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EFFECTIVE STRATEGIES AND MODELS FOR TEACHING THINKING SKILLS AND CAPITALIZING DEEP UNDERSTANDING IN ENGINEERING EDUCATION

Tiia Rüütmann, Jüri VanaveskiTallinn University of Technology, Estonia

E-mail: tiia.ruutmann@ttu.ee; juri.vanaveski@ttu.ee

Abstract

The article introduces effective teaching strategies and models suitable for teaching engineering, implemented at Estonian Centre for Engineering Pedagogy. Strategies are general approaches to instruction, used to meet a range of learning objectives: skilled questioning, clear communication, organizing lessons, effective feedback, starting lessons with a review and ending with closure, applicable in all teaching situations. Models are specific approaches to instruction having four characteristics: they help students acquire deep understanding and develop critical thinking abilities; they include a series of specific steps intended to reach the objectives; they are grounded in learning theory; they are supported by motivation theory. Introduced models are designed to capitalize deep understanding and critical thinking in teaching engineering. Accordingly students will be able to explain, find evidence and examples, generalise, apply, analogise and represent a topic in a new way. At least four different kinds of knowledge are essential for expert teaching: knowledge of content; pedagogical content knowledge; general pedagogical knowledge; and knowledge of learners and learning. The goal of the article is to help engineering teachers acquire knowledge in each of these areas. Key words: critical thinking, deep understanding, engineering education, teaching models, teaching strategies.

Introduction

Thefieldofengineeringeducationcontinuestoevolverapidly.Cognitiveviewsoflearn-ersarenowtheprimaryguideforteachingengineering,beingreflectedingreateremphasisonpsychological aspects and social interaction as essential factors in learning, the importanceoflearners’priorknowledge,theinfluenceofcontextonlearning,andthegeneralacceptancethatlearnersconstructtheirunderstandingofthetopicstheystudy.Additionallytheinterdependenceoflearningandmotivationismorefullyunderstoodinordertoacquireadeepunderstandingofthestudiedtopicswhilesimultaneouslydevelopingstudents’criticalthinkingabilities.

AccordingtoEntwistle(1988)studentsmaybeinclinedtoapproachtheircoursesinoneofthreeways.Thosewithareproducing orientation tendtotakeasurface approach tolearning,relyingonrotememorizationandmechanicalformulasubstitutionandmakinglittleornoefforttounderstandthematerialbeingtaught.Thosewithameaning orientation tendtoadoptadeep approach, probing and questioning and exploring the limits of applicability of newmaterial.Thosewithanachieving orientation tendtouseastrategic approach,doingwhateverisnecessarytogetthehighestgradetheycan,takingasurfaceapproachifthatsufficesandadeepapproachonlywhennecessary.

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Inordertohaveclearerunderstandingofthethinkingsystems,itisnecessarytolookatthemodalitiesthataffectthewayteachersteachandthewaystudentslearn.AccordingtoTileston(2007)about99%ofallwelearncomestousthroughthesenses.Thebraintakesabout15secondstodecidewhattopayattentionandwhattodiscard.Approximately98%oftheinformationcomingthroughthesensesisdiscarded.Thatmeansthat98%oftheinformationgoingtoyourstudentsintheformofwords,pictures,smells,tastesandtouchislost.Nowondertheydon’tremember!

Expertteachersgenerallyarecomfortablewithwiderangeofteachingstrategies,varyingthem skilfully according to the learning task and learners’ needs. Some of these are generalstrategies, such as skilled questioning, clear communication, organizing lessons, and effectivefeedback, starting lessons with a review and ending with closure, applicable in all teachingsituations.Other,moreexplicitstrategies,calledteachingmodels,aregroundedinlearningandmotivationtheoryanddesignedtoreachspecificlearningobjectives.Allofthemaredesignedtohelpstudentsdevelopadeepunderstandingofthetopicstheystudyandimprovetheircritical-thinkingabilities.

AccordingtoEggen&Kauchak(2006)researchindicatesthatatleastfourdifferentformsofknowledgeareessentialforexpertteaching:

• Knowledge of content – we can’t teach what we don’t understand, a thoroughunderstandingofthetopicsweteachisessentialforallteachersinallcontentareas;

• Pedagogical content knowledge – the ability to create examples, the understandingof ways of representing the subject that make it comprehensible to others and anunderstanding of what makes the learning of specific topics easy or difficult. Thedifferencebetweencontentknowledgeandpedagogicalcontentknowledgeissimilartothedifferencebetweenknowingthat andknowinghow;

• General pedagogical knowledge–involvesanunderstandingofgeneralprinciplesofinstruction and classroommanagement that transcends individual topics or subjectmatterareas.Questioningisanimportantexample,itisateachingstrategythatappliestoeveryareateaching.Similarlyteachersmustbeabletocommunicateclearly,provideeffectivefeedback,anduseotherstrategies;

• Knowledge of learners and learning–isessentialtoeffectiveteaching,beingarguablythemostimportantknowledgeateachercanhave.Itinfluencesthewayweteachbyremindingusthatwedonotteachcontent,weteachstudents.Teachers’abilitytoadapttheirinstructionbasedonwhatlearners’knowisessentialforeffectiveteaching.

Eachoftheformsofknowledge,introducedaboveisessentialforteachingexpertise.Thegoalofthearticleistohelpengineeringteachersacquireknowledgeineachoftheseareas.Theteachingmodelsandstrategiesdescribedin thisarticlearebeingtaughtatEstonianCentreforEngineeringPedagogytohelpengineeringteachersensurethattheirstudents’learningextendsbeyondmerememorisation,whichistooprevalentatschoolstoday.

Strategies and Models

AccordinglytoEggen&Kauchak(2006)strategiesaregeneralapproachestoinstructionthatapplyinavarietyofcontentareasandareusedtomeetarangeoflearningobjectives.Forexamplequestioning,organisinglessons,providingfeedback,startinglessonswithareviewandendingwithclosure,applicableinallteachingsituations.Thesestrategiesaregeneralandapplyacrossinstructionalsettings,regardlessofthegrade,level,contentareaortopic.

Models are specific approaches to instruction that have four characteristics Eggen&Kauchak(2006):

• Theyaredesigned tohelp students acquiredeepunderstandingof specific formsofcontentandtodeveloptheircritical-thinkingabilities;

• They include a series of specific steps that are intended to help students reach theobjectives;

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178 • Theyaregroundedinlearningtheory;• Theyaresupportedbymotivationtheory.

Generalstrategiesareincorporatedwithineachofthemodels.Forexamplequestioning,lessonorganisation,feedbackandotherstrategiesareessentialforthesuccessofallmodels.Amodelprovidesstructureanddirectionfortheteacher,butitcannotprovideallactionstakenbyateacher.Ateachingmodelisnotasubstituteforbasicteachingskills,itcannottaketheplaceofqualitiesagoodteachermusthave,andthedifferentformsofknowledge.Ateachingmodelisatool,designedtohelpteachersmaketheirinstructionsystematicandefficient(Eggen&Kauchak2006).

Teaching for Thinking and Understanding

Theconceptofteachingforunderstandingmayseemironicasnoteacherteachesforlackofunderstanding.Expertsdefineunderstandingasbeingabletodovarietyofthought-demandingprocedureswithatopic–likeexplaining,findingevidenceandexamples,generalising,applying,analogising,andrepresentingthetopicinanewway.

Teachingforunderstandingrequiresthatteacherspossessthedifferenttypesofknowledgeintroducedearlier.AccordingtoEggen&Kauchak(2006)andBurden&Byrd(2010)armedwiththisknowledge,effectiveteachersachievedeepstudentunderstandingby:

• Identifyingclearlearningobjectivesforstudents;• Selectingteachingstrategiesthatmosteffectivelyhelpstudentsreachtheobjectives;• Providingexamplesandrepresentationsthathelpstudentsacquireadeepunderstanding

ofthetopicstheystudy;• Guidingstudentsastheyconstructtheirunderstandingofthetopicbeingstudies;• Continuallymonitoringstudentsforevidenceoflearning.

Althoughthefocusisonlearningandlearners,strategiesintroducedabovedemonstratetheessentialrolethatteachersaswellasteacherknowledgeplayinguidingthisprocess.Effectiveteachingstrategiesareessentialforteacherstopromotedeepunderstanding.Itisimportanttobeabletoselectandusestrategiesthataremosteffectivefordifferentlearningobjectives.

Atermofgenerativeknowledge,knowledgethatcanbeusedtointerpretnewsituations,tosolveproblems,tothinkandreason,andlearn,isoftenusedtodescribedeepunderstanding.Generativeknowledgeinvolveslearningboth,contentandtheabilitytothinkcritically.Ifdeepunderstandingofcontentisagoal,emphasisonthinkingmustalsobeagoal.Inordertothinkeffectivelyandproductivelyinanarea,astudentmustpossessgreatdealofgenerativeknowledgeaboutthearea.

Critical thinking is theabilityanddisposition tomakeandassessconclusionsbasedonevidence.Criticalthinkingincludesfollowingabilities:

• Confirmingconclusionswithfacts;• Identifyingunstatedassumptions;• Recognisingovergeneralisationsandunder-generalisations;• Identifyingrelevantandirrelevantinformation;• Identifyingbias,stereotypes,clichésandpropaganda.

Students learn these attitudes through teacher modelling and by directly experiencingtheminclassroomactivities.Asstudentsacquiretheseinclinationsanddevelopcriticalthinkingskills,theirabilitiestobothlearnandfunctioneffectivelyintherealworldincreases.Fortunately,teachingforthinkingalsoincreaseslearnermotivation.

Lang&Evans (2006), Raths,Wassermann&Wassermann (1978 pp. 7–29) describe awidelyusedclassificationsystem,focusingattentiononteachingfollowingthinkingoperations,suitableforengineeringeducation:

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• Comparing–lookforsimilaritiesanddifferencesbyobservingdetails,findandsortsimilarities,searchandsortdifferences,andsummariseinalist;

• Observing–observingshouldleadtomoreaccuratedataonwhichtobaseconclusions,andtogreaterunderstanding;

• Classifying–examiningandassortmentofitemsandsortingthemintorelatedgroups.Eachgroup is given a name, students canprocess datamentally andorganise themsystematically.Classifying requires three steps: examiningdata, creating categories,andplacingitemsincategories;

• Hypothesising –studentsare tocomeupwithavarietyofpossibleexplanations foraquestion,problem, situation, thus identifyingalternativepossibilities anddecidingwhichhavethemostcredibility;

• Criticising–askstudentstoevaluate,makejudgementsandofferopinionstosharpentheir sense of what is desirable or undesirable, high or low quality, significant ortrivial;

• Looking for assumptions–takingsomethingforgrantedorassume–beingprobablytrue or probably false thus students can learn to identify assumptions. Learning todifferentiatebetweenwhatisassumedtobetrueandwhatisobservablefactisattheheartoflogicalreasoning;

• Collecting and organising data –requiresseveralskills:locatinginformation,examiningthedataandselectingrelevanttotheinquiry,developingproceduresthatallowdatatobeassembled,organisingdata;

• Summarising – requirescondensinganddistilling thecoremessage fromapieceofwork.Studentsmuststatethemainideas,differentiatingbetweenwhatisimportantandwhatmaybeleftout,thusincreasingstudents’abilitiestounderstand;

• Coding –communicateideasin“shorthand”,asathinkingoperation,codingisasystemforpointingoutthroughpatternsorexpressions;

• Interpreting – explaining themeaning, skilful interpretation increasesmeaning andunderstanding.

Facts and information are the important rawmaterials for thinking.Knowing how andhavingtheskillstoaccessandusethesetothinkisatleastasimportant.AsecondapproachtoteachingbasicthinkingoperationsandcorethinkingskillssuitableforengineeringeducationisoutlinedbyHughes&Jones(1988):

• Focusing–definetheproblemandsetgoals(short-andlong-termoutcomes);• Information gathering – observe and ask questions, pick relevant information and

clarifyissues;• Remembering – encode (repeat information, use associations) and recall (bring to

consciousness,when,whereorhowinformationwaslearned);• Organising –compare,identifysimilaritiesanddifferences,classify(group,categorise

orsequenceitems),orderandrepresentshowingrelations;• Analyse – attributes and components are identifies, relationships and patterns are

determined,mainideasanderrorsareidentified;• Generating – generate new ideas by inferring (identifyingwhat reasonablymay be

true),predicting(anticipatingwhatwilllikelyhappen)andelaborating(addingdetails,explanations,examples);

• Integrating –integratewhatwehavelearned,summarise(condense,select,combine)andrestructure(combinenewknowledgewitholdintosomethingnew)

• Evaluate –criteriaareestablishedandthesolutionisverified.

CarolynHughes(Hughes&Jones1988)thinksthatcontentcanbeofincreasingdifficultyandthatteachersshouldrecognisethatteaching/learningexperiences(concrete,graphic,abstract)shouldmatchlearnerreadiness.

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180 Strategies Promoting Student Understanding

AccordingtoBurden&Byrd(2010),Eggen&Kauchak(2006), andMarzano,Pickering&Pollock(2005),Melezinek(1999) researchonteachingprovidesguidancefortheuseofspecificstrategies toenhancestudentunderstanding.Theseessential teachingstrategiesare the teacherattitudesandskillsnecessarytoensurethatallstudentslearnandunderstandasmuchaspossible,beingthebasicskillsofteaching.Followingspecificteachingstrategiesthatwereproventohaveahighprobabilityofenhancingstudentachievement:

• Set objectives and provide feedback–givestudentsdirectionandhelpthemthinkabouttheirownlearning.Bothshort-termgoalsandlong-termgoalsneedtobeclearlyvisibletostudentsinlanguagetheycanunderstand;

• Instructional alignment – congruence among objectives, learning activities andassessments,beingessentialifteachershelpstudentslearnasmuchaspossible;

• Review and closure –reviewistheprocessofsummarisingpreviousworkandformingalinkbetweenlearningandthepresenttopic;closureisaformofreviewthatoccursattheendofalesson;

• Teacher characteristics – teachers set emotional tone for the classroom, design,identifyandimplementlearningobjectivesandactivities,createexamples,designedtounderstandthetopic,assessstudentlearning.Teachercharacteristicssuchaspersonalteaching efficacy, modelling and enthusiasm, caring, respect and high expectationspromotelearnermotivation,beinglinkedtoincreasedstudentachievement;

• Communication–followingelementsofeffectivecommunicationinfluencelearning:preciseterminology(teacherlanguagethateliminatesvaguetermsfrompresentations),connecteddiscourse(typeofteacherpresentationsthatisclear,thematic,logicalandleadstoapoint),transitionsignals(verbalstatementsthatcommunicatethatoneideais ending and another is beginning), emphasis (the use of verbal statements, vocalinflection,orrepetitiontoalertstudentstoimportantinformation),clearlanguageandknowledgeofcontent,congruentverbalandnonverbalbehaviour;

• Organisation – teacherswhoareorganisedhavestudentswho learnmore than theirlessorganisedcounterparts,timeisakeyfactor:beginningclassespromptly,materialspreparedinadvance,warm-upactivities,studentsperformroutinetaskswithoutbeingtold,etc,maximiseinstructionaltime;

• Ask students to identify similarities and differences–therearefourcommonapproachestoidentifysimilaritiesanddifferences:comparing,classifying,creatingmetaphors,andcreatinganalogies;

• Ask students to summarise content and take notestodistilinformation,thusinvolvingcomplex skills: examining information, choosing themost important, restating it ina brief, synthesised mode, deciding, deleting some information, rewording ideas,reorganisinginformation,prioritising;

• Reinforcing efforts to achieve and providing recognition – effort can improveachievement,rewardscanbepowerfulmotivators.Usethepause,promptandpraisetechnique–pause togivestudents time to identifyandcorrectmistakes,promptbygivingaspecificsuggestionforimprovement,andpraiseforovercomingthedifficulties.Applaudcreativesolutions,evenincorrectones;

• Homework and practice –givestudentsopportunities todeepen theirunderstandingof and proficiency with the content they are learning. Give students the option ofcooperatingonhomeworkassignmentstothegreatestpossibleextent;

• Non-linguistic presentations –usepictures, schematics,graphs,andsimplesketchesliberally before, during, and after the presentation of verbal material, show films, providedemonstrationsand hands-on,ifpossible;

• Generating and testing hypotheses – involvesapplicationofknowledge.Hypothesisgeneralisationandtestingcanbeapproachedthroughinductiveanddeductivemodels.

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Usefollowingtasks:systemsanalysis(explainthepurposeofthesystemanditspartsandfunctions,describehowthepartsaffecteachother,identifyapartofthesystem,describeachange,testhypothesis),problemsolving(solvingunstructuredproblems),invention, experimental inquiry (observations, explanation, prediction, testing),decisionmaking;

• Focus – lesson focus attracts and holds students’ attention throughout the learningactivity,focusisprovidedthroughconcretestimuli(objects,pictures,models,materialsdisplayed,informationwrittenontheboard,etc)thatmaintainstudents’attentionduringlearningactivities;

• Feedback – information about current behaviour being used to improve futureperformance. Effective feedback has three characteristics: it provides specificinformation,dependsonperformance,andhasapositiveemotionaltone;

• Monitoring – the process of continually checking students’ verbal and nonverbalbehaviour for evidence of learning process, being important during all learningactivities;

• Questioning – the most effective strategy for promoting social interaction. Helpsstudentstoseeconnectionsbetweenabstractideasandreal-worldexamples,maintainsattention,involvesshyandreluctantstudents,providesemphasisthroughrepetitionandassessesstudents’understanding.Usehigher-levelquestionsrequiringanalysisoftheinformationtopromotedeeperunderstanding;

• Motivate learning -asmuchaspossible,relatethematerialbeingpresentedtowhathascomebeforeandwhatwilltocomeinthesamecourse,tomaterialinothercourses,andparticularlytothestudents’personalexperience;

• Provide a balanceofconcreteinformation(facts,data,realorhypotheticalexperimentsandtheirresults)andabstractconcepts(principles,theories,mathematicalmodels);

• Follow the scientific method in presenting theoretical material – provide concreteexamplesofthephenomenathetheorydescribesorpredicts, thendevelopthetheoryorformulate themod, showhowthe theoryormodcanbevalidatedanddeduce itsconsequences, andpresentapplications;

• Provide intervals–donotfilleveryminuteofclasstimelecturingandwritingontheboard.Provideintervalsforstudentstothinkaboutwhattheyhavebeentold;

• Provide opportunities to do something active – besides transcribing notes, useinteractivelectures(Rüütmann&Vanaveski2009).Small-groupactivitiesthattakenomorethanfiveminutesareextremelyeffectiveforthispurpose. Providesomeopen-endedproblems,questionsandexercisesthatcallforanalysisandsynthesis.

StrategiesintroducedabovearewidelyinuseatEstonianCentreforEngineeringPedagogyatTallinnUniversityofTechnologyforteachingengineeringeducators.

The Inductive Model Suitable for Teaching Engineering

TheInductiveModel,whichisoftendescribedasguideddiscovery,isastraightforwardbutpowerfulmodeldesignedtohelpstudentsacquiredeepandthoroughunderstandingofwell-definedtopics.Insteadofbeginningwithgeneralprinciplesandeventuallygettingapplications,theinstructionbeginswithspecifics–asetofobservationsorexperimentaldatatointerpret,acasestudytoanalyse,oracomplexreal-worldproblemtosolve.Asthestudentsattempttoanalysethedataorscenarioorsolveaproblem,theygenerateaneedforfacts,rules,procedures,andguidingprinciples, atwhich point they are either presentedwith the needed information or helped todiscoveritforthemselves.

Groundedintheviewthatlearnersconstructtheirownunderstandingoftheworldratherthanrecorditinanalready-organisedform,themodelrequiresteacherstobeskilledinquestioningandguidingstudentsthinkingandmakingon-the-spotdecisions.Thisissophisticatedanddemanding

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182 instruction.Themodeliseffectiveforpromotingstudentsinvolvementandmotivationwithinasafeandsupportivelearningenvironment.

LessonsusingtheInductiveModelbeginwithandarebuiltaroundexamples.Theexamplesbecometheexperiencesthatlearnersusetoconstructtheirunderstandingofthetopicstheyarestudying.Socialinteractionisusedtoanalysetheexamples.Theteacherguidesstudentstowardsamorematureunderstandingandreallearninginvolvespersonalinventionorconstruction.ClearobjectivesareasessentialwhenusingtheInductiveModelastheyarewithanyotherinstructionalformat.

According to Prince & Felder (2006) the Inductive Model is an umbrella term thatencompassesarangeofinstructionalmethods,includinginquirylearning,problem-basedlearning,project-basedlearning,case-basedteaching,discoverylearning,andjust-in-timeteaching.Thesemethodshavemanyfeaturesincommon,besidesthefactthattheyallqualifyasinductive.Theyarealllearner-centredtheyimposemoreresponsibilityonstudentsfortheirownlearningthanthetraditional lecture-baseddeductiveapproachdoes.Theyareall supportedby researchfindingsthatstudentslearnbyfittingnewinformationintoexistingcognitivestructures.Thesemethodsalmostalways involvestudentsdiscussingquestionsandsolvingproblems inclasswith lotofcollaborativeorcooperativelearning.

TheInductiveModelisdesignedtohelpstudentsreachtwotypesoflearningobjectives:• Forstudentstoacquiresdeepandthoroughunderstandingofspecificandwell-defined

topics;• Todevelopstudents’criticalthinkingabilities.Studentstrytofindpatternsinthenew

informationandwiththeteacher’sguidancetheyconstructathoroughunderstandingofthetopicsandlearntomakeandassessconclusionsbasedonevidence.

Understanding the differences between principles and generalisations contributes tocriticalthinking.Thevalidityofconclusionsbasedongeneralisationsdependsonthevalidityofthegeneralisationsthemselves.Theabilitiestomakeandassesstheseconclusionsareimportantcritical-thinkingskills.

TheplanningprocessforlessonsusingtheInductiveModelinvolvesthreeessentialsteps:• Identifying topics – topics may come from textbooks, curriculum guides, or other

sources.Whenthetopicsareconcepts,principles,generalisations,theInductiveModelcanbeusedeffectively;

• Specifying learning objectives–clearlearningobjectivesareessentialandtheyprovideaframeworkforplanningandimplementinglessons;

• Identifying examples –topresentallinformationneeded,relationshipbetweenconcepts,concretematerials,pictures,models,shortcasestudies,simulations.

• Creating examples.

AccordingtoEggen&Kauchak(2006),implementingalessonusingtheInductiveModelcombinesfollowingfiveinterrelatedphases,togetherwithanemphasisonthinkingandstrategiesforincreasingstudentmotivation:

• Lesson introduction–attractstudents’attentionandprovideconceptualframeworkforthelesson,byusingastatement,posingaproblem,reviewofthepreviousday’swork,etc;

• The open-ended phase –promoting student involvement andmotivationandensuretheir success with an example, emphasise comparing, find patterns and generalise,provideevidenceforconclusions;

• Convergent phase – students’ responses converge on a specific learning objective,knowledgeconstructionandschemadevelopmentprimarilytakesplace;

• Closure – occurs when students embed their understanding in a complex schema,encode it into long-term memory, and achieve a sense of equilibrium. This phaseprovidesopportunities tohelpstudentsdevelop theirabilities torecognise irrelevant

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information,beinganimportantthinkingskill;• Application – typically includes a seatwork or homework assignment, tomake the

topicmeaningfulandensuretransferstudentsmustbeabletoapplyitinareal-worldcontext.

Effective assessments are consistent with teacher’s objectives. Both paper-and-pencil

and performance assessment can be used tomeasure student understanding.Assessments thatcapitaliseonapplicationsinreal-worldcontextsandincludedetailedfeedbackareamongthemostpowerfultoolsfirincreasinglearning. The Integrative Model

TheIntegrativeModelisdesignedtohelpstudentsdevelopadeepunderstandingoforganisedbodiesofknowledge,topicsthatcombinefacts,concepts.Generalisationsandtherelationshipsamongthemaresimultaneouslydevelopingcritical-thinkingskills,beingrelatedtotheInductiveModel.TheIntegrativeModelisgroundedinschematheory,thatstudentsrecordinformationinmemoryinorganisednetworksofunderstanding.Conceptsaresimpleformsofunderstandingthatexistinmemory(schemas),andwhenstudentlinksconceptstofacts,otherconcepts,principles,generalisations,his/herschemasbecomemuchmorecomplex.Teachersusingthemodelattempttoguidestudents’schemasdevelopmentastheyanalyseorganisedbodiesofknowledge.

TheIntegrativeModelisdesignedtohelpstudentsreachtwoindependentgoals:toconstructadeepandthoroughunderstandingoforganisedbodiesofknowledge(topicsthatcombinefacts,concepts,generalisations,andrelationshipsamongthem),andtodevelopcriticalthinkingabilities.Lessonsinvolvetheanalysisofdatausuallypresentedinamatrixandthedatacanbegatheredbystudents,teacherorboth.

Accordingto Eggen&Kauchak(2006)planningforlessonsusingtheIntegrativeModelincludesthefollowingsteps:

• Identifying topics–When topicsareorganisedbodiesofknowledge, the IntegrativeModelcanbeusedeffectively;topicsmaycomefromtextbooks,curriculumguidesorothersources;

• Specifying learning objectives–specifyingcontentobjectivesrequiresmorethoughttoidentifypotentialgeneralisations,explanationsandpossiblehypothesesinadvance.Studentshavetofindpatterns,formexplanations,andhypothesise,allonthebasisofevidence,thusdevelopingcriticalthinkingskills;

• Preparing data presentation -dataisorganisedinamatrix,databecomeabackgroundknowledgestudentsusetoconstructtheirunderstanding;

• Capitalising on technology –usedatabases,computerprogrammes.

The IntegrativeModel implementation combines following four closely related phaseswithemphasisonthinkingandstrategiesforincreasingstudentmotivation:

• The Open-ended Phase–beginningpointofstudents’analysis,theyobserve,describe,compareandsearchforthepatternsinthedata;

• The Causal phase – students explain the similarities and differences they identifyand look for relationships and explainable comparisons, being immersed in criticalthinking;

• Hypothetical phase – analyse information, consider possibilities for differentconditions;

• Closure and Application –generaliseforbroadrelationshipsbasedontheanalysisofthedata.Summarisethecontent,promoteencoding.

Learners understanding of the topic and their abilities to think critically can besimultaneouslymeasuredbyhavingthemmakeandassessconclusionsaboutinformationfrom

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184 matrices.Assessmentshouldbeanintegralpartofteaching.Assessmentsshouldbefrequentandthoroughwithprovideddetailedfeedback.

The Direct-Instruction Model

TheDirect-InstructionModelcanbeused to teachbothconceptsandprocedural skills,beingalsocalledexplicitinstruction.Thismodelusesteacherexplanationandmodellingcombinedwithstudentpracticeandfeedbackandisteacher-directed.

The Direct-Instruction Model is delivered from several sources, including teachereffectiveness research. It isalsobasedonobservational learning theory,whichemphasises theimportance of modelling for the acquisition of complex behaviours and on the work of LevVygotsky,whopointedouttheimportanceofdialogueandsocialinteractioninlearning.

Traditionallydirectinstructionhasbeenassociatedwith“chalkandtalk”,and,morerecentlytheoverheadprojector.Today,directinstructionisbeingincreasinglyreplacedbytechniquessuchasPowerPointorsmartboardpresentations.

AccordingtoPaik(2003)effectivedirectinstruction,whichisstillexpectedinthemodernclassroom,shouldconsistof:

• Clearteaching,dailyreviewandhomeworkchecks;• Presentationofnewcontentandskills;• Teachermonitoringandguidedstudentpractice;• Correctivefeedbackandinstructionalreinforcement• Independentpracticeatschoolandathomewith90%successrate;• Weeklyandmonthlyevaluations.

Planningwiththismodelbeginswiththeidentificationofaspecificconceptorskill.ThisisfollowedbyidentifyingprerequisitePlanninglessonsaccordingtoEggen&Kauchak(2006)usingtheDirect-InstructionModelinvolvesfollowingfoursteps:

• Identifying topics–themodelisdesignedtoteachconceptsandproceduralskills;• Specifying learning objectives – there are two long-range objectiveswhen teaching

skills: automaticity (learning a skill to thepoint that it canbeperformedwith littleconsciouseffort)andtransfer(understandingacquiredinonesettingcanbeappliedinadifferentsetting);

• Identifying prerequisite knowledge – prior knowledge provides “hooks” for newlearning,allowingconnectnewinformationwithwhattheyalreadyunderstand;

• Selecting and sequencing problems and examples–opportunitiestoprovidepracticeinlearningconceptsandskills.

According to Lang & Evans (2006), Eggen & Kauchak (2006), Melezinek (1999)implementingalessonusingtheDirect-InstructionModeloccursinfollowingfourphases:

• Introduction and review – attract students’ attention and activate their backgroundknowledgethroughareviewofprerequisiteknowledgeorskills;

• Presentation–explainandillustratetheconceptorexplainandmodeltheskillbeingtaught,provideexamples;

• Guided practice – help students develop perceptions of competence by ensuringsuccess,studentstryoutnewcontentastheteachercarefullymonitorstheirprogressandprovidessupportandfeedback;

• Independent practice-studentspracticethenewconceptorskillontheirownfirstinclass,lateronahomeworkassignment.

Thekeytoeffectiveassessmentwiththismodelistoensurethatstudentslearncontentatameaningfullevel.Thisrequiresthatstudentsworkactivelywithexamplesandconcepts,linkingthemtotheabstractionbeingtaught.

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The Lecture-Discussion Model

TheLecture-DiscussionModel is designed to present information in a systematicway,helping students to construct anorganisedunderstandingof a topic.Teachersverballypresentinformation.Itisateacher-directedmodel.

According to Eggen & Kauchak (2006), the planning process for lessons involvesfollowingfouressentialsteps:

• Identifying topics–organiseanentirecourseoraunitwithinthecourse;• Specifying learning objectives –tounderstandrelationshipsbetweentheconcepts,not

onlytheconceptsthemselves;• Structuring content – content must be presented in a organised way by preparing

hierarchies;• Preparing lesson introductions – use focusing for attracting attention, advanced

organisersandanalogy.

Alecturediscussionexistsinfollowingfivephases:• Introduction–reviewtoactivatelearners’backgroundknowledgeandpresentaform

offocusforthelesson;• Presentation –presentinformation;• Comprehension monitoring –process of informally assessing student understanding

throughquestioning,examples,activelearning;• Integration –linkingnewinformationtopriorunderstanding;• Review and closure – review summarises topic, emphasises important points, and

providesalinktowhichnewlearningcanbeattached.Closureoccursattheendofthelesson,summarises,structures,andcompletesthetopic.

Assessmentwiththismodelfocusesonstudents’understandingofrelationshipsamongthetopicstheystudyandapplicationofthosetopicstonewsituations.

Discussion

Engineeringeducatorsshouldgaingreaterconfidencethroughtheuseofextendedrangeofcontemporaryteachingtoolsbyobtainingspecificsoftheartofteaching.EffectivestrategiesandmodelsforteachingthinkingskillsandcapitalizingdeepunderstandingarewidelyusedatEstonianCentreforEngineeringPedagogyinteachingengineeringeducators.

A preferable alternative to deductive teaching is inductive teaching and learning, asusedatEstonianCentreforEngineeringPedagogy. Insteadofbeginningwithgeneralprinciplesand eventually getting to applications, engineering educator begins with specifics– a set ofobservationsorexperimentaldatatointerpret,oracomplexreal-worldproblemtosolve.Asthestudentsattempttoanalyzethedataorscenarioorsolvetheproblem,theygenerateaneedforfacts,rules,procedures,andguidingprinciples,atwhichpointtheyareeitherpresentedwiththeneededinformationorhelpedtodiscoveritforthemselves(Prince&Felder2006).

Before teaching a topic or series of lessons using any inductive method, engineeringeducators should write learning objectives that define what the student should be able to do(explain,calculate,derive,design,model,critique)whentheinstructionhasbeenconcluded.Ifinstructionalobjectivesareatalowcognitivelevel,requiringalmostexclusivelyrotememorizationoffactsormechanicalsubstitutionintoformulas,thereisnoreasontouseaninductivemethod.Theobjectives shouldguide the choiceof focus problems, learning activities, and assessmentmethodsRüütmann&Vanaveski(2009).

McKeachie(2006),Bligh(2000)andNilson(2003)citenumerousstudiesindicatingthatthelectureisaseffectiveasanyothermethodinconveyingfactualknowledge.Butonothercriteria:attitudechange,developmentofthinkingandproblemsolvingskills,transferofknowledgetonew

Tiia RüüTMANN, Jüri VANAVESKI. Effective Strategies and Models for Teaching Thinking Skills andCapitalizing Deep Understanding in Engineering Education

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186 situations, studentsatisfactionwith thecourse,motivation for further learningandpost-courseretentionofknowledge–theclassicallecturefallsshortofmorestudentactivemethodssuchasdiscussion.Actually the interactive lecturecanbehighlymotivational,but itssuccessdependson the lecturer in engineering education. Interactive lectures are used for presenting generalbackgroundinformation–themainideas,thusprovidingsystematicbasicknowledge,followedbytheconstructivistapproachfocusingonparticularapplicationsandproblemsbeingcentredinthestudyprogrammeforengineeringeducators(Rüütmann&Vanaveski2009).

AccordingtoPrinceandFelder(2006)inductiveteachingandlearningisanumbrellatermthatencompassesa rangeof instructionalmethods, includingproblem-based learning,project-basedlearningandjust-in-timeteaching.Theyarealllearner centredmeaningthattheyimposemoreresponsibilityonstudentsfortheirownlearningthanthetraditionallecture-baseddeductiveapproachdoes.Theycanallbecharacterizedasconstructivist methods,buildingonthewidelyacceptedprinciplethatstudentsconstructtheirownversionsofrealityratherthansimplyabsorbingversionspresentedby their teachers.Studentsareactiveandconstructknowledge linkingnewinformationtopreviousknowledge.

ThroughinductiveteachingatEstonianCentreforEngineeringPedagogystudentsaretaughttheproceduresandprocessesofthinkingandtorecognise,defineandsolveopen-endedproblemswhichcanbelearnedbypracticing.Thusstudentsassumemoreresponsibilityandarebettermotivated, becoming successful lifelong learners and better practitioners in their futureteachingprofession.Inductiveteachingencouragesstudentstoanalyse,critique,judge,compare,contrast,evaluate,assess,create,predict,apply,use,implementandgainprofessionalperfection.

Conclusions

Studentshavedifferentlevelsofmotivation,differentattitudesaboutteachingandlearning,anddifferentresponsestospecificclassroomenvironmentsandinstructionalpractices.Themorethoroughly instructors understand the differences, the better chance they have ofmeeting thediverselearningneedsofalloftheirstudents.

Schoolshave typicallyneglected teachingfor thinking,and transfer thinkingoperationsfromonesubjecttoanotherandtoreallife.Emphasishasbeenoninformationacquisitionandlow-levelcontent.Studentsneedtodomorethanlearninformation.Thinkingskillsandprocessesneedtobelearned,asdoestheabilitytousetheseinavarietyofcontexts.Ifteachingandlearningaretobeauthentic,teachersneedtoteachforthinking.Someeducatorsseestand-alonethinkingskillsorprocesslearningasineffective,believingthatthinkingskillsaredisciplinespecificandlittletransfer, ifanywilloccur.Otherssayacontextisalwaysrequired,butthinkingskillsaregenericandteachingfortransfercanoccur.Whatshouldschoolingaccomplish?Authentic,active,collaborative,problem-basedlearningisthedirectionproposed,alongwithlearningtothink.

References Bligh,D.A.(2000).What’s the Use of Lectures?SanFrancisco,JosseyBass.

Burden,P.R.,Byrd,D.M.,(2010).MethodsforEffectiveTeachingMeetingtheNeedsofAllStudents,5th edition,PearsoneducationInc.

Eggen,P.D.,Kauchak,D.P. (2006).Strategies and Models for Teachers Teaching Content and Thinking Skills,5thedition,PearsonEducationInc.

Entwistle,N.(1988).MotivationalFactorsinStudents’ApproachestoLearning,inSchmeck,R.R.,(Ed.),Learning Strategies and Learning Styles,Ch.2,NewYork,N.Y.:PlenumPress.

Hughes,C.&JonesB. (1988,March). Integrating thinking skills and processes into content instruction.Presentedtothe3rdAnnualConference,AssociationforSupervisionandCurriculumDevelopment,Boston.

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Marzano,R.J.,Pickering,D.J.&Pollock,J.E.(2005).Classroom Instruction that works: Research-based Strategies for Increasing Student Achievement.UppersaddleRiver,NJ:Merrill/Prentice-Hall.

McKeachieWilbert, J., & Svinicki,M. (2006).McKeachie’s Teaching Tips – Strategies, Research, and Theory for College and University Teachers.HoughtonMiffllinCompany.

MelezinekAdolf (1999).“Ingenieurpädagogik – Praxis der Vermittlung technischen Wissens”, SpringerVerlag,Wien/NewYork,4thedition.

Nilson, L.B. (2003). Teaching at Its Best, A Research-Based Resource for College Instructors. AnkerPublishingCompany.

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PrinceMichael J.,&FelderRichardM. (2006). InductiveTeaching andLearningMethods:Definitions,Comparisons,andResearchBases.Journal of Engineering Education,95(2),123-138.

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Rüütmann, T., & Vanaveski, J. (2009). Contemporary Teaching Methods Emphasizing ConceptualUnderstandingAdaptedforEngineeringEducationatEstonianCentreForEngineeringPedagogy. Problems of Education in the 21st Century (Peculiarities of Contemporary Education), Vol.11(11):159–169.

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Adviced by Inna Kamenev, Tallinn University of Technology, Estonia

Tiia Rüütmann Associate Professor, PhD (Education), Estonian Centre for Engineering Pedagogy, Tallinn University of Technology, Ehitajate tee 5, 19086 Tallinn, EstoniaPhone: +372 620 32 55. E-mail: tiia.ruutmann@ttu.ee Website: http://www.ttu.ee/?lang=en

Jüri Vanaveski Head of Estonian Centre for Engineering Pedagogy, PhD(Eng), Tallinn University of Technology, Ehitajate tee 5, 19086 Tallinn, EstoniaPhone: +372 620 32 55. E-mail: juri.vanaveski@ttu.eeWebsite: http://www.ttu.ee/?lang=en

Tiia RüüTMANN, Jüri VANAVESKI. Effective Strategies and Models for Teaching Thinking Skills andCapitalizing Deep Understanding in Engineering Education