Preferred Practices for Teaching Students with Exceptionalities

By Beth Keyes

DRAFTOct/04

Preferred Practices for Teaching Students with Exceptionalities

INTRODUCTION

Purpose:

All students have certain strengths and weaknesses, their own pattern of individual differences. Classroom teachers continually take these differences into account and do not expect every student to learn the same things at the same pace, with the same materials in the same time, and with the same amount of instruction. Effective teachers always adapt to learning differences and minor difficulties in learning. For some students, the difficulties are more serious and their learning and/or behavior deviates more significantly from the norm. These are the students who are considered exceptional.

Section 12(1) of the Education Act defines an exceptionality thusly: “when the superintendent, after consulting with qualified persons, determines that the behavioural, communicational, intellectual, physical, perceptual, or multiple exceptionalities of a person are contributing to delayed educational development such that a special education program is considered by the superintendent to be necessary for the person, the person shall be an exceptional pupil for the purposes of the Act.”

The Department of Education supports the inclusion of students with exceptional needs into the regular classroom setting. It defines its inclusive philosophy in the Education Act Section 12(3) by stating that the superintendent concerned shall place exceptional pupils such that they receive special education programs and services in circumstances where exceptional pupils can participate with pupils who are not exceptional pupils within regular classroom settings to the extent that is considered practicable by the superintendent having due regard for the educational needs of all pupils. The New Brunswick Government also supports this philosophy, as noted in the Quality Learning Agenda Policy Statement on K-12: Quality Schools, High Results: Maintaining the policy of providing regular classroom settings for the inclusion of all students to the fullest extent possible, while pursuing other flexible learning options as necessary to ensure the educational needs of all students are met (QLA, 2003,p. 30)

In order to plan for the variety of learners in our classrooms, teachers require as much information on the general characteristics, patterns of learning, and educational strategies that are often effective for children who have these exceptionalities. This manual was generated with the intention of offering teachers specific, relevant information on various exceptionalities in a user-friendly format.

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Important Terms:

Collaborative Consultation – an approach in which a special educator and general educators collaborate to come up with teaching strategies and programming for students with exceptionalities. The relationship between the professionals is based on the premises of shared responsibility and equal authority. The consultant provides frequent follow-up and feedback on interventions being utilized with the students.

Co-Teaching – a strategy often used within the collaborative consultation model in which teachers work together within the classroom. There are several models of co-teaching, including:

One Teach, One Drift – one teacher is responsible for instruction while the other teacher drifts, monitoring students. The drifting teacher can redirect students who are off-task, provide feedback on individual student’s participation and effort, and deliver reinforcements and/or consequences on a regular basis.Station Teaching – teachers split content into two parts and students into three groups. Each teacher teaches one of two content pieces at a station to a small group, and the third group works independently. The student groups rotate as directed by the teachers. Parallel Teaching- The two teachers split the class into two groups and teach the same content to a smaller group of students. This allows the teachers to modify content as necessary to meet the needs of the group they are working with.Alternative Teaching – One teacher provides content instruction to a large group of students, while the other teacher provides remedial or supplementary instruction to a small group.Team Teaching – Co-teachers alternate or “tag team” in delivering instruction to the entire class. Team teachers can work together to present content and learning strategies in unison to better meet the needs of students.

Time Management - Finding time in the school day to collaborate with other teachers is often difficult, but schools frequently develop unique methods of providing time for collaboration. Some methods include common preparation time during the day by grade level; creative use of early morning and after-school duty time; lunch-hour meetings; team grouping that allows flexibility for teachers to step out of their classrooms; and effective use of administrative time to relieve various teachers to attend brief meetings and planning sessions.

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Record Keeping – The importance of documentation and proficient record keeping cannot be understated. It is imperative that teachers who work with students with exceptionalities document the various interventions, meetings, conferences, phone calls, assessment results, program components and any other relevant issues pertaining to the student. In many schools it is the Resource Teacher who tracks and stores special education plans, but due to the fact that development and implementation of these plans is a collaborative effort, all parties have a responsibility to ensure that records are kept.

Special Education Plan (SEP) - A Special Education Plan (SEP) generally applies to those students who may have an underlying behavioral, intellectual, communicational, perceptual/sensory or physical condition that has resulted in a delay in educational functioning. An SEP should be considered when a student is experiencing difficulties over an extended period of time and isn’t making progress despite the additional support and interventions that a teacher would typically employ in the classroom (p. 5 Guidelines and Standards: Educational Planning for Students with Exceptionalities). An SEP is developed collaboratively among classroom teacher(s), resource teacher(s), parent(s), student and any other involved personnel (i.e., speech pathologist, Occupational therapist, etc.). One or more types of planning can occur within the Special Education Plan, depending upon the needs of the student.

Types of SEPs: (p. 10 Guidelines and Standards: Educational Planning for Students with Exceptionalities)

Accommodation – Strategies, technologies or adjustments that enable the student to reach prescribed outcomes (whether their programs are regular, modified or individualized). When a student follows the regular program with accommodations only, specific goals and outcomes are not stated on the SEP form, as they are detailed in the regular Grade level outcomes.

Modification – Grade level curriculum outcomes of a subject area have been changed to meet the needs of the student. The majority (50% or more) of the outcomes of the grade level curriculum have been altered. Examples of such alterations might include simplified texts, projects, and exams or material presented at a lower reading level. SEPs reflecting modification include goals, measurable outcomes, and any methods/materials required to reach them.

Individualization – Student is not expected (due to the pervasive and significant nature of their particular condition), to achieve many (if any) of the outcomes of the grade level curriculum. Although this student is expected to be included in classroom themes and activities as much as possible, their program will be individualized. Such planning often involves components from non-educational outcomes, such as communication skills, occupational therapy goals, etc.

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Special Education Planning: First Steps :

(1) When classroom teacher and/or parent suspects that a Special Education Plan may be necessary for a particular student, he or she should consult with the Resource teacher.

(2) If, following collaboration and consultation, the Resource teacher and Classroom Teacher believe that the student’s difficulty warrants an SEP, a referral to the School-Based Student Services Team should occur.

(3) Planning and interventions for the student may begin even though an exceptionality per se has not been identified through formal assessment (although informal and/or formal assessment information is often provided through the referral process to the resource teacher and/or district-based psychological services).

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Roles & Responsibilities

Classroom Teacher Develop knowledge related to issues surrounding the planning for

students with exceptionalities Use various effective teaching practices in the classroom to address the

needs of diverse learners Work collaboratively with resource teacher(s), parents, paraprofessionals

and others to develop, implement and monitor Special Education Plan(s) (SEPs) for students in the classroom

Evaluate outcomes of SEPs

Resource Teacher Work collaboratively with classroom teachers & parents to develop,

implement and monitor programming for students with exceptionalities Provide information and resources to classroom teachers & parents in

relation to goals and outcomes detailed in the SEP Develop knowledge and experience through professional development

related to issues surrounding students with exceptionalities Take opportunities to present to school staff, information related to issues

relevant to educational planning for students with exceptionalities and strive to be an advocate for students with exceptionalities

Ensure proper storage and tracking of SEPs within the school

Administrators Ensure the formation of a school-based Student Services Team Ensure planning procedures, documentation guidelines, strategies,

evaluation models stipulated in SEP are followed Evaluate the implementation of inclusive practices & outcomes and

articulate, if needed, goals related to inclusion in the school improvement plan

Define & clarify roles and responsibilities of resource teacher(s), classroom teachers, etc.

Conduct formative evaluation yearly on the efficiency of SEP processes & procedures in the school

Teaching Assistants Provide support to teachers and students in the delivery of educational

programs Maintain confidentiality of any information concerning individual students Work collaboratively with others in planning for students with

exceptionalities

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Parents Work collaboratively with school personnel to develop, implement and

monitor educational plans for their child. Develop and maintain an open communication with child’s teachers Share knowledge of child’s exceptionalities with school personnel Keep a file of all documentation regarding child’s education plan &

effective strategies

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General Effective Teaching Practices

Direct Instruction :Based on premise that there are four Phases necessary in the learning process:1. Lesson Orientation –teacher makes clear, brief statements that let students know what lesson is about; teacher also discusses the importance of mastering the objective (emphasizes personal involvement/responsibility)2. Direct Instruction – teacher presents examples, notes problem areas, models the task, asks questions (joint effort between teacher/students)3. Teacher-Directed Practice – practice tasks are given to students; teacher verbally cues students about correct task procedure (immediate feedback); responsibility of task rests with students4. Independent Practice – after student demonstrates some competence in phase 3, a series of problems are assigned for independent practice. Students work on these tasks alone & show work to teacher for checking; independent tasks require no more than ½ of total lesson time.

Learning Strategies :A learning strategy is a method of cognitively planning the performance of a learning task; completing the steps involved in the task; and monitoring completion of the task. It structures the inner dialogue of the student to help complete the task. Categorized by function/purpose for the learner:

•Acquisition Strategy – used to learn new information or skills•Storage Strategy – used to manipulate or transform information so that it can be placed in memory•Knowledge Strategy – used to recall or to show what has been learned.

By teaching students these learning strategies, we are equipping them with a repertoire of tools for learning…

Differentiated Instruction : To differentiate instruction is to recognize students’ varying background knowledge, readiness, language, preferences in learning, interests; and to react responsively. Differentiated instruction is a process to approach teaching and learning for students of differing abilities in the same class. The intent of differentiating instruction is to maximize each student’s growth and individual success by meeting each student where he or she is, and assisting in the learning process.

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Tomlinson (2001) identifies three elements of the curriculum that can be differentiated: Content, Process, and Products:

Content

Several elements and materials are used to support instructional content. These include acts, concepts, generalizations or principles, attitudes, and skills. The variation seen in a differentiated classroom is most frequently the manner in which students gain access to important learning. Access to the content is seen as key.

Tasks and objectives are aligned with learning goals. Designers of differentiated instruction determine as essential the alignment of tasks with instructional goals and objectives. Goals are most frequently assessed by many high-stakes tests and standardized measures. Objectives are frequently written in incremental steps resulting in a continuum of skills-building tasks. An objectives-driven menu makes it easier to find the next instructional step for learners entering at varying levels.

Instruction is concept-focused and principle-driven. Instructional concepts should be broad based and not focused on minute details or unlimited facts. Teachers should attempt to focus on the concepts, principles and skills that students should learn. The content of instruction should address the same concepts with all students but be adjusted by degree of complexity for the diversity of learners in the classroom.

Process Flexible grouping is consistently used. Strategies for flexible grouping are

essential. Learners are expected to interact and work together as they develop knowledge of new content. Teachers may conduct whole-class introductory discussions of the ‘big ideas’ or general content, followed by small group or pair work. Student groups may be coached from within or by the teacher to complete assigned tasks. Grouping of students is not fixed. Based on the content, project, and on-going evaluations, grouping and regrouping must be a dynamic process and is one of the key foundations of differentiated instruction.

Classroom management benefits students and teachers. Teachers must consider organization and instructional delivery strategies to effectively operate a classroom using differentiated instruction. Carol Tomlinson (2001) identifies 17 key strategies for teachers to successfully meet the challenge of designing and managing differentiated instruction in her text How to Differentiate Instruction in Mixed-Ability Classrooms, Chapter 7.

Products Initial and on-going assessment of student readiness and growth are essential.

Meaningful pre-assessment naturally leads to functional and successful differentiation. Assessments may be formal or informal, including interviews, surveys, performance assessments, and more formal evaluation procedures.

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Incorporating pre and on-going assessment informs teachers to better provide a menu of approaches, choices, and scaffolds for the varying needs, interests and abilities that exist in classrooms of diverse students.

Students are active and responsible explorers. Each task put before the learner should be interesting, engaging, and accessible to essential understanding and skills. Each child should feel challenged most of the time.

Expectations and requirements for student responses are varied. Items to which students respond may be differentiated for students to demonstrate or express their knowledge and understanding. A well-designed student product allows varied means of expression, alternative procedures, and provides varying degrees of difficulty, types of evaluation, and scoring.

Additional Teaching Practices:

Class Wide Peer Tutoring (CWPT) – An instructional procedure in which all students in the class are involved in tutoring and being tutored by classmates on specific skills as directed by their teacher.

Scaffolded Instruction – A cognitive approach to instruction in which the teacher provides temporary structure or support while students are learning a task but then support is gradually reduced as the students are able to perform the tasks independently.

Reciprocal Teaching – A teaching strategy whereby the student gradually assumes the role of co-instructor for brief periods. The teacher models four strategies for the students to use: predicting; questioning; summarizing and clarifying.

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Specific Exceptionalities: Definitions, Characteristics and Preferred Practices

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ADHD (Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder)

Definition: ADHD is a neurobiological syndrome, characterized by attention skills that are developmentally inappropriate, impulsivity and in some cases hyperactivity.

Associated Characteristics: Depending on the subtype of ADHD a child has, he or she could display symptoms as follows:Inattention:

Careless mistakes Often has difficulty sustaining attention during tasks and play activities Doesn’t seem to listen when spoken to Loses things often Easily distracted by extraneous stimuli/events Difficulty organizing Often forgetful in daily events

Hyperactivity: Often fidgets with hands/feet; squirms Often talks excessively Frequently needs to leave seat or get up and move around Constantly appears to be “on the go” Often has difficulty engaging in quiet activities

Impulsivity: Frequently blurts out answers without raising hand or in inappropriate situations Difficulty waiting for their turn in activities Often interrupts others in conversations

Preferred Practices & Strategies: Signal students auditorily (ring a bell, use a beeper/timer, play a short burst of music) Vary your tone of voice (loud, soft, whisper, sing, silence) Frame the visual material you want students to be focused on with your hands (or

a colored box around the material). Use eye contact. Ensure students are facing you when you are speaking Be aware of competing sounds in your room (heaters, traffic, humming lights) If possible, have students come close to you for direct instruction (seated on the

floor or at desk near you) Incorporate hands-on presentations & demonstrations/models whenever possible Use an overhead projector (if possible) which enables you to write/draw without

having to turn your back to students Remove visually-distracting clutter from board/overhead screen that you don’t

want students to focus on  Move around classroom to maintain your visibility to students Have students respond to questions by “telling their partner”, writing down

responses, or other ways that avoid calling on students one-at-a-time (increases total class involvement in lesson

When presenting, stop frequently and have students (unison/pair/group responses) repeat back a word/concept or two

Links: www.helpforadd.com ; www.chadd.org

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Tourette Syndrome (TS)

Definition: A neurobiological disorder beginning in childhood in which stereotyped, repetitive motor movements (tics) are accompanied by multiple vocal outbursts that may include grunting noises or socially inappropriate words or statements.

Associated Characteristics: Facial tics (eye blinks, mouth twists, sniffing, spitting, drooling, throat clearing) Vocal tics (barking, repeating a phrase (or vulgarity) over and over) Motor tics (head jerking, shoulder movement, arm/leg twitches)*The level of severity of a child’s tics can range from mild, where little or no intervention is required; to extreme wherein a child’s characteristics are such that medication and specific interventions are required.

Additional Symptoms: Attentional Deficits Obsessions Compulsions Impulsivity Emotional Lability Aggressiveness Immaturity Self-Injurious Behaviors Depression Learning problems (often within the areas of Mathematics, Short-Term Memory, and Handwriting)

Preferred Practices &Strategies: Reduce as much stress for student as possible, as stress heightens intensity and

frequency of tics Establish acceptable ways for child to release tics discretely and in relative

privacy (i.e.: leave room for a drink; walk to back of room to get a file; go to sharpen pencils, etc.)

Ensure that academic requirements are within the child’s ability level, which will help reduce additional sources of stress.

Provide any necessary accommodations within the classroom Always remember that tics can WAX and WANE (appear milder at some

times than at others). But, this does NOT mean that the tics are under the child’s control.

Be flexible when planning for the child with TS in your classroom – some days you may need to allow for more breaks, shorter assignments and time outside the class.

If possible, schedule more demanding academic work in the morning, as tics tend to worsen as the day wears on

Ask the child where he/she would like to sit in the classroom (in an attempt to lessen potential stressors)

Educate the other students in the class about tics, and stress that these often unusual behaviors are not something their classmate can control

Ensure that transition areas are supervised in order to watch for potential name calling/teasing that may occur during less structured times

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Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD)

Definition: ASD refers to a variety of disorders affecting a child’s social development and ability to communicate. ASD is also often characterized by restricted, repetitive stereotyped patterns of behavior, interests and/or activities.

ASD includes the following: Autism Asperger Syndrome Rett’s Disorder Childhood Disintegrative Disorder Pervasive Developmental Disorder: Not Otherwise Specified (PDD-NOS)

Children with ASD will exhibit great variability in their specific strengths, interests, characteristics, behavioral challenges and academic needs. In general, students with ASD require instructional programming to address many of the following areas: desire for routine, limited social awareness, restricted range of interests, problems focusing on toys, people’s faces or information-providing prompts, poor motor coordination, academic difficulties and emotional vulnerability.

Preferred Practices & Strategies: Create a predictable environment built upon consistent routines Teach students how to read and respond to social cues (use role-play,

cue cards, and peer modeling to teach) Encourage other students in the class to engage and participate with the

student who has ASD Use structured, positive reinforcement to shape desired social interactions

and behaviors (Applied Behavior Analysis/Discrete Trial Methods) Create academic experiences that build upon success – explicit and

structured instruction creates cognitive support for student learning, retention and concept integration

Teach students coping mechanisms to use when confronted with stress or anxiety. Routines and scripts can be helpful in allowing students to feel they have regained control

Divide instructional tasks into meaningful components and create overt external stimuli to guide the student

Utilize visual prompts and picture-based cues frequently

Links: http://www.nichd.nih.gov/autismhttp://www.nimh.nih.gov/publicat/autismmenu.cfmhttp://www.aspergersyndrome.org/http://www.tonyattwood.com.au/

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Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI)

Definition: TBI is defined as injury to the brain (not including conditions present at birth, birth trauma or degenerative diseases), resulting in total or partial disability or psychological maladjustment that affects educational performance. TBI can affect cognition, language, memory, reasoning, abstract thinking, judgment, problem solving, sensory or perceptual and motor disabilities, psychosocial behavior, physical functions, information processing or speech.

Associated Characteristics: Problems remembering things Irritability Depression Aggression Speech and/or Language problems Unreasonable fear or anxiety Perseveration (persistent repetition of one thought or behavior) Difficulty processing information Extremely uneven progress (quick gains followed by no gains or

decreases in progress)

Preferred Practices & Strategies: Provide any necessary mobility-related supports the child may require Emphasize cognitive processes through which academic skills are learned

(not just curriculum content per se) Teach procedures to help student solve problems, remember previously-

learned information, learn new things, deal with fatigue and engage in appropriate social behavior (teach the student how to learn, how to remember, how to act). Modeling and rehearsal techniques are often very effective procedures.

Teach child to use coping mechanisms and alternative strategies (for example, using a tape recorder or other memory aids)

Consistency, predictability and reinforcement (praise, encouragement, social rewards), are very important and should be incorporated in the child’s daily routine.

Links:www.neuroskills.comwww.braininjury.comhttp://www.cdc.gov/node.do?id=0900f3ec8000dbdc

Ontario Brain Injury Association www.obia.on.caTraumatic Brian Injury links www.biawa.org/tbi.html

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Learning Disabilities

Definition: Learning Disabilities (LD) refer to a number of disorders which may affect the acquisition, organization, retention, understanding or use of verbal or nonverbal information. These disorders affect learning in individuals who otherwise demonstrate at least average abilities essential for thinking and/or reasoning.

Associated Characteristics: Depending on the type of learning disability that a child has, there can be a range of characteristics that are displayed. Please link on the Department of Education Manuals on Specific Learning Disabilities: Resource for Identification and Teaching of Students with Specific Learning Disability (Elementary/Middle & High School Programs)http://www.gnb.ca/0000/publications/ss/disability.pdfhttp://www.gnb.ca/0000/publications/ss/LDHandbook611.pdf

Preferred Practices & Strategies: Refer to the manuals above for specific strategies appropriate to the

student’s specific learning disability. General Strategies that are often effective for Learning Disabilities in

general include: Learning Strategy Instruction (see p. 5) Control of Task Difficulty for Student (Easy-to-Difficult) Appropriate Accommodations that match the student’s

particular subtype of LD Multi-Level Instruction Differentiated Instruction Assistive Technology

Links:www.ldonline.orgwww.ldac-taac.cahttp://www.teachingld.org/

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Sensory Impairments

Definition: An impairment in one of the primary sensory organs (hearing or vision).

Hearing ImpairmentsA generic term indicating a hearing loss that may range in severity from mild to profound. It includes the subsets of deaf and hard of hearing, which are differentiated by the measurable degree of hearing loss.

Deafness – a person cannot hear sounds at or above a certain intensity level, with or without a hearing aid.Hard of Hearing – a person has residual hearing sufficient to enable successful processing of linguistic information (often with the use of a hearing aid). A person can have a very mild to a severe loss of hearing.

Preferred Practices & Strategies: Minimize background noise as much as possible in the classroom Always face the child with the hearing impairment in front of teaching area Be in close proximity when speaking Use gestures and visual prompts often Repeat and Rephrase information (don’t speak louder) ALWAYS address the student directly when speaking to him/her (not

speak to their interpreter) Speak naturally and don’t over-enunciate words Try to stand still while talking to students Provide handouts of board work or lecture notes When working in pairs or groups, have students face each other and have

rules for communication (ex: signal before you are about to speak).

Links: www.deafchildren.org www.chs.ca www.handspeak.com www.aslonline.com/dictionary.html

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VISUAL IMPAIRMENTSA generic term indicating an impairment in vision that can range from low vision to total blindness.

Low Vision – a person’s corrected vision is lower than normalBlindness – a person has no sight (visual acuity of 20/200 or less in the better eye even with correction; or a field of vision less than 20 degrees).

Preferred Practices & Strategies: Walk with student through the classroom, pointing out landmarks

(perimeter of the room and diagonally). Do NOT change the position or layout of the room without notifying the student with a visual impairment.

Assign the student a buddy if necessary, but only until student becomes comfortable with surroundings.

Cut down glare on glass, desks and chalkboards in the classroom Check the lighting in the room and the unique needs of the students

(brighter or dimmer lighting required) Determine the modality (touch or hearing) that the student learns best

through and utilize this as you teach and/or assign material. Use multisensory approaches frequently Be aware of color: avoid white and grey with other light colors; don’t use

pastels together; don’t use dark colors together (incorporate contrast, especially on handouts or overheads)

Always include verbal input when using the chalkboard (i.e.: talk about and verbally describe what you are writing/drawing, etc.)

Allow extra time for reading tasks/assignments

Links: www.canadianbrailleauthority.ca www.cnib.ca www.nbp.org

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EPILEPSYDefinition: A convulsive disorder characterized by chronic, recurrent seizure activity. Seizures can be classified into three broad types: Generalized (includes grand mal and petit mal); Partial (includes focal and temporal lobe); and Unclassified (all other types of seizures).

Associated Characteristics: Depending on the specific classification of seizure a person has, they may demonstrate a variety of characteristic symptoms and/or behaviors.

Grand Mal Seizure – contains very distinct stages and the person often reports an “aura” just prior to onset of seizure. During this type of seizure, the person loses consciousness, falls and develops generalized stiffness of the body, followed by thrashing movements. The person gradually regains consciousness, and may be confused, tired or fall into a deep sleep. The seizure can last from two to five minutes.

Petit Mal Seizure - usually brief in duration (15-20 seconds). The person will cease all activity and appear to stare vacantly as though daydreaming. During this time there is a loss or clouding of consciousness. The person abruptly returns to conscious functioning and can resume previous activity.

Focal Seizure - begin in a specific area of the brain and may or may not cause a loss of consciousness. The common feature of focal seizures is that they affect very specific motor or sensory functions (i.e.: the left arm may become very spastic)

Temporal Lobe Seizure – associated with lesions or damage to the temporal area of the brain. These often include a clouding of consciousness and amnesia, confused activity, dazed expression, nausea, drooling, incoherent speech and inappropriate emotional responses. In many cases, the person also displays very patterned behaviors (i.e.: carefully plucking at their clothing)

Preferred Practices & Strategies: The majority of students with Epilepsy do not have specific learning needs, unless they also have a comorbid condition that is characterized by intellectual deficiencies. The educational considerations for Epilepsy revolve around understanding this exceptionality, and preparing for its treatment in the classroom.TIPS:

Explain first aid techniques and general information about Epilepsy to the entire class to dispel their fears

Let the seizure run its course – never try and stop one If the student is upright, ease him/her onto the floor and clear the

surroundings Turn student’s face to the side, but do NOT insert anything between

his/her teeth Allow student time to be alone or rest following a seizure Always notify the student’s parents when a seizure occurs, regardless of

its apparent severity Provide student time to catch up on material missed during seizure activity

Links: www.epilepsy.ca; www.efa.org

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Alcohol Related Birth Injury: (Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS) and Fetal Alcohol Effects (FAE)

Definition: Abnormalities associated with the mother’s drinking alcohol during pregnancy; defects range from mild to severe including growth retardation, brain damage, mental retardation, hyperactivity, anomalies of the face and heart failure. FAS is a medical diagnosis dependent upon three observable characteristics: impaired growth, changes in facial structure and central nervous system abnormalities. Fetal Alcohol Effect (FAE) or Partial FAS (pFAS) is suggested when one or two observable signs are noted. Persons with FAE tend to have relatively normal levels of intelligence, but may display specific learning disabilities, behavior problems and hyperactivity.

Associated Characteristics: Cognitive Delay/Learning Problems (depending upon severity of effects) Seizures Irritability Poor Fine Motor Coordination Hyperactivity Distinct Facial Features Difficulty communicating needs Poor Judgment Easily Frustrated Impulsivity Memory Deficits

Preferred Practices & Strategies: Provide a structured environment in the classroom Ensure that academic tasks are within the child’s specific ability level Have as few transitions as possible Have a clear schedule posted for student (review it with him/her

frequently) If possible, reduce the amount of distractions in the classroom (i.e.: softer

colors, minimal clutter, space for movement in the room). Be as concrete as possible when presenting new material/concepts Avoid using abstractions, generalizations and complex language as this

may confuse the child (be specific in your language and ‘say what you mean’)

Incorporate repetition and memory aids during instruction

Links: www.aarda.orgwww.thearc.org/misc/faslist.html (the Arc’s Fetal Alcohol Syndrome Resource Guide)www.fas.org; http://www.arbi.org/links/links.html#research

Intellectual Disability

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Definition: Delayed intellectual growth that is manifested in immature reactions to environmental stimuli and well below-average social and academic performance. Students who have an intellectual disability will have difficulty with academic material; and will be slower than their peers is using memory effectively, reasoning and making judgments (Winzer, 2005).

Associated Characteristics: Persons classified as having intellectual disabilities vary widely in almost every aspect of human behavior, personality and temperament. Depending upon the individual’s degree of intellectual impairment, the level of support required and academic characteristics will range from intermittent needs(capable of basic academic subjects up to certain levels), to extensive needs (capable of basic communication and self-help skills) or pervasive needs(with intensive training may learn basic self-help and communication skills and may not be ambulatory).

Preferred Practices and Strategies: Students with intellectual disabilities are included in the general

classroom. Instruction is required in basic academic skills, as well as in cognitive,

language and social domains.Creating accessible classrooms:

Ensure mastery of new material through repetition and over-learning Drill and over-learning is key to overcoming memory problems Use consistent reinforcement and provide continuous and immediate

feedback. Use evaluative feedback (ex: “ I like the way you formed your letters”

rather than just “ Good work”). Reward effort rather than ability Allow some degree of freedom in selecting tasks or assignments in

order to allow students opportunities to control and monitor their own learning and behavior.

Use instructional scaffolds (supports that help students take the step from current learning to adding new skills)

Apply learning to other situations, objects or problems in the student’s environment (promoting transfer)

Specifically teach learning strategies Use concrete, meaningful content; incorporate visual aids,

demonstrations and models to watch and imitate Use Computer Assisted Instruction (CAI) Read orally student students Use Reciprocal Teaching

Links: www.aamr.org; www.thearc.orgPhysical Disabilities

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Definition: Physical limitations or health problems that interfere with school attendance or learning to such an extent that special equipment, services, materials and/or facilities are required.

Associated Characteristics: Persons who have physical disabilities may also have other exceptionalities, creating a wide variation in the characteristics they display. A person may be born with a disability or acquire it through accident or disease after birth. Physical disabilities may be chronic (ongoing), episodic (recurs) or progressive (worsens over time).

Physical Disabilities may result from Traumatic Brain Injury(TBI), Cerebral Palsy (CP), Spina Bifida, Muscular Dystrophy, Scoliosis, Rheumatoid Arthritis, AIDS, Asthma

(1) Cerebral Palsy (CP) – a condition caused by damage to the brain before it has matured, resulting in motor dysfunction.

Characteristics: Depending on the severity of their disability, a person with CP may exhibit various degrees of paralysis, weakness, seizure disorders, lack of coordination and/or other motor dysfunction. CP may involve problems with voluntary movements or spasticity (stiffness of muscles and inaccurate voluntary movements). The motor dysfunction may involve the limbs, facial muscles, and/or speech muscles. The range of intellectual abilities varies, and some people who have CP have average to above average intellectual ability, whereas others may have significantly below average intellectual ability. Links: www.cerebralpalsycanada.ca; www.ucpa.org

(2) Spina Bifida – a defect in the spinal column that occurs during fetal development. The defect may occur anywhere from the head to the lower end of the spine, resulting in a spinal column that does not close thereby leaving the nerve fibers exposed which can cause paralysis or lack of function or sensation below the open area.

Characteristics: Depending upon the site of the defect along the spinal column (the higher the defect the greater the damage), a person with Spina Bifida may have paralysis of the legs, incontinence and/or kidney problems (resulting from anal and bladder sphincter paralysis).The range of intellectual abilities varies, and some people with spina bifida have average to above average intellectual ability, whereas others have perceptual and cognitive dysfunction. Links: www.sbaa.org; www.spinalcord.org

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(3) Muscular Dystrophy - a hereditary disease in which a person’s muscle fibers progressively degenerate and cause weakness.

(4) AIDS (acquired immune deficiency syndrome) – an illness caused by the Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV). Children with AIDS often acquire neurological problems including mental retardation, cerebral palsy, seizures, respiratory conditions, heart defects and emotional/behavioral disorders.

Physical Disabilities: Preferred Practices & Strategies:

**Create Accessible Classrooms: become familiar with any special equipment a student uses

(wheelchairs, mobility devices, visual aids, amplification systems, catheterization equipment, ventilators, etc.)

try and have classroom displays at the student’s eye level provide tilt top desks if possible use pencil grips anchor paper by taping to table allow mini-breaks during class

Emotional/Behavioral Disorders

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Definition: Disorders characterized by behavioral or emotional responses in school so different from appropriate age, cultural or ethnic norms that they adversely affect educational performance (academic, social, vocational & personal skills).

Mood Disorders:(1) Bipolar Disorder - low depressed moods are punctuated by periods of

highly elevated mood described as mania or euphoria (a period when the person feels an unrealistic sense of extraordinary happiness or well-being).

(2) Unipolar Disorder – behavior is generally in a depressed or low category without the high periods of mania. Mood swings in a person with this form of depression are less extreme, ranging from normal to extreme dysphoria (feelings of unhappiness inconsistent with circumstances)

Common Symptoms of Depression in Children & Adolescents: Frequent vague, nonspecific complaints (headaches, muscle

aches, stomachaches or tiredness) Frequent absences from school or poor performance in school Talk of or efforts to run away from home Boredom Lack of interest in playing with friends Outbursts of shouting, complaining, unexplained irritability or crying Social isolation, poor communication Fear of death Increased irritability, anger or hostility Reckless behavior Difficulty with relationships

Anxiety Disorders – disorders characterized by anxiety, fearfulness and avoidance of ordinary activities. The central characteristic of anxiety is worry, which is excessive concern about situations with uncertain outcomes. Symptoms may be reflected in thinking, behavior or physical reactions.

Obsessive Compulsive Disorder (OCD) – a type of anxiety disorder that causes unwanted obsessive thoughts and compulsive behaviors. The ritualistic behaviors associated with OCD are an attempt to cope with the intrusive obsessive thoughts.

Schizophrenia – a disorder characterized by psychotic behavior manifested by loss of contact with reality, distorted thought processes, and abnormal perceptions.

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Oppositional Defiant Disorder (ODD) – a condition in which children argue repeatedly with authority figures, show resentment, are touchy, angry, spiteful and vindictive (physical aggression is usually limited)

Conduct Disorder (CD) – a disorder characterized by overt, aggressive, disruptive behavior or covert antisocial acts such as stealing, lying and fire setting and may include both overt & covert acts.

Preferred Practices & Strategies: Proactive measures (versus punishment) should be utilized as often as

possible within the classroom environmento Create a welcoming and responsive classroom settingo Provide a curriculum that is meaningful and well-presented and

matched to children’s needso Devise logical routines and clear rules; a simple daily routine

students can remembero Remind students of class rules often (but remember not to

overwhelm students with too many rules; 4 or 5 in total is often enough)

o Set clear limits to behavior and ensure students know the consequences for various rule infractions

o Be specific, consistent and systematic in expectations, actions and in responding to behavior

o Stress positive reinforcement (reduce the number of verbal reprimands & negative attention)

o Give choices!o Establish a signal (clapping, dimming lights, etc.) to silence

students and gain attentiono Use students’ names frequently

Encourage school-wide behavioral management systemso Total staff commitment to managing behavioro Clearly defined & communicated expectations & ruleso An instructional component for teaching students self-control and/or

social skill strategies

Links: www.pbis.org (positive behavioral interventions and supports)www.cec.sped.org (council for exceptional children, behavioral intervention)www.webmed.com

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References

http://www.gnb.ca/0000/publications/ss/sep.pdf Guidelines and Standards: Educational Planning for Students with Exceptionalities.

Hallahan, D. and Kauffman, J. (2003). Exceptional Learners: Introduction to Special Education, 7th Edition. Pearson Education Inc.: Toronto.

Winzer, M. (2005). Children with Exceptionalities in Canadian Classrooms, 7th Edition. Pearson Education Inc: Toronto.

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