Effects of a Brand’s Country of Origin & Longevity on ... 4841 Thesis Effects of a Brand’s...

COMM 4841

Thesis

Effects of a Brand’s Country of Origin & Longevity on

Perceived Brand Authenticity in the Post-Colonial World

Kelly Halter May 2, 2016

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INTRODUCTION

One of the most iconic brands of all time is Levi Strauss & Co, which in 1873 produced

the first pair of blue jeans in San Francisco, California. Levi Jeans invokes its powerful brand

roots in many of its marketing advertisements by stressing its American heritage along with its

long history. With the commercialization and modernization of society, consumers prefer brands

that they perceive as authentic (Arnould & Price, 2000; Beverland, 2005) and this has led iconic

brands to emphasize their heritage and virtues to continue their success. For example, Coca Cola

reminds their customers that it began in 1888 in Atlanta, Georgia, and similarly Hershey often

reminds their customers that its famous brand and chocolate originated in 1894 in Hershey,

Pennsylvania. Currently, brand authenticity research indicates that a communication style

emphasizing a brand’s roots positively impacts perceived brand authenticity, which leads to

positive word of mouth and emotional brand attachment (Morhart et al., 2014). Both of these

elements have been shown to increase consumers’ likelihood to purchase the brands’ products.

A common notion is that consumers’ prominent purchasing criterion has shifted to

valuing authenticity more than quality, which mirrors the shifts over history from cost to quality

and from availability (Gilmore & Pine, 2007). This shift makes it imperative for companies to

understand exactly what impacts perceived brand authenticity to ensure they can maintain or

develop it for their brand. Research in this topic, however, is limited and fragmented due to

contrasting definitions of authenticity. Research on brand authenticity is often split based on

definitions that focus on objective facts, consumer subjective perceptions, and physiological uses

for self-identity.

Due to the limited research focusing on brand authenticity, there are many gaps within

the research, which limits brand’s ability to understand consumers’ perceptions of brand

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authenticity. The study proposed in this paper aims to fill some of those gaps. Currently brand

authenticity research demonstrates that companies that emphasize a brand’s roots in their

advertisements are perceived as more authentic (Morhart et al., 2014). In brand roots, however,

country of origin/locality and longevity of brand are often grouped together. This research aims

to determine the distinct impact of each of these elements on brand perceived authenticity.

Current branding literature implies that both positively impact a brand’s success. For example,

Holt suggests that local brands are more emotionally appealing (2004) and Morhart et al. imply

that longevity helps consumers to perceive brands as timeless (2014). Country of origin literature

also suggests implications of country of origin/locality by showing both positive and negative

perceptions of quality based on foreign versus local country of origin (Verlegh, 2007; Kumar et.

al, 2009). This study compares the strength of each of these factors for South African consumers

through the proxy of a fried chicken fast food company utilizing a validated perceived brand

authenticity framework and measurement scale (Morhart et al., 2014).

South Africa is an ideal case study for this research because it provides insight to

understanding a previously colonized nation as well as an unique observation of the effects of

apartheid. The complicated sense of nationality associated with brands over time due to the

nation’s shift from a colony to an independent country poses an interesting dynamic to this study.

In a business context, this is also important to study because through globalization, many brands

have been attempting to grow by capitalizing on growth in emerging markets, which are often

previously colonized. For example, after saturating the United States market, Kentucky Fried

Chicken like many other fast food companies expanded internationally to continue to prosper as

a brand. This has been extremely successful for Kentucky Fried Chicken who now has 40% of

revenue associated with international sales including a majority in China, India, and South Africa

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that all have a previous history of colonization by Western countries. Utilizing South Africa as a

proxy for previously colonized nations, I hypothesize that country of origin/locality will impact

perceived brand authenticity less than when the brand was formed prior to independence due to a

contradictory national identity. This hypothesis will be mirrored in perceived brand

authenticity’s positive impact on brand attachment and word of mouth.

LITERATURE REVIEW With the expansion of commercialization in the economy, consumers have begun to

gravitate toward authentic brands to gain sources of meaning in consumption and self-identity

(Arnould & Price, 2000; Beverland, 2005). This has major implications on brand success

because perceived brand authenticity has been shown to positively affect consumer emotional

brand attachment and word of mouth, which in turn increases the likelihood to purchase a

brand’s products (Morhart et al., 2014). This field of research, however, is fragmented and lacks

organization due to different definition and perceived origins of authenticity.

The current research for brand authenticity focuses around three main concepts:

objectivist, constructivist, and existentialist (Morhart et al., 2014). The objectivist dimension

focuses on facts or quality inherent in an object and verifiable (Grayson & Marinec, 2004). This

includes labels such as origin, age, ingredients, or performance. This is often used to develop

external consistency meaning that the brand is what is appears to be and not a counterfeit (Brown

et al., 2003). The wine industry demonstrates the objectivist dimension because fine wine is

validated by focusing on its quality of taste and age to demonstrate authenticity of its value. The

constructivist dimension focuses on the personal constructed perception of brands (Grayson &

Marinec, 2004) based on the projection of ones’ own perspectives, beliefs, and expectations

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(Wang 1999), which is sometimes swayed by commercially created products (Stern, 1994;

Brown, 2003). For this dimension, a brand that is able to create a systematic fit with consumers’

expectations is perceived as more authentic. For example, McDonald’s ability to provide a

standardized product around the world authenticates the brand by meeting consumers’

expectations. Lastly, existentialist dimension relates to the physiological nature of consumers to

relate brands authenticity to their own identity and find consumption of a brand as a portrayal of

themselves (Steiner & Reisinger, 2006). This dimension categorizes a brand that serves as an

identity related source to be more authentic than others.

More recent research has examined brand authenticity within the context of location of

origin, although this research did not examine country of origin specifically. For example,

Newman and Dhar (2014) asked consumers to react to differences in Levi Jeans’ manufacturing

location to determine the effect of a change in manufacturing location on consumers’ perception

of products and brands. This study showed that consumers perceived Levi Jeans made at the

original factory as more authentic than a newer factory. Further, when consumers perceived the

product to be from the original factory, they were willing to pay more, perceived that the jeans

were truly the brand, and that the jeans were of higher quality.

Brand authenticity has also been examined with regard to brand extensions (Spiggle,

2012). Brand expansion is often imperative for brands to adapt to changing business

environments but difficult for managers to often accomplish while maintaining consumers’

perception of authenticity (Beverland, 2005). Spiggle created and validated a framework to

determine parent brands’ ability to maintain brand authenticity by looking at consumer

perception of uniqueness, originality, heritage, values, and essence of the extension. This brand

extension authenticity construct is important because consumers’ perception of brand extension

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authenticity helps predict brand extension success. An example of a product that could utilize

this construct to determine areas of concern regarding brand extension authenticity is Starbucks

with its Via instant coffee extension; this construct shows consumers may not perceive this

expansion as authentic due to the lack of the cosmopolitan experience of Starbucks, which

Starbucks is iconic for (Spiggle 2012).

Recently, Morhart et al. (2014) developed an integrative framework and measurement

system to better account for perceived brand authenticity (PBA). In their framework, the

researchers suggest that PBA has multiple dimensions - continuity, creditability, integrity, and

symbolism. The continuity dimension “reflects brand’s timelessness, historicity, and its ability to

transcend trends." An example of a brand with continuity is Quaker oatmeal because its oatmeal

and logo of Mr. Quaker’s face has not changed over time and many consumers forecast this diet

staple will survive overtime. The credibility dimension demonstrates a brand’s willing and

ability to deliver on their promises. For example, Walmart’s ability to provide “the lowest prices

every time” demonstrates its ability to fulfill its promise to consumers. The integrity dimension

identifies the intentions and moral values that a brand communicates to its customers. The last

dimension is symbolism, which is defined as the ability to a brand to support consumers in being

true to themselves. A demonstration of this dimension would be consumers defining authentic

“as brands that reflect values that they consider important and thus help construct who they are.”

For example, the use of the John Deere brand as an illustration of a past in construction and

forestry demonstrates this dimension.

After defining these four dimensions of perceived brand authenticity, Morhart et al.

demonstrates that indexical, existential, and iconic cues impact each dimension of the

framework. For example, indexical cues of brand scandals and brand congruent employee

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behaviors influence the integrity dimension and the credibility dimension of PBA. Meanwhile,

existential cues such as brand anthropomorphism impacts the symbolism dimensions. Finally, he

shows that communication style emphasizing brand’s roots and virtue, relate to the continuity

and integrity dimension, respectively.

I utilized this integrative framework in my research. More specifically, I expanded the

catalyst of communication emphasizing brand roots to find the difference in effects between the

current elements of brand roots: locality, country of origin and longevity of history. As

demonstrated in the following quotations, these are often used in conjunction for major iconic

brands. For example, the Hershey advertisement “Hershey, Pa. is where it all started more than

100 years ago, and its still where the famous Hershey’s Kisses are made” emphasizes both an

American country of origin of Hershey, Pennsylvania and longevity of the brand heritage

(Newman & Dhar, 2014). This can be also seen in the Thames advertisement, “Our brewery’s

stood in London beside the Thames, since 1845” (Newman & Dhar, 2014). Though both country

of origin/locality and longevity of brands are currently studied in conjunction as a demonstration

of brand roots, this research aims to separate the two dimensions to determine each dimension’s

impact on brand authenticity within the context of a colonized nation.

SOUTH AFRICA CASE STUDY

South Africa poses an appealing case study due to its history of colonization and its

unique history of colonization. Colonization poses an interest lens to study perceived brand

authenticity because colonized countries’ history creates contradicting country of origin

implications of locality due the change in nationality. For example, South Africa was a colony of

United Kingdom for 155 years and became independent in 1961. It would be interesting to see if

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South Africans perceive a British brand created prior to independence as authentic due to this

historical national connection. The existence of colonizer country of origin also may positively

or negatively impact the implications of the country of origin dimension of brand authenticity,

which depends greatly on the relationship of consumers with the colonizer country. This has

been studied within country of origin literature but not explicitly in brand authenticity research.

Country of origin literature demonstrates through studies in India that individuals who are

ethnocentric prefer local products but the majority of Indians show a preference for nonlocal

products in regards to higher quality and the status symbol value of American goods (Verlegh,

2007; Kumar et. al, 2009). Branding research also shows that local brands have more emotional

appeal and attachment, which is likely to impact perceived brand authenticity (Holt, 2004),

South Africa is also unique because of the continuation of white supremacy through

apartheid. This characteristic also can demonstrate an interesting perspective on perceived brand

authenticity by showing differences in qualification by race within South Africa, which

marketing teams can adjust for. As shown in Nkomo’s work, many researchers identity a large

shift in South African consumers and employees post-apartheid and we examine this shift in

relation to perceived brand authenticity and country of origin in Study 2 of our research (2015).

Additionally, South Africa poses an attractive country to research because it lacks

research within perceived brand authenticity literature and the direct positive relationship

between perceived brand authenticity and positive word of mouth and brand awareness has not

been proven as it has in Europe and North America (Morhart et al. 2014).

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HYPOTHESES

Communication style emphasizing a brand’s roots is shown to impact perceived brand

authenticity (Morhart, et al., 2014). Brand’s roots, however, has not been developed to

differentiate the impact of a brand’s longevity and country of origin independently. The goal of

this study is to research this in the context of a colonized nation because consumers’ perceptions

of country of origin can be swayed due to their history of a changing national identity. Study 1

aims to study this utilizing a 2 (country of origin: South Africa vs. Great Britain) X 2 (longevity:

50 years vs. 100 years) between-subjects design, as indicated in Exhibit 1. Study 2 studies a 2

(country of origin: South Africa vs. Great Britain) X 2 (longevity: 20 years vs. 40 years)

between-subjects design, as indicated in Exhibit 1. More specifically, I will be comparing the

effects of country of origin of Britain and South Africa in relation to the effects of brand’s

longevity of 100 years (pre-independence) and 50 years (post-independence) along with the

effects of brand’s longevity of 40 years (pre-apartheid) and 50 years (post- apartheid). I expect a

main effect of country of origin and a main effect of longevity on perceived brand authenticity.

More specifically, I hypothesize the following:

H1a: An ad that emphasizes a brand’s longevity will affect perceived brand authenticity

such that a brand with a history of 100 years is perceived to be more authentic than a

brand with a history of 50 years.

H1b: An ad that emphasizes a brand’s longevity will affect perceived brand authenticity

such that a brand with a history of 40 years is perceived to be more authentic than a brand

with a history of 20 years.

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H2: An ad that emphasizes country of origin will affect perceived brand authenticity such

that a brand with a local country of origin (South Africa) is perceived to be more

authentic than a brand with a foreign country of origin (Great Britain).

These hypotheses are based on previous research dealing with brand authenticity and

country of origin. Our hypothesis regarding longevity mirrors the framework created by Morhart

et al. (2014), which measures the continuity dimension of perceived brand authenticity based on

historical heritage. This can be seen with the two measures of the continuity dimension: a brand

is timeless and a brand that can survives times. However, country of origin and locality of a

brand have not yet been studied as an effect of perceived brand authenticity independently. It has

only been studied in the context of original factory versus new factory production locations, but

not in the context of the actual brand origination (Newman & Dhar, 2014).

Country of origin research has shown differing implications of foreign country of origin

of products and brands on consumer perceptions of quality and willingness to consume (Verlegh,

2007; Kumar et. al, 2009). This research, however, does not look at perceived brand authenticity

and the implications of these metrics on consumers’ actions. Building on the claim in Holt

(2004) that local brands are more emotionally appealing, we hypothesize that local brands will

be perceived as more authentic than foreign brands. The expectations for each of the first two

hypotheses are indicated in Exhibit 4.

We also expect an interaction between a brand’s longevity and country of origin on

perceived brand authenticity. This interactive effect is possible due to consumers contradicting

perception of nationality. Pre-independence, South Africans were part of the British Empire

making the consumers technically British. This confusion of brand heritage and consumers

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nationality at this time in history will result in British country of origin being seen as more

authentic than a South African country of origin due to the nationality of consumers at the time

of brand origination. We anticipate that this will be seen in post-independence time period as

well. Yet, we expect that brands with formation times that occur post-independence will be

perceived as more authentic when the brand has a South African country of origin than a brand

with a British country of origin due to the similarity in consumers’ nationality and country of

origin. Thus, we predict that

H3a: Brand longevity and country of origin will interact to affect perceived brand

authenticity such that a brand’s history that corresponds with a formation time pre-

independence (100 years) versus post-independence (50 years) will be perceived as more

authentic when the brand has a British country of origin.

H3b: Brand longevity and country of origin will interact to affect perceived brand

authenticity such that a brand’s history that corresponds with a formation time post-

independence (50 years) versus pre-independence (100 years) will be perceived as more

authentic when the brand has a South African country of origin.

Additionally, we hypothesize that there will be a similar interactive effect between pre-apartheid

and post-apartheid because we hypothesize that South African, specifically colored citizens, will

see the end of apartheid as their true independence from British rule by destroying

institutionalized white supremacy. Therefore our hypotheses for Study 2 mirror Study 1:

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H3c: Brand longevity and country of origin will interact to affect perceived brand

authenticity such that a brand’s history that corresponds with a formation time pre-

apartheid (40 years) versus post- apartheid (20 years) will be perceived as more authentic

when the brand has a British country of origin.

H3d: Brand longevity and country of origin will interact to affect perceived brand

authenticity such that a brand’s history that corresponds with a formation time post-

apartheid (20 years) versus pre- apartheid (40 years) will be perceived as more authentic

when the brand has a South African country of origin.

These interactive effects have not yet been studied within the context of brand authenticity

literature but can pose major implications on companies planning to expand and create marketing

plans in emerging markets, because many emerging markets were previously colonies.

Finally, consistent with past work on brand authenticity, we anticipate that higher brand

authenticity will result in more word of mouth and greater brand attachment. That is, perceived

brand authenticity should have a positive correlation with favorable word of mouth and brand

attachment for all presented hypotheses. Formally, we predict that

H4: As brand authenticity increases, consumers will exhibit (a) greater brand attachment

and (b) more positive WOM.

METHODOLOGY

To collect data, we planned to utilize Amazon Mechanical Turk (MTurk) to administrate

surveys to South African consumers. Amazon Mechanical Turk is “an online labor system run by

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Amazon.com” which provides quick and inexpensive online research (Goodman et al., 2012).

Amazon Mechanical Turk has more than 500,000 workers from 190 countries (Amazon). After

multiple days collecting data, it became apparent, however, that it would be infeasible to attain

enough participants for our study.

To combat this data collection issue, we began identifying data collection alternatives.

Recently, there has been a trend in research to begin utilizing social media as a medium to collect

data in academic research (Montgomery & Cheema, 2016). We choose to use the social media

platform, Reddit to collect data. Reddit is a website where a registered community of members

submit content, such as text posts or direct links, to create an online bulletin board system.

Reddit has an international footprint and as of 2015, it ranked the 36th most visited website in the

world with 542 million monthly visitors (SimilarWeb, 2015). We specifically posted on the sub-

pages of Johannesburg, Capetown, and South Africa to target South Africans. We validated that

participants were in fact South Africans by asking participants about their national identity; these

questions induced participants to describe their level agreement with the following statements

“Being South African means a lot to me” and “I am proud to be South African”. We felt

comfortable with designating our participants as South African because participants had an

average response of 5.4 out of 7 in Study 1 and an average response of 5.5 out of 7 in Study 2.

Initially, we did not provide financial incentives and acquired 26 completed responses in a week.

To accelerate the data collection process, we incentivized individuals to complete the entirety of

the survey with the promise of a $1 Amazon Gift Card. The two posts utilized can be seen in

Exhibit 8. As demonstrated in the post, participants were directed to a qualtric.com survey page,

which we used to create our survey. All questions were required to be answered by participants

to complete the survey and receive compensation.

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STUDY 1

DESIGN AND PROCEDURES

We test these hypotheses using a 2 (country of origin: South Africa vs. Great Britain) x 2

(longevity: 50 years vs. 100 years) between-subjects design. Thus, we utilize four distinct groups

of participants. Participants were exposed to one of four advertisements that differ based on

longevity and country of origin categories to mirror the four categories within the 2 X 2 subject

design. A proposed advertisement sample can be seen in Exhibit 5, which utilized existing

advertisements for international fast food companies as inspiration. This ad along with survey

questions were administrated in English because English being an official of South Africa limits

the number of South African who not understand English. To provide accurate data, this study

aimed to gather 200 responses meaning 50 per category. These responses were only factored into

our analysis if participants finished the entirety of the survey. In actuality, the study utilized 209

responses. We, however, did not reach our goal of having approximately 50 responses per

category due to a lower number of responses for advertisements with 50 years of history and a

British country of origin. A possible reason for this skew is that more participants who randomly

received this advertisement did not finish the survey.

Expected Total = 200 responses

Actual Total = 209 responses

50 Years 100 Years

Great Britain Expected = 50 responses

Actual = 32 responses

Expected = 50 responses


South Africa Expected = 50 responses




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Study 1 focused on determining the relationship between country of origin, longevity,

and consumer’s perceived brand authenticity in the context of South African independence in

1961 (H1a, H2, H3a, H3b). It also identified the impact of perceived brand authenticity on

positive word of mouth and emotional brand attachment (H4). Additionally, the study tested the

moderating effects of consumer ethnocentrism, national identity, and self-authenticity.

STUDY 2

DESIGN AND PROCEDURES

The study design for our second experiment mirrors Study 1 where we test these

hypotheses using a 2 (country of origin: South Africa vs. Great Britain) x 2 (longevity: 20 years

vs. 40 years) between-subjects design. To provide accurate data, this study aimed to have 200

responses and actually utilized 241 responses meaning approximately 60 per category.

Expected Total = 200 responses

Actual Total = 241 responses

20 Years 40 Years

Great Britain Expected = 50 responses




South Africa Expected = 50 responses




Study 2 focused on determining the relationship between country of origin, longevity, and

consumer’s perceived brand authenticity in the context of South African abolishment of

apartheid in 1994 (H1b, H2, H3c, H3d). Similar to Study 1, it also identified the impact of

perceived brand authenticity on positive word of mouth and emotional brand attachment (H4)

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and tested for the moderating effects of consumer ethnocentrism, national identity, and self-

authenticity.

MEASURES

To measure perceived brand authenticity effects, we will utilize metrics validated in

country of origin research and by Morhart et al. (2014) who studied perceived brand authenticity

on dimensions of continuity, credibility, integrity, and symbolism. The dependent measures will

be positive word of mouth and brand attachment along with the measures of perceived brand

authenticity. We will also measure national identity, consumer ethnocentrism, and consumer

demographics, consistent with past work on country of origin. All measures are further explained

in Exhibit 6. These variables, excluding demographic variables, will be measured by Likert

scales (anchored at 1 = strongly disagree and 7 = strongly agree).

METHODOLOGY FOR ANALYSIS

Each study design for this experiment is a 2x2 design between subjects that looks at the

constructs of country of origin and longevity on different levels. In Study 1, country of origin is

analyzed on two levels of longevity: 50 years and 100 years, while longevity is analyzed on two

levels of country of origin: Great Britain and South Africa. In Study 2, the two levels of

longevity were 20 years and 40 years. For our analysis, participants are randomized into the four

independent categories indicated in each design study. This eliminates many variables as factors

to skew the data. To analyze our study, we must perform multiple linear regressions to determine

main and interactive effects proposed in our hypotheses. In practice, we ran multiple regression

analyses utilizing the PROCESS macro to study the main and interactive effects associated with

H1a, H1b, H2, H3a, H3b, H3c, and H3d of the independent measures of country of origin and

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longevity on the dependent measure of each element of perceived brand authenticity. Although

not hypothesized, we also looked at the moderating effects of national identity (Verlegh, 2007),

consumer ethnocentrism (Batra et al., 2000), and self-authenticity (Morhart et al., 2014).

We ran a series of linear regression analyses, through the PROCESS macro for SPSS, to

draw conclusions on main and interactive effects of longevity and country of origin on metrics of

perceived brand authenticity (Model 1, Hayes, 2013). For both studies, we categorized country

of origin with a dummy variable (0 = South Africa, 1 = Great Britain). For Study 1, we

distinguished the two levels of longevity, 50 years and 100 years, using a dummy variable (0 =

50 years, 1 = 100 years). We also utilized a dummy variable to distinguish longevity in Study 2

(0 = 20 years, 1 = 40 years). This creates a regression equation based on the model below:

𝑌 = 𝐵! 𝐿𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 + 𝐵! 𝐶𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑂𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛 + 𝐵! 𝐿𝑜𝑛𝑔𝑒𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑥 𝐶𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑦 𝑜𝑓 𝑂𝑟𝑖𝑔𝑖𝑛

+ 𝐵!

From the regression analyses, we look at our two factors of interest (country of origin and

longevity) and their interaction, shown as 𝐵! to 𝐵!, to determine if the factors and their

interactive relationship are significant. Based on the significance of each coefficient in the

model, we can draw conclusions about the main and interactive effects of longevity and country

of origin. 𝐵! pertains to the main effect of longevity; we expect 𝐵! to be positive for all

dependent variables indicating that 100 years is perceived as more authentic and enjoys higher

positive word of mouth and more emotional brand attachment. 𝐵! pertains to the main effect of

having a British country of origin compared to South Africa; we expect this factor to be negative

for all dependent variables indicating that brands with a South African country of origin are

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perceived as more authentic and enjoy higher positive word of mouth and more emotional brand

attachment. 𝐵! is associated with the interactive effect of origin and longevity. If this coefficient

is significant, there is a difference in the pattern of longevity based on country of origin. For

example, if 100 years is seen as more authentic, a significant factor will show that 50 years is

seen as more authentic with the specific country of origin. We hypothesize that 𝐵!will be

significant such that a brand with a British country of origin is perceived to be more authentic

and, accordingly, enjoy more positive word of mouth and emotional brand attachment with a 100

year history versus a 50 year history. Conversely for a brand with a South African country of

origin, we hypothesize the brand will be seen as more authentic with a longevity of 50 years

versus 100 years.

Though we did not aim to test a hypothesis of the moderating effects of national identity

(Verlegh, 2007), consumer ethnocentrism (Batra et al., 2000), and self-authenticity (Morhart et

al., 2014), we subsequently included these factors (one at a time) in the model to better

understand any observed effects. Thus, each of the analyses were 2 x 2 x continuous between-

subjects design that looks at the constructs of country of origin and longevity on different levels

and moderator constructs on a continuous scale (Model 3, Hayes, 2013). National identity,

consumer ethnocentrism, and self-authenticity values were created by averaging validated survey

questions of each. These survey questions were scaled from 1-7 (1 = less, 7 = more) meaning

that the averages are continuous over that range.

Lastly, we utilized linear regression analysis to investigate hypothesis 4 pertaining to the

impact of elements of perceived brand authenticity (continuity, credibility, integrity, and

symbolism), on the dependent variables of positive word of mouth and emotional brand

attachment. Similar to the moderating factors, all the factors of perceived brand authenticity are

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presented as a continuous range from 1-7, with a value of 7 being perceived more authentic and 1

being perceived less authentic by consumers. We hypothesize that all elements of perceived

brand authenticity will be significant and will independently positively impact the dependent

measures of word of mouth and emotional brand attaching, meaning that we hypothesized that

the factors. As seen in Exhibit 9, all four of the aspects of authenticity are highly correlated in

both studies causing the threat of multicollinearity if they were to be tested jointly. As such, we

choose to run our analyses of each aspect of authenticity independently.

STUDY 1

Results

The hypotheses in the first study concerned the effects of a brand’s country of origin and

longevity of brands origin on consumer perceived brand authenticity when time periods differed

in regards to the status of South Africa as an independent country or colony of Great Britain. It

also included a hypothesis to confirm that perceived brand authenticity positively impacted

consumers’ willingness to purchase and positive word of mouth in the South African market

place. Regression analyses were utilized to demonstrate directional effects through estimated

coefficient signs along with statistical significance through p-values. Additionally, we

determined whether the effects were moderated by consumers’ national identity, consumer

ethnocentrism, or self-authenticity.

Continuity. We analyzed the effects of country of origin and longevity were on the

continuity measure of perceived brand authenticity. Our analysis showed that there was a

significant main effect of longevity, b = -.234, F(1, 209) = 3.83, p = .052; however, contrary to

H1a, we observed a negative effect of longevity. This demonstrates that a brand that originated

50 years ago is perceived to be more authentic on the continuity measure than 100 years. We also

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found a main effect of country of origin, b= -.321, F(1,209) = 5.04, p = .026. Consistent with

H2a the South African brand was perceived to be more authentic on the continuity measure than

the English brand. Finally, we found a significant interaction between country of origin and

longevity, b= .4152, F(1,209) = 5.02, p = .0261. See Figure 1. We conducted planned contrasts to

better understand this interaction. We expected that a brand with a British country of origin

would be seen as more authentic when it began 100 versus 50 years ago. Contrary to H3a, we did

not find a significant difference on longevity for when the brand was described as British, b =

.1813, F(1,209) = 1.64, p =.2017. However, consistent with H3b, we found that when

respondents were told that the brand was South African, it was rated as more authentic with a

history of 50 years versus 100 years, b = -.2339, F(1,209) = 3.83, p = .0518).

Figure 1

We next examined the moderating role of national identity, consumer ethnocentrism, and

self-authenticity. As demonstrated in Exhibit 10, the effects of consumer ethnocentrism and self-

authenticity were not significant, all p-values > .10. However, national identity did yield

significant effects. Our analysis showed that there was a marginally significant main effect of

5.35.45.55.65.75.85.9

50 100

Continuity

Longevity

Continuity

SouthAfrica GreatBritain

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country of origin, b = -1.732, F(1,209) = 3.48, p = .0637, and a significant main effect of

longevity, b = -1.732, F(1,209) = 3.48, p = .0637. However, contrary to H1a, we observed a

negative effect of longevity. This demonstrates that a brand that originated 50 years ago is

perceived to be more authentic on the continuity measure than 100 years. Consistent with H2a

the South African brand was perceived to be more authentic on the continuity measure than the

English brand. Finally, we did not find a significant interaction between country of origin and

longevity. We further examined the significant 3-way interaction with planned contrasts. When

national identity was low (-1 SD), we found the same pattern of results as hypothesized for a

South African brand but found no pattern for a British brand. See Figure 2a. When national

identity was high (+1 SD), we found the same pattern of results as hypothesized for a British

brand but the opposite results hypothesized in a South African brand. See Figure 2b.

Figure 2a & 2b

Credibility. We analyzed the effects of country of origin and longevity on the credibility

measure of perceived brand authenticity. The main effects of country of origin and longevity

4.85

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Longevity

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21

and the interactive effects of the two were not proven statistically significant without moderating

factors.




significant effects.

Our analysis showed that there was a significant main effect of country of origin, b = -

2.652, F(1,209) = 8.29, p = .0044, and a significant main effect of longevity, b = -2.6376, F

(1,209) = 13.14, p = .0004. However, contrary to H1a, we observed a negative effect of

longevity. This demonstrates that a brand that originated 50 years ago is perceived to be more

authentic on the credibility measure than 100 years. Consistent with H2a, the South African

brand was perceived to be more authentic on the credibility measure than the English brand.

Finally, we find a significant interaction between country of origin and longevity. We further

examined the significant 3-way interaction with planned contrasts. When national identity was

low (-1 SD), we found the same pattern of results as hypothesized for a South African brand but

the opposite results hypothesized for a British brand. See Figure 3a. When national identity was

high (+1 SD), we found the opposite pattern of results as hypothesized for a South African and

British brand. See Figure 3b.

22

Figure 3a & 3b

Integrity. We analyzed the effects of country of origin and longevity on the integrity

measure of perceived brand authenticity, and no statistically significant results were found, all-p-

values > .l0. The effects were similarly not significant when the moderators were integrated.

Symbolism. We analyzed the effects of country of origin and longevity on the symbolism

measure of perceived brand authenticity, and no statistically significant results were found, all p-

values > .1.





Our analysis showed that there was no significant main effect of country of origin, but

there was a significant main effect of longevity, b= -2.1592, F(1,209) = 5.28, p = .0225.

However, contrary to H1a, we observed a negative effect of longevity.

We further examined the significant main effect of longevity with planned contrasts.

When national identity was low (-1 SD), we found the opposite pattern of results as

4.8

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HighNa'onalIden'ty:Credibility


23

hypothesized, with participants perceiving an older brand as less authentic. See Figure 4a. When

national identity was high (+1 SD), we found the pattern of results as hypothesized for a South

African and British brand with participants perceiving an older brand as more authentic. See

Figure 4b.

Figure 4a & 4b

Emotional Brand Attachment & Word of Mouth. To determine the validity of H4, we ran

a series of regressions with continuity, credibility, integrity, and symbolism acting as

independent measures, respectively, and emotional brand attachment and word of mouth as

separate dependent measures. As demonstrated in Exhibit 12, all factors independently have

positive and significant effect on emotional brand attachment and word of mouth. Therefore,

when a brand is perceived as more authentic, regardless of the dimension of authenticity,

consumers are more likely to develop emotional brand attachment and speak highly of the brand

to their peers.

4.64.74.84.95

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Longevity

HighNa'onalIden'ty:Symbolism


24

Discussion

The results of Study 1 gave us some initial insight into the effects of a brand’s country of

origin and longevity of brands origin on consumer perceived brand authenticity in a post-colonial

world. The different metrics of perceived brand authenticity displayed differing significance but

consistency in their results. These significant results consistently disproved H1a and supported

H2b. Additionally, two of the dimensions of authenticity yield a significant and consistent

pattern, demonstrating some support for H3a and H3b.

In comparison of the four dimensions of authenticity, it is interesting to note that only

continuity was found to be statistically significant for country of origin, longevity, and the

interaction between the two without moderators. Continuity “reflects brand’s timelessness,

historicity, and its ability to transcend trends” (Morhart et al., 2014). As theorized in H1a, a

brand with a longer history would logically be seen as qualifying as more authentic on the

continuous factor but this was consistently not the case. A brand with a shorter history was

actually seen as more authentic than a brand with a longer history. A possible explanation for

this discrepancy is that participants did not believe that it was possible for a fried chicken chain

to realistically begin 100 years ago. Kentucky Fried Chicken was only introduced to South

Africa in 1971 and Nando’s originated in 1987, so this may have contributed to the unanticipated

longevity results (Kentucky Fried Chicken). The strength in the statistical support for both our

hypothesized results for country of origin and interaction demonstrate the possibility that

continuity is a stronger indicator of perceived brand authenticity. Notably, the survey question

asking whether a brand is perceived as timelessness and has the ability to transcend trends in a

common narrative of authentic brands specifically in the fast food industry. The narrative of a

fried food company having symbolism, defined as brands that reflect values that consumers

25

consider important and thus help construct who they are, or integrity, defined as a brand that

identifies the intentions and moral values that a brand communicates to its customers, may be a

stretch for some consumers in respect to a fast food company (Morhart et al., 2014). Credibility,

which is defined as a perception that a brand demonstrates a willing and ability to deliver on

their promise, also may present a more accurate description of authenticity in a fast food setting

demonstrated through statistically significant findings similar to continuity measures when

utilizing a moderator of national identity (Morhart et al., 2014).

Though we did not hypothesize, we saw some significant effects of national identity,

consumer ethnocentrism, and self-authenticity as moderators on each dimension of perceived

brand authenticity. These moderators often strengthened the analyses and demonstrated

significance for the stated hypotheses. Notably, national identity modified our analyses to be

significant. This is understandable because how highly someone identifies themselves as South

African, the stronger our expected results should be. The contrast graphs when observing low

versus high nationality were diverse for the metrics of continuity, credibility, and symbolism. For

continuity, the anticipated pattern for South African brand that it would be perceived as more

authentic with a history of 50 years versus 100 years was more pronounced when individuals had

lower national identity. Conversely, when individuals had high national identity, the pattern for

Great Britain being seen as more authentic when it originated before independence was more

pronounced. The results for individuals with high national identity was surprising because they

also exhibited lower overall perceived brand authenticity on each longevity metric for a South

African brand while participants with low national identity showed the opposite trend. A possible

reason that can explain this phenomenon is individuals with high nationality cannot realistically

believe in the made-up brand when they already have ties with existing South African fast food

26

brands such as Nando’s. On the contrast analysis on credibility measure with national identity

measure, a similar trend is demonstrated further supporting this result. The contrast result on

symbolism metric with national identity as a moderator also showed these results but for low

national identity, a British brand showed that it was perceived as less authentic when it was

older, which can be attributed to theory above over participants’ inability to believe a fast food

chicken brand would have such a long history.

STUDY 2

Results

The hypotheses in the second study concerned the effects of a brand’s country of origin

and longevity of brands origin on consumer perceived brand authenticity when time periods

differed in regards to the existence of apartheid.

Continuity. We analyzed the effects of country of origin and longevity were on the

continuity measure of perceived brand authenticity and no statistically significant results were

found, all p-values > .10.


self-authenticity. As demonstrated in Exhibit 11, the effects of consumer ethnocentrism was not

significant, all p-values > .10. However, national identity and self-authenticity did yield


Our analysis with national identity as a moderator showed that there was not a significant

main effect of country of origin, but there was a significant main effect of longevity, b = -1.9812,

F(1,239) = 6.01, p = .0149. However, contrary to H1b, we observed a negative effect of

longevity.

27

We further examined the significant main effect of longevity with planned contrasts.

When national identity was low (-1 SD), we found the opposite pattern of results as hypothesized

with participants perceiving an older brand as less authentic. See Figure 5a. When national

identity was high (+1 SD), we found the pattern of results as hypothesized for a South African

and British brand with participants perceiving an older brand as more authentic. See Figure 5b.

Figure 5a & 5b

Our analysis with self-authenticity as a moderator showed that there was no significant

main effect of country of origin but a significant main effect of longevity, b= -2.68, F(1,239) =

9.76, p = .002. However, contrary to H1a, we observed a negative effect of longevity. When self-

authenticity was low (-1 SD), we found the opposite pattern of results as hypothesized with

participants perceiving an older brand as less authentic. See Figure 6a. When self-authenticity

was high (+1 SD), we found the pattern for longevity differing based on country with South

African brand being perceived as more authentic if they are older and the opposite pattern

existing for British brands. See Figure 6b.

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Longevity

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HighNa'onalIden'ty:Con'nuity


28

Figure 6a & 6b

Credibility. We analyzed the effects of country of origin and longevity on the credibility

measure of perceived brand authenticity. On the credibility measure of perceived brand

authenticity, country of origin was not found to be statistically significant, all p-values > .10.

Longevity, however, was found to be negatively statistically significant, contradicting H1b (b= -

.3093, F (1,239) = 5.58, p = .0189). See Figure 7.

Figure 7

5

5.2

5.4

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Longevity

Credibility


29





Our analysis with national identity as a moderator showed that there was not a significant

main effect of country of origin, but there was a significant main effect of longevity, b = -3.2147,


longevity. We also found a significant interaction between country of origin and longevity (b=

2.3339, F (1,239) = 4.06, p = .0452). We further examined the significant 3-way interaction with

planned contrasts. When national identity was low (-1 SD), we found the same pattern of results

as hypothesized for a South African brand but the opposite results hypothesized in a British

brand. See Figure 8a. When national identity was high (+1 SD), we found the opposite pattern of

results as hypothesized for a South African and British brand. See Figure 8b.

Figure 8a & 8b

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HighNa'onalIden'ty:Credibility


30

Our analysis with self-authenticity as a moderator showed that the main effect of country

of origin was not significant, but we did find a significant main effect of longevity, b = -3.19,


longevity. When self-authenticity was low (-1 SD), we found the opposite pattern of results from

what we hypothesized, with participants perceiving an older brand as less authentic. See Figure

9a. When self-authenticity was high (+1 SD), we found the pattern for longevity differing based

on country with South African brand being perceived as more authentic if they are older and the

opposite pattern existing for British brands. See Figure 9b.

Figure 9a & 9b

Integrity. We analyzed the effects of country of origin and longevity on the integrity

measure of perceived brand authenticity. No statistically significant results were found on the

main effect of country of origin or the interactive effect of country of origin and longevity, all p-

values > .10. A main effect of longevity was found to be marginally statistically significant (b= -

.2776, F (1,239) = 3.68, p = .0561). However, contrary to H1b, we observed a negative effect of

longevity. See Figure 10.

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31

Figure 10





Our analysis with national identity as a moderator showed that there was no significant

main effect of country of origin or the interactive effect of country of origin and longevity, but

there was a significant main effect of longevity, b= -3.0933, F (1,239) = 10.24, p = .0016.

However, contrary to H1b, we observed a negative effect of longevity. We further examined the

significant main effect of longevity with planned contrasts. When national identity was low (-1

SD), we found the opposite pattern of results as hypothesized with participants perceiving an

older brand as less authentic. See Figure 11a. When national identity was high (+1 SD), we

found the pattern of results as hypothesized, with participants perceiving an older brand as more

authentic. See Figure 11b.

5.25.35.45.55.65.75.8

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Longevity

Integrity


32

Figure 11a & b


main effect of country of origin and not significant interactive effect of country of origin and

longevity, but there was a significant main effect of longevity, b= -3.0933, F(1,239) = 10.24, p =

.0016. However, contrary to H1b, we observed a negative effect of longevity. We further

examined the significant main effect of longevity with planned contrasts. When self-authenticity

was low (-1 SD), we found the opposite pattern of results as hypothesized with participants

perceiving an older brand as less authentic. See Figure 12a. When self-authenticity was high (+1

SD), we found the pattern for longevity differing based on brand’s country of origin with South

African brand being perceived as more authentic if they are older and the opposite pattern

existing for British brands. See Figure 12b.

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Figure 12a & b

Symbolism. We analyzed the effects of country of origin and longevity on the symbolism

measure of perceived brand authenticity, and no statistically significant results were found, all p-

values > .10.


self-authenticity. As demonstrated in Exhibit 11, none of the effects of consumer ethnocentrism

were significant, all p-values > .10. However, national identity and self-authenticity did yield


Our analysis showed that there was a marginally significant main effect of country of

origin, b=-2.3712, F(1,239)= 2.87, p =.0918, and a significant main effect of longevity, b= -

3.2379, F(1,239) = 6.16, p = .0138. However, contrary to H1b, we observed a negative effect of

longevity. This demonstrates that a brand that originated 50 years ago is perceived to be more

authentic on the continuity measure than 100 years. Consistent with H2 the South African brand

was perceived to be more authentic on the continuity measure than the English brand. Finally,

we find a significant interaction between country of origin and longevity (b=3.0021, F(1,239)=

3.03, p =.0831) . We further examined the significant 3-way interaction with planned contrasts.

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When national identity was low (-1 SD), we found the same pattern of results as hypothesized

for a South African brand but found no pattern for a British brand contrary to the hypothesized

results. See Figure 13a. When national identity was high (+1 SD), we found the same pattern of

results as hypothesized for a British brand but found no pattern for a South African brand

contrary to the hypothesized results. See Figure 13b.

Figure 13a & 13b


main effect of country of origin or the interactive effect of country of origin and longevity but a

significant main effect of longevity, b= -3.8224, F (1,239) = 7.07, p = .0084. However, contrary

to H1b, we observed a negative effect of longevity. We further examined the significant main

effect of longevity with planned contrasts. When self-authenticity was low (-1 SD), we found the

opposite pattern of results as hypothesized with participants perceiving an older brand as less

authentic. See Figure 14a. When self-authenticity was high (+1 SD), we found the pattern of

results as hypothesized for a South African and British brand with participants perceiving an

older brand as more authentic. See Figure 14b.

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Figure 14a & 14b

Emotional Brand Attachment & Word of Mouth. To test H4, we ran a series of

regressions with continuity, credibility, integrity, and symbolism acting as independent measures

and emotional brand attachment and word of mouth as dependent measures. As demonstrated in

Exhibit 12, all factors independently have a positive and significant effect on emotional brand

attachment and word of mouth. Therefore, when a brand is perceived as more authentic,

consumers are more likely to develop emotional brand attachment and speak highly of the brand

to their peers.

Discussion

Study 2 provided fewer significant results than Study 1. Notably, we observed fewer

significant effects pertaining to H2 regarding country of origin impact on dimensions of

perceived brand authenticity. As evident in Exhibit 11, there was one result that was marginally

significant and multiple p-values that were below 0.20, suggesting that with a larger sample,

these values are likely to become significant and help provide insight on country of origin in time

periods before and after apartheid.

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Longevity was found to be significant with a linear regression without a moderator for

credibility and integrity. This demonstrated that consumers perceived a brand that originated 20

years ago (post-apartheid) as more authentic than 40 years ago (pre-apartheid), which contradicts

H1b. This result was mirrored when utilizing national identity and self-authenticity for continuity

and symbolism. This significant result is perplexing because the argument cannot be made that

consumers do not realistically believe a fried chicken company originated 40 years ago with

KFC entering the market 47 years ago. A possible rationale for this discrepancy could be due to a

skew in historical context stemming from the recent economic changes in the South African

market.

Our analyses of moderators, specifically national identity and self-authenticity, provide

insights on these factors on our analyses. The only significant interaction was displayed with

national identity as a moderator on the credibility measure. When national identity was low (-1

SD), we found that South African brands were consider more authentic when their history began

after apartheid, matching the pattern of results as hypothesized in H3c. When national identity

was high (+1 SD), we found the opposite pattern of results demonstrating that individuals with

high national identity consider a South African brand more authentic with a longer history that

started during apartheid. These results can be a reflection of individuals having lower national

identity being more affected by apartheid; this would logically make them gravitate to a brand

beginning after apartheid. Individuals who were not affected as much from apartheid may not see

a difference in time period and feel that an older brand is more authentic.

Additionally, self-authenticity displayed significant results for longevity. Consistently

over all measure of authenticity, individuals with low self-authenticity perceived a brand with a

longer history as less authentic. Individuals with high self-authenticity perceived a South African

37

brand with a longer history as more authentic. Individuals with high self-authenticity perceived a

British brand with a longer history as more authentic on the measures of continuity and

symbolism, and perceived a British brand with a longer history as less authentic on the measures

of credibility and integrity. Self-authenticity measures how important being true to ones values

it is for the participant (Morhart et al., 2014). This is calculated by asking participants how much

they agree with the statements: “I think it is better to be yourself, than be popular,” “I always

stand by what I believe in,” and “I am true to myself in most situations.” Individuals with high

self-authenticity generally viewed a brand with a longer history as more authentic contradicting

our hypothesis; the relation can suggest that individuals that find values importance believe that a

longer history corresponds to that in a brand.

GENERAL DISCUSSION Summary of Findings

Hypothesis 1. H1a and H1b hypothesize the main effect of longevity on perceived brand

authenticity. Both hypotheses show an expectation that a brand with a longer history will be

perceived as more authentic. Studies 1 and 2 consistently showed the opposite pattern from what

was hypothesized. The impact of longevity of brands has not been explicitly tested in the current

literature but this perception is counterintuitive. Some possible rationales for this discrepancy

includes a skewed perception of historical timeline in a developing nation experiencing

economic change or an inability for participants to find a long history reasonable for a fast food

restaurant. Changing the type of company in the advertisement may cause different results.

Hypothesis 2. H2 hypothesize the main effect of country of origin on perceived brand

authenticity with the expectation that a South African brand would be perceived as more

38

authentic. This was proven in Study 1 on continuity measure and credibility measure with

national identity as a moderator. This was not proven to be statistically significant in Study 2 but

had marginally significant results along with results with p values between 0.10 and 0.20. These

results suggest that a larger data pool would likely make these measures significant.

Hypothesis 3. H3a, H3b, H3c, and H3d hypothesize the interactive effect of longevity and

country of origin on perceived brand authenticity. H3a hypothesize that participants will view a

British brand as more authentic with a longer history matching South Africans’ national identity

at this time in history because this was before South Africa’s independence from Great Britain.

This was proven on the continuity measure of perceived brand authenticity in Study 1. H3b

hypothesize that participants will view a South African brand as more authentic with a shorter

history matching South Africans’ national identity at this time in history because this was after

South Africa’s independence from Great Britain.

The interactive effect in Study 2 suggests that South Africans did not truly feel

independent until the artifact of British rule, apartheid, ended. Therefore, the logic for H3a and

H3b is matched in H3c and H4d. No statistically significant results were found to prove these

two hypotheses without moderators. It was found statistically significant on the credibility

measure of perceived brand authenticity when moderated by national identity. The hypothesized

pattern was found with participants with low national identity; low national identity could be

related with individuals who were negatively impacted by apartheid. Individuals who were

negatively impacted by apartheid are more likely to see the end of apartheid to be South Africa’s

true independence from British rule.

Hypothesis 4. H4 validates that the main effect of perceived brand authenticity on

emotional brand attachment and word of mouth is mirrored in the South African market (Morhart

39

et al. 2014). This main effect demonstrates a brand experiences higher emotional brand

attachment and positive word of mouth when it is perceived as more authentic.

Limitations and Future Steps One limitation of this data is that it was found through one sample of subjects, Reddit

users. In the future, it would be advantageous to have some additional sample pools to help

validate our results. Some possible outlets of receiving data is face-to-face data collection,

partnership with a university in South Africa, another social media outlet, or a market research

company that targets South Africans.

Additionally, we can only speculate over the difference in results from each study. It

would be useful to have another study to better understand why we observe differences across

studies and dependent variables.

Another limitation of our study is the use of only one type of advertisement. The use of a

fast food fried chicken company could skew our results as consumers’ perception of fast food

companies may differ greatly from companies in other industries. As discussed, consumers may

not resonate with portions of perceived brand authenticity when describing fast food companies

such as symbolism and integrity. Consumers also may not believe that a fast food company

began 100 years ago. In the future, this study can be replicated using brands in different

industries to see if the same effects arise. Some examples of multinational brands that can be

studied in the future are in the clothing industry, food and beverage industry, and service

industry.

Another limitation that arose in our research was the skew in cell size for Study 1. We

only received 32 responses for participants viewing an advertisement with a brand that originated

50 years ago in London while the other categories received over 50 responses. This can skew the

40

data by receiving fewer responses for this category. In future studies, this skew will likely be

mitigated.

Discussion and Implications

The developing world poses an opportunity for brands around the world to succeed and

prosper. Recently, there has been a shift in consumers valuing authenticity in their brands but

limited research exists in the area and there is a notable gap in understanding the perceptions of

citizens of countries that were previously colonies of the Western world. Through the proxy of

South Africa, our research demonstrates that consumers in previously colonized countries view

local brands as more authentic than foreign brands. Interestingly, older brands are viewed as less

authentic than brands with less history. The interaction between the length of a brands history

and country of origin provides insight in the post-colonial world because our findings exemplify

that when a brand originated in a time period when a country was still a colony, a brand was

perceived as more authentic when the country of origin matched the controlling nation. This has

implications of many brands which often originated in Western nations to utilize their history in

a productive way. For local brands, consumer perceive brand as more authentic if the brand

originated after independence.

South Africa was an ideal case study because it exemplifies that artifacts of colonial rule

can continue to impact consumers perception of their independence. This can be seen in South

Africa through their history of apartheid. Our research shows that individuals with lower national

identity, which could stem from mistreatment in apartheid, demonstrate patterns that reflect their

identification of the end of apartheid being South Africa’s true independence.

41

Though we can only hypothesize the catalysts of these findings, brands can utilize this

knowledge in their brand’s advertisement in markets that were previously colonies. As

confirmed in our research, consumers’ perception of a brand as authentic can increase consumer

emotional brand attachment and increase their likelihood to provide positive word of mouth for

the brand. Both of these consumer behaviors positively impact a brand’s introduction and

success in a market. Therefore, our research helps better understand what causes consumers to

perceive brands as authentic, which is imperative to succeed in the post-colonial world.

42

CountryofOrigin

CountryofOrigin

Exhibit 1: Experiment Framework Study 1: Longevity

Pre-Colonization

100 Years

Post-Colonization

50 Years

Great Britain Anticipated Number of

Responses: 50

Anticipated Number of Responses: 50

South Africa



Study 2: Longevity

Pre-Apartheid

40 Years

Post-Apartheid

50 Years

Great Britain Anticipated Number of

Responses: 50


South Africa



43

Exhibit 2: Conceptual Framework

BrandScandals

Brand-congruentemployeebehaviors

Communicationstyleemphasizingabrand’sroots

Communicationstyleemphasizingabrand’svirtue

BrandAnthropomorphism

IndexicalCues

IconicCues

ExistentialCues

PerceivedBrandAuthenticityContinuityIntegrityCredibilitySymbolism

Positive

WordofMouth

EmotionalBrandAttachment

Longevity(Age)

CountryofOrigin

44

Exhibit 3: Consolidated Conceptual Framework

Positive

WordofMouth

EmotionalBrandAttachment

IconicCues

emphasizingbrand’sroots

PerceivedBrand

Authenticity

Longevity(Age)

CountryofOrigin

45

Exhibit 4: Expected Interactive Effect of Longevity & Country of Origin

SouthAfrica GreatBritain NoneLevelofPerceivedBrandAuthenticity

CountryofOrigin

Study1

50Year

100Year

SouthAfrica GreatBritain NoneLevelofPerceivedBrandAuthenticity

CountryofOrigin

Study2

20Years

40Years

46

Exhibit 5: Proposed Ad

The history of The Chicken Shop all began in 1966 on one faithful afternoon in London when a

pair of brothers opened their first restaurant and sold their first chicken sandwich. From this

modest start, The Chicken Shop has revolutionized the chicken industry within the fast food

sphere through its delicious Chicken Sauce and signature crunchy chicken sandwiches. The

Chicken Shop has since expanded to over 100 countries and strives everyday to support its

customers in their busy lifestyles through its delicious food.

Since opening our doors to our first shop in London,

we have been happy to serve the world quality chicken for 50 years

The Chicken Shop

47

Exhibit 6: Elements to Manipulate in Proposed Advertisement Study 1: Longevity 100/1916 50/1966

Country of Origin London Johannesburg None

Study 2: Longevity 40/1976 20/1996

Country of Origin London Johannesburg None

48

Exhibit 7: Survey Questions

Construct Item

Dependent Measures Word of Mouth (Price & Arnould, 1999)

I would recommend this brand to someone who seeks my advice. I would recommend this brand to others.

Emotional Brand Attachment (Thomson et al., 2005)

Affection: affectionate, friendly, loved, peaceful Passion: passionate, delighted, captivated Connection: connected, bonded, attached

Continuity (Morhart et al., 2014)

A brand with a history. A brand that survives times. A brand that survives trends.

Credibility (Morhart et al., 2014)

A brand that will not betray you. A brand that accomplishes its value promise. An honest brand.

Integrity (Morhart et al., 2014)

A brand that gives back to its consumers. A brand with moral principles. A brand true to a set of moral values. A brand that cares about its consumers.

Symbolism (Morhart et al., 2014)

A brand that adds meaning to people’s lives. A brand that reflects important values people care about. A brand that connects people with their real selves. A brand that connects people with what is really important.

National Identity (Verlegh, 2007)

Being South African means a lot to me. I am proud to be South African.

Consumers Ethnocentrism (Batra et al., 2000)

It’s not right to purchase foreign brand. South Africans should not buy foreign brands, because this hurts South African businesses and causes unemployment. I always prefer South African brands over foreign brands.

Self-Authenticity (Morhart et al., 2014)

I think it is better to be yourself, than be popular. I always stand by what I believe in. I am true to myself in most situations.

Consumer Demographics (Verlegh, 2007) (South African National Census)

Age Gender (Male/Female) Race (Black/White/Coloured/Indian/Asian/Other)

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Exhibit 8: Reddit Postings

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Exhibit 9: Correlation Metrics

Study 1: Continuity Credibility Integrity Symbolism

Continuity Pearson Correlation 1 0.347 0.444 0.42

Significance 0.000 0.000 0.000

Credibility Pearson Correlation 0.347 1 0.582 0.532

Significance 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000

Integrity Pearson Correlation 0.444 0.582 1 0.641

Significance 0.000 0.000 0.000

Symbolism Pearson Correlation 0.42 0.532 0.641 1

Significance 0.000 0.000 0.000 Study 2: Continuity Credibility Integrity Symbolism Continuity Pearson Correlation 1 0.428 0.46 0.464 Significance 0.000 0.000 0.000 Credibility Pearson Correlation 0.428 1 0.608 0.666 Significance 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 Integrity Pearson Correlation 0.46 0.608 1 0.816 Significance 0.000 0.000 0.000 Symbolism Pearson Correlation 0.464 0.666 0.816 1 Significance 0.000 0.000 0.000 Key: P < .05 Note: Significance is 2-tailed.

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Exhibit 10: Study 1 Results

Model 1 Model 2 Model 3 Model 4 Model 1 Model 2 Model 3 Model 4COO 0.026 0.018 0.463 0.117 0.470 0.004 0.876 0.519YR: Year 0.052 0.006 0.262 0.805 0.272 0.000 0.393 0.734NI: National Identity 0.577 0.857CE : Consumer Ethnocentrism 0.291 0.005SA: Self Authenticity 0.771 0.124

COO x YR 0.026 0.325 0.538 0.349 0.678 0.021 0.253 0.893COO x NI 0.014 0.001COO x CE 0.439 0.513COO x SA 0.646 0.815YR x NI 0.039 0.005YR X CE 0.750 0.770YR x SA 0.181 0.539COO x YR x NI 0.541 0.023COO x YR x CE 0.288 0.207COO x YR x SA 0.481 0.904

P < .05.05 < P < .1 ..1 < P < .2

Continuity Credibility


COO x YR 0.989 0.715 0.473 0.878 0.667 0.667 0.326 0.894COO x NI 0.229 0.019COO x CE 0.287 0.177COO x SA 0.894 0.919YR x NI 0.228 0.415YR X CE 0.771 0.862YR x SA 0.619 0.999COO x YR x NI 0.693 0.609COO x YR x CE 0.454 0.352COO x YR x SA 0.848 0.945

P < .05.05 < P < .1 ..1 < P < .2

Integrity Symbolism

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Exhibit 11: Study 2 Results


COO x YR 0.702 0.785 0.187 0.297 0.521 0.045 0.851 0.169

COO x NI 0.169 0.008COO x CE 0.693 0.742COO x SA 0.002 0.002YR x NI 0.019 0.253YR X CE 0.206 0.506YR x SA 0.304 0.457COO x YR x NI 0.719 0.054COO x YR x CE 0.216 0.775COO x YR x SA 0.239 0.169

P < .05.05 < P < .1 ..1 < P < .2

Continuity Credibility


COO x YR 0.528 0.247 0.288 0.122 0.569 0.083 0.199 0.505

COO x NI 0.003 0.019COO x CE 0.777 0.756COO x SA 0.017 0.011YR x NI 0.418 0.104YR X CE 0.586 0.341YR x SA 0.175 0.684COO x YR x NI 0.287 0.098COO x YR x CE 0.325 0.223COO x YR x SA 0.125 0.517

P < .05.05 < P < .1 ..1 < P < .2

Integrity Symbolism

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Exhibit 12: Hypothesis 4 Results

Study 1 Study 2 Study 1 Study 2ContinuityBeta Coefficient 0.31 0.377 0.448 0.432F Statistic 22.046 39.567 51.846 54.714Significance 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000

CredibilityBeta Coefficient 0.454 0.607 0.535 0.532F Statistic 53.865 139.782 82.813 94.338Significance 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000

IntegrityBeta Coefficient 0.629 0.726 0.661 0.62F Statistic 135.497 266.588 160.279 149.193Significance 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000

SymbolismBeta Coefficient 0.73 0.804 0.647 0.618F Statistic 236.253 438.248 149.266 147.791Significance 0.000 0.000 0.000 0.000

P < .05.05 < P < .1 ..1 < P < .2

Emotional Brand Attachment Word of Mouth

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