Electric Mobility

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Water, Energy and Transport

Electric Mobility

Perspectives and Recommended Reading and Links

July 2010


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Preface

In order to address way to cater with the limited fossil fuel availability, the increasing CO2emissions and local air and noise pollution caused by conventional road vehicles withcombustion engines, three key policy avenues are considered to be appropriate to meet thechallenge of sustainable urban transport for the future: reduction of travel distance; shift toenvironmentally friendly transport modes; and, improvement of fuel and vehicle technologies.From the viewpoint of clean fuel and vehicle technology, electric mobility seems to be aninnovative alternative to gasoline-powered transport. In fact, electric vehicles are not a recentinvention. They have a history as old as that of the gasoline-powered automobile.

However, taking the negative effects of conventional road transport modes into account,electric mobility has been recognized by many in the nascent automobile industry and manytransport policy makers as the dominant technology for future urban mobility. Governments

are increasingly supportive, because a sustainable electric automotive development is also avital economic opportunity. In urban areas, promoting electric vehicles could offer a locallyemissions-free and quiet transport system; and also reduce the dependence on fossil fuels.However, the sustainability of the electric mobility is challenged if the non-local energysources are not renewable. The reduction of CO2 emission is highly dependent on the energymix and the share of renewables.

Recently, most industrialized countries have developed their own political programs andconcrete plans for electric mobility. Some national and regional plans are already in theimplementation phase. First experience and problems in detailed pilot projects have alreadybeen collected and documented.

To integrate electric mobility in the current urban transport scenario, a series of appropriatemeasures should be taken not only in the vehicle design and production phase, but also inurban infrastructure planning. For example, the recent trial for the combination of parking andelectricity charging station is an innovative solution. Charging stations not only provide thenecessary electricity for electric vehicle users, they also function as an interface betweenvehicles and the grids, i.e. the infeed of renewable energy sources can be optimally linked tothe usage of electric vehicles.

Various automakers are designing diverse range of new electric cars with better energy-efficiency and a new driving system to meet the demand of their potential consumers. Themost important part of the development is the storage system for the fluctuating supply ofelectricity from energy source. The range of electric vehicles will remain limited to 100-200kmand then a longer charging time is required. Battery technology and charging infrastructuretherefore are decisive factors for developing electric vehicles in general.

In order to illustrate current approaches and challenges, we have invited four authors toshare theirperspectives on electric mobility:

o Towards a future of electric vehicles: Why electric cars mean far more thanclimate protection (by Markus Becker / German Federal Ministry for theEnvironment, Nature Conservation and Nuclear Safety)

o Electric Mobility in Europe' s hilly heartland: The Swiss case (by JrgBeckmann, Swiss Mobility Academy)

o MINI E Berlin powered by Vattenfall vehicles in Berlin (by Ulf Schulte / Dornier Consulting and Carl FriedrichEckhardt / Vattenfall Europe)


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o The Rise of Electric Bikes in Asia (by Chris Cerry, University of Tennessee-Knoxville)

The reading list provides not only an overview of policies of and planning for electric mobility,it gives also an in-depth look at its recent technology and expertise. The structure of thereading list is organized as follows:

History of and prospects for electric mobility

Policy of and planning for electric mobility

Impacts and benefits of electric mobility

Development of electric vehicle charging infrastructure

Technology and design of electric cars

Energy source and energy storage/battery

Electric two- and three-wheeler

Webpages of organisations and internet portals

For more information on our work, please see the last page of this document and visit ourpage:www.sutp.org
http://www.sutp.org/http://www.sutp.org/http://www.sutp.org/http://www.sutp.org/


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Table of Contents

Towards a future of electric vehicles: Why electric cars mean far more than climateprotection .............................................................................................................................. 4

Electric Mobility in Europe' s hilly heartland: The Swiss case ................................................ 8

MINI E Berlin powered by Vattenfall electric vehicles inBerlin ....................................................................................................................................12

Electric Bikes in Asia ............................................................................................................15

Reading List .........................................................................................................................18


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Towards a future of electric vehicles: Why electric cars mean farmore than climate protection

By Markus Becker, German Federal Ministry for the Environment, Nature Conservation and Nuclear

Safety - Environment, Traffic and Transport Division

Decarbonising transport systems there is no alternative

Motor transport in the early 21st century faces unprecedented challenges that demand aparadigm shift from fossil fuels to renewable energy. Three factors essentially drive thisdevelopment:

the growing level of emissions from transport,

the diminishing availability of the primary resource of crude oil, and the rapid pace of technological development in emerging economies.

In climate policy a 'two-degree target' that is, the goal of limiting global warming to not morethan 2 degrees above pre-industrial levels is increasingly used as a guideline. For theindustrialised countries this means a reduction in greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions of atleast 80% by 2050. Two inescapable requirements arise from this: power generation mustcome close to being CO2-free by 2050 and the transport sector must make a first drasticreduction in GHG emissions even while traffic volumes continue to increase significantly.This can only be achieved by means of a complete rethink of the power unit used in masstransport.

Fig. : CO2 emissions of various energy pathsSource: BMU, 2009. Data from Federal Motor Transport Authority (KBA), eucar/concawe5.Consumption: 4 l diesel or 18 kWh per 100km.


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Today 98% of motorised road transport is based on crude oil derivatives. Oil is a finite fossilresource. In the past, opinion varied considerably as to how long the supply would last. Now,however, even the authoritative and conservative estimate of the International EnergyAgency (IEA) is that output will fall shortly after 2020. A certain consequence of this will behigh fuel prices and a resultant slowing of economic growth. Tapping unconventionalresources such as tar sands or coal liquefaction may then become lucrative. With their highenergy requirements, however, such approaches would be disastrous for the climate.

For this reason, the emerging economies are also doing all that they can to reduce theirdependency on oil, which has become all too much an elixir of life. Electric power for vehiclesmakes it possible to kill two birds with one stone: on the one hand, the thirst for oil andresultant emissions will fall, while on the other, countries such as China can keep pace withthis new technology from the outset. It is improbable that such countries can catch up on ahundred years of experience with conventional vehicles, yet when it comes to battery and

electric drive technology, the long-established automotive corporations of the industrialisedworld are also newcomers. This amounts to a rare opportunity for the aspiring newcompetitors to leap-frog their way to the top.

Developments in Germany

Against the backdrop of these interacting factors, electrification of the power train in theGerman and European automotive industry is highly desirable in both economic andenvironmental terms. Climate policy pressure has already given rise to the EU Regulation onCO2 from cars, which is expected to be tightened significantly by 2020. Marketing electricvehicles offers manufacturers an opportunity to reposition themselves in a competitive arenaand to avoid the penalty payments that result from the Regulation if f leets exceed limit values.

There is also the prospect of a window of opportunity for facilitating expanded use ofrenewable energies to the point at which they become the principal source which willhappen in any case whereby electric vehicles function as flexible consumers and stores ofelectricity. A reconfiguration of electricity grids is essential if they are to accommodate highproportions of fluctuating renewable energy sources. The cost to consumers and theeconomy of the necessary restructuring can be reduced by intelligent integration of electricvehicles into the structure. And one thing is clear electric vehicles only reduce CO2significantly if the electricity is from renewable sources. Otherwise emissions are simplyshifted from the vehicle exhaust to the power station.

Paving the way to the lead market for electric mobility

The development and market introduction of electric mobility presents a number ofopportunities and risks. From the point of view of the German Environment Ministry thefollowing aspects are vital:

Battery development is the key to market maturity and value creation

Traction batteries are the most cost-intensive single components and represent over 50% ofthe manufacturing cost for small cars. Range, price and thus user acceptance depend to alarge degree on the battery. Economies of scale, achieved through mass production, are amilestone for the progress of electric mobility overall.

The route to the mass market is via intermediate technological steps...


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The current limiting factors of battery costs and range can be overcome with plug-in hybridvehicles. For everyday mobility, batteries with a range of less than 100 km are sufficient. Forthe few longer journeys, a small petrol engine provides the required flexibility by extendingthe range.

.... and pioneering market segments

These include those segments in which many short daily journeys are made. Such is thepattern for urban commercial traffic, for example postal and delivery services and mobileservice providers. The low operating cost of electric vehicles goes some way towardscompensating for the high battery costs already today.

Intelligent integration into the network makes the expansion of renewables simpler and

cheaper

Used in conjunction with time-controlled charging, electric cars can 'harvest' peaks in theelectricity supply from renewables and can also perform a medium-term storage function.This valuable balancing function saves substantial costs in integrating green electricity intothe grid. Specifically designed interfaces and meters allow flexible tariffs and thus make thisintegration attractive to users.Image gains make electric vehicles easier to market

For both fleet operators and private first buyers, the image of a zero-emissions vehicleserves as a strong marketing and purchasing incentive. This increases willingness to pay apremium price and covers a proportion of the cost difference that remains relative toconventional vehicles.

New business models ease entry into the mass market

The battery cost factor calls for innovative systems services such as battery leasing, use ofbatteries for temporary electricity storage and even for stationary uses at the end of theirmobile service life. Here power utility companies and vehicle manufacturers can offerproducts that increase their own added value and boost user acceptance.

Without a resource strategy, new dependencies will appear

Important raw materials used in electric mobility systems are as finite as oil and globallyavailable in still more concentrated form. Recycling must be factored into the structuring ofthe production chain from the outset.

Support from the German government

Electric mobility is of the essence for environment and climate, but is no less important toensure Germany's competitiveness. Germany sets standards worldwide in both automotivetechnology and environmental and climate technologies. If it is possible to unite thesestrengths and to gradually establish a new development trajectory, all will benefit theenvironment, the economy and users. The German Environment Ministry is pursuing thisgoal together with the federal government and is supporting application and researchprojects with funding of EUR 100 million up to 2011. The Ministry is additionally supportingprojects for decarbonising transport systems in developing and emerging countries as part ofthe government's International Climate Initiative, including a project implemented by GTZ tofoster electric mobility in the People's Republic of China.


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Further information:http://www.bmu.de/verkehr/elektromobilitaet/doc/44795.php
http://www.bmu.de/verkehr/elektromobilitaet/doc/44795.phphttp://www.bmu.de/verkehr/elektromobilitaet/doc/44795.phphttp://www.bmu.de/verkehr/elektromobilitaet/doc/44795.phphttp://www.bmu.de/verkehr/elektromobilitaet/doc/44795.php


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Electric Mobility in Europe' s hilly heartland: The Swiss case

By Jrg Beckmann, Mobility Academy

Ask any representative of the new E-Avantgard in Europe, which country you should visit inorder to get in touch with the latest and hippest innovations in electric mobility and 8 out of 10would send you to Switzerland. For years, the Swiss were seen as both the "innovators" and"early adaptors" of electrified vehicles and Switzerland was considered to become the e-frontrunner in Europe, quickly attracting an "early" and "late majority" of automotiveconsumers to electric mobility and thus paving the way for Europe's "laggards" to eventuallyfollow the Swiss-lead electric hype.

Indeed, Switzerland had lot's to offer when it came to showing the pathway of shifting fromcombustion-powered vehicles to battery-electric ones. Start with the Mendrisio, in the Italian-speaking part of Switzerland that ran a pioneering project with light and electric vehicles(LEVs) between 1995 and 2001. As one of the first of its kind, this state-funded experimentgenerated substantial insights into the demand-side of everyday-use of electric two- and fourwheelers as well as the means to overcome some of the obstacles on the supply-side,ranging from battery-maintenance to infrastructure provisions. Whoever was involved in thisproject clearly got a fair insight into the nitty-gritty bits of electric mobility something thatmany of the current pilot-projects in Germany and Austria are now trying to repeat.

The Mindset: An electric car Swiss-made

Although the project, with its budget of 21 Million Swiss Francs, fell short of its goal to reach

a threshold of 8% LEVs in Medrisio, it became the point of reference for most of thesubsequent activities in Switzerland and maybe elsewhere in Europe. Up to today almost allof the cars introduced during the project are still on the road and many have made it to


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neighbouring countries like Austria and Italy. Moreover, Mendrisio certainly helped to furtherfuel the ambitions of new and established Swiss automotive suppliers like Mes-Dea, Brusa orProtoscar to continue their R&D in the field of electric cars and develop new propulsion andstorage-systems.

Beyond innovative automotive suppliers, the Swiss e-innovations-cluster as of today entails aseries of other actors, that all have their share in promoting electric vehicles. Amongst them,for instance e'mobile, the "Swiss Association for Electric and Efficient Vehicles", which runsconsumer-awareness campaigns since 1980 and strives to "nudge" consumers into electricmobility by organising exhibitions and test-drives throughout the country.

At the political level two federal offices are currently sharing leadership over electrificationissues. While the Federal Office of Energy (BfE) has traditionally framed the public debateover electric cars, for instance by funding demonstrations projects such as Mendrisio or

organisations like e'mobile, the Federal Roads Office (ASTRA) is now challenging the poleposition of the BfE and begins to define its own stakes in current and future electrificationpolicies. Rightly so, one may say, because with the new electrification-consensus spreadingacross countries and industries in Europe, as well as the large-scale market-entry of big-series electric cars in a foreseeable future, a governmental body in charge of motorisedindividual transport, like the ASTRA, is well-advised to get involved and its "hands dirty". Inparticular, the question of how to guarantee a sufficient budget for road infrastructure-investments, if, under an aggressive electrification-scenario, the revenues from fuel-taxes areshrinking, is at the top of the ASTRA-agenda.

It is precisely the issue of infrastructure-provision and -planning that featured amongst anumber of other issues during the debates at the recent Swiss Forum for Electric Mobility in

January 2010. For the first time and under the patronage of Federal Counsellor MoritzLeuenberger, all Swiss E-stakeholders gathered in Lucerne to map Switzerland's electricavenue ahead. Upon invitation by the Mobility Academy, a forward-looking Think-Tank,founded by the Swiss car-club TCS (Touring Club Switzerland), key actors from both, thetransport- and the energy-sector, rolled out their expectations with regards to theelectrification of individual motorised transport.

While the Forum took a distinct transport-perspective, it became clear that many of thecountry's electricity companies have identified E-mobility as a prospering new market and arenow in search of viable business-models for serving the needs of tomorrow's battery-mindedtransport-users. In particular market-leaders such as Alpiq or BKW have gathered substantialmomentum throughout the past two years and are engaged in a number projects and

partnerships with players from the automotive sector. Alpiq, for instance, presented its Vision2020 at the Forum, an ambitious road-map for electrifying Switzerland's car fleet, foreseeing700.000 hybrid- and battery-electric vehicles for 2020, corresponding to approximately 15%of all passenger cars.

Other small and medium-sized utilities, such as the KWO Grimselstrom, are seeking toharness the sustainability-potentials of electric cars, by stressing the role of renewableenergy sources and thus their contribution to reducing GHG-emissions from road transport.Contrary to countries like Germany, Switzerland is largely free of CO2-intensive energies andalready today generates 60% of its electricity from renewable sources an ideal preconditionfor a truly sustainable electric car.

The massive engagement of many Swiss utilities in this emerging market is also driven bythe absence of another big player: the car-manufacturers. Switzerland does not benefit from


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(or suffer under) the ambitions of motor-manufacturers to overcome their crisis and boostelectrification. Nevertheless, a number of manufacturers regard the alpine republic as anideal test-bed for their new products, given the purchase-power and eco-mindedness ofmany Swiss citizens. It is therefore, that the Forum also featured a European premiere:Nissan Europe displayed its purpose-designed "Leaf" for the first time and presented boththe ground-braking battery-technology and the business-case behind this innovative vehicle.

For the time being, however, other car-manufacturers are shaping Switzerland's struggle toserve an increasing demand for BEVs and PHEVs: Tesla is selling is first models toTrendsetters around the country, Think has entered partnerships with several SMEs andpromises to provide fleet-cars and fleet-management-services and Smart returns to its cradle,hitting Swiss roads with its first EVs before the end of 2010. (For Nicolas Hayek, the Swiss"watch-mogul" and spiritual father of Smart, who always wanted the "SwatchMercedesART"to be an electric car, this return must be a most welcomed one). Beyond these makes,

another truly exciting car has been making the headlines of Swiss papers during the pastyear: the Mindset. Far from entering the market in the next year this prototype of a BEV isindeed Swiss-made. Designed by a former VW-Design Chief, equipped with the latestbattery-technology and initially financed by an investor, who already had his hands in anotherSwiss E-innovation the TWIKE this car really introduces a new era of motoring and mightsome day become the icon of an emerging Swiss electric mobility industry.

Jrg Beckmann, director of themobility academy presenting theCharta of Lucerne

Like elsewhere, there are high hopes linked to the market-uptake of electric vehicles inSwitzerland. But Switzerland, just like its neighbour Austria, is also keen to ease theintegration of electric vehicles into its regional and national transport systems and not merelyreplace one private although more energy-efficient car by another. For Swiss opinion-leaders, electrification embraces the entire transport-system and affects cycling and walking just like motoring. The best example is the fantastic success of Flyer, the Swiss-madeelectric bicycle a true high-flyer in terms electric mobility marketing.

Against this background, it does not come as a surprise that another successful Swisstransport innovation is often seen as an almost natural partner for the electric car: the car-sharing company Mobility with its 90.000 clients. Hopes are, that thanks to Mobility, theintroduction of the electric drive-train into the automobile will also further challenge traditional

forms of car-usage and accelerate the shift from ownership to usership, in particular in urbanagglomerations. For Mobility, however, the currently available generation of electric carsdoes not seem ripe for car-sharing fleets that are typically characterised by a strong user-


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friendliness and high reliability. Still, other fleet-operators, such as the state-owned SwissPost with its daughter "Post Mobility Solutions", are already today electrifying their scooter-fleets and are test-running small fleets of full-battery electric cars in several Swiss communes.

To summarize, as any industrialized country struggling with the unintended consequences ofmodern transportation, Switzerland is looking out for technical and social innovations tomake mobility more sustainable. Electric mobility in general and the electric car in particular,are offering substantial opportunities to modernise the Swiss transport system, increase itsenergy-efficiency and reduce its CO2-emissions.

During the 1st National Forum for Electric Mobility, leading decision-makers in the Swiss roadtransport community have made a strong commitment to promoting electric mobility andhelping to pave the way for a successful market-introduction of electric vehicles, by signingup to the Charta of Lucerne.

In absence of a consistent "top-down" approach by the Swiss government, the Charta ofLucerne is meant to become a key "bottom-up" policy-document for "electric-action" intransport development for the next years. Such bottom-up approach is regarded by mostSwiss transport actors, as an appropriate way forward in a country, where the issue ofelectrification is not "high-jacked" by any dominant player from a particular industry. It offersthe chance to build up an electrified transport-system in a coherent and participatory way,taking into consideration indigenous potentials and local specificities, rather than forcing anew technology into the market with substantial state-subsidies and costly fiscal instruments.The mission is, to offer electric mobility products and services that are both ecologicallysound and economically competitive. Eventually, it will have to be the Swiss transport user,who defines his or her own degree of electrification a truly Swiss way of doing things.


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MINI E Berlin powered by Vattenfall with electric vehicles in Berlin

(by Ulf Schulte / Dornier Consulting and Carl Friedrich Eckhardt / Vattenfall Europe)

Introduction & Overview

With the intention to at least double the share of renewables in the energy mix from 16% in2010, the governments focus is on wind power. As the supply of wind power is fluctuatingand frequently asynchronously to demand, storage capacities become crucial in order tomaintain the stability of the grid. The beauty of electric vehicles in this context is that theirbatteries can be used as storage and even as a virtual power plant. Furthermore, thegovernment aims at reducing CO2 emissions and the dependence of fossil fuels and,therefore, has defined the goal of introducing 1 million electric vehicles by 2020.

Against this background, Vattenfall Europe in cooperation with ness of GreeneMobility under the circumstances of day to day life. Therefore, in addition to its ManagedCharging concept and certified electricity from renewable sources, Vattenfall has developedand is operating a hardware concept.

50 publicly available charging stations are deployed with the open access functionality. Openaccess allows not only each and every electric vehicle to charge but also each and everyenergy sales organisation to sell its specific products via this platform. In addition, all usershave a so called wall box installed which is equipped with the Wind-to-Vehicle-Application.

The MINI E has shown that it is pure driving pleasure combined with environmentalprotection. It is suited for daily use and has more than convinced its users.

Setting up and managing such a unique project is certainly a special task. Professionalproject management combined with mobility expertise was the right combination to make thisproject a success.

This project is promoted by the Federal Ministry for the Environment, Nature Conservationand Nuclear Safety and lasts until Q3 2010.

Managed Charging The Wind-to-Vehicle ApplicationThe reliance on intermittent renewable energy poses fundamental problems in terms of gridstability and energy storage. Vattenfall makes use of the possibility of storing renewableenergy in the batteries of electric vehicles labelled Wind to Vehicle (W2G). Vattenfalloptimises the charging cycle of the vehicles by charging during time frames when there is ahigh supply of wind energy and a low demand for it. Users therefore need to determine theirindividual time frames, during which time the grid operators then manage the mostconvenient ecological charging. Additionally, the users can also choose to chargeimmediately. Furthermore, given that there is no wind at a certain time, the users have theguarantee that their vehicles will still be fully charged before the agreed upon time when theyneed it.


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This wind-to-vehicle charging is carriedhome. This home charging box is linkedvia GSM and enables real-time control.The charging status is determined by analgorithm. Statistically, the vehicles arecharged during the night, which is also themost favourable time to charge withrenewable energy as the overall electricitydemand is low. 80% of the time, theelectric vehicle is charged for 5 hours.

71% of the users view controlled chargingpositively and intend to use it. 91 % of the

users are convinced that controlledcharging contributes to the efficient use ofintermittent renewable energy.

Nonetheless, despite 37% of the users being afraid of range anxiety resulting from controlledcharging during an emergency, 88% of the users feel a sense of comfort due to thepossibility to charge immediately. Despite some anxiety arising from controlled charging, 97%of the users view it as important to charge with renewable energy.

MINI E Pure Pleasure with environmental ProtectionThe 50 2-seater MINI Es are provided by BMW and have a maximum velocity of 152 km/h, anet battery capacity of 28 kWh, a range of 150 km and recharge times of 4 hours with 32 and8 hours with 16 A. In essence, the outstanding driving performance makes environmental

protection a driving pleasure. This was confirmed by the users, who took place in the trial.

The average obtainable maximum range for the user is 150 km. According to the users, arange of 100 km is not satisfactory; 200 km would be satisfactory, while 250 km would beoptimal. However, only 14% of the intended travels could not be undertaken due to [primarilyspace] limitations of the MINI E.

Overall the project has shown that the usage behaviour of a MINI E is only marginallydifferent from that of a comparable MINI Cooper and BMW 116i with internal combustionengine. Before the implementation of the project it was perceived that the range of thevehicle would pose a problem. However, this was only the case for a few applications. Inconclusion, out of the acquired data, one can deduce that a MegaCity vehicle with a slightly


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User Acceptance Sample Characteristics and User FeedbackTstarted its trial in June 2009 with 50 electric vehicles in Berlin forsix months of which 40 were used by individual users and 10 by fleets. The majority of theprivate users (in phase one) was generally over 35 years old, male, very educated, had anabove average income and an affinity for new technology. The electric vehicle was used as asecond car for commuting and the available range matched their daily mobility needs. In factfor 90% of the users the available range provided by the MINI E was enough. Interestingly,35% users adapted their mobility needs according to the characteristics of the car. Due to theelectric vehicle the users felt less guilty for driving and enjoyed driving more. Roughly 66% ofthe users evaluated the obtained flexibility with the MINI E as equal to that of a comparableinternal combustion engine vehicle.

The pilot project hasshown that emission-free driving ideallycomplements with therelated possibilities ofthe energy sector: theproportional rise ofrenewable energy aspart of the energy mixas well as thestabilisation of the grid.The increasing

environmentalawareness withinpolitics and the

population, the trend of rising oil prices and substantial progress in battery technology haveresulted in electric mobility developing into a useful daily option for urban mobility.

Project managementDornier Consulting has set up the project management on behalf of Vattenfall Europe using asolid mix of management-, planning- and technology skills combined with mobility expertise. Sales, Distribution Service Operations, Network Services, and Communications, with an in-

depth understanding of how electro mobility works and the technical expertise to understandcharging infrastructure needs was the key to success.

tasks within the Vattenfall-Programme Electric Mobility range from project and program management and thedevelopment of charging and mobility concepts to the implementation of the applications inthe model regions Berlin/Brandenburg and Hamburg. Furthermore, Dornier Consultingadvises about the development of viable business concepts for electric mobility.


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Electric Bikes in Asia

(by Chris Cherry, University of Tennessee-Knoxville)

Electric two wheelers (or e-bikes) command an enormous market share in China. Thekingdom of bicycles has been rapidly motorizing for more than a decade and part of thatmotorization trend has been the rapid surge of new electric bikes and scooters. Indeed,many bike lanes are flooded with nearly silent and low emitting two wheelers, which haverapidly exceeded the number of cars in China, with over 100 million on the road today. Thereare a number of interesting policy questions related to whether this a welcome transformationof the urban transportation landscape and all of these questions revolve around the questionof whether electric bikes displace bicycle, transit, or car trips. The answer varies by city, butstudies in several cities, including Shanghai, Kunming, Shijiazhuang, and Jinan, consistentlyshow that the majority of electric bike users would otherwise use bus or bicycle. Still, one in

six electric bike users would otherwise use a car based mode in the absence of an electricbike and this small shift has significant environmental, congestions, and safety impacts.

From an environmental perspective, electric bikes still emit CO2 and conventional pollutantsfrom the electricity sector, which relies heavily on coal. None the less, electric two wheeleremissions are lower than any of their counterparts (in some cases by orders of magnitude),with the exception of the bicycle. The environmental advantage is even more pronounced insouthwest regions of China where a large share of electricity generation is by hydropower.To the extent that bicyclists are moving toward different modes already, electric bikes areperhaps the most fuel efficient, lowest emitting vehicles that are available because of theirrelatively low weights and highly efficient drive systems. One environmental challenge thathas yet to be adequately addressed with electric bikes is environmentally sound battery

recycling and manufacturing practices, though strategies to address this problem areemerging.

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E-bike Alternative Mode

Shijiazhuang 2006

Shanghai 2006

Kunming 2006

Kunming 2008

Jinan 2007


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Several other issues drive electric bike policy in China. Safety issues have gained media

attention lately and reactive policies have been implemented, including banning electric bikescompletely in some cities. Like any vulnerable road user, electric bike riders often bear theworst impacts of traffic conflicts and they are often perceived to be a dangerous mode, evenif they are not at fault. Still, considering fatality rates per vehicle, electric bikes rates areabout 3.8 fatalities per 10,000 vehicles, double the bicycle fatality rate, but less than half ofimprove the safety situation on Chinese streets.

Importantly e-bikes in China provide users with some of the lowest cost, lowest emissions,and highest mobility motorized modes in existence. Slightly more expensive to users thanbus fares or bicycles, but they provide much higher mobility. They are much less expensivethan cars or motorcycles, but provide similar urban mobility with a fraction of the congestion,safety, or environmental impacts. E-bikes have become one of the most transformationalurban transportation modes in China and will continue to have a strong influence in urbanmobility for years to come.

While electric two wheeler growth in China is notable, it is noticeably absent in other AsianChinese cities, but lack electric two wheelers. Instead, gasoline motorcycles and scootersdominate the Vietnamese personal transportation market. A notable difference compared toChina is that gasoline motorcycles are heavily regulated in many Chinese cities, allowingelectric bikes to fill that niche. In Vietnam, urban travelers have adopted gasolinemotorcycles because of their low costs, high mobility, carrying capacity and speed. A recent

market study showed that households in the two-wheeler market were quite skeptical ofelectric scooters. However, according to their stated preference, they would respond tovarious market and regulatory incentives such as preferential tax treatments, reducedlicensing and registration requirements, unsubsidized gasoline, and increased electricscooter performance (relative to existing Chinese electric scooters). Various technologicaland regulatory incentives could push the electric scooter market share up to 40% of the newtwo-wheeler purchases, resulting in significant improvements in local air quality and CO 2emissions. A similar study in India showed much lower levels of adoption, with the mostaggressive policies only resulting in about 20% electric scooter market share.

Electric bikes and scooters are an exciting new development in rapidly developing andmotorizing Asian countries. China has seen largest adoption of alternative fuel vehicles in the

cost, low emitting, high mobility vehicles are among the most efficient personal vehiclesavailable. Adopted in conjunction with other sustainable transportation strategies such as


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improved public transit and efficient land use planning, electric two wheelers can be a strongcontributor to sustainable mobility in Asia and beyond.

Some supplemental reading:o Cherry and Cervero. Use characteristics and mode choice behavior of electric bike users in

China. Transport Policy (2007) vol. 14 (3) pp. 247-257

o Cherry et al. Comparative environmental impacts of electric bikes in China. Transportation

Research Part D (2009) vol. 14 (5) pp. 281-290

http://www.adb.org/Documents/Books/electric-bikes-ind-vie/default.asp

http://www.adb.org/Documents/Books/Electric-Bikes/default.asp
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Reading List

History of and Prospects for Electric Mobility

Anderson et al. (2005): Electric and Hybrid Cars: A Historyhttp://books.google.de/books?id=nMMRzDe1YcoC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Quality%20of%20Electric%20Vehicle%20pdf&lr&source=gbs_slider_thumb#v=onepage&q&f=false

Far from being a modern conception, electric cars were among the first vehicles onthe road. In the formative days of the automobile, a third of all cars were electric, andthey challenged internal combustion engine-driven vehicles for primacy. Economicand environmental concerns have periodically revived widespread interest in electriccars and hybrid vehicles, and the quest for a non- or less-polluting vehicle that meetsconsumers performance demands continues today. The story of the electric car is along one, and it is still being written.

This illustrated history of electric and hybrid vehicles covers the companies thatproduced various models; the politics that have surrounded them; the environmentalaspects of electric and hybrid vehicles versus internal combustion engines; efforts toovercome technological challenges associated with electric vehicles; marketingstrategies through the decades; and public attitudes towards these vehiclesthroughout their existence. An appendix lists important dates in the history of electric

cars, and a glossary defines associated acronyms.

Earth2tech, Garthwaite (2009): Carshttp://earth2tech.com/2009/11/19/chinas-opportunity-green-mobility-vs-electric-cars/

In November 2009, US president Obama and Chinese president Hu Jintao launched hicles an effort

Eckermann (2001): World History of the Automobilehttp://books.google.de/books?id=yLZeQwqNmdgC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Quality%20of%20Electric%20Vehicle%20pdf&lr&source=gbs_slider_thumb#v=onepage&q&f=false

Thousands of years separate the invention of the wheel and the first self-propelledvehicle. The intervening centuries witnessed wind-powered vehicles, wheeled sailingships, and muscle-driven vehicles, in which human or animal power, hidden or inplain sight, served as motive power. Development of self-propelled road vehicle

depended on finding a suitable power source.
http://books.google.de/books?id=nMMRzDe1YcoC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Quality%20of%20Electric%20Vehicle%20pdf&lr&source=gbs_slider_thumb#v=onepage&q&f=falsehttp://books.google.de/books?id=nMMRzDe1YcoC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Quality%20of%20Electric%20Vehicle%20pdf&lr&source=gbs_slider_thumb#v=onepage&q&f=falsehttp://books.google.de/books?id=nMMRzDe1YcoC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Quality%20of%20Electric%20Vehicle%20pdf&lr&source=gbs_slider_thumb#v=onepage&q&f=falsehttp://books.google.de/books?id=nMMRzDe1YcoC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Quality%20of%20Electric%20Vehicle%20pdf&lr&source=gbs_slider_thumb#v=onepage&q&f=falsehttp://earth2tech.com/2009/11/19/chinas-opportunity-green-mobility-vs-electric-cars/http://earth2tech.com/2009/11/19/chinas-opportunity-green-mobility-vs-electric-cars/http://books.google.de/books?id=yLZeQwqNmdgC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Quality%20of%20Electric%20Vehicle%20pdf&lr&source=gbs_slider_thumb#v=onepage&q&f=falsehttp://books.google.de/books?id=yLZeQwqNmdgC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Quality%20of%20Electric%20Vehicle%20pdf&lr&source=gbs_slider_thumb#v=onepage&q&f=falsehttp://books.google.de/books?id=yLZeQwqNmdgC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Quality%20of%20Electric%20Vehicle%20pdf&lr&source=gbs_slider_thumb#v=onepage&q&f=falsehttp://books.google.de/books?id=yLZeQwqNmdgC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Quality%20of%20Electric%20Vehicle%20pdf&lr&source=gbs_slider_thumb#v=onepage&q&f=falsehttp://books.google.de/books?id=yLZeQwqNmdgC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Quality%20of%20Electric%20Vehicle%20pdf&lr&source=gbs_slider_thumb#v=onepage&q&f=falsehttp://books.google.de/books?id=yLZeQwqNmdgC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Quality%20of%20Electric%20Vehicle%20pdf&lr&source=gbs_slider_thumb#v=onepage&q&f=falsehttp://books.google.de/books?id=yLZeQwqNmdgC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Quality%20of%20Electric%20Vehicle%20pdf&lr&source=gbs_slider_thumb#v=onepage&q&f=falsehttp://earth2tech.com/2009/11/19/chinas-opportunity-green-mobility-vs-electric-cars/http://books.google.de/books?id=nMMRzDe1YcoC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Quality%20of%20Electric%20Vehicle%20pdf&lr&source=gbs_slider_thumb#v=onepage&q&f=falsehttp://books.google.de/books?id=nMMRzDe1YcoC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Quality%20of%20Electric%20Vehicle%20pdf&lr&source=gbs_slider_thumb#v=onepage&q&f=falsehttp://books.google.de/books?id=nMMRzDe1YcoC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Quality%20of%20Electric%20Vehicle%20pdf&lr&source=gbs_slider_thumb#v=onepage&q&f=false


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Federal Ministry of Transport, Building and Urban Development (BMVBS) (Germany)(2010): Yes to Electric Cars- If They Offer Value for Money

http://www.bmv.de/en/Service/All-articles-,2589.1129380/Yes-to-electric-cars-if-they-o.htm?global.back=/en/Service/-%2c2589%2c0/All-articles.htm%3flink%3dbmv_liste%26link.sKategorie%3d

This document shows findings of the survey on electric mobility conducted by theGerman Federal Ministry of Transport, Building and Urban Development. "Whatwould be the crucial criteria for you personally if you were going to buy an electriccar?" The German Federal Ministry of Transport recently asked its website users thisquestion. The findings show that the public are very open-minded regarding thepurchase of an electric car. Around one half of those surveyed (45 %) would like tomake a personal contribution to protecting the environment and tackling climate

change. Almost 40 % of the participants stated that they drive predominantly shortdistances and in conurbations. For them, switching over to an electric car would bean ideal solution.

Mom (2004): The Electric Vehicle: Technology and Expectations in theAutomobile Agehttp://books.google.de/books?id=5689qa8vrLQC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Quality%20of%20Electric%20Vehicle%20pdf&lr&source=gbs_slider_thumb#v=onepage&q&f=false

Recent attention to hybrid cars that run on both gasoline and electric batteries hasmade the electric car an apparent alternative to the internal combustion engine andits attendant environmental costs and geopolitical implications. Few people realizethat the electric car -- neither a recent invention nor a historical curiosity -- has a storyas old as that of the gasoline-powered automobile, and that at one time many in thenascent automobile industry believed battery-powered engines would become thedominant technology.

Sperling et al. (1995): Future Drive: Electric Vehicles and SustainableTransportation

http://books.google.de/books?hl=de&lr=&id=A8ZQKihgukAC&oi=fnd&pg=PR11&dq=Quality+of+Electric+Vehicle+pdf&ots=mf6aW7KPep&sig=JRZVuC_YNKC91O2BXFrLrX1Dyz4#v=onepage&q&f=false

In Future Drive, Daniel Sperling addresses the adverse energy and environmentalconsequences of increased travel, and analyzes current initiatives to suggeststrategies for creating a more environmentally benign system of transportation.Groundbreaking proposals are constructed around the idea of electric propulsion asthe key to sustainable transportation and energy systems. Other essential elementsinclude the ideas that: improving technology holds more promise than large-scalebehavior modification, technology initiatives must be matched with regulatory andpolicy initiatives, government intervention should be flexible and incentive-based, but
http://www.bmv.de/en/Service/All-articles-,2589.1129380/Yes-to-electric-cars-if-they-o.htm?global.back=/en/Service/-%2c2589%2c0/All-articles.htm%3flink%3dbmv_liste%26link.sKategorie%3dhttp://www.bmv.de/en/Service/All-articles-,2589.1129380/Yes-to-electric-cars-if-they-o.htm?global.back=/en/Service/-%2c2589%2c0/All-articles.htm%3flink%3dbmv_liste%26link.sKategorie%3dhttp://www.bmv.de/en/Service/All-articles-,2589.1129380/Yes-to-electric-cars-if-they-o.htm?global.back=/en/Service/-%2c2589%2c0/All-articles.htm%3flink%3dbmv_liste%26link.sKategorie%3dhttp://www.bmv.de/en/Service/All-articles-,2589.1129380/Yes-to-electric-cars-if-they-o.htm?global.back=/en/Service/-%2c2589%2c0/All-articles.htm%3flink%3dbmv_liste%26link.sKategorie%3dhttp://books.google.de/books?id=5689qa8vrLQC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Quality%20of%20Electric%20Vehicle%20pdf&lr&source=gbs_slider_thumb#v=onepage&q&f=falsehttp://books.google.de/books?id=5689qa8vrLQC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Quality%20of%20Electric%20Vehicle%20pdf&lr&source=gbs_slider_thumb#v=onepage&q&f=falsehttp://books.google.de/books?id=5689qa8vrLQC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Quality%20of%20Electric%20Vehicle%20pdf&lr&source=gbs_slider_thumb#v=onepage&q&f=falsehttp://books.google.de/books?id=5689qa8vrLQC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Quality%20of%20Electric%20Vehicle%20pdf&lr&source=gbs_slider_thumb#v=onepage&q&f=falsehttp://books.google.de/books?hl=de&lr=&id=A8ZQKihgukAC&oi=fnd&pg=PR11&dq=Quality+of+Electric+Vehicle+pdf&ots=mf6aW7KPep&sig=JRZVuC_YNKC91O2BXFrLrX1Dyz4#v=onepage&q&f=falsehttp://books.google.de/books?hl=de&lr=&id=A8ZQKihgukAC&oi=fnd&pg=PR11&dq=Quality+of+Electric+Vehicle+pdf&ots=mf6aW7KPep&sig=JRZVuC_YNKC91O2BXFrLrX1Dyz4#v=onepage&q&f=falsehttp://books.google.de/books?hl=de&lr=&id=A8ZQKihgukAC&oi=fnd&pg=PR11&dq=Quality+of+Electric+Vehicle+pdf&ots=mf6aW7KPep&sig=JRZVuC_YNKC91O2BXFrLrX1Dyz4#v=onepage&q&f=falsehttp://books.google.de/books?hl=de&lr=&id=A8ZQKihgukAC&oi=fnd&pg=PR11&dq=Quality+of+Electric+Vehicle+pdf&ots=mf6aW7KPep&sig=JRZVuC_YNKC91O2BXFrLrX1Dyz4#v=onepage&q&f=falsehttp://books.google.de/books?hl=de&lr=&id=A8ZQKihgukAC&oi=fnd&pg=PR11&dq=Quality+of+Electric+Vehicle+pdf&ots=mf6aW7KPep&sig=JRZVuC_YNKC91O2BXFrLrX1Dyz4#v=onepage&q&f=falsehttp://books.google.de/books?hl=de&lr=&id=A8ZQKihgukAC&oi=fnd&pg=PR11&dq=Quality+of+Electric+Vehicle+pdf&ots=mf6aW7KPep&sig=JRZVuC_YNKC91O2BXFrLrX1Dyz4#v=onepage&q&f=falsehttp://books.google.de/books?hl=de&lr=&id=A8ZQKihgukAC&oi=fnd&pg=PR11&dq=Quality+of+Electric+Vehicle+pdf&ots=mf6aW7KPep&sig=JRZVuC_YNKC91O2BXFrLrX1Dyz4#v=onepage&q&f=falsehttp://books.google.de/books?id=5689qa8vrLQC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Quality%20of%20Electric%20Vehicle%20pdf&lr&source=gbs_slider_thumb#v=onepage&q&f=falsehttp://books.google.de/books?id=5689qa8vrLQC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Quality%20of%20Electric%20Vehicle%20pdf&lr&source=gbs_slider_thumb#v=onepage&q&f=falsehttp://books.google.de/books?id=5689qa8vrLQC&printsec=frontcover&dq=Quality%20of%20Electric%20Vehicle%20pdf&lr&source=gbs_slider_thumb#v=onepage&q&f=falsehttp://www.bmv.de/en/Service/All-articles-,2589.1129380/Yes-to-electric-cars-if-they-o.htm?global.back=/en/Service/-%2c2589%2c0/All-articles.htm%3flink%3dbmv_liste%26link.sKategorie%3dhttp://www.bmv.de/en/Service/All-articles-,2589.1129380/Yes-to-electric-cars-if-they-o.htm?global.back=/en/Service/-%2c2589%2c0/All-articles.htm%3flink%3dbmv_liste%26link.sKategorie%3dhttp://www.bmv.de/en/Service/All-articles-,2589.1129380/Yes-to-electric-cars-if-they-o.htm?global.back=/en/Service/-%2c2589%2c0/All-articles.htm%3flink%3dbmv_liste%26link.sKategorie%3d


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should also embrace selective technology-forcing measures, and more diversity andexperimentation is needed with regard to vehicles and energy technologies.

In his work, Sperling evaluates past and current attempts to influence drivers andvehicle use, and articulates a clear and compelling vision of the future. He formulatesa coherent and specific set of principles, strategies, and policies for redirecting theUnited States and other countries onto a new sustainable pathway.

Wyman (2010): Power Play with Electric Carshttp://www.oliverwyman.com/ow/pdf_files/ManSum_E-Mobility_2025_e.pdf

Over the next 15 years, battery electric vehicles will barely reach a market share of

three percent in the worldwide automotive sector. Substantial extra costs, whichpresently reach as much as 20,000 Euros for a car in the same category as theVolkswagen Golf, and limited driving ranges, stand in the way of broad distribution ofthese vehicles. According to the - current hype about battery electric getting around electric-drive systems in the long run after all, battery electricvehicles are vital to the -term chances of survival. Untilthen, the industry will be faced with unprecedented investment requirementscombined with an extremely limited earnings potential. Particularly during theautomotive crisis, the government needs to make massive investments in theGerman automotive industry in order to safeguard its future viability. Otherwise,

emerging markets such as China will be cutting past Germany.

Policy of and Planning for Electric Mobility

An Electric Vehicle Delivery Plan for Londonhttp://www.london.gov.uk/priorities/transport/green-transport/electric-vehicles

Electric vehicles offer a clean and green alternative to petrol and diesel poweredtransport. There are currently 1,700 electric vehicles being used in London, and theMayor plans to increase this to 100,000 (or five per cent of the as possible. Electric power gives us a promising opportunity to cut our CO emissions,air pollutants and noise from road vehicles and should reduce our dependence onfossil fuels. Moreover, it is expected that a strong market for EVs will also improveour energy security and help to give the UK automotive industry a leading edge inthis technology.

The EV Delivery Plan sets out a comprehensive strategy to stimulate the market forelectric vehicles in London: The strategy is grouped around three key themes:

Infrastructure

Vehicles Incentives, marketing & communications
http://www.oliverwyman.com/ow/pdf_files/ManSum_E-Mobility_2025_e.pdfhttp://www.oliverwyman.com/ow/pdf_files/ManSum_E-Mobility_2025_e.pdfhttp://www.london.gov.uk/priorities/transport/green-transport/electric-vehicleshttp://www.london.gov.uk/priorities/transport/green-transport/electric-vehicleshttp://www.london.gov.uk/priorities/transport/green-transport/electric-vehicleshttp://www.oliverwyman.com/ow/pdf_files/ManSum_E-Mobility_2025_e.pdf


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Centre for Sustainable Transportation (2005): Action Plan for Electric Mobility inCanada

http://www.google.de/url?sa=t&source=web&cd=4&ved=0CCoQFjAD&url=http%3A%2F%2Fcnta.ca%2Fdocuments%2Fpdf%2FAction_plan_for_Electric_Mobility_in_Canada_English.pdf&ei=dhARTPeqCoWROJyIwaUI&usg=AFQjCNEcD0In46vm4oGbooRsdVUSJwWdNg

Oil is becoming scarcer and more costly and emissionsparticularly of greenhousegasesare more threatening than ever before. Many measures are required to curbthe impacts of greenhouse gases and to meet mobility requirements for people andgoods. The measures include further improvements to ICEs, shifts to public transport,better freight logistics, and many others.

This document states that a key part of the solution could be more electric mobility.Electric vehiclespowered by batteries or fuel cells or through direct connections toan electric gridare a serious but so far underused alternative that can keep usmoving without a major disruption. It may be time to start serious planning for a futurein which electric transport becomes the norm.

China Automotive Technology & Research Center, Wu (2010): The Trend of NEVand Incentive Policies in Chinahttp://www.sutp.org/documents/PRES-02-WZ-SHEXPO-260510-EN.pdf

This presentation was a report from the China Automotive Technology and Research GTZ and the City of Bremenat the Expo 2010 Shanghai. It presents the development strategy, the status ofResearch and Development (R&D), the perspective of the industry and someincentive policies for neighborhood Electric Vehicles (NEVs) in China

Department for Transport (UK), Department for Business, Enterprise and RegulatoryReform (UK), Department for Innovation, Universities and Skills (UK) (2008): Ultra-Low Carbon Vehicles in the UKhttp://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/+/http://www.dft.gov.uk/adobepdf/187604/u

ltralowcarbonvehicle.pdf

The internal combustion engine has dominated road transport over the past century.The automotive sector now faces huge changes: an oil crisis in 2007, a financialcrisis in 2008 and a climate change crisis for many years ahead. It is clear that thereis an environmental and an economic imperative to do things differently. Theautomotive industry is a pivotal part of the UK manufacturing sector, adding value of9.5bn to the UK economy and directly employing around 180,000 people. It is a bigchallenge for the government to ensure that this strength is translated into globalleadership in the development and manufacture of ultra-low carbon automotivetechnology. The government must send the right signals and provide the rightframeworks for business. And it must supply the necessary support to industry and
http://www.google.de/url?sa=t&source=web&cd=4&ved=0CCoQFjAD&url=http%3A%2F%2Fcnta.ca%2Fdocuments%2Fpdf%2FAction_plan_for_Electric_Mobility_in_Canada_English.pdf&ei=dhARTPeqCoWROJyIwaUI&usg=AFQjCNEcD0In46vm4oGbooRsdVUSJwWdNghttp://www.google.de/url?sa=t&source=web&cd=4&ved=0CCoQFjAD&url=http%3A%2F%2Fcnta.ca%2Fdocuments%2Fpdf%2FAction_plan_for_Electric_Mobility_in_Canada_English.pdf&ei=dhARTPeqCoWROJyIwaUI&usg=AFQjCNEcD0In46vm4oGbooRsdVUSJwWdNghttp://www.google.de/url?sa=t&source=web&cd=4&ved=0CCoQFjAD&url=http%3A%2F%2Fcnta.ca%2Fdocuments%2Fpdf%2FAction_plan_for_Electric_Mobility_in_Canada_English.pdf&ei=dhARTPeqCoWROJyIwaUI&usg=AFQjCNEcD0In46vm4oGbooRsdVUSJwWdNghttp://www.google.de/url?sa=t&source=web&cd=4&ved=0CCoQFjAD&url=http%3A%2F%2Fcnta.ca%2Fdocuments%2Fpdf%2FAction_plan_for_Electric_Mobility_in_Canada_English.pdf&ei=dhARTPeqCoWROJyIwaUI&usg=AFQjCNEcD0In46vm4oGbooRsdVUSJwWdNghttp://www.google.de/url?sa=t&source=web&cd=4&ved=0CCoQFjAD&url=http%3A%2F%2Fcnta.ca%2Fdocuments%2Fpdf%2FAction_plan_for_Electric_Mobility_in_Canada_English.pdf&ei=dhARTPeqCoWROJyIwaUI&usg=AFQjCNEcD0In46vm4oGbooRsdVUSJwWdNghttp://www.sutp.org/documents/PRES-02-WZ-SHEXPO-260510-EN.pdfhttp://www.sutp.org/documents/PRES-02-WZ-SHEXPO-260510-EN.pdfhttp://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/+/http:/www.dft.gov.uk/adobepdf/187604/ultralowcarbonvehicle.pdfhttp://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/+/http:/www.dft.gov.uk/adobepdf/187604/ultralowcarbonvehicle.pdfhttp://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/+/http:/www.dft.gov.uk/adobepdf/187604/ultralowcarbonvehicle.pdfhttp://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/+/http:/www.dft.gov.uk/adobepdf/187604/ultralowcarbonvehicle.pdfhttp://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/+/http:/www.dft.gov.uk/adobepdf/187604/ultralowcarbonvehicle.pdfhttp://www.sutp.org/documents/PRES-02-WZ-SHEXPO-260510-EN.pdfhttp://www.google.de/url?sa=t&source=web&cd=4&ved=0CCoQFjAD&url=http%3A%2F%2Fcnta.ca%2Fdocuments%2Fpdf%2FAction_plan_for_Electric_Mobility_in_Canada_English.pdf&ei=dhARTPeqCoWROJyIwaUI&usg=AFQjCNEcD0In46vm4oGbooRsdVUSJwWdNghttp://www.google.de/url?sa=t&source=web&cd=4&ved=0CCoQFjAD&url=http%3A%2F%2Fcnta.ca%2Fdocuments%2Fpdf%2FAction_plan_for_Electric_Mobility_in_Canada_English.pdf&ei=dhARTPeqCoWROJyIwaUI&usg=AFQjCNEcD0In46vm4oGbooRsdVUSJwWdNghttp://www.google.de/url?sa=t&source=web&cd=4&ved=0CCoQFjAD&url=http%3A%2F%2Fcnta.ca%2Fdocuments%2Fpdf%2FAction_plan_for_Electric_Mobility_in_Canada_English.pdf&ei=dhARTPeqCoWROJyIwaUI&usg=AFQjCNEcD0In46vm4oGbooRsdVUSJwWdNghttp://www.google.de/url?sa=t&source=web&cd=4&ved=0CCoQFjAD&url=http%3A%2F%2Fcnta.ca%2Fdocuments%2Fpdf%2FAction_plan_for_Electric_Mobility_in_Canada_English.pdf&ei=dhARTPeqCoWROJyIwaUI&usg=AFQjCNEcD0In46vm4oGbooRsdVUSJwWdNg


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workers to ensure that the market in the UK shifts rapidly and decisively to lowcarbon.

Department for Transport (UK) (2009): Ultra-low carbon cars: Next steps ondelivering the 250 million consumer incentive programme for electric andplug-in hybrid carshttp://www.dft.gov.uk/adobepdf/163944/ulcc.pdf

On 16 April 2009 the Department for Transport of the UK said that it would create a250m scheme to reduce the price of electric and plug-in hybrid cars, from 2011onwards, to help motorists buy them. Around 20m of the 250m will be used todevelop an electric vehicle charging infrastructure framework helping create a UK

network of electric car cities. This document outlines the proposals for the eligibilitycriteria and scheme operation for both initiatives.

German Technical Cooperation (GTZ), Hochfeld (2010): Moving Towards theFuture: National Platform for Electromobility in Germanyhttp://www.sutp.org/documents/PRES-03-HC-SHEXPO-260510-EN.pdf

This and the City of Bremen at the Expo 2010 Shanghai. In this presentation thedevelopment of passenger vehicle and automotive market in China are analyzed. It

also presents the new policies of electromobility in German government.

NRW.INVEST GmbH: Model Region for Electric Mobility North Rhine-Westphaliahttp://www.nrwinvest.com/Publications/Brochure_Electric_Mobility.pdf

The state of North Rhine-Westphalia (NRW) intends to position itself as a modelregion for electric mobility in Germany and Europe. By 2020 it planned to bring atleast 250,000 electrically powered vehicles from plug-in hybrids to purely battery-powered vehicles on to the market.

Renewable Energy Sources (2009): Low Carbon and Electric Vehicles in the UKhttp://www.renewable-energy-sources.com/2009/10/12/low-carbon-and-electric-vehicles-in-the-uk/

The UK Government has a range of policies to support the development andcommercialization of lower carbon vehicles and their associated technologies. Thispost gives a summary of some of the key activities in the implementation/introductionof electric vehicles in the UK.
http://www.dft.gov.uk/adobepdf/163944/ulcc.pdfhttp://www.dft.gov.uk/adobepdf/163944/ulcc.pdfhttp://www.sutp.org/documents/PRES-03-HC-SHEXPO-260510-EN.pdfhttp://www.sutp.org/documents/PRES-03-HC-SHEXPO-260510-EN.pdfhttp://www.nrwinvest.com/Publications/Brochure_Electric_Mobility.pdfhttp://www.nrwinvest.com/Publications/Brochure_Electric_Mobility.pdfhttp://www.renewable-energy-sources.com/2009/10/12/low-carbon-and-electric-vehicles-in-the-uk/http://www.renewable-energy-sources.com/2009/10/12/low-carbon-and-electric-vehicles-in-the-uk/http://www.renewable-energy-sources.com/2009/10/12/low-carbon-and-electric-vehicles-in-the-uk/http://www.renewable-energy-sources.com/2009/10/12/low-carbon-and-electric-vehicles-in-the-uk/http://www.renewable-energy-sources.com/2009/10/12/low-carbon-and-electric-vehicles-in-the-uk/http://www.nrwinvest.com/Publications/Brochure_Electric_Mobility.pdfhttp://www.sutp.org/documents/PRES-03-HC-SHEXPO-260510-EN.pdfhttp://www.dft.gov.uk/adobepdf/163944/ulcc.pdf


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Stuttgart Region Economic Development Corporation (2010): The Stuttgart ElectricMobility Pilot Region

http://wrs.region-stuttgart.de/sixcms/media.php/923/Electric%20Mobility%20Pilot%20Region_english.pdf

The Stuttgart Region is one of the eight designated regions for electric mobility pilotprojects is to bring a co-ordinated approach to key questionssurrounding the design and commercialization of electric drive technology inGermany. Ultimately, the aim is to contribute to the goal ofhaving a million electric vehicles on roads by 2020, within the scope ofeco-friendly transportation schemes.

Zhang et al. (2009): Study on the Policy of New Energy Vehicles in China (fulltext with costs)http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpl/freeabs_all.jsp?arnumber=5289875

This paper firstly analyzes the national standards for the new energy vehicles inChina. Then the government regulations to the new energy vehicles are introduced.The incentives for the new energy vehicles in some China cities are analyzed. Theinternational brands hybrid cars and China brands new energy vehicles on Chinamarket are listed. The clean vehicles which were and will be used in the publictransportation systems of the Beijing Olympic Games 2008 and Shanghai Expo 2010

are also listed. This paper can provide a reference for the auto manufacturers tomake plans on how to develop the right kind of new energy vehicles for the Chineseautomotive market.

Impacts and Benefits of Electric Mobility

Department for Business Enterprise & Regulatory Reform (UK) et al. (2008):Investigation into the Scope for the Transport Sector to Switch to ElectricVehicles and Plug-in Hybrid Vehicleshttp://www.berr.gov.uk/files/file48653.pdf

This study, jointly undertaken by Arup and Cenex on behalf of the Department forBusiness Enterprise and Regulatory Reform (BERR) and the Department forTransport (DfT), has investigated the scope for the transport sector to switch tovehicles powered through electricity from the grid in the period until 2030. The reportwas commissioned to provide a better understanding of the environmental andeconomic benefits and impacts that would arise from mass market electric vehicleintroduction.
http://wrs.region-stuttgart.de/sixcms/media.php/923/Electric%20Mobility%20Pilot%20Region_english.pdfhttp://wrs.region-stuttgart.de/sixcms/media.php/923/Electric%20Mobility%20Pilot%20Region_english.pdfhttp://wrs.region-stuttgart.de/sixcms/media.php/923/Electric%20Mobility%20Pilot%20Region_english.pdfhttp://wrs.region-stuttgart.de/sixcms/media.php/923/Electric%20Mobility%20Pilot%20Region_english.pdfhttp://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpl/freeabs_all.jsp?arnumber=5289875http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpl/freeabs_all.jsp?arnumber=5289875http://www.berr.gov.uk/files/file48653.pdfhttp://www.berr.gov.uk/files/file48653.pdfhttp://www.berr.gov.uk/files/file48653.pdfhttp://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpl/freeabs_all.jsp?arnumber=5289875http://wrs.region-stuttgart.de/sixcms/media.php/923/Electric%20Mobility%20Pilot%20Region_english.pdfhttp://wrs.region-stuttgart.de/sixcms/media.php/923/Electric%20Mobility%20Pilot%20Region_english.pdfhttp://wrs.region-stuttgart.de/sixcms/media.php/923/Electric%20Mobility%20Pilot%20Region_english.pdf


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EGO Vehicles (2002): Consumer Purchase Criteria for Personal ElectricVehicles

http://www.egovehicles.com/fileadmin/user_upload/PDFs/technical_note_60.pdf

This note helps explain the basic purchase criteria that consumers typically use todetermine the applicability of a personal electric vehicle for their use. Electric vehicleconsumers will learn how to relate electric vehicle attributes to specific performanceand functionality needs.

Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) (2001): Comparing the Benefits andImpacts of Hybrid Electric Vehicle Optionshttp://mydocs.epri.com/docs/public/000000000001000349.pdf

This study focuses on the key attributes of HEV performance, energy economy, fuel-cycle emissions, costs, consumer acceptance, and commercialization issues. Theobjective is to scientifically compare several potential HEV design options with inputfrom automakers and other stakeholders.

Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) (2007): Environmental Assessment ofPlug-In Hybrid Electric Vehiclehttp://www.dnr.wi.gov/environmentprotect/gtfgw/documents/PHEVExecSumvol2.pdf

In the most comprehensive environmental assessment of electric transportation todate, the Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) and the Natural ResourcesDefense Council (NRDC) are examining the greenhouse gas emissions and airquality impacts of plug-in hybrid electric vehicles. The purpose of the program is toquantify the nationwide environmental impacts of potentially large numbers of PHEVsover a time period of 2010 to 2050. 2010 is assumed to be the first year PHEVswould be available, while 2050 would allow the technology sufficient time to fullypenetrate the U.S. fleet.

European Environment Agency (EEA) (2009): Transport at a Crossroads. TERM

2008: Indicators Tracking Transport and Environment in the European Unionhttp://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/transport-at-a-crossroads/at_download/file

The current economic turmoil may lessen the demand for transport but the transportsector still contributes significantly to rising emissions of greenhouse gases, noiseexposure, air pollution, fragmentation of habitats and impacts on wildlife. TheTransport and Environment Reporting Mechanism (TERM) report for 2008 highlightsthis trend. Although there is growing awareness of the transport sector'sdisproportionate impact on the environment, the report shows that there is littleevidence of improved performance or a shift to sustainable transport across Europe.
http://www.egovehicles.com/fileadmin/user_upload/PDFs/technical_note_60.pdfhttp://www.egovehicles.com/fileadmin/user_upload/PDFs/technical_note_60.pdfhttp://mydocs.epri.com/docs/public/000000000001000349.pdfhttp://mydocs.epri.com/docs/public/000000000001000349.pdfhttp://www.dnr.wi.gov/environmentprotect/gtfgw/documents/PHEVExecSumvol2.pdfhttp://www.dnr.wi.gov/environmentprotect/gtfgw/documents/PHEVExecSumvol2.pdfhttp://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/transport-at-a-crossroads/at_download/filehttp://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/transport-at-a-crossroads/at_download/filehttp://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/transport-at-a-crossroads/at_download/filehttp://www.dnr.wi.gov/environmentprotect/gtfgw/documents/PHEVExecSumvol2.pdfhttp://mydocs.epri.com/docs/public/000000000001000349.pdfhttp://www.egovehicles.com/fileadmin/user_upload/PDFs/technical_note_60.pdf


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European Environment Agency (EEA) (2010): Towards a Resource-EfficientTransport System TERM 2009: Indicators Tracking Transport and

Environment in the European Unionhttp://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/towards-a-resource-efficient-transport-system/at_download/file

The objective of this report is to indicate some of the main challenges for reducingthe environmental impacts of transport and to make suggestions to improve theenvironmental performance of the transport system as a whole. The report examinesissues centred around transport and climate change, which need to be addressed inthe coming years. In this report electric vehicles are widely predicted to be one of themost effective measures to reduce CO2 emissions. The 'improve' package anticipatesan uptake rate of 5080 % in 2050. A 35 % reduction in CO2 for electric cars by 2050

is projected on the basis of a mix of renewable and nonrenewable energy sources.

European Topic Centre on Air and Climate Change (ETC/ACC) (2009):Environmental Impacts and Impact on the Electricity Market of a Large ScaleIntroduction of Electric Cars in Europe - Critical Review of Literaturehttp://air-climate.eionet.europa.eu/docs/ETCACC_TP_2009_4_electromobility.pdf

Vehicles with electric propulsion are considered as an attractive option on thepathway towards low-emission vehicles that could enable the transport sector toreduce sectorial greenhouse gas emissions by a significant degree. Due to major

progress in battery technology, vehicles with electric operation mode are expected toenter the market within the next few years. Electric vehicles are characterized by thehighest engine efficiency of existing propulsion systems and zero tailpipe emissions.At the same time it has to be kept in mind that well-to-wheel emissions of electricvehicles are strongly dependent on the carbon-intensity of power generation.

The purpose of this report is to offer a broad literature review on electric cars andtheir environmental impacts. Aspects covered are the energy storage systems, thedifferent vehicle concepts under development, a market overview of EVs, adiscussion of the business models for the introduction and operation of electric cars,the EV potential with regard to use pattern and driving behavior, market penetrationscenarios, and the impact on CO2 emissions considering average emission factors,the interaction with the electricity market and the EU legislation.

Lave et al. (1995): Environmental Implications of Electric Carshttp://www.ce.cmu.edu/~gdrg/readings/2005/08/31/Environ_Implications_of_Electric_Cars.pdf

California and the Northeast states in the USA have passed laws requiring that 2% of that is, electric cars.

Required sales of electric cars are to increase after 1998. Electric vehicle technologyhas the advantage that it produces no air pollution at the point of use, so that if the
http://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/towards-a-resource-efficient-transport-system/at_download/filehttp://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/towards-a-resource-efficient-transport-system/at_download/filehttp://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/towards-a-resource-efficient-transport-system/at_download/filehttp://air-climate.eionet.europa.eu/docs/ETCACC_TP_2009_4_electromobility.pdfhttp://air-climate.eionet.europa.eu/docs/ETCACC_TP_2009_4_electromobility.pdfhttp://www.ce.cmu.edu/~gdrg/readings/2005/08/31/Environ_Implications_of_Electric_Cars.pdfhttp://www.ce.cmu.edu/~gdrg/readings/2005/08/31/Environ_Implications_of_Electric_Cars.pdfhttp://www.ce.cmu.edu/~gdrg/readings/2005/08/31/Environ_Implications_of_Electric_Cars.pdfhttp://www.ce.cmu.edu/~gdrg/readings/2005/08/31/Environ_Implications_of_Electric_Cars.pdfhttp://www.ce.cmu.edu/~gdrg/readings/2005/08/31/Environ_Implications_of_Electric_Cars.pdfhttp://air-climate.eionet.europa.eu/docs/ETCACC_TP_2009_4_electromobility.pdfhttp://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/towards-a-resource-efficient-transport-system/at_download/filehttp://www.eea.europa.eu/publications/towards-a-resource-efficient-transport-system/at_download/file


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electricity is generated in a distant place, electric cars are a mean of switching thelocation of environmental discharges.

This paper focus on the environmental consequences of producing and reprocessinglarge quantities of batteries to power electric cars.

National Renewable Energy Laboratory (NREL) (2007): Costs and EmissionsAssociated with Plug-In Hybrid Electric Vehicle Charging in the Xcel EnergyColorado Service Territoryhttp://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy07osti/41410.pdf

The combination of high oil costs, concerns about oil security and availability, and air

- electric vehicles (PHEVs). PHEVs are similar to conventional hybrid electric vehicles,but feature a larger battery and plug-in charger that allows electricity from the grid toreplace a portion of the petroleum-fueled drive energy. PHEVs may derive asubstantial fraction of their miles from grid-derived electricity, but without the rangerestrictions of pure battery electric vehicles. This study is designed to evaluateseveral of the PHEV-charging impacts on utility system operations within the XcelEnergy Colorado service territory.

Van den Bulk (2009): A Cost- and Benefit Analysis of Combustion Cars, Electric

Cars and Hydrogen Cars in the Netherlandshttp://www.peakoil.nl/wp-content/uploads/2009/01/a_cost__benefit_analysis_of_combustion_cars_electric_cars_and_hydrogen_cars_in_the_netherlandsfinal.pdf

The goal of this research is to compare the costs of driving an electric- and hydrogencar to the costs of driving a car with an internal combustion engine for the Dutchsituation. The prices of the cars are compared to each other by calculating thedepreciation costs, fuel costs, fixed costs and costs related to repair, maintenanceand wheels for the different car types. Scenarios are developed in which the annualdriving distance, the period of car ownership, the energy price development and the

specific traffic conditions are described. In a benchmark the costs per kilometer of theelectric- and hydrogen car are compared to the costs of the car with an internalcombustion engine for the years 2008, 2020 and 2030. Scenarios are developed toestimate the cost developments until 2020 and 2030.

World Wildlife Foundation (WWF) (2009): Impacts of Electric Cars on the PowerPlant and CO2 Emissions in Germany (in German language)http://www.wwf.de/downloads/publikationsdatenbank/ddd/30496/

The environmental benefits of electric cars are being questioned in Germany. Justlike the U.S., Germany too has an ambitious goal of introducing electric vehicles.Germany, which today has 41 million cars, aims to have 1 million electric cars or
http://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy07osti/41410.pdfhttp://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy07osti/41410.pdfhttp://www.peakoil.nl/wp-content/uploads/2009/01/a_cost__benefit_analysis_of_combustion_cars_electric_cars_and_hydrogen_cars_in_the_netherlandsfinal.pdfhttp://www.peakoil.nl/wp-content/uploads/2009/01/a_cost__benefit_analysis_of_combustion_cars_electric_cars_and_hydrogen_cars_in_the_netherlandsfinal.pdfhttp://www.peakoil.nl/wp-content/uploads/2009/01/a_cost__benefit_analysis_of_combustion_cars_electric_cars_and_hydrogen_cars_in_the_netherlandsfinal.pdfhttp://www.peakoil.nl/wp-content/uploads/2009/01/a_cost__benefit_analysis_of_combustion_cars_electric_cars_and_hydrogen_cars_in_the_netherlandsfinal.pdfhttp://www.wwf.de/downloads/publikationsdatenbank/ddd/30496/http://www.wwf.de/downloads/publikationsdatenbank/ddd/30496/http://www.wwf.de/downloads/publikationsdatenbank/ddd/30496/http://www.peakoil.nl/wp-content/uploads/2009/01/a_cost__benefit_analysis_of_combustion_cars_electric_cars_and_hydrogen_cars_in_the_netherlandsfinal.pdfhttp://www.peakoil.nl/wp-content/uploads/2009/01/a_cost__benefit_analysis_of_combustion_cars_electric_cars_and_hydrogen_cars_in_the_netherlandsfinal.pdfhttp://www.peakoil.nl/wp-content/uploads/2009/01/a_cost__benefit_analysis_of_combustion_cars_electric_cars_and_hydrogen_cars_in_the_netherlandsfinal.pdfhttp://www.nrel.gov/docs/fy07osti/41410.pdf


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plug-in hybrid vehicles on the road by 2020. The conclusion of the study is that theseelectric cars only reduce greenhouse gases marginally.

Development of Electric Vehicle Charging Infrastructure

California Energy Commission (1998): Electric Vehicle Charging EquipmentDesign and Health and Safety Codeshttp://www.energy.ca.gov/papers/98-09-23_KATELEY.PDF

y code requirementsfor Electric Vehicle Supply Equipment (EVSE) and how equipment has been

developed to comply with it. Background, history, rationale and comparisons aregiven for requirements in the California Health and Safety Codes, and 1996 and 1999National Electrical Codes (NEC).

Electric Transportation Engineering Corporation (2009): Electric Vehicle ChargingInfrastructure Deployment Guidelineshttp://www.bchydro.com/etc/medialib/internet/documents/environment/EVcharging_infrastructure_guidelines09.Par.0001.File.EV%20Charging%20Infrastructure%20Guidelines-BC-Aug09.pdf

These Guidelines were developed by BC Hydro with support from Natural ResourcesCanada with the intent that other jurisdictions across Canada could readily adapt theguidelines to support the deployment of charging infrastructure in their region.

After the general introduction of section 1, section 2 provides an overview of thecharging process and governing regulations. The details of the varied chargingscenarios are presented in Section 4 following the discussion of current technologyand charging equipment designs. Section 5 addresses unique utility interconnectionrequirements and planning for future features and benefits ios. Numerous other topics from Energy Monitoring andBilling to Load Management are included.

Electric Transportation Engineering Corporation (2010): Electric Vehicle ChargingInfrastructure Deployment Guidelines for the Oregon I-5 Metro Areas ofPortland, Salem, Corvallis and Eugenehttp://projectgetready.com/docs/Oregon%20EV%20Deployment%20Guidelines%20ver%203-1.pdf

This Guidelines document is not intended to be an installation manual or areplacement for approved codes and standards, but is intended to create a common

knowledge base of EV requirements for stakeholders involved in the development ofEV charging infrastructure. Electric vehicles have unique requirements that differfrom internal combustion engine vehicles, and many stakeholders are currently not
http://www.energy.ca.gov/papers/98-09-23_KATELEY.PDFhttp://www.energy.ca.gov/papers/98-09-23_KATELEY.PDFhttp://www.bchydro.com/etc/medialib/internet/documents/environment/EVcharging_infrastructure_guidelines09.Par.0001.File.EV%20Charging%20Infrastructure%20Guidelines-BC-Aug09.pdfhttp://www.bchydro.com/etc/medialib/internet/documents/environment/EVcharging_infrastructure_guidelines09.Par.0001.File.EV%20Charging%20Infrastructure%20Guidelines-BC-Aug09.pdfhttp://www.bchydro.com/etc/medialib/internet/documents/environment/EVcharging_infrastructure_guidelines09.Par.0001.File.EV%20Charging%20Infrastructure%20Guidelines-BC-Aug09.pdfhttp://www.bchydro.com/etc/medialib/internet/documents/environment/EVcharging_infrastructure_guidelines09.Par.0001.File.EV%20Charging%20Infrastructure%20Guidelines-BC-Aug09.pdfhttp://projectgetready.com/docs/Oregon%20EV%20Deployment%20Guidelines%20ver%203-1.pdfhttp://projectgetready.com/docs/Oregon%20EV%20Deployment%20Guidelines%20ver%203-1.pdfhttp://projectgetready.com/docs/Oregon%20EV%20Deployment%20Guidelines%20ver%203-1.pdfhttp://projectgetready.com/docs/Oregon%20EV%20Deployment%20Guidelines%20ver%203-1.pdfhttp://projectgetready.com/docs/Oregon%20EV%20Deployment%20Guidelines%20ver%203-1.pdfhttp://www.bchydro.com/etc/medialib/internet/documents/environment/EVcharging_infrastructure_guidelines09.Par.0001.File.EV%20Charging%20Infrastructure%20Guidelines-BC-Aug09.pdfhttp://www.bchydro.com/etc/medialib/internet/documents/environment/EVcharging_infrastructure_guidelines09.Par.0001.File.EV%20Charging%20Infrastructure%20Guidelines-BC-Aug09.pdfhttp://www.bchydro.com/etc/medialib/internet/documents/environment/EVcharging_infrastructure_guidelines09.Par.0001.File.EV%20Charging%20Infrastructure%20Guidelines-BC-Aug09.pdfhttp://www.energy.ca.gov/papers/98-09-23_KATELEY.PDF


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Guidelines provide the necessary background information for understanding EV

requirements and the related codes, laws and standards.

Greater London Authority (2009): Strategy: Turning London Electrichttp://www.london.gov.uk/electricvehicles/docs/GLA_ELI_Strategy_09_V05.pdf

Recognizing the benefits and the inherent suitability of EVs to urban environmentssuch as London, the Mayor launched his Electric Vehicle Delivery Plan in May 2009.

The plan highlights the requirement for extensive charging infrastructure to facilitate

the uptake and usage of electric scooters, motorcycles, cars, vans and light trucks byLondoner draft strategy sets out the proposedapproach to the deployment of charging infrastructure for privately-owned EVs up to2015.

Morrow et al. (2008): Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicle Charging InfrastructureReviewhttp://avt.inel.gov/pdf/phev/phevInfrastructureReport08.pdf

Plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) are under evaluation by the U.S. Department

of Energy Vehicle Technolo Testing Activity andother various stakeholders to better understand their capability and potentialpetroleum reduction benefits. PHEVs could allow users to significantly improve fueleconomy over a standard hybrid electric vehicle, and in some cases, depending ondaily driving requirements and vehicle design, PHEVs may have the ability toeliminate fuel consumption entirely for daily vehicle trips. The cost associated withproviding charging infrastructure for PHEVs, along with costs for onboard powerelectronics and the batteries associated with PHEV technology, will be key factors inthe success of PHEVs.

This report analyzes the infrastructure requirements for PHEVs in single family

residential, multi-family residential, and commercial situations. Costs associated withthis infrastructure are tabulated, providing an estimate of the infrastructure costsassociated with PHEV deployment.

Wiederer et al. (2010): Policy Options for Electric Vehicle ChargingInfrastructure in C40 Citieshttp://www.innovations.harvard.edu/cache/documents/11089/1108934.pdf

This Policy Analysis Exercise seeks to make policy recommendations to the ClintonClimate Initiative (CCI), on the deployment of electric vehicle (EV) charginginfrastructure in C40 cities - a group of the
http://www.london.gov.uk/electricvehicles/docs/GLA_ELI_Strategy_09_V05.pdfhttp://www.london.gov.uk/electricvehicles/docs/GLA_ELI_Strategy_09_V05.pdfhttp://avt.inel.gov/pdf/phev/phevInfrastructureReport08.pdfhttp://avt.inel.gov/pdf/phev/phevInfrastructureReport08.pdfhttp://www.innovations.harvard.edu/cache/documents/11089/1108934.pdfhttp://www.innovations.harvard.edu/cache/documents/11089/1108934.pdfhttp://www.innovations.harvard.edu/cache/documents/11089/1108934.pdfhttp://avt.inel.gov/pdf/phev/phevInfrastructureReport08.pdfhttp://www.london.gov.uk/electricvehicles/docs/GLA_ELI_Strategy_09_V05.pdf


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committed to take action on climate change by reducing greenhouse gases, includingfrom the transport fleet.

This analysis included understanding potential barriers (policy, technological,economic, etc) to the deployment of EV charging infrastructure, understanding howvarious cities were approaching the issue, and the policy levers that cities couldemploy in increasing the availability of EV charging infrastructure.

Winkler et al. (2009): Electric Vehicle Charging Stations in Magdeburg (full textwith costs)http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/Xplore/login.jsp?url=http%3A%2F%2Fieeexplore.ieee.org%2Fstamp%2Fstamp.jsp%3Ftp%3D%26arnumber%3D5289871&authDecision=-203

Electrically powered vehicles represent an option to replace fossil fuel. Distributedcharging stations are essential to ensure mobility. Charging stations not only chargeelectric vehicles' traction batteries, they also function as an interface betweenvehicles and the grid.

The paper presents two different types of charging stations that were developed forresearch projects and academic programs.

Technology and Design of Electric Cars

Gupta et al. (2009): Relationship of Customer Needs to Electric VehiclePerformance (full text with costs)http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpl/freeabs_all.jsp?arnumber=5289873

This paper presents results of sensitivity analyses performed by exercising anelectric vehicle model to understand relationship between customer based vehiclerequirements (e.g. size, carrying capacity, weight, aerodynamics, 0-60 mphacceleration time, maximum velocity ) to electric vehicle characteristics (motor andbattery specs.), energy consumption during different trips, and running costs for a trip.The electric vehicle model was developed by using available knowledge frommechanics, electrical powertrain and battery technologies. Velocity-distancetrajectories of three trips (suburban, city commuter, and freeway) were measured andused as inputs to the model.

Industry Steering Committee Canada (2010): Electric Vehicle TechnologyRoadmap for Canada. A Strategic Vision for Highway-Capable Battery-Electric,Plug-in and Other Hybrid-Electric Vehicleshttp://www.emc-mec.ca/files/ElectricVehicleTechnologyRoadmapCanada-

Feb2010.pdf
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