549550

[67]

[68]

[69]

UA741


[70]

[71]

[72]

[73]

[74]

[75]

L 14F1 L 14F2

[76]

yo = (A + d)(yi 1048576 kyo)





yo = yi k























[22]











53 CAPACITOR








[23]






Fig53 Capacitor





convenient units












[24]



damage may result



should be small




5311 POLYESTER








5312 MICA






cheaper

[25]

5313 CERAMIC






5314 ELECTROLYTE











[26]

Fig53 Capacitors










measured






[27]


















types








[28]


55 BATTERY (9VOLT)











(9volt)








[29]





as the terminals

56 LASER TORCH









torch

57 MICROPHONE







[30]




















energy









[31]



occurs














59 PHOTODIODES




[32]










junction
















[33]

























of the device

[34]




592 APPLICATIONS




















emitter

[35]
























specifications





[36]




























[37]


1 ACTION











[38]

2 EXTERNAL RESISTOR




R = (VS - VL) I

VS = supply voltage









LED less bright

For example


0020A


3 DECIMAL DISPLAY




[39]



5111 ADVANTAGES






circuit boards







the forward current





incandescent bulbs







[40]



manner








numerals
















[41]



integer numbers











identical to an 8)


[42]

CHAPTER 6


[43]

61 PCB DESIGN




The designing of a




artwork The layout






required for the








[44]

62 PCB FABRICATION

















etched away



[45]




[46]



[47]

CHAPTER 7


INSTRUMENT

[48]


a Soldering iron

b Desoldering pump

c Drill Machine

d Multimeter

e Filer

f Tweezers

g Screw driver

h Dual power supply

i Flux

j Desoldering wick

k Petrol

l Brush

m Soldering Wire

[49]

CHAPTER 8

COMPONENT REQUIRED

[50]


Table81














13 Condenser MIC 1

14 IC UA741 1

15 PCB 1


[51]

Table82

















16 PCB 1

[52]

CHAPTER 9


91 CONSTRUCTION



[53]


















92 TESTING

[54]




















[55]

CHAPTER 10


101 SETTING UPLINK

[56]




















for its proper use

102 PRECAUTION

[57]






and be very careful














[58]

CHAPTER 11


111 ADVANTAGES

[59]

a Less costly


c High data rate






be considered


112 DISADVANTAGES




[60]

CHAPTER 12

PROBLEM FACED

121 PROBLEM FACED

[61]






glow


[62]

CHAPTER 13

APPLICATIONS

13 APPLICATIONS

[63]





CONCLUSION

[64]





meters


REFERENCES

[65]




Vol 1








APPENDIX

[66]

BC 546547548549550

[67]

[68]

[69]

UA741


[70]

[71]

[72]

[73]

[74]

[75]

L 14F1 L 14F2

[76]











53 CAPACITOR








[23]






Fig53 Capacitor





convenient units












[24]



damage may result



should be small




5311 POLYESTER








5312 MICA






cheaper

[25]

5313 CERAMIC






5314 ELECTROLYTE











[26]

Fig53 Capacitors










measured






[27]


















types








[28]


55 BATTERY (9VOLT)











(9volt)








[29]





as the terminals

56 LASER TORCH









torch

57 MICROPHONE







[30]




















energy









[31]



occurs














59 PHOTODIODES




[32]










junction
















[33]

























of the device

[34]




592 APPLICATIONS




















emitter

[35]
























specifications





[36]




























[37]


1 ACTION











[38]

2 EXTERNAL RESISTOR




R = (VS - VL) I

VS = supply voltage









LED less bright

For example


0020A


3 DECIMAL DISPLAY




[39]



5111 ADVANTAGES






circuit boards







the forward current





incandescent bulbs







[40]



manner








numerals
















[41]



integer numbers











identical to an 8)


[42]

CHAPTER 6


[43]

61 PCB DESIGN




The designing of a




artwork The layout






required for the








[44]

62 PCB FABRICATION

















etched away



[45]




[46]



[47]

CHAPTER 7


INSTRUMENT

[48]


a Soldering iron

b Desoldering pump

c Drill Machine

d Multimeter

e Filer

f Tweezers

g Screw driver

h Dual power supply

i Flux

j Desoldering wick

k Petrol

l Brush

m Soldering Wire

[49]

CHAPTER 8

COMPONENT REQUIRED

[50]


Table81














13 Condenser MIC 1

14 IC UA741 1

15 PCB 1


[51]

Table82

















16 PCB 1

[52]

CHAPTER 9


91 CONSTRUCTION



[53]


















92 TESTING

[54]




















[55]

CHAPTER 10


101 SETTING UPLINK

[56]




















for its proper use

102 PRECAUTION

[57]






and be very careful














[58]

CHAPTER 11


111 ADVANTAGES

[59]

a Less costly


c High data rate






be considered


112 DISADVANTAGES




[60]

CHAPTER 12

PROBLEM FACED

121 PROBLEM FACED

[61]






glow


[62]

CHAPTER 13

APPLICATIONS

13 APPLICATIONS

[63]





CONCLUSION

[64]





meters


REFERENCES

[65]




Vol 1








APPENDIX

[66]

BC 546547548549550

[67]

[68]

[69]

UA741


[70]

[71]

[72]

[73]

[74]

[75]

L 14F1 L 14F2

[76]






Fig53 Capacitor





convenient units












[24]



damage may result



should be small




5311 POLYESTER








5312 MICA






cheaper

[25]

5313 CERAMIC






5314 ELECTROLYTE











[26]

Fig53 Capacitors










measured






[27]


















types








[28]


55 BATTERY (9VOLT)











(9volt)








[29]





as the terminals

56 LASER TORCH









torch

57 MICROPHONE







[30]




















energy









[31]



occurs














59 PHOTODIODES




[32]










junction
















[33]

























of the device

[34]




592 APPLICATIONS




















emitter

[35]
























specifications





[36]




























[37]


1 ACTION











[38]

2 EXTERNAL RESISTOR




R = (VS - VL) I

VS = supply voltage









LED less bright

For example


0020A


3 DECIMAL DISPLAY




[39]



5111 ADVANTAGES






circuit boards







the forward current





incandescent bulbs







[40]



manner








numerals
















[41]



integer numbers











identical to an 8)


[42]

CHAPTER 6


[43]

61 PCB DESIGN




The designing of a




artwork The layout






required for the








[44]

62 PCB FABRICATION

















etched away



[45]




[46]



[47]

CHAPTER 7


INSTRUMENT

[48]


a Soldering iron

b Desoldering pump

c Drill Machine

d Multimeter

e Filer

f Tweezers

g Screw driver

h Dual power supply

i Flux

j Desoldering wick

k Petrol

l Brush

m Soldering Wire

[49]

CHAPTER 8

COMPONENT REQUIRED

[50]


Table81














13 Condenser MIC 1

14 IC UA741 1

15 PCB 1


[51]

Table82

















16 PCB 1

[52]

CHAPTER 9


91 CONSTRUCTION



[53]


















92 TESTING

[54]




















[55]

CHAPTER 10


101 SETTING UPLINK

[56]




















for its proper use

102 PRECAUTION

[57]






and be very careful














[58]

CHAPTER 11


111 ADVANTAGES

[59]

a Less costly


c High data rate






be considered


112 DISADVANTAGES




[60]

CHAPTER 12

PROBLEM FACED

121 PROBLEM FACED

[61]






glow


[62]

CHAPTER 13

APPLICATIONS

13 APPLICATIONS

[63]





CONCLUSION

[64]





meters


REFERENCES

[65]




Vol 1








APPENDIX

[66]

BC 546547548549550

[67]

[68]

[69]

UA741


[70]

[71]

[72]

[73]

[74]

[75]

L 14F1 L 14F2

[76]



damage may result



should be small




5311 POLYESTER








5312 MICA






cheaper

[25]

5313 CERAMIC






5314 ELECTROLYTE











[26]

Fig53 Capacitors










measured






[27]


















types








[28]


55 BATTERY (9VOLT)











(9volt)








[29]





as the terminals

56 LASER TORCH









torch

57 MICROPHONE







[30]




















energy









[31]



occurs














59 PHOTODIODES




[32]










junction
















[33]

























of the device

[34]




592 APPLICATIONS




















emitter

[35]
























specifications





[36]




























[37]


1 ACTION











[38]

2 EXTERNAL RESISTOR




R = (VS - VL) I

VS = supply voltage









LED less bright

For example


0020A


3 DECIMAL DISPLAY




[39]



5111 ADVANTAGES






circuit boards







the forward current





incandescent bulbs







[40]



manner








numerals
















[41]



integer numbers











identical to an 8)


[42]

CHAPTER 6


[43]

61 PCB DESIGN




The designing of a




artwork The layout






required for the








[44]

62 PCB FABRICATION

















etched away



[45]




[46]



[47]

CHAPTER 7


INSTRUMENT

[48]


a Soldering iron

b Desoldering pump

c Drill Machine

d Multimeter

e Filer

f Tweezers

g Screw driver

h Dual power supply

i Flux

j Desoldering wick

k Petrol

l Brush

m Soldering Wire

[49]

CHAPTER 8

COMPONENT REQUIRED

[50]


Table81














13 Condenser MIC 1

14 IC UA741 1

15 PCB 1


[51]

Table82

















16 PCB 1

[52]

CHAPTER 9


91 CONSTRUCTION



[53]


















92 TESTING

[54]




















[55]

CHAPTER 10


101 SETTING UPLINK

[56]




















for its proper use

102 PRECAUTION

[57]






and be very careful














[58]

CHAPTER 11


111 ADVANTAGES

[59]

a Less costly


c High data rate






be considered


112 DISADVANTAGES




[60]

CHAPTER 12

PROBLEM FACED

121 PROBLEM FACED

[61]






glow


[62]

CHAPTER 13

APPLICATIONS

13 APPLICATIONS

[63]





CONCLUSION

[64]





meters


REFERENCES

[65]




Vol 1








APPENDIX

[66]

BC 546547548549550

[67]

[68]

[69]

UA741


[70]

[71]

[72]

[73]

[74]

[75]

L 14F1 L 14F2

[76]

5313 CERAMIC






5314 ELECTROLYTE











[26]

Fig53 Capacitors










measured






[27]


















types








[28]


55 BATTERY (9VOLT)











(9volt)








[29]





as the terminals

56 LASER TORCH









torch

57 MICROPHONE







[30]




















energy









[31]



occurs














59 PHOTODIODES




[32]










junction
















[33]

























of the device

[34]




592 APPLICATIONS




















emitter

[35]
























specifications





[36]




























[37]


1 ACTION











[38]

2 EXTERNAL RESISTOR




R = (VS - VL) I

VS = supply voltage









LED less bright

For example


0020A


3 DECIMAL DISPLAY




[39]



5111 ADVANTAGES






circuit boards







the forward current





incandescent bulbs







[40]



manner








numerals
















[41]



integer numbers











identical to an 8)


[42]

CHAPTER 6


[43]

61 PCB DESIGN




The designing of a




artwork The layout






required for the








[44]

62 PCB FABRICATION

















etched away



[45]




[46]



[47]

CHAPTER 7


INSTRUMENT

[48]


a Soldering iron

b Desoldering pump

c Drill Machine

d Multimeter

e Filer

f Tweezers

g Screw driver

h Dual power supply

i Flux

j Desoldering wick

k Petrol

l Brush

m Soldering Wire

[49]

CHAPTER 8

COMPONENT REQUIRED

[50]


Table81














13 Condenser MIC 1

14 IC UA741 1

15 PCB 1


[51]

Table82

















16 PCB 1

[52]

CHAPTER 9


91 CONSTRUCTION



[53]


















92 TESTING

[54]




















[55]

CHAPTER 10


101 SETTING UPLINK

[56]




















for its proper use

102 PRECAUTION

[57]






and be very careful














[58]

CHAPTER 11


111 ADVANTAGES

[59]

a Less costly


c High data rate






be considered


112 DISADVANTAGES




[60]

CHAPTER 12

PROBLEM FACED

121 PROBLEM FACED

[61]






glow


[62]

CHAPTER 13

APPLICATIONS

13 APPLICATIONS

[63]





CONCLUSION

[64]





meters


REFERENCES

[65]




Vol 1








APPENDIX

[66]

BC 546547548549550

[67]

[68]

[69]

UA741


[70]

[71]

[72]

[73]

[74]

[75]

L 14F1 L 14F2

[76]

Fig53 Capacitors










measured






[27]


















types








[28]


55 BATTERY (9VOLT)











(9volt)








[29]





as the terminals

56 LASER TORCH









torch

57 MICROPHONE







[30]




















energy









[31]



occurs














59 PHOTODIODES




[32]










junction
















[33]

























of the device

[34]




592 APPLICATIONS




















emitter

[35]
























specifications





[36]




























[37]


1 ACTION











[38]

2 EXTERNAL RESISTOR




R = (VS - VL) I

VS = supply voltage









LED less bright

For example


0020A


3 DECIMAL DISPLAY




[39]



5111 ADVANTAGES






circuit boards







the forward current





incandescent bulbs







[40]



manner








numerals
















[41]



integer numbers











identical to an 8)


[42]

CHAPTER 6


[43]

61 PCB DESIGN




The designing of a




artwork The layout






required for the








[44]

62 PCB FABRICATION

















etched away



[45]




[46]



[47]

CHAPTER 7


INSTRUMENT

[48]


a Soldering iron

b Desoldering pump

c Drill Machine

d Multimeter

e Filer

f Tweezers

g Screw driver

h Dual power supply

i Flux

j Desoldering wick

k Petrol

l Brush

m Soldering Wire

[49]

CHAPTER 8

COMPONENT REQUIRED

[50]


Table81














13 Condenser MIC 1

14 IC UA741 1

15 PCB 1


[51]

Table82

















16 PCB 1

[52]

CHAPTER 9


91 CONSTRUCTION



[53]


















92 TESTING

[54]




















[55]

CHAPTER 10


101 SETTING UPLINK

[56]




















for its proper use

102 PRECAUTION

[57]






and be very careful














[58]

CHAPTER 11


111 ADVANTAGES

[59]

a Less costly


c High data rate






be considered


112 DISADVANTAGES




[60]

CHAPTER 12

PROBLEM FACED

121 PROBLEM FACED

[61]






glow


[62]

CHAPTER 13

APPLICATIONS

13 APPLICATIONS

[63]





CONCLUSION

[64]





meters


REFERENCES

[65]




Vol 1








APPENDIX

[66]

BC 546547548549550

[67]

[68]

[69]

UA741


[70]

[71]

[72]

[73]

[74]

[75]

L 14F1 L 14F2

[76]


















types








[28]


55 BATTERY (9VOLT)











(9volt)








[29]





as the terminals

56 LASER TORCH









torch

57 MICROPHONE







[30]




















energy









[31]



occurs














59 PHOTODIODES




[32]










junction
















[33]

























of the device

[34]




592 APPLICATIONS




















emitter

[35]
























specifications





[36]




























[37]


1 ACTION











[38]

2 EXTERNAL RESISTOR




R = (VS - VL) I

VS = supply voltage









LED less bright

For example


0020A


3 DECIMAL DISPLAY




[39]



5111 ADVANTAGES






circuit boards







the forward current





incandescent bulbs







[40]



manner








numerals
















[41]



integer numbers











identical to an 8)


[42]

CHAPTER 6


[43]

61 PCB DESIGN




The designing of a




artwork The layout






required for the








[44]

62 PCB FABRICATION

















etched away



[45]




[46]



[47]

CHAPTER 7


INSTRUMENT

[48]


a Soldering iron

b Desoldering pump

c Drill Machine

d Multimeter

e Filer

f Tweezers

g Screw driver

h Dual power supply

i Flux

j Desoldering wick

k Petrol

l Brush

m Soldering Wire

[49]

CHAPTER 8

COMPONENT REQUIRED

[50]


Table81














13 Condenser MIC 1

14 IC UA741 1

15 PCB 1


[51]

Table82

















16 PCB 1

[52]

CHAPTER 9


91 CONSTRUCTION



[53]


















92 TESTING

[54]




















[55]

CHAPTER 10


101 SETTING UPLINK

[56]




















for its proper use

102 PRECAUTION

[57]






and be very careful














[58]

CHAPTER 11


111 ADVANTAGES

[59]

a Less costly


c High data rate






be considered


112 DISADVANTAGES




[60]

CHAPTER 12

PROBLEM FACED

121 PROBLEM FACED

[61]






glow


[62]

CHAPTER 13

APPLICATIONS

13 APPLICATIONS

[63]





CONCLUSION

[64]





meters


REFERENCES

[65]




Vol 1








APPENDIX

[66]

BC 546547548549550

[67]

[68]

[69]

UA741


[70]

[71]

[72]

[73]

[74]

[75]

L 14F1 L 14F2

[76]


55 BATTERY (9VOLT)











(9volt)








[29]





as the terminals

56 LASER TORCH









torch

57 MICROPHONE







[30]




















energy









[31]



occurs














59 PHOTODIODES




[32]










junction
















[33]

























of the device

[34]




592 APPLICATIONS




















emitter

[35]
























specifications





[36]




























[37]


1 ACTION











[38]

2 EXTERNAL RESISTOR




R = (VS - VL) I

VS = supply voltage









LED less bright

For example


0020A


3 DECIMAL DISPLAY




[39]



5111 ADVANTAGES






circuit boards







the forward current





incandescent bulbs







[40]



manner








numerals
















[41]



integer numbers











identical to an 8)


[42]

CHAPTER 6


[43]

61 PCB DESIGN




The designing of a




artwork The layout






required for the








[44]

62 PCB FABRICATION

















etched away



[45]




[46]



[47]

CHAPTER 7


INSTRUMENT

[48]


a Soldering iron

b Desoldering pump

c Drill Machine

d Multimeter

e Filer

f Tweezers

g Screw driver

h Dual power supply

i Flux

j Desoldering wick

k Petrol

l Brush

m Soldering Wire

[49]

CHAPTER 8

COMPONENT REQUIRED

[50]


Table81














13 Condenser MIC 1

14 IC UA741 1

15 PCB 1


[51]

Table82

















16 PCB 1

[52]

CHAPTER 9


91 CONSTRUCTION



[53]


















92 TESTING

[54]




















[55]

CHAPTER 10


101 SETTING UPLINK

[56]




















for its proper use

102 PRECAUTION

[57]






and be very careful














[58]

CHAPTER 11


111 ADVANTAGES

[59]

a Less costly


c High data rate






be considered


112 DISADVANTAGES




[60]

CHAPTER 12

PROBLEM FACED

121 PROBLEM FACED

[61]






glow


[62]

CHAPTER 13

APPLICATIONS

13 APPLICATIONS

[63]





CONCLUSION

[64]





meters


REFERENCES

[65]




Vol 1








APPENDIX

[66]

BC 546547548549550

[67]

[68]

[69]

UA741


[70]

[71]

[72]

[73]

[74]

[75]

L 14F1 L 14F2

[76]





as the terminals

56 LASER TORCH









torch

57 MICROPHONE







[30]




















energy









[31]



occurs














59 PHOTODIODES




[32]










junction
















[33]

























of the device

[34]




592 APPLICATIONS




















emitter

[35]
























specifications





[36]




























[37]


1 ACTION











[38]

2 EXTERNAL RESISTOR




R = (VS - VL) I

VS = supply voltage









LED less bright

For example


0020A


3 DECIMAL DISPLAY




[39]



5111 ADVANTAGES






circuit boards







the forward current





incandescent bulbs







[40]



manner








numerals
















[41]



integer numbers











identical to an 8)


[42]

CHAPTER 6


[43]

61 PCB DESIGN




The designing of a




artwork The layout






required for the








[44]

62 PCB FABRICATION

















etched away



[45]




[46]



[47]

CHAPTER 7


INSTRUMENT

[48]


a Soldering iron

b Desoldering pump

c Drill Machine

d Multimeter

e Filer

f Tweezers

g Screw driver

h Dual power supply

i Flux

j Desoldering wick

k Petrol

l Brush

m Soldering Wire

[49]

CHAPTER 8

COMPONENT REQUIRED

[50]


Table81














13 Condenser MIC 1

14 IC UA741 1

15 PCB 1


[51]

Table82

















16 PCB 1

[52]

CHAPTER 9


91 CONSTRUCTION



[53]


















92 TESTING

[54]




















[55]

CHAPTER 10


101 SETTING UPLINK

[56]




















for its proper use

102 PRECAUTION

[57]






and be very careful














[58]

CHAPTER 11


111 ADVANTAGES

[59]

a Less costly


c High data rate






be considered


112 DISADVANTAGES




[60]

CHAPTER 12

PROBLEM FACED

121 PROBLEM FACED

[61]






glow


[62]

CHAPTER 13

APPLICATIONS

13 APPLICATIONS

[63]





CONCLUSION

[64]





meters


REFERENCES

[65]




Vol 1








APPENDIX

[66]

BC 546547548549550

[67]

[68]

[69]

UA741


[70]

[71]

[72]

[73]

[74]

[75]

L 14F1 L 14F2

[76]




















energy









[31]



occurs














59 PHOTODIODES




[32]










junction
















[33]

























of the device

[34]




592 APPLICATIONS




















emitter

[35]
























specifications





[36]




























[37]


1 ACTION











[38]

2 EXTERNAL RESISTOR




R = (VS - VL) I

VS = supply voltage









LED less bright

For example


0020A


3 DECIMAL DISPLAY




[39]



5111 ADVANTAGES






circuit boards







the forward current





incandescent bulbs







[40]



manner








numerals
















[41]



integer numbers











identical to an 8)


[42]

CHAPTER 6


[43]

61 PCB DESIGN




The designing of a




artwork The layout






required for the








[44]

62 PCB FABRICATION

















etched away



[45]




[46]



[47]

CHAPTER 7


INSTRUMENT

[48]


a Soldering iron

b Desoldering pump

c Drill Machine

d Multimeter

e Filer

f Tweezers

g Screw driver

h Dual power supply

i Flux

j Desoldering wick

k Petrol

l Brush

m Soldering Wire

[49]

CHAPTER 8

COMPONENT REQUIRED

[50]


Table81














13 Condenser MIC 1

14 IC UA741 1

15 PCB 1


[51]

Table82

















16 PCB 1

[52]

CHAPTER 9


91 CONSTRUCTION



[53]


















92 TESTING

[54]




















[55]

CHAPTER 10


101 SETTING UPLINK

[56]




















for its proper use

102 PRECAUTION

[57]






and be very careful














[58]

CHAPTER 11


111 ADVANTAGES

[59]

a Less costly


c High data rate






be considered


112 DISADVANTAGES




[60]

CHAPTER 12

PROBLEM FACED

121 PROBLEM FACED

[61]






glow


[62]

CHAPTER 13

APPLICATIONS

13 APPLICATIONS

[63]





CONCLUSION

[64]





meters


REFERENCES

[65]




Vol 1








APPENDIX

[66]

BC 546547548549550

[67]

[68]

[69]

UA741


[70]

[71]

[72]

[73]

[74]

[75]

L 14F1 L 14F2

[76]



occurs














59 PHOTODIODES




[32]










junction
















[33]

























of the device

[34]




592 APPLICATIONS




















emitter

[35]
























specifications





[36]




























[37]


1 ACTION











[38]

2 EXTERNAL RESISTOR




R = (VS - VL) I

VS = supply voltage









LED less bright

For example


0020A


3 DECIMAL DISPLAY




[39]



5111 ADVANTAGES






circuit boards







the forward current





incandescent bulbs







[40]



manner








numerals
















[41]



integer numbers











identical to an 8)


[42]

CHAPTER 6


[43]

61 PCB DESIGN




The designing of a




artwork The layout






required for the








[44]

62 PCB FABRICATION

















etched away



[45]




[46]



[47]

CHAPTER 7


INSTRUMENT

[48]


a Soldering iron

b Desoldering pump

c Drill Machine

d Multimeter

e Filer

f Tweezers

g Screw driver

h Dual power supply

i Flux

j Desoldering wick

k Petrol

l Brush

m Soldering Wire

[49]

CHAPTER 8

COMPONENT REQUIRED

[50]


Table81














13 Condenser MIC 1

14 IC UA741 1

15 PCB 1


[51]

Table82

















16 PCB 1

[52]

CHAPTER 9


91 CONSTRUCTION



[53]


















92 TESTING

[54]




















[55]

CHAPTER 10


101 SETTING UPLINK

[56]




















for its proper use

102 PRECAUTION

[57]






and be very careful














[58]

CHAPTER 11


111 ADVANTAGES

[59]

a Less costly


c High data rate






be considered


112 DISADVANTAGES




[60]

CHAPTER 12

PROBLEM FACED

121 PROBLEM FACED

[61]






glow


[62]

CHAPTER 13

APPLICATIONS

13 APPLICATIONS

[63]





CONCLUSION

[64]





meters


REFERENCES

[65]




Vol 1








APPENDIX

[66]

BC 546547548549550

[67]

[68]

[69]

UA741


[70]

[71]

[72]

[73]

[74]

[75]

L 14F1 L 14F2

[76]










junction
















[33]

























of the device

[34]




592 APPLICATIONS




















emitter

[35]
























specifications





[36]




























[37]


1 ACTION











[38]

2 EXTERNAL RESISTOR




R = (VS - VL) I

VS = supply voltage









LED less bright

For example


0020A


3 DECIMAL DISPLAY




[39]



5111 ADVANTAGES






circuit boards







the forward current





incandescent bulbs







[40]



manner








numerals
















[41]



integer numbers











identical to an 8)


[42]

CHAPTER 6


[43]

61 PCB DESIGN




The designing of a




artwork The layout






required for the








[44]

62 PCB FABRICATION

















etched away



[45]




[46]



[47]

CHAPTER 7


INSTRUMENT

[48]


a Soldering iron

b Desoldering pump

c Drill Machine

d Multimeter

e Filer

f Tweezers

g Screw driver

h Dual power supply

i Flux

j Desoldering wick

k Petrol

l Brush

m Soldering Wire

[49]

CHAPTER 8

COMPONENT REQUIRED

[50]


Table81














13 Condenser MIC 1

14 IC UA741 1

15 PCB 1


[51]

Table82

















16 PCB 1

[52]

CHAPTER 9


91 CONSTRUCTION



[53]


















92 TESTING

[54]




















[55]

CHAPTER 10


101 SETTING UPLINK

[56]




















for its proper use

102 PRECAUTION

[57]






and be very careful














[58]

CHAPTER 11


111 ADVANTAGES

[59]

a Less costly


c High data rate






be considered


112 DISADVANTAGES




[60]

CHAPTER 12

PROBLEM FACED

121 PROBLEM FACED

[61]






glow


[62]

CHAPTER 13

APPLICATIONS

13 APPLICATIONS

[63]





CONCLUSION

[64]





meters


REFERENCES

[65]




Vol 1








APPENDIX

[66]

BC 546547548549550

[67]

[68]

[69]

UA741


[70]

[71]

[72]

[73]

[74]

[75]

L 14F1 L 14F2

[76]

























of the device

[34]




592 APPLICATIONS




















emitter

[35]
























specifications





[36]




























[37]


1 ACTION











[38]

2 EXTERNAL RESISTOR




R = (VS - VL) I

VS = supply voltage









LED less bright

For example


0020A


3 DECIMAL DISPLAY




[39]



5111 ADVANTAGES






circuit boards







the forward current





incandescent bulbs







[40]



manner








numerals
















[41]



integer numbers











identical to an 8)


[42]

CHAPTER 6


[43]

61 PCB DESIGN




The designing of a




artwork The layout






required for the








[44]

62 PCB FABRICATION

















etched away



[45]




[46]



[47]

CHAPTER 7


INSTRUMENT

[48]


a Soldering iron

b Desoldering pump

c Drill Machine

d Multimeter

e Filer

f Tweezers

g Screw driver

h Dual power supply

i Flux

j Desoldering wick

k Petrol

l Brush

m Soldering Wire

[49]

CHAPTER 8

COMPONENT REQUIRED

[50]


Table81














13 Condenser MIC 1

14 IC UA741 1

15 PCB 1


[51]

Table82

















16 PCB 1

[52]

CHAPTER 9


91 CONSTRUCTION



[53]


















92 TESTING

[54]




















[55]

CHAPTER 10


101 SETTING UPLINK

[56]




















for its proper use

102 PRECAUTION

[57]






and be very careful














[58]

CHAPTER 11


111 ADVANTAGES

[59]

a Less costly


c High data rate






be considered


112 DISADVANTAGES




[60]

CHAPTER 12

PROBLEM FACED

121 PROBLEM FACED

[61]






glow


[62]

CHAPTER 13

APPLICATIONS

13 APPLICATIONS

[63]





CONCLUSION

[64]





meters


REFERENCES

[65]




Vol 1








APPENDIX

[66]

BC 546547548549550

[67]

[68]

[69]

UA741


[70]

[71]

[72]

[73]

[74]

[75]

L 14F1 L 14F2

[76]




592 APPLICATIONS




















emitter

[35]
























specifications





[36]




























[37]


1 ACTION











[38]

2 EXTERNAL RESISTOR




R = (VS - VL) I

VS = supply voltage









LED less bright

For example


0020A


3 DECIMAL DISPLAY




[39]



5111 ADVANTAGES






circuit boards







the forward current





incandescent bulbs







[40]



manner








numerals
















[41]



integer numbers











identical to an 8)


[42]

CHAPTER 6


[43]

61 PCB DESIGN




The designing of a




artwork The layout






required for the








[44]

62 PCB FABRICATION

















etched away



[45]




[46]



[47]

CHAPTER 7


INSTRUMENT

[48]


a Soldering iron

b Desoldering pump

c Drill Machine

d Multimeter

e Filer

f Tweezers

g Screw driver

h Dual power supply

i Flux

j Desoldering wick

k Petrol

l Brush

m Soldering Wire

[49]

CHAPTER 8

COMPONENT REQUIRED

[50]


Table81














13 Condenser MIC 1

14 IC UA741 1

15 PCB 1


[51]

Table82

















16 PCB 1

[52]

CHAPTER 9


91 CONSTRUCTION



[53]


















92 TESTING

[54]




















[55]

CHAPTER 10


101 SETTING UPLINK

[56]




















for its proper use

102 PRECAUTION

[57]






and be very careful














[58]

CHAPTER 11


111 ADVANTAGES

[59]

a Less costly


c High data rate






be considered


112 DISADVANTAGES




[60]

CHAPTER 12

PROBLEM FACED

121 PROBLEM FACED

[61]






glow


[62]

CHAPTER 13

APPLICATIONS

13 APPLICATIONS

[63]





CONCLUSION

[64]





meters


REFERENCES

[65]




Vol 1








APPENDIX

[66]

BC 546547548549550

[67]

[68]

[69]

UA741


[70]

[71]

[72]

[73]

[74]

[75]

L 14F1 L 14F2

[76]
























specifications





[36]




























[37]


1 ACTION











[38]

2 EXTERNAL RESISTOR




R = (VS - VL) I

VS = supply voltage









LED less bright

For example


0020A


3 DECIMAL DISPLAY




[39]



5111 ADVANTAGES






circuit boards







the forward current





incandescent bulbs







[40]



manner








numerals
















[41]



integer numbers











identical to an 8)


[42]

CHAPTER 6


[43]

61 PCB DESIGN




The designing of a




artwork The layout






required for the








[44]

62 PCB FABRICATION

















etched away



[45]




[46]



[47]

CHAPTER 7


INSTRUMENT

[48]


a Soldering iron

b Desoldering pump

c Drill Machine

d Multimeter

e Filer

f Tweezers

g Screw driver

h Dual power supply

i Flux

j Desoldering wick

k Petrol

l Brush

m Soldering Wire

[49]

CHAPTER 8

COMPONENT REQUIRED

[50]


Table81














13 Condenser MIC 1

14 IC UA741 1

15 PCB 1


[51]

Table82

















16 PCB 1

[52]

CHAPTER 9


91 CONSTRUCTION



[53]


















92 TESTING

[54]




















[55]

CHAPTER 10


101 SETTING UPLINK

[56]




















for its proper use

102 PRECAUTION

[57]






and be very careful














[58]

CHAPTER 11


111 ADVANTAGES

[59]

a Less costly


c High data rate






be considered


112 DISADVANTAGES




[60]

CHAPTER 12

PROBLEM FACED

121 PROBLEM FACED

[61]






glow


[62]

CHAPTER 13

APPLICATIONS

13 APPLICATIONS

[63]





CONCLUSION

[64]





meters


REFERENCES

[65]




Vol 1








APPENDIX

[66]

BC 546547548549550

[67]

[68]

[69]

UA741


[70]

[71]

[72]

[73]

[74]

[75]

L 14F1 L 14F2

[76]




























[37]


1 ACTION











[38]

2 EXTERNAL RESISTOR




R = (VS - VL) I

VS = supply voltage









LED less bright

For example


0020A


3 DECIMAL DISPLAY




[39]



5111 ADVANTAGES






circuit boards







the forward current





incandescent bulbs







[40]



manner








numerals
















[41]



integer numbers











identical to an 8)


[42]

CHAPTER 6


[43]

61 PCB DESIGN




The designing of a




artwork The layout






required for the








[44]

62 PCB FABRICATION

















etched away



[45]




[46]



[47]

CHAPTER 7


INSTRUMENT

[48]


a Soldering iron

b Desoldering pump

c Drill Machine

d Multimeter

e Filer

f Tweezers

g Screw driver

h Dual power supply

i Flux

j Desoldering wick

k Petrol

l Brush

m Soldering Wire

[49]

CHAPTER 8

COMPONENT REQUIRED

[50]


Table81














13 Condenser MIC 1

14 IC UA741 1

15 PCB 1


[51]

Table82

















16 PCB 1

[52]

CHAPTER 9


91 CONSTRUCTION



[53]


















92 TESTING

[54]




















[55]

CHAPTER 10


101 SETTING UPLINK

[56]




















for its proper use

102 PRECAUTION

[57]






and be very careful














[58]

CHAPTER 11


111 ADVANTAGES

[59]

a Less costly


c High data rate






be considered


112 DISADVANTAGES




[60]

CHAPTER 12

PROBLEM FACED

121 PROBLEM FACED

[61]






glow


[62]

CHAPTER 13

APPLICATIONS

13 APPLICATIONS

[63]





CONCLUSION

[64]





meters


REFERENCES

[65]




Vol 1








APPENDIX

[66]

BC 546547548549550

[67]

[68]

[69]

UA741


[70]

[71]

[72]

[73]

[74]

[75]

L 14F1 L 14F2

[76]


1 ACTION











[38]

2 EXTERNAL RESISTOR




R = (VS - VL) I

VS = supply voltage









LED less bright

For example


0020A


3 DECIMAL DISPLAY




[39]



5111 ADVANTAGES






circuit boards







the forward current





incandescent bulbs







[40]



manner








numerals
















[41]



integer numbers











identical to an 8)


[42]

CHAPTER 6


[43]

61 PCB DESIGN




The designing of a




artwork The layout






required for the








[44]

62 PCB FABRICATION

















etched away



[45]




[46]



[47]

CHAPTER 7


INSTRUMENT

[48]


a Soldering iron

b Desoldering pump

c Drill Machine

d Multimeter

e Filer

f Tweezers

g Screw driver

h Dual power supply

i Flux

j Desoldering wick

k Petrol

l Brush

m Soldering Wire

[49]

CHAPTER 8

COMPONENT REQUIRED

[50]


Table81














13 Condenser MIC 1

14 IC UA741 1

15 PCB 1


[51]

Table82

















16 PCB 1

[52]

CHAPTER 9


91 CONSTRUCTION



[53]


















92 TESTING

[54]




















[55]

CHAPTER 10


101 SETTING UPLINK

[56]




















for its proper use

102 PRECAUTION

[57]






and be very careful














[58]

CHAPTER 11


111 ADVANTAGES

[59]

a Less costly


c High data rate






be considered


112 DISADVANTAGES




[60]

CHAPTER 12

PROBLEM FACED

121 PROBLEM FACED

[61]






glow


[62]

CHAPTER 13

APPLICATIONS

13 APPLICATIONS

[63]





CONCLUSION

[64]





meters


REFERENCES

[65]




Vol 1








APPENDIX

[66]

BC 546547548549550

[67]

[68]

[69]

UA741


[70]

[71]

[72]

[73]

[74]

[75]

L 14F1 L 14F2

[76]

2 EXTERNAL RESISTOR




R = (VS - VL) I

VS = supply voltage









LED less bright

For example


0020A


3 DECIMAL DISPLAY




[39]



5111 ADVANTAGES






circuit boards







the forward current





incandescent bulbs







[40]



manner








numerals
















[41]



integer numbers











identical to an 8)


[42]

CHAPTER 6


[43]

61 PCB DESIGN




The designing of a




artwork The layout






required for the








[44]

62 PCB FABRICATION

















etched away



[45]




[46]



[47]

CHAPTER 7


INSTRUMENT

[48]


a Soldering iron

b Desoldering pump

c Drill Machine

d Multimeter

e Filer

f Tweezers

g Screw driver

h Dual power supply

i Flux

j Desoldering wick

k Petrol

l Brush

m Soldering Wire

[49]

CHAPTER 8

COMPONENT REQUIRED

[50]


Table81














13 Condenser MIC 1

14 IC UA741 1

15 PCB 1


[51]

Table82

















16 PCB 1

[52]

CHAPTER 9


91 CONSTRUCTION



[53]


















92 TESTING

[54]




















[55]

CHAPTER 10


101 SETTING UPLINK

[56]




















for its proper use

102 PRECAUTION

[57]






and be very careful














[58]

CHAPTER 11


111 ADVANTAGES

[59]

a Less costly


c High data rate






be considered


112 DISADVANTAGES




[60]

CHAPTER 12

PROBLEM FACED

121 PROBLEM FACED

[61]






glow


[62]

CHAPTER 13

APPLICATIONS

13 APPLICATIONS

[63]





CONCLUSION

[64]





meters


REFERENCES

[65]




Vol 1








APPENDIX

[66]

BC 546547548549550

[67]

[68]

[69]

UA741


[70]

[71]

[72]

[73]

[74]

[75]

L 14F1 L 14F2

[76]



5111 ADVANTAGES






circuit boards







the forward current





incandescent bulbs







[40]



manner








numerals
















[41]



integer numbers











identical to an 8)


[42]

CHAPTER 6


[43]

61 PCB DESIGN




The designing of a




artwork The layout






required for the








[44]

62 PCB FABRICATION

















etched away



[45]




[46]



[47]

CHAPTER 7


INSTRUMENT

[48]


a Soldering iron

b Desoldering pump

c Drill Machine

d Multimeter

e Filer

f Tweezers

g Screw driver

h Dual power supply

i Flux

j Desoldering wick

k Petrol

l Brush

m Soldering Wire

[49]

CHAPTER 8

COMPONENT REQUIRED

[50]


Table81














13 Condenser MIC 1

14 IC UA741 1

15 PCB 1


[51]

Table82

















16 PCB 1

[52]

CHAPTER 9


91 CONSTRUCTION



[53]


















92 TESTING

[54]




















[55]

CHAPTER 10


101 SETTING UPLINK

[56]




















for its proper use

102 PRECAUTION

[57]






and be very careful














[58]

CHAPTER 11


111 ADVANTAGES

[59]

a Less costly


c High data rate






be considered


112 DISADVANTAGES




[60]

CHAPTER 12

PROBLEM FACED

121 PROBLEM FACED

[61]






glow


[62]

CHAPTER 13

APPLICATIONS

13 APPLICATIONS

[63]





CONCLUSION

[64]





meters


REFERENCES

[65]




Vol 1








APPENDIX

[66]

BC 546547548549550

[67]

[68]

[69]

UA741


[70]

[71]

[72]

[73]

[74]

[75]

L 14F1 L 14F2

[76]



manner








numerals
















[41]



integer numbers











identical to an 8)


[42]

CHAPTER 6


[43]

61 PCB DESIGN




The designing of a




artwork The layout






required for the








[44]

62 PCB FABRICATION

















etched away



[45]




[46]



[47]

CHAPTER 7


INSTRUMENT

[48]


a Soldering iron

b Desoldering pump

c Drill Machine

d Multimeter

e Filer

f Tweezers

g Screw driver

h Dual power supply

i Flux

j Desoldering wick

k Petrol

l Brush

m Soldering Wire

[49]

CHAPTER 8

COMPONENT REQUIRED

[50]


Table81














13 Condenser MIC 1

14 IC UA741 1

15 PCB 1


[51]

Table82

















16 PCB 1

[52]

CHAPTER 9


91 CONSTRUCTION



[53]


















92 TESTING

[54]




















[55]

CHAPTER 10


101 SETTING UPLINK

[56]




















for its proper use

102 PRECAUTION

[57]






and be very careful














[58]

CHAPTER 11


111 ADVANTAGES

[59]

a Less costly


c High data rate






be considered


112 DISADVANTAGES




[60]

CHAPTER 12

PROBLEM FACED

121 PROBLEM FACED

[61]






glow


[62]

CHAPTER 13

APPLICATIONS

13 APPLICATIONS

[63]





CONCLUSION

[64]





meters


REFERENCES

[65]




Vol 1








APPENDIX

[66]

BC 546547548549550

[67]

[68]

[69]

UA741


[70]

[71]

[72]

[73]

[74]

[75]

L 14F1 L 14F2

[76]



integer numbers











identical to an 8)


[42]

CHAPTER 6


[43]

61 PCB DESIGN




The designing of a




artwork The layout






required for the








[44]

62 PCB FABRICATION

















etched away



[45]




[46]



[47]

CHAPTER 7


INSTRUMENT

[48]


a Soldering iron

b Desoldering pump

c Drill Machine

d Multimeter

e Filer

f Tweezers

g Screw driver

h Dual power supply

i Flux

j Desoldering wick

k Petrol

l Brush

m Soldering Wire

[49]

CHAPTER 8

COMPONENT REQUIRED

[50]


Table81














13 Condenser MIC 1

14 IC UA741 1

15 PCB 1


[51]

Table82

















16 PCB 1

[52]

CHAPTER 9


91 CONSTRUCTION



[53]


















92 TESTING

[54]




















[55]

CHAPTER 10


101 SETTING UPLINK

[56]




















for its proper use

102 PRECAUTION

[57]






and be very careful














[58]

CHAPTER 11


111 ADVANTAGES

[59]

a Less costly


c High data rate






be considered


112 DISADVANTAGES




[60]

CHAPTER 12

PROBLEM FACED

121 PROBLEM FACED

[61]






glow


[62]

CHAPTER 13

APPLICATIONS

13 APPLICATIONS

[63]





CONCLUSION

[64]





meters


REFERENCES

[65]




Vol 1








APPENDIX

[66]

BC 546547548549550

[67]

[68]

[69]

UA741


[70]

[71]

[72]

[73]

[74]

[75]

L 14F1 L 14F2

[76]

CHAPTER 6


[43]

61 PCB DESIGN




The designing of a




artwork The layout






required for the








[44]

62 PCB FABRICATION

















etched away



[45]




[46]



[47]

CHAPTER 7


INSTRUMENT

[48]


a Soldering iron

b Desoldering pump

c Drill Machine

d Multimeter

e Filer

f Tweezers

g Screw driver

h Dual power supply

i Flux

j Desoldering wick

k Petrol

l Brush

m Soldering Wire

[49]

CHAPTER 8

COMPONENT REQUIRED

[50]


Table81














13 Condenser MIC 1

14 IC UA741 1

15 PCB 1


[51]

Table82

















16 PCB 1

[52]

CHAPTER 9


91 CONSTRUCTION



[53]


















92 TESTING

[54]




















[55]

CHAPTER 10


101 SETTING UPLINK

[56]




















for its proper use

102 PRECAUTION

[57]






and be very careful














[58]

CHAPTER 11


111 ADVANTAGES

[59]

a Less costly


c High data rate






be considered


112 DISADVANTAGES




[60]

CHAPTER 12

PROBLEM FACED

121 PROBLEM FACED

[61]






glow


[62]

CHAPTER 13

APPLICATIONS

13 APPLICATIONS

[63]





CONCLUSION

[64]





meters


REFERENCES

[65]




Vol 1








APPENDIX

[66]

BC 546547548549550

[67]

[68]

[69]

UA741


[70]

[71]

[72]

[73]

[74]

[75]

L 14F1 L 14F2

[76]

61 PCB DESIGN




The designing of a




artwork The layout






required for the








[44]

62 PCB FABRICATION

















etched away



[45]




[46]



[47]

CHAPTER 7


INSTRUMENT

[48]


a Soldering iron

b Desoldering pump

c Drill Machine

d Multimeter

e Filer

f Tweezers

g Screw driver

h Dual power supply

i Flux

j Desoldering wick

k Petrol

l Brush

m Soldering Wire

[49]

CHAPTER 8

COMPONENT REQUIRED

[50]


Table81














13 Condenser MIC 1

14 IC UA741 1

15 PCB 1


[51]

Table82

















16 PCB 1

[52]

CHAPTER 9


91 CONSTRUCTION



[53]


















92 TESTING

[54]




















[55]

CHAPTER 10


101 SETTING UPLINK

[56]




















for its proper use

102 PRECAUTION

[57]






and be very careful














[58]

CHAPTER 11


111 ADVANTAGES

[59]

a Less costly


c High data rate






be considered


112 DISADVANTAGES




[60]

CHAPTER 12

PROBLEM FACED

121 PROBLEM FACED

[61]






glow


[62]

CHAPTER 13

APPLICATIONS

13 APPLICATIONS

[63]





CONCLUSION

[64]





meters


REFERENCES

[65]




Vol 1








APPENDIX

[66]

BC 546547548549550

[67]

[68]

[69]

UA741


[70]

[71]

[72]

[73]

[74]

[75]

L 14F1 L 14F2

[76]

62 PCB FABRICATION

















etched away



[45]




[46]



[47]

CHAPTER 7


INSTRUMENT

[48]


a Soldering iron

b Desoldering pump

c Drill Machine

d Multimeter

e Filer

f Tweezers

g Screw driver

h Dual power supply

i Flux

j Desoldering wick

k Petrol

l Brush

m Soldering Wire

[49]

CHAPTER 8

COMPONENT REQUIRED

[50]


Table81














13 Condenser MIC 1

14 IC UA741 1

15 PCB 1


[51]

Table82

















16 PCB 1

[52]

CHAPTER 9


91 CONSTRUCTION



[53]


















92 TESTING

[54]




















[55]

CHAPTER 10


101 SETTING UPLINK

[56]




















for its proper use

102 PRECAUTION

[57]






and be very careful














[58]

CHAPTER 11


111 ADVANTAGES

[59]

a Less costly


c High data rate






be considered


112 DISADVANTAGES




[60]

CHAPTER 12

PROBLEM FACED

121 PROBLEM FACED

[61]






glow


[62]

CHAPTER 13

APPLICATIONS

13 APPLICATIONS

[63]





CONCLUSION

[64]





meters


REFERENCES

[65]




Vol 1








APPENDIX

[66]

BC 546547548549550

[67]

[68]

[69]

UA741


[70]

[71]

[72]

[73]

[74]

[75]

L 14F1 L 14F2

[76]




[46]



[47]

CHAPTER 7


INSTRUMENT

[48]


a Soldering iron

b Desoldering pump

c Drill Machine

d Multimeter

e Filer

f Tweezers

g Screw driver

h Dual power supply

i Flux

j Desoldering wick

k Petrol

l Brush

m Soldering Wire

[49]

CHAPTER 8

COMPONENT REQUIRED

[50]


Table81














13 Condenser MIC 1

14 IC UA741 1

15 PCB 1


[51]

Table82

















16 PCB 1

[52]

CHAPTER 9


91 CONSTRUCTION



[53]


















92 TESTING

[54]




















[55]

CHAPTER 10


101 SETTING UPLINK

[56]




















for its proper use

102 PRECAUTION

[57]






and be very careful














[58]

CHAPTER 11


111 ADVANTAGES

[59]

a Less costly


c High data rate






be considered


112 DISADVANTAGES




[60]

CHAPTER 12

PROBLEM FACED

121 PROBLEM FACED

[61]






glow


[62]

CHAPTER 13

APPLICATIONS

13 APPLICATIONS

[63]





CONCLUSION

[64]





meters


REFERENCES

[65]




Vol 1








APPENDIX

[66]

BC 546547548549550

[67]

[68]

[69]

UA741


[70]

[71]

[72]

[73]

[74]

[75]

L 14F1 L 14F2

[76]



[47]

CHAPTER 7


INSTRUMENT

[48]


a Soldering iron

b Desoldering pump

c Drill Machine

d Multimeter

e Filer

f Tweezers

g Screw driver

h Dual power supply

i Flux

j Desoldering wick

k Petrol

l Brush

m Soldering Wire

[49]

CHAPTER 8

COMPONENT REQUIRED

[50]


Table81














13 Condenser MIC 1

14 IC UA741 1

15 PCB 1


[51]

Table82

















16 PCB 1

[52]

CHAPTER 9


91 CONSTRUCTION



[53]


















92 TESTING

[54]




















[55]

CHAPTER 10


101 SETTING UPLINK

[56]




















for its proper use

102 PRECAUTION

[57]






and be very careful














[58]

CHAPTER 11


111 ADVANTAGES

[59]

a Less costly


c High data rate






be considered


112 DISADVANTAGES




[60]

CHAPTER 12

PROBLEM FACED

121 PROBLEM FACED

[61]






glow


[62]

CHAPTER 13

APPLICATIONS

13 APPLICATIONS

[63]





CONCLUSION

[64]





meters


REFERENCES

[65]




Vol 1








APPENDIX

[66]

BC 546547548549550

[67]

[68]

[69]

UA741


[70]

[71]

[72]

[73]

[74]

[75]

L 14F1 L 14F2

[76]

CHAPTER 7


INSTRUMENT

[48]


a Soldering iron

b Desoldering pump

c Drill Machine

d Multimeter

e Filer

f Tweezers

g Screw driver

h Dual power supply

i Flux

j Desoldering wick

k Petrol

l Brush

m Soldering Wire

[49]

CHAPTER 8

COMPONENT REQUIRED

[50]


Table81














13 Condenser MIC 1

14 IC UA741 1

15 PCB 1


[51]

Table82

















16 PCB 1

[52]

CHAPTER 9


91 CONSTRUCTION



[53]


















92 TESTING

[54]




















[55]

CHAPTER 10


101 SETTING UPLINK

[56]




















for its proper use

102 PRECAUTION

[57]






and be very careful














[58]

CHAPTER 11


111 ADVANTAGES

[59]

a Less costly


c High data rate






be considered


112 DISADVANTAGES




[60]

CHAPTER 12

PROBLEM FACED

121 PROBLEM FACED

[61]






glow


[62]

CHAPTER 13

APPLICATIONS

13 APPLICATIONS

[63]





CONCLUSION

[64]





meters


REFERENCES

[65]




Vol 1








APPENDIX

[66]

BC 546547548549550

[67]

[68]

[69]

UA741


[70]

[71]

[72]

[73]

[74]

[75]

L 14F1 L 14F2

[76]


a Soldering iron

b Desoldering pump

c Drill Machine

d Multimeter

e Filer

f Tweezers

g Screw driver

h Dual power supply

i Flux

j Desoldering wick

k Petrol

l Brush

m Soldering Wire

[49]

CHAPTER 8

COMPONENT REQUIRED

[50]


Table81














13 Condenser MIC 1

14 IC UA741 1

15 PCB 1


[51]

Table82

















16 PCB 1

[52]

CHAPTER 9


91 CONSTRUCTION



[53]


















92 TESTING

[54]




















[55]

CHAPTER 10


101 SETTING UPLINK

[56]




















for its proper use

102 PRECAUTION

[57]






and be very careful














[58]

CHAPTER 11


111 ADVANTAGES

[59]

a Less costly


c High data rate






be considered


112 DISADVANTAGES




[60]

CHAPTER 12

PROBLEM FACED

121 PROBLEM FACED

[61]






glow


[62]

CHAPTER 13

APPLICATIONS

13 APPLICATIONS

[63]





CONCLUSION

[64]





meters


REFERENCES

[65]




Vol 1








APPENDIX

[66]

BC 546547548549550

[67]

[68]

[69]

UA741


[70]

[71]

[72]

[73]

[74]

[75]

L 14F1 L 14F2

[76]

CHAPTER 8

COMPONENT REQUIRED

[50]


Table81














13 Condenser MIC 1

14 IC UA741 1

15 PCB 1


[51]

Table82

















16 PCB 1

[52]

CHAPTER 9


91 CONSTRUCTION



[53]


















92 TESTING

[54]




















[55]

CHAPTER 10


101 SETTING UPLINK

[56]




















for its proper use

102 PRECAUTION

[57]






and be very careful














[58]

CHAPTER 11


111 ADVANTAGES

[59]

a Less costly


c High data rate






be considered


112 DISADVANTAGES




[60]

CHAPTER 12

PROBLEM FACED

121 PROBLEM FACED

[61]






glow


[62]

CHAPTER 13

APPLICATIONS

13 APPLICATIONS

[63]





CONCLUSION

[64]





meters


REFERENCES

[65]




Vol 1








APPENDIX

[66]

BC 546547548549550

[67]

[68]

[69]

UA741


[70]

[71]

[72]

[73]

[74]

[75]

L 14F1 L 14F2

[76]


Table81














13 Condenser MIC 1

14 IC UA741 1

15 PCB 1


[51]

Table82

















16 PCB 1

[52]

CHAPTER 9


91 CONSTRUCTION



[53]


















92 TESTING

[54]




















[55]

CHAPTER 10


101 SETTING UPLINK

[56]




















for its proper use

102 PRECAUTION

[57]






and be very careful














[58]

CHAPTER 11


111 ADVANTAGES

[59]

a Less costly


c High data rate






be considered


112 DISADVANTAGES




[60]

CHAPTER 12

PROBLEM FACED

121 PROBLEM FACED

[61]






glow


[62]

CHAPTER 13

APPLICATIONS

13 APPLICATIONS

[63]





CONCLUSION

[64]





meters


REFERENCES

[65]




Vol 1








APPENDIX

[66]

BC 546547548549550

[67]

[68]

[69]

UA741


[70]

[71]

[72]

[73]

[74]

[75]

L 14F1 L 14F2

[76]

Table82

















16 PCB 1

[52]

CHAPTER 9


91 CONSTRUCTION



[53]


















92 TESTING

[54]




















[55]

CHAPTER 10


101 SETTING UPLINK

[56]




















for its proper use

102 PRECAUTION

[57]






and be very careful














[58]

CHAPTER 11


111 ADVANTAGES

[59]

a Less costly


c High data rate






be considered


112 DISADVANTAGES




[60]

CHAPTER 12

PROBLEM FACED

121 PROBLEM FACED

[61]






glow


[62]

CHAPTER 13

APPLICATIONS

13 APPLICATIONS

[63]





CONCLUSION

[64]





meters


REFERENCES

[65]




Vol 1








APPENDIX

[66]

BC 546547548549550

[67]

[68]

[69]

UA741


[70]

[71]

[72]

[73]

[74]

[75]

L 14F1 L 14F2

[76]

CHAPTER 9


91 CONSTRUCTION



[53]


















92 TESTING

[54]




















[55]

CHAPTER 10


101 SETTING UPLINK

[56]




















for its proper use

102 PRECAUTION

[57]






and be very careful














[58]

CHAPTER 11


111 ADVANTAGES

[59]

a Less costly


c High data rate






be considered


112 DISADVANTAGES




[60]

CHAPTER 12

PROBLEM FACED

121 PROBLEM FACED

[61]






glow


[62]

CHAPTER 13

APPLICATIONS

13 APPLICATIONS

[63]





CONCLUSION

[64]





meters


REFERENCES

[65]




Vol 1








APPENDIX

[66]

BC 546547548549550

[67]

[68]

[69]

UA741


[70]

[71]

[72]

[73]

[74]

[75]

L 14F1 L 14F2

[76]


















92 TESTING

[54]




















[55]

CHAPTER 10


101 SETTING UPLINK

[56]




















for its proper use

102 PRECAUTION

[57]






and be very careful














[58]

CHAPTER 11


111 ADVANTAGES

[59]

a Less costly


c High data rate






be considered


112 DISADVANTAGES




[60]

CHAPTER 12

PROBLEM FACED

121 PROBLEM FACED

[61]






glow


[62]

CHAPTER 13

APPLICATIONS

13 APPLICATIONS

[63]





CONCLUSION

[64]





meters


REFERENCES

[65]




Vol 1








APPENDIX

[66]

BC 546547548549550

[67]

[68]

[69]

UA741


[70]

[71]

[72]

[73]

[74]

[75]

L 14F1 L 14F2

[76]




















[55]

CHAPTER 10


101 SETTING UPLINK

[56]




















for its proper use

102 PRECAUTION

[57]






and be very careful














[58]

CHAPTER 11


111 ADVANTAGES

[59]

a Less costly


c High data rate






be considered


112 DISADVANTAGES




[60]

CHAPTER 12

PROBLEM FACED

121 PROBLEM FACED

[61]






glow


[62]

CHAPTER 13

APPLICATIONS

13 APPLICATIONS

[63]





CONCLUSION

[64]





meters


REFERENCES

[65]




Vol 1








APPENDIX

[66]

BC 546547548549550

[67]

[68]

[69]

UA741


[70]

[71]

[72]

[73]

[74]

[75]

L 14F1 L 14F2

[76]

CHAPTER 10


101 SETTING UPLINK

[56]




















for its proper use

102 PRECAUTION

[57]






and be very careful














[58]

CHAPTER 11


111 ADVANTAGES

[59]

a Less costly


c High data rate






be considered


112 DISADVANTAGES




[60]

CHAPTER 12

PROBLEM FACED

121 PROBLEM FACED

[61]






glow


[62]

CHAPTER 13

APPLICATIONS

13 APPLICATIONS

[63]





CONCLUSION

[64]





meters


REFERENCES

[65]




Vol 1








APPENDIX

[66]

BC 546547548549550

[67]

[68]

[69]

UA741


[70]

[71]

[72]

[73]

[74]

[75]

L 14F1 L 14F2

[76]




















for its proper use

102 PRECAUTION

[57]






and be very careful














[58]

CHAPTER 11


111 ADVANTAGES

[59]

a Less costly


c High data rate






be considered


112 DISADVANTAGES




[60]

CHAPTER 12

PROBLEM FACED

121 PROBLEM FACED

[61]






glow


[62]

CHAPTER 13

APPLICATIONS

13 APPLICATIONS

[63]





CONCLUSION

[64]





meters


REFERENCES

[65]




Vol 1








APPENDIX

[66]

BC 546547548549550

[67]

[68]

[69]

UA741


[70]

[71]

[72]

[73]

[74]

[75]

L 14F1 L 14F2

[76]






and be very careful














[58]

CHAPTER 11


111 ADVANTAGES

[59]

a Less costly


c High data rate






be considered


112 DISADVANTAGES




[60]

CHAPTER 12

PROBLEM FACED

121 PROBLEM FACED

[61]






glow


[62]

CHAPTER 13

APPLICATIONS

13 APPLICATIONS

[63]





CONCLUSION

[64]





meters


REFERENCES

[65]




Vol 1








APPENDIX

[66]

BC 546547548549550

[67]

[68]

[69]

UA741


[70]

[71]

[72]

[73]

[74]

[75]

L 14F1 L 14F2

[76]

CHAPTER 11


111 ADVANTAGES

[59]

a Less costly


c High data rate






be considered


112 DISADVANTAGES




[60]

CHAPTER 12

PROBLEM FACED

121 PROBLEM FACED

[61]






glow


[62]

CHAPTER 13

APPLICATIONS

13 APPLICATIONS

[63]





CONCLUSION

[64]





meters


REFERENCES

[65]




Vol 1








APPENDIX

[66]

BC 546547548549550

[67]

[68]

[69]

UA741


[70]

[71]

[72]

[73]

[74]

[75]

L 14F1 L 14F2

[76]

a Less costly


c High data rate






be considered


112 DISADVANTAGES




[60]

CHAPTER 12

PROBLEM FACED

121 PROBLEM FACED

[61]






glow


[62]

CHAPTER 13

APPLICATIONS

13 APPLICATIONS

[63]





CONCLUSION

[64]





meters


REFERENCES

[65]




Vol 1








APPENDIX

[66]

BC 546547548549550

[67]

[68]

[69]

UA741


[70]

[71]

[72]

[73]

[74]

[75]

L 14F1 L 14F2

[76]

CHAPTER 12

PROBLEM FACED

121 PROBLEM FACED

[61]






glow


[62]

CHAPTER 13

APPLICATIONS

13 APPLICATIONS

[63]





CONCLUSION

[64]





meters


REFERENCES

[65]




Vol 1








APPENDIX

[66]

BC 546547548549550

[67]

[68]

[69]

UA741


[70]

[71]

[72]

[73]

[74]

[75]

L 14F1 L 14F2

[76]






glow


[62]

CHAPTER 13

APPLICATIONS

13 APPLICATIONS

[63]





CONCLUSION

[64]





meters


REFERENCES

[65]




Vol 1








APPENDIX

[66]

BC 546547548549550

[67]

[68]

[69]

UA741


[70]

[71]

[72]

[73]

[74]

[75]

L 14F1 L 14F2

[76]

CHAPTER 13

APPLICATIONS

13 APPLICATIONS

[63]





CONCLUSION

[64]





meters


REFERENCES

[65]




Vol 1








APPENDIX

[66]

BC 546547548549550

[67]

[68]

[69]

UA741


[70]

[71]

[72]

[73]

[74]

[75]

L 14F1 L 14F2

[76]





CONCLUSION

[64]





meters


REFERENCES

[65]




Vol 1








APPENDIX

[66]

BC 546547548549550

[67]

[68]

[69]

UA741


[70]

[71]

[72]

[73]

[74]

[75]

L 14F1 L 14F2

[76]





meters


REFERENCES

[65]




Vol 1








APPENDIX

[66]

BC 546547548549550

[67]

[68]

[69]

UA741


[70]

[71]

[72]

[73]

[74]

[75]

L 14F1 L 14F2

[76]




Vol 1








APPENDIX

[66]

BC 546547548549550

[67]

[68]

[69]

UA741


[70]

[71]

[72]

[73]

[74]

[75]

L 14F1 L 14F2

[76]

BC 546547548549550

[67]

[68]

[69]

UA741


[70]

[71]

[72]

[73]

[74]

[75]

L 14F1 L 14F2

[76]

[68]

[69]

UA741


[70]

[71]

[72]

[73]

[74]

[75]

L 14F1 L 14F2

[76]

[69]

UA741


[70]

[71]

[72]

[73]

[74]

[75]

L 14F1 L 14F2

[76]

UA741


[70]

[71]

[72]

[73]

[74]

[75]

L 14F1 L 14F2

[76]

[71]

[72]

[73]

[74]

[75]

L 14F1 L 14F2

[76]

[72]

[73]

[74]

[75]

L 14F1 L 14F2

[76]

[73]

[74]

[75]

L 14F1 L 14F2

[76]

[74]

[75]

L 14F1 L 14F2

[76]

[75]

L 14F1 L 14F2

[76]

L 14F1 L 14F2

[76]

electrical_project_chandresh_report on laser Transmitter and Receiver_ final report matter

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Transcript of electrical_project_chandresh_report on laser Transmitter and Receiver_ final report matter