Educational emphases

Multiple Intelligences

Howard Gardner of Harvard has identified seven distinct intelligences. This theory has emerged from recent cognitive research and "documents the extent to which students possess different kinds of minds and therefore learn, remember, perform, and understand in different ways," according to Gardner (1991). According to this theory, "we are all able to know the world through language, logical-mathematical analysis, spatial representation, musical thinking, the use of the body to solve problems or to make things, an understanding of other individuals, and an understanding of ourselves. Where individuals differ is in the strength of these intelligences - the so-called profile of intelligences -and in the ways in which such intelligences are invoked and combined to carry out different tasks, solve diverse problems, and progress in various domains."

Gardner says that these differences "challenge an educational system that assumes that everyone can learn the same materials in the same way and that a uniform, universal measure suffices to test student learning. Indeed, as currently constituted, our educational system is heavily biased toward linguistic modes of instruction and assessment and, to a somewhat lesser degree, toward logical-quantitative modes as well." Gardner argues that "a contrasting set of assumptions is more likely to be educationally effective. Students learn in ways that are identifiably distinctive. The broad spectrum of students - and perhaps the society as a whole - would be better served if disciplines could be presented in a numbers of ways and learning could be assessed through a variety of means." The learning styles are as follows:

Visual-Spatial - think in terms of physical space, as do architects and sailors. Very aware of their environments. They like to draw, do jigsaw puzzles, read maps, daydream. They can be taught through drawings, verbal and physical imagery. Tools include models, graphics, charts, photographs, drawings, 3-D modeling, video, videoconferencing, television, multimedia, texts with pictures/charts/graphs.

Bodily-kinesthetic - use the body effectively, like a dancer or a surgeon. Keen sense of body awareness. They like movement, making things, touching. They communicate well through body language and be taught through physical activity, hands-on learning, acting out, role playing. Tools include equipment and real objects.

Musical - show sensitivity to rhythm and sound. They love music, but they are also sensitive to sounds in their environments. They may study better with music in the background. They can be taught by turning lessons into lyrics, speaking rhythmically, tapping out time. Tools include musical instruments, music, radio, stereo, CD-ROM, multimedia.

Interpersonal - understanding, interacting with others. These students learn through interaction. They have many friends, empathy for others, street smarts. They can be taught through group activities, seminars, dialogues. Tools include the telephone, audio conferencing, time and attention from the instructor, video conferencing, writing, computer conferencing, E-mail.

Intrapersonal - understanding one's own interests, goals. These learners tend to shy away from others. They're in tune with their inner feelings; they have wisdom, intuition and motivation, as well as a strong will, confidence and opinions. They can be taught through independent study and introspection. Tools include books, creative materials, diaries, privacy and time. They are the most independent of the learners.

Linguistic - using words effectively. These learners have highly developed auditory skills and often think in words. They like reading, playing word games, making up poetry or stories. They can be taught by encouraging them to say and see words, read books together. Tools include computers, games, multimedia, books, tape recorders, and lecture.

Logical -Mathematical - reasoning, calculating. Think conceptually, abstractly and are able to see and explore patterns and relationships. They like to experiment, solve puzzles, ask cosmic questions. They can be taught through logic games, investigations, mysteries. They need to learn and form concepts before they can deal with details.

At first, it may seem impossible to teach to all learning styles. However, as we move into using a mix of media or multimedia, it becomes easier. As we understand learning styles, it becomes apparent why multimedia appeals to learners and why a mix of media is more effective. It satisfies the many types of learning preferences that one person may embody or that a class embodies. A review of the literature shows that a variety of decisions must be made when choosing media that is appropriate to learning style.

Visuals: Visual media help students acquire concrete concepts, such as object identification, spatial relationship, or motor skills where words alone are inefficient.

Printed words: There is disagreement about audio's superiority to print for affective objectives; several models do not recommend verbal sound if it is not part of the task to be learned.

Sound: A distinction is drawn between verbal sound and non-verbal sound such as music. Sound media are necessary to present a stimulus for recall or sound recognition. Audio narration is recommended for poor readers.

Motion: Models force decisions among still, limited movement, and full movement visuals. Motion is used to depict human performance so that learners can copy the movement. Several models assert that motion may be unnecessary and provides decision aid questions based upon objectives. Visual media which portray motion are

best to show psychomotor or cognitive domain expectations by showing the skill as a model against which students can measure their performance.

Color: Decisions on color display are required if an object's color is relevant to what is being learned.

Realia: Realia are tangible, real objects which are not models and are useful to teach motor and cognitive skills involving unfamiliar objects. Realia are appropriate for use with individuals or groups and may be situation based. Realia may be used to present information realistically but it may be equally important that the presentation corresponds with the way learner's represent information internally.

Instructional Setting: Design should cover whether the materials are to be used in a home or instructional setting and consider the size what is to be learned. Print instruction should be delivered in an individualized mode which allows the learner to set the learning pace. The ability to provide corrective feedback for individual learners is important but any medium can provide corrective feedback by stating the correct answer to allow comparison of the two answers.

Learner Characteristics: Most models consider learner characteristics as media may be differentially effective for different learners. Although research has had limited success in identifying the media most suitable for types of learners several models are based on this method.

Reading ability: Pictures facilitate learning for poor readers who benefit more from speaking than from writing because they understand spoken words; self-directed good readers can control the pace; and print allows easier review.

Categories of Learning Outcomes: Categories ranged from three to eleven and most include some or all of Gagne's (1977) learning categories; intellectual skills, verbal information, motor skills, attitudes, and cognitive strategies. Several models suggest a procedure which categorizes learning outcomes, plans instructional events to teach objectives, identifies the type of stimuli to present events, and media capable of presenting the stimuli.

Events of Instruction: The external events which support internal learning processes are called events of instruction. The events of instruction are planned before selecting the media to present it.

Performance: Many models discuss eliciting performance where the student practices the task which sets the stage for reinforcement. Several models indicate that the elicited performance should be categorized by type; overt, covert, motor, verbal, constructed, and select. Media should be selected which is best able to elicit these responses and the response frequency. One model advocates a behavioral approach so that media is chosen to elicit responses for practice. To provide feedback about the student's response, an interactive medium might be chosen, but any medium can provide

feedback. Learner characteristics such as error proneness and anxiety should influence media selection.

Testing which traditionally is accomplished through print, may be handled by electronic media. Media are better able to assess learners' visual skills than are print media and can be used to assess learner performance in realistic situations.

from "The Distance Learning Technology Resource Guide," by Carla Lane

Like most teachers, you're probably familiar with Howard Gardner's theory on multiple intelligences — that there are

eight different types of intelligence and that these intelligences guide the way we learn and process information. What

you may not be as familiar with is how to apply a multiple intelligence approach to learning in your classroom.

Start with this checklist. Use it to refresh your memory on each of the intelligences and pinpoint learning activities that

will appeal to your students based on their particular strengths. To involve students in identifying their multiple

intelligences, invite them to complete The Connell Multiple Intelligence Questionnaire for Children. They will find

it exciting to see the areas they are strongest in, and to understand how these might be affecting their schoolwork.

Verbal-Linguistic Intelligence (Word Smart)

Description: Verbal-linguistic students love words and use them as a primary way of thinking and solving problems.

They are good writers, speakers, or both. They use words to persuade, argue, entertain, and/or teach.

Learning Activities and Project Ideas:

Completing crossword puzzles with vocabulary words.

Playing games like Scrabble, Scrabble Junior, or Boggle.

Writing short stories for a classroom newsletter.

Writing feature articles for the school newspaper.

Writing a letter to the editor in response to articles.

Writing to state representatives about local issues.

Using digital resources such as electronic libraries, desktop publishing, word games, and word processing.

Creating poems for a class poetry book.

Entering their original poems in a poetry contest.

Listening to a storyteller.

Studying the habits of good speakers.

Telling a story to the class.

Participating in debates.

 

Logical-Mathematical Intelligence (Math Smart)

Description: Logical-mathematical students enjoy working with numbers. They can easily interpret data and analyze

abstract patterns. They have a well-developed ability to reason and are good at chess and computer programming.

They think in terms of cause and effect.

Learning Activities and Project Ideas:

Playing math games like mancala, dominoes, chess, checkers, and Monopoly.

Searching for patterns in the classroom, school, outdoors, and home.

Conducting experiments to demonstrate science concepts.

Using math and science software such as Math Blaster, which reinforces math skills, or King's Rule, a logic game.

Using science tool kits for science programs.

Designing alphabetic and numeric codes.

Making up analogies.

 

Spatial Intelligence (Picture Smart)

Description: Students strong in spatial intelligence think and process information in pictures and images. They have

excellent visual receptive skills and excellent fine motor skills. Students with this intelligence use their eyes and

hands to make artistic or creatively designed projects. They can build with Legos, read maps, and put together 1,000-

piece jigsaw puzzles.

Learning Activities and Project Ideas:

Taking photographs for assignments and classroom newsletters.

Taking photographs for the school yearbook, school newsletter, or science assignments.

Using clay or play dough to make objects or represent concepts from content-area lessons.

Using pictorial models such as flow charts, visual maps, Venn diagrams, and timelines to connect new material to

known information.

Taking notes using concept mapping, mind mapping, and clustering.

Using puppets to act out and reinforce concepts learned in class.

Using maps to study geographical locations discussed in class.

Illustrating poems for the class poetry book by drawing or using computer software.

Using virtual-reality system software.

 

Musical Intelligence (Music Smart)

Description: Musical students think, feel, and process information primarily through sound. They have a superior

ability to perceive, compose, and/or perform music. Musically smart people constantly hear musical notes in their

head.

Learning Activities and Project Ideas:

Writing their own songs and music about content-area topics.

Putting original poems to music, and then performing them for the class.

Setting a poem to music, and then performing it for the class.

Incorporating a poem they have written with a melody they already know.

Listening to music from different historical periods.

Tape recording a poem over "appropriate" background music (i.e., soft music if describing a kitten, loud music if they

are mad about pollution).

Using rhythm and clapping to memorize math facts and other content-area information.

Listening to CDs that teach concepts like the alphabet, parts of speech, and states and capitals (i.e.,Schoolhouse

Rock!).

 

Bodily-Kinesthetic (Body Smart)

Description: Bodily-kinesthetic students are highly aware of the world through touch and movement. There is a

special harmony between their bodies and their minds. They can control their bodies with grace, expertise, and

athleticism.

Learning Activities and Project Ideas:

Creating costumes for role-playing, skits, or simulations.

Performing skits or acting out scenes from books or key historical events.

Designing props for plays and skits.

Playing games like Twister and Simon Says.

Using charades to act out characters in a book, vocabulary words, animals, or other content-area topics.

Participating in scavenger hunts, searching for items related to a theme or unit.

Acting out concepts. For example, for the solar system, "student planets" circle around a "student sun." Students line

up appropriately to demonstrate events in a history timeline.

Participating in movement breaks during the day.

Building objects using blocks, cubes, or Legos to represent concepts from content-area lessons.

Using electronic motion-simulation games and hands-on construction kits that interface with computers.

 

Interpersonal (People Smart)

Description: Students strong in interpersonal intelligence have a natural ability to interact with, relate to, and get

along with others effectively. They are good leaders. They use their insights about others to negotiate, persuade, and

obtain information. They like to interact with others and usually have lots of friends.

Learning Activities and Project Ideas:

Working in cooperative groups to design and complete projects.

Working in pairs to learn math facts.

Interviewing people with knowledge about content-area topics (such as a veteran to learn about World War II, a lab

technician to learn about life science, or a politician to understand the election process).

Tutoring younger students or classmates.

Using puppets to put on a puppet show.

 

Intrapersonal Intelligence (Self Smart)

Description: People with a strong intrapersonal intelligence have a deep awareness of their feelings, ideas, and

goals. Students with this intelligence usually need time alone to process and create.

Learning Activities and Project Ideas:

Writing reflective papers on content-area topics.

Writing essays from the perspective of historical figures, such as Civil War soldiers or suffragettes.

Writing a literary autobiography, reflecting on their reading life.

Writing goals for the future and planning ways to achieve them.

Using software that allows them to work alone, such as Decisions, Decisions, a personal choice software, or the

Perfect Career, a career choice software.

Keeping journals or logs throughout the year.

Making a scrapbook for their poems, papers, and reflections.

 

Naturalistic Intelligence (Nature Smart)

Description: This intelligence refers to a person's natural interest in the environment. These people enjoy being in

nature and want to protect it from pollution. Students with strong naturalistic intelligence easily recognize and

categorize plants, animals, and rocks.

Caring for classroom plants.

Caring for classroom pets.

Sorting and classifying natural objects, such as leaves and rocks.

Researching animal habitats.

Observing natural surroundings.

Organizing or participating in park/playground clean-ups, recycling drives, and beautification projects.

 

Technology and Multiple Intelligences

What are the multiple intelligences?

What do they have to do with technology?

How can I incorporate these ideas into teaching and learning?

In his 1983 book called Frames of Mind, Howard Gardner of Harvard University identified seven intelligences we all possess. Because our understanding of the brain and human behavior is constantly changing, the number of intelligences is expanding. Two to three new intelligences had been added recently. Gardner claims that we all have all the intelligences, but that no two people are exactly alike. 

Read Concept to Classroom: Multiple Intelligences.This web project answers a series of common questions about Howard Gardner's Multiple

Intelligences.

Go to Project Zero to learn more about Howard Gardner's projects at Harvard. Then learn more about Howard Gardner. For some insights into the way the theory has evolved, read his PDF article titled Multiple Intelligences after Twenty Years.

Originally, Gardner developed the list as a theoretical model about the psychology of the mind, rather than a practical way to address individual differences. However, by understanding a student's strengths and weaknesses in each intelligence, we can help students become more successful. He also notes that integrating multiple intelligences into the classroom involves changing our idea about teaching and learning. It requires addressing individual differences and providing a range of activities and experiences to facilitate learning.  Technology can be used to facilitate learning in each intelligence area. There is no "right way" to integrate intelligences or technology into the classroom. The key is to provide the most effective learning environment for students. 

Read The Key Learning Community: Cultivating "Multiple Intelligences" from Edutopia. Watch the Quicktime videos. You'll need aQuickTime player to view videos.

 Currently, Howard Gardner has identified nine intelligences. Click on each intelligence below to learn more about it and technology tools that support classroom activities (Teacher Tap Pages.

Verbal-Linguistic Logical/Mathematical Visual/Spatial Bodily/Kinesthetic Musical/Rhythmic Intrapersonal Interpersonal Naturalist Existentialist

Multiple Intelligence

If you'd like to learn more about Multiple Intelligence, use the following resources.

Creating 'Windows into Learner's Minds': Multiple Intelligences and Portfolios - This article highlights a new book and provides some examples.

Project Zero - About Howard Gardner   - This page provides basic information about Howard Gardner and his ideas

M.I. Smart! Program - This is the best place to start your exploration of Multiple Intelligences. It contains a great overview, links to each intelligence, a MI Diagram and Links to Multiple Intelligence articles.

Multiple Intelligences - This single page site provides an overview of each intelligence and examples for teachers and parents.

Multiple Intelligences: A Theory for Everyone - This Education World page provides an overview of Multiple Intelligences.

Multiple Intelligences: It's Not How Smart You Are, It's How You're Smart! - Another Education World Article:

NEA Today Interview with Howard Gardner - This interview provides a nice overview of the model and the perspectives of Howard Gardner. 

Research Results of a Multiple Intelligences Classroom by Bruce Campbell - This short article provides an overview of research in multiple intelligences in the classroom.

Some MI Links - This page provides some great links.

Tapped Into Multiple Intelligences - This online workshop takes you through descriptions, examples, and discussion.

Use All Your Smarts: Multiple Intelligences for Diverse Library Learners - This website by Katherine Holmes of Lesley University Library explores how to use multiple intelligences to address diverse needs.

Technology and Multiple Intelligences

Activity Chart - Explore this Multiple Intelligences activity chart.

Do Technology Based Lessons Meet the Needs of Student Learning Styles?   - This article focuses on learning styles, technology, and lesson planning.

How Technology Enhances Howard Gardner's Eight Intelligences - This article focuses on each intelligence and provide technology ideas.

Match Multiple Intelligences with Technology - This page was designed for a workshop in matching multiple intelligences with technology.

Multimedia and Multiple Intelligences - In this excellent 1996 article, Shirley Veenema and Howard Gardner describe the potential of technology and multiple intelligences.

Multiple Intelligences Activities - Lesson plans with lots of ideas.

Multiple Intelligences and Technology - Find ways to link technology and multiple intelligences

Multiple Intelligences and Technology - This online article focuses on the theory behind multiple intelligences and technology.

Science, Multimedia, & Multiple Intelligences - This page defines multimedia and multiple intelligences and gives examples of these in the classroom.

Using Multiple Intelligences in Project-based Learning - This website provides checklists, ideas, and assessments related to multiple intelligences and project-based learning. 

Student Projects and Lessons Based on Multiple Intelligences Ideas

A Journey through the Rainforest - Explore this elementary project about the rainforest that incorporates aspects of multiple intelligences. 

Best Practices of Technology Integration - This Michigan project contains wonderful, technology-rich lessons for all grade levels.

Harvard Project Zero - This Harvard University Project focuses on understanding learning and specifically multiple intelligences. The research project section contains links to information about to past and present research projects.

Multiple Intelligences by Lesson - This website provides great examples of combining multiple intelligences and technology into meaningful lessons.

Project SUMIT (Schools Using Multiple Intelligence Theory) - This website documents how schools are using multiple intelligence theory.

Utilizing Technology to Address the Multiple Intelligences - This project was done by teacher education students to demonstrate how multiple intelligences and technology could be integrated into the a project on the Civil War.

Multiple Intelligences Surveys

Multiple Intelligences Self-Profile Playground Games Project Teacher Inventory

Build A Project

Select a topic and brainstorm outcomes and technology-rich activities that fit all the intelligences.

Multiple Intelligences ChartHow do you ensure all of your students' intelligences are being tapped? Here is a list of activities that speak to each intelligence.

Verbal-Linguistic Logical-Mathematical Visual-Spatial Bodily-Kinesthetic

choral speaking

declarizing

storytelling

retelling

speaking

debating

presenting

reading aloud

dramatizing

book making

nonfiction reading

researching

listening

process writing

writing journals

problem solving

measuring

coding

sequencing

critical thinking

predicting

playing logic games

collecting data

experimenting

solving puzzles

classifying

using manipulatives

learning the scientific model

using money

using geometry

graphing

photographing

making visual metaphors

making visual analogies

mapping stories

making 3D projects

painting

illustrating

using charts

using organizers

visualizing

sketching

patterning

visual puzzles

hands on experiments

activities

changing room arrangement

creative movement

going on field trips

physical education activities

crafts

dramatizing

using cooperative groups

dancing

Musical Interpersonal Intrapersonal Naturalistic

humming

rapping

playing background music

patterns

form

playing instruments

tapping out poetic

classroom parties

peer editing

cooperative learning

sharing

group work

forming clubs

peer teaching

personal response

individual study

personal goal setting

individual projects

journal log keeping

personal choice in projects

independent reading

reading outside

cloud watching

identifying insects

building habitats

identifying plants

using a microscope

dissecting

rhythms

rhyming

singing

social awareness

conflict mediation

discussing

cross age tutoring

study group

brainstorming

going on a nature walk

build a garden

studying the stars

bird watching

collecting rocks

making bird feeders

going to the zoo

Naturalist Intelligence

Students with naturalist intelligence are those who seem to be in love with the natural world. They like to spend time there, they thrive there, they are skilled and confident and comfortable there, and they learn best there — in short, they

are nature smart.Helping all students develop their "nature smarts" is a transformative gift we

teachers can give to the world.

Many educators know of young students who know all there is to know about dinosaurs, butterflies, fish, rocks, etc. They have a deep interest in and fascination with something in nature and are driven to investigate and become an "expert" in a particular natural subject. These are the students who exhibit naturalist intelligence.— Karen Roth, in The Naturalist Intelligence: An Introduction to Gardner's Eighth Intelligence

In 1983, Harvard University's Howard Gardner proposed a theory that there are multiple intelligences, seven in all. He has since added an eighth, the naturalist intelligence (and more recently, the "existential intelligence": the ability and proclivity to pose and ponder questions about life, death, and ultimate realities).

1. verbal/linguistic intelligence or "word smart"

2. bodily/kinesthetic intelligence or "body smart"

3. logical/mathematical intelligence or "number smart"

4. visual/spatial intelligence or "art/design/space smart"

5. interpersonal intelligence or "people smart"

6. intrapersonal intelligence or "self smart"

7. musical/rhythmic intelligence or "music smart"

8. naturalist intelligence or "nature smart"

9. existential intelligence or "spirituality smart"

There are three main reasons for understanding multiple intelligences:

1. teachers can extend their teaching repertoire to honour all the intelligences, and teach in ways that help students develop strength in all the intelligences

2. the curriculum can be broadened to give value and status to all the intelligences (not just verbal/linguistic and logical/mathematical)

3. every student's gifts can be validated by recognizing their unique pattern of intelligences (again, not just those gifted in literacy and numeracy)

Students demonstrate naturalist intelligence when they

are very comfortable outdoors

are aware of their natural surroundings

feel a definite sense of connection to the rest of nature

have an affinity for natural habitats such as forests, deserts, oceans/lakes or streams, wetlands

feel renewed by visiting these natural settings

discriminate different flora and fauna

recognize patterns and colours

are good at sorting and classifying

have keen observational skills and observe patiently

feel satisfaction in learning names of flowers, trees, rocks and minerals, dinosaurs, birds, volcanoes, cloud formations, etc.

enjoy exploring and touching outdoors, including "yucky things"

understand and can explain natural phenomena

show a sense for detail, noticing and delighting in the smallest of nature's gifts

nurture living things, through gardening or taking care of pets or bringing home stray animals

set up bird feeders and other feeding stations for animals

choose to read books and watch programs about animals and ecosystems

seek music related to nature

make crafts and projects out of natural materials (using shells, driftwood, plant presses)

like using equipment to find out more about the natural environment (butterfly nets, water and soil quality testing kits)

readily follow cyclic patterns in nature such as tides, seasons, moon phases, and climate

enjoy collections of rocks, leaves, flowers, shells, feathers, etc.

name zoos, farms, wildlife parks, aquariums and pet stores as "special places" for them

enjoy recreational activities in the outdoors, such as hiking, rock climbing, cross country skiing, camping, sailing, scuba diving, etc.

(adapted from Discovering the Naturalist Intelligence: Science in the School Yard, with thanks to Jenna Glock, Susan Wertz and Maggie Meyer)

Students show they are nature smart when they have a keen awareness of the natural world and phenomena, discriminate natural items like animals, insects, birds, fish, rocks, minerals, plants, trees, flowers, stars, [or] planets.... They often learn best when the content may be sorted and classified or is related to the natural world.— Kagan Publishing, Multiple Intelligences Smart Card

Strategies for Teaching to the Naturalist Intelligence

Naturalist learning is experienced through

relating

discovering

uncovering

observing

digging (literally and metaphorically)

planting

collecting

sorting

comparing

displaying

Teachers can help their students develop or enhance their naturalist intelligence by providing learning experiences that encourage:

OBSERVING

using the senses

watching animal behaviour (squirrels or birds in the schoolyard?)

using a microscope, telescope, binoculars or hand lens

discerning changes outdoors over the course of the school year (weekly walkabouts are wonderful for these students)

keeping an eye on nests or dens

watching the weather (to learn weather forecasting)

noticing ecological principles in action (for example, the decomposition of plant or animal material over time)

RECORDING OBSERVATIONS

keeping a Nature Journal

imitating a biologist or ecologist doing field studies

listing data about characteristics (size, colour, form, function, habitat, etc.)

keeping data in a log, blog or diary

drawing, sketching, photographing, videotaping natural phenomena

modelling, measuring or drawing to scale plants, animals or outdoor settings

documenting changes, stages, phases, metamorphoses, transformations

CLASSIFYING AND CATEGORIZING

collecting (literally or ticking off on a list) and identifying plants, leaves, berries, birds, feathers, nests, and so on

pointing out similarities and differences

grouping, ranking, separating, adding up natural objects according to observed characteristics

identifying sounds in the natural world (for example, bird calls)

WORKING AND LEARNING IN OR WITH THE NATURAL WORLD

growing things (plants, gardens)

establishing nature trails, viewing platforms, outdoor classrooms

going on hikes and field trips

performing role plays or skits about cycles in nature, animal behaviour, plants growth, etc.

reading stories or articles about the natural world or the fields of biology and ecology

Falling in love with the earth is one of life's great adventures. It is an affair of the heart like no other; a rapturous experience that remains endlessly repeatable throughout life. This is no fleeting romance, it's an uncommon affair, one unconstrained by age or custom, and strengthened rather than diminished through sharing. The moreone gives it away, the stronger it grows.

— Steve Van Matre, Institute for Earth Education

Multiple Intelligences In The ClassroomOf the seven different ways we learn, schools focus on only two.

Add the other five, and you increase the chances of success

By Bruce Campbell

One of the articles in The Learning Revolution (IC#27)

Originally published in Winter 1991 on page 12

Copyright (c)1991, 1996 by Context Institute

The story of much recent innovation in education follows a familiar pattern: the

theory of an innovative thinker (in this case, Harvard’s Howard Gardner) gets

applied by an innovative practitioner (third grade teacher Bruce Campbell),

who puts the flesh of action on the bones of thinking. Along the way, theories

get substantiated, the subjects of the successful experiment benefit greatly –

and, as Bruce Campbell reports in this self-interview, the experimenter is

forever altered.

Bruce, together with his wife Linda MacRae-Campbell and Dee Dickinson (Dee

and Linda are guest editors for this issue), is currently co-authoring a book

titled LearningWorks: Teaching and Learning through the Multiple

Intelligences. Contact the Campbells at 19614 Soundview Drive, Stanwood, WA

98292, 206/652-9502.

If we are to achieve a richer culture, rich in contrasting values, we must

recognize the whole gamut of human potentialities, and so weave a less

arbitrary social fabric, one in which each diverse human gift will find a fitting

place.

- Margaret Mead

In recent years, new definitions of intelligence have gained acceptance and

have dramatically enhanced the appraisal of human competencies. Howard

Gardner of Harvard University in his book, Frames of Mind: The Theory of

Multiple Intelligences, suggests that there are at least seven human

intelligences, two of which, verbal/linguisticintelligence

and logical/mathematical intelligence, have dominated the traditional pedagogy

of western societies.

The five non-traditional intelligences, spatial, musical, kinesthetic,

interpersonal andintrapersonal, have generally been overlooked in education.

However, if we can develop ways to teach and learn by engaging all seven

intelligences, we will increase the possibilities for student success and create

the opportunity to, in Margaret Mead’s words, "weave a social fabric in which

each diverse human gift will find a fitting place."

How can the Multiple Intelligences be implemented in the classroom?

To implement Gardner’s theory in an educational setting, I organized my third

grade classroom in Marysville, Washington, into seven learning centers, each

dedicated to one of the seven intelligences. The students spend approximately

two-thirds of each school day moving through the centers – 15 to 20 minutes at

each center. Curriculum is thematic, and the centers provide seven different

ways for the students to learn the subject matter.

Each day begins with a brief lecture and discussion explaining one aspect of

the current theme. For example, during a unit on outer space, the morning’s

lecture might focus on spiral galaxies. In a unit about the arts of Africa, one

lecture might describe the Adinkra textile patterns of Ghana. After the morning

lecture, a timer is set and students – in groups of three or four – start work at

their centers, eventually rotating through all seven.

What kinds of learning activities take place at each center?

All students learn each day’s lesson in seven ways. They build models, dance,

make collaborative decisions, create songs, solve deductive reasoning

problems, read, write, and illustrate all in one school day. Some more specific

examples of activities at each center follow:

In the Personal Work Center (Intrapersonal Intelligence), students

explore the present area of study through research, reflection, or

individual projects.

In the Working Together Center (Interpersonal Intelligence), they

develop cooperative learning skills as they solve problems, answer

questions, create learning games, brainstorm ideas and discuss that day’s

topic collaboratively.

In the Music Center (Musical Intelligence), students compose and sing

songs about the subject matter, make their own instruments, and learn in

rhythmical ways.

In the Art Center (Spatial Intelligence), they explore a subject area using

diverse art media, manipulables, puzzles, charts, and pictures.

In the Building Center (Kinesthetic Intelligence), they build models,

dramatize events, and dance, all in ways that relate to the content of that

day’s subject matter.

In the Reading Center (Verbal/Linguistic Intelligence), students read,

write, and learn in many traditional modes. They analyze and organize

information in written form.

In the Math & Science Center (Logical/ Mathematical Intelligence), they

work with math games, manipulatives, mathematical concepts, science

experiments, deductive reasoning, and problem solving.

Following their work at the centers, a few minutes are set aside for groups and

individual students to share their work from the centers. Much of the

remainder of the day is spent with students working on independent projects,

either individually or in small groups where they apply the diverse skills

developed at the centers. The daily work at the seven centers profoundly

influences their ability to make informative, entertaining, multimodal

presentations of their studies. Additionally, it is common for parents to

comment on how much more expressive their children have become at home.

What are some of the results of this program?

During the 1989-1990 school year, an action research project was conducted in

my classroom to assess the effects of this multimodal learning format. A daily

teacher’s journal was kept with specific entries recording the following:

general daily comments

a daily evaluation of how focused or "on-task" students were

an evaluation of the transitions between centers

an explanation of any discipline problems

a self-assessment – how the teacher’s time was used

tracking of three individuals, previously identified as students with

behavior problems.

In addition, a Classroom Climate Survey was administered 12 times during the

year, a Student Assessment Inventory of work at the seven centers was

administered nine times during the year, and a Center Group Survey was

administered eight times during the year.

The research data revealed the following:

1. The students develop increased responsibility, self-direction and

independence over the course of the year. Although no attempt was made to

compare this group of students with those in other third grade classes, the self-

direction and motivation of these students was apparent to numerous

classroom visitors. The students became skilled at developing their own

projects, gathering the necessary resources and materials, and making well-

planned presentations of all kinds.

2. Discipline problems were significantly reduced. Students previously

identified as having serious behavior problems showed rapid improvement

during the first six weeks of school. By mid-year, they were making important

contributions to their groups. And by year’s end, they had assumed positive

leadership roles which had not formerly been evident.

3. All students developed and applied new skills. In the fall, most students

described only one center as their "favorite" and as the one where they felt

confident. (The distribution among the seven centers was relatively even.) By

mid-year, most identified three to four favorite centers. By year’s end, every

student identified at least six centers which were favorites and at which they

felt skilled. Moreover, they were all making multimodal presentations of

independent projects including songs, skits, visuals, poems, games, surveys,

puzzles, and group participation activities.

4. Cooperative learning skills improved in all students. Since so much of the

center work was collaborative, students became highly skilled at listening,

helping each other, sharing leadership in different activities, accommodating

group changes, and introducing new classmates to the program. They learned

not only to respect each other, but also to appreciate and call upon the unique

gifts and abilities of their classmates.

5. Academic achievement improved. Standardized test scores were above state

and national averages in all areas. Retention was high on a classroom year-end

test of all areas studied during the year. Methods for recalling information

were predominantly musical, visual and kinesthetic, indicating the influence of

working through the different intelligences. Students who had previously been

unsuccessful in school became high achievers in new areas.

In summary, it is clear that students’ learning improved. Many students said

they enjoyed school for the first time. And as the school year progressed, new

skills emerged: some students discovered musical, artistic, literary,

mathematical and other new-found capacities and abilities. Others became

skilled leaders. In addition, self-confidence and motivation increased

significantly. Finally, students developed responsibility, self-reliance and

independence as they took an active role in shaping their own learning

experiences.

What is the teacher’s role in a Multiple Intelligences program?

The teacher’s role also transforms in this type of program. I developed skills

different from those I would develop by standing in front of a class lecturing

each day. I need to observe my students from seven new perspectives. In

planning the centers, I find I am pushing my students from behind rather than

pulling them from in front. Also I am working withthem, rather than for them. I

explore what they explore, discover what they discover, and often learn what

they learn. I find my satisfaction in their enthusiasm for learning and

independence, rather than in their test scores and ability to sit quietly. And

most importantly, because I am planning for such a diversity of activities, I

have become more creative and multimodal in my own thinking and my own

learning. I can now comfortably write and sing songs. I am learning to draw

and paint. I see growth and development within myself. I sometimes wonder

who is changing the most, my students or myself.

Why is a Multiple Intelligences model successful?

The reasons for the academic and behavioral success of the program appear to

be twofold. First, every student has an opportunity to specialize and excel in at

least one area. Usually, however, it is three or four. In the two years since this

program was initiated, I have not had one student who was unable to find an

area of specialty and success. Secondly, each student learns the subject matter

in a variety of different ways, thereby multiplying chances of successfully

understanding and retaining that information.

Many student needs are met through this program. Their intellectual needs are

met by constantly being challenged and frequently exercising their creativity.

At the same time, their emotional needs are met by working closely with

others. They develop diverse strengths, and they understand themselves better

as individuals.

The emphasis in such a program is upon learning rather than teaching. The

students’ interests and developmental needs dictate the direction of the

program. Such a model adapts to students, rather than expecting students to

adapt to it. From my own classroom experiences, I believe that teaching and

learning through the multiple intelligences helps solve many common school

problems and optimizes the learning experience for students and teachers

alike. Again following Margaret Mead, if we educate to engage the "whole

gamut of human potentialities" in the classroom, society will benefit by

enabling "each diverse human gift to find its fitting place."

Four Factors In Educational Reformby Howard Gardner

Many of us interested in efforts at educational reform have focused on the

learner or student, be she a young child in preschool or an adult bent on

acquiring a new skill. It is clarifying to have such a focus and, indeed, any

efforts at reform are doomed to fail unless they concentrate on the properties

and potentials of the individual learner. My own work on multiple intelligences

has partaken of this general focus; colleagues and I have sought to foster a

range of intellectual strengths in our students.

But after several years of active involvement in efforts at educational reform, I

am convinced that success depends upon the active involvement of at least four

factors:

Assessment * Unless one is able to assess the learning that takes place in

different domains, and by different cognitive processes, even superior

curricular innovations are destined to remain unutilized. In this country,

assessment drives instruction. We must devise procedures and instruments

which are "intelligence-fair" and which allow us to look directly at the kinds of

learning in which we are interested.

Curriculum * Far too much of what is taught today is included primarily for

historical reasons. Even teachers, not to mention students, often cannot explain

why a certain topic needs to be covered in school. We need to reconfigure

curricula so that they focus on skills, knowledge, and above all, understandings

that are truly desirable in out country today. And we need to adapt those

curricula as much as possible to the particular learning styles and strengths of

students.

Teacher Education * While most teacher education institutions make an

honest effort to produce teaching candidates of high quality, these institutions

have not been at the forefront of efforts at educational improvement. Too often

they are weighted down by students of indifferent quality and by excessive –

and often counterproductive – requirements which surround training and

certification. We need to attract stronger individuals into teaching, improve

conditions so that they will remain in teaching, and use our master teachers to

help train the next generation of students and teachers.

Community Participation * In the past, Americans have been content to

place most educational burdens on the schools. This is no longer a viable

option. The increasing cognitive demands of schooling, the severe problems in

our society today, and the need for support of students which extends well

beyond the 9-3 period each day, all make it essential that other individuals and

institutions contribute to the educational process. In addition to support from

family members and other mentoring adults, such institutions as business, the

professions, and especially museums need to be involved much more intimately

in the educational process.

Too often, Americans have responded to educational needs only in times of

crisis. This is an unacceptable approach. Education works effectively only when

responsibility is assumed over the long run. We have made significant progress

in this regard over the past decade. There is reason to be optimistic for

students of the future, as dedicated individuals continue to collaborate in

solving the challenging educational problems of our time.

 

Dr. Howard Gardner is a Professor of Education and Co-chair of Project Zero at

Harvard University. He is the author of nine books, including Frames of Mind:

The Theory of Multiple Intelligences (1983), and To Open Minds: Chinese Clues

to the Dilemma of Comtemporary Education (1989).

How do I apply multiple intelligences (M.I.) theory in my classroom?

There are many different ways to apply multiple intelligences theory in the classroom. You probably employ a variety of intelligences already.

At all levels of education, teachers are transforming subject-specific lessons and curriculum units into meaningful M.I. experiences.

History courses study period music and art. Science units incorporate visual, musical and kinesthetic experiences. Language arts classes reading Civil War literature visit re-enactments and build a

topographical map.

As educators explore more effective methods of assessment, they frequently encourage their students to demonstrate understanding through M.I. activities.

Elementary school students compose and perform songs about math concepts which satisfy the rubrics they and their teachers have developed.

Middle school students create multimedia presentations combining animations, MIDI compositions, and writing to satisfy interdisciplinary unit requirements.

High school students demonstrate mastery of self-formulated research questions through art, writing portfolios, and giving speeches before panels of local citizens.

While you look at the following grid, think of

Other events, artifacts, content and activities you might incorporate into the subject matter you teach.

A variety of appropriate ways students in your classroom might demonstrate understanding.

Verbal-LinguisticBooks, stories, poetry, speeches, author visits

Writing stories, scripts, poems, storytelling

Mathematical-LogicalExercises, drills, problem solving

Counting, calculating, theorizing, demonstrating, programming computers

Musical Tapes, CD's, concert goingPerforming, singing, playing, composing

Visual-Spatial

Posters, art work, slides, charts, graphs, video tapes, laser disks, CD-ROMs and DVDs, museum visits

Drawing, painting, illustrating, graphic design, collage making, poster making, photography

Bodily-KinestheticMovies, animations, exercises, physicalizing concepts, rhythm exercises

Dance recital, athletic performance or competition

InterpersonalTeams, group work, specialist roles

Plays, debates, panels, group work

IntrapersonalReflection time, meditation exercises

Journals, memoirs, diaries, changing behaviors, habits, personal growth

Naturalist

Terrariums, aquariums, class pets, farm, botanical garden and zoo visits, nature walks, museum visits

Collecting, classifying, caring for animals at nature centers

ExistentialWorking on causes, charity work, astrology charts

Community service

The ultimate goal of M.I. theory -- to increase student understanding -- is something for which good teachers have long striven. Excellent educators have always addressed the needs of their variously intelligent students. In this sense the real values of M.I. theory are:

To legitimize the powerful and wide-reaching curricula many teachers have always delivered. To systematize and broadcast the theory and methodology of an enriched curriculum.

Classroom activities frequently activate and utilize more than one of the multiple intelligences. Now consider how you would add to and interpret the items on the following list:

Group discussion - Verbal-Linguistic; Interpersonal Journal writing - Intrapersonal; Verbal/Linguistic Choreography - Musical-Rhythmic; Verbal-Linguistic; Interpersonal Constructing timelines - Logical-Mathematical; Visual-Spatial Putting on a play - Musical-Rhythmic; Verbal/Linguistic; Interpersonal; Visual-Spatial Making a video - Logical-Mathematical, Musical-Rhythmic; Verbal/Linguistic; Interpersonal;

Visual-Spatial Writing a report or essay - Verbal-Linguistic Making graphs - Logical-Mathematical; Visual-Spatial

Designing posters - Verbal-Linguistic, Visual-Spatial Communicating with peers or experts online - Verbal-Linguistic; Interpersonal Hands-on experimentation - Kinesthetic; Logical/Mathematical Composing a song - Musical/Rhythmic; Verbal-Linguistic Building a model or 3-D displays - Kinesthetic; Logical-Mathematical

Introduction

Various theories on learning have been developed with increasing frequency in the last few decades. In

order to understand the relationship between these theories, Curry's onion model (Curry, 1983) was

developed with four layers -- personality learning theories, information processing theories, social learning

theories, and multidimensional and instructional theories.

Personality learning theories define the influences of basic personality on preferences to acquiring and

integrating information. Models used in this theory include Myers-Briggs Type Indicator, which measures

personality in dichotomous terms -- extroversion versus introversion, sensing versus intuition, thinking

versus feeling, and judging versus perception, and the Keirsey Temperament Sorter, which classifies

people as rationals, idealists, artisans, or guardians.

Information processing theories encompass individuals' preferred intellectual approach to assimilating

information, and includes David Kolb's model of information processing, which identifies two separate

learning activities: perception and processing.

Social learning theories determine how students interact in the classroom and include Reichmann's and

Grasha's types of learners: independent, dependent, collaborative, competitive, participant, and avoidant.

Multidimensional and instructional theories address the student's environmental preference for learning

and includes the Learning Style Model of Dunn and Dunn and the multiple intelligences theory of Howard

Gardner. This chapter focuses on this type of learning theory by Howard Gardner.

Multiple Intelligences Section

Caption: This is a questionnaire created with Flash to give users a profile of their multiple intelligences. It assesses

the eight intelligences that are fully accepted by educators in the classroom. The eight intelligences are verbal,

logical, spatial, kinesthetic, musical, interpersonal, intrapersonal and naturalistic. The ninth would be Existential, but

this is not a confirmed intelligence. This is NOT a scientific assessment. There is no validity to this test at all. We

include it to simply help you think about your own abilities. By Myung Hwa Koh, Li Zhu and Seow Chong Wong

(2003).

Multiple Intelligences Scenario

Ms. Cunningham, a seventh grade American History Teacher, is preparing a unit on the American Civil

Rights Movement of the 1950's and 1960's. The teacher has created a succession of lessons to be

completed over a two-week period to enhance her students' understanding of the events, organizations,

and individuals that were crucial to the movement. When the unit is over, Ms. Cunningham wants her

students to have a complete picture of the historical period. She designs a variety of activities that give

the students the opportunity to explore historical and cultural aspects of the 1950's and 1960's, and to

fully identify with those who were involved in the Movement. In order to reach her instructional goals, the

students will read selected excerpts from the textbook and listen to various lecturers about the Movement.

In addition to the aforementioned, the students will complete several exploratory tasks about the Civil

Rights movement as well.

To begin the unit the teacher uses a KWL chart on the overhead to spur discussion and start the students'

"juices" flowing. A KWL chart is a visual representation of what students already know, what they want to

know, and what they learned at the end of a lesson. This activity is completed as a class. The students

take turns sharing the tidbits of information that they already know about the Civil Rights movement. This

information is on major figures, events and places involved in the Civil Rights movement. Upon

establishing what basic prior knowledge the students possess, it is now time to begin discovering new

information and confirming previously held information about the Civil Rights movement. Ms. Cunningham

then lectures on the basic events, people, and places involved in the majority of the Civil Rights

movement in order to provide students some framework within which to begin placing their new

information.

She closes the first lesson by asking the students to create a timeline using the dates of events she has

provided. This will be a working outline to be used throughout the unit. During a subsequent lesson,

students are asked to share their outlines with their classmates in small groups. They should make

corrections and comments on the outlines as needed. Ms. Cunningham gains class consensus of the

proper order for their working outline as she places an enlarged version on the classroom wall.

The culmination of this unit will be a final project in which students create a portfolio containing work on

three mini-projects. All students will listen to the same guest lecturers, view the same video taped footage

and participate in the same class discussions during the first half of each class. The remainder of each

class period will be reserved for work on personal exploration pertaining to their portfolio pieces. Ms.

Cunningham has provided a list of possible activities and a rubric for each suggested activity in order to

support and to guide the student's work. She has also arranged her room so that "art" materials are in a

central location; mapping and graphing information is grouped together and there is a section replete with

reading and research materials.

Mrs. Cunningham's students will have many options for creating something chat can be included in their

portfolios. Students will have the option to write letters to members of the community who were teenagers

during the Civil Rights Movement, asking them to share their memories and experiences about life during

the time period. Students may work in teams to prepare speeches based on period issues for their fellow

classmates. Students may consult with the school's Media Specialist or more knowledgeable other to find

resources for the class, including popular music from the time period. They may also learn and share

dances that were popular during the 1950's and 1960's. If they choose, students may include music in the

plays they write and act out for their classmates. With the assistance of the Art instructor, students may

opt to work together to create a mural that represents key figures of the Civil Rights Movement such as

Rosa Parks and Martin Luther King Jr., with accompanying biographical information about each leader.

Students may also create a map representing key events. Students may also work in groups to prepare

short plays to enact for the class based on the readings and what they learn from the guest speakers.

Afterwards, Mrs. Cunningham will moderate discussion sessions about the plays. All students will keep a

record of their thoughts and feelings about the mini-lessons they completed. This journaling process will

provide a synthesis of the materials with which they dealt. As one final measure, students present their

portfolios to their classmates.

James, a student whose proclivities lean towards creative visual projects expresses interest in working on

the mural of Civil Rights leaders. Mrs. Cunningham feels that James needs to shift gears and concentrate

on other activities in the classroom. The teacher suggests that James work on creating the map and / or

timeline. At the teacher's encouragement, James begins to work on the other projects, but his attention

continues to drift towards the students painting the mural. He contributes some excellent ideas and shows

so much interest in the details and creation of the mural, that the teacher allows him to shift his focus

back towards the visual project.

In another seventh grade classroom, Mr. Smith taught a unit on the Civil Rights Movement by assigning

textbook readings and lecturing the students on the historical events surrounding the Movement. Students

were given sentence completion pop quizzes throughout the course of the lesson. The teacher showed

videotaped programs to the class and each student wrote a short research paper about a Civil Rights

leader or prominent figure. At the end of the unit, students were given a multiple choice and essay test.

What is Multiple Intelligences Theory?

Howard Gardner's theory of Multiple Intelligences utilizes aspects of cognitive and developmental

psychology, anthropology, and sociology to explain the human intellect. Although Gardner had been

working towards the concept of Multiple Intelligences for many years prior, the theory was introduced in

1983, with Gardner's book, Frames of Mind.

Gardner's research consisted of brain research and interviews with stroke victims, prodigies, and

individuals with autism. Based on his findings, Gardner established eight criteria for identifying the seven

(he has subsequently added an eighth and is considering a ninth) separate intelligences. The eight

criteria used by Gardner to identify the intelligences are listed below:

Isolation by brain damage/neurological evidence

The existence of prodigies, idiot savants, and exceptional individuals

Distinguishable set of core operations

Developmental stages with an expert end state

Evolutionary history and plausibility

Susceptibility to encoding in a symbol system

Support from experimental psychological tasks

Support from psychometric research

For a more detailed look at these eight criteria, visit http://surfaquarium.com/MI/criteria.htm.

Originally, the theory accounted for seven separate intelligences. Subsequently, with the publishing of

Gardner's Intelligence Reframed in 1999, two more intelligences were added to the list. The intelligences

are Verbal/Linguistic, Logical/Mathematical, Visual/Spatial, Bodily-Kinesthetic, Musical, Interpersonal,

Intrapersonal, Naturalistic, and Existential.

Gardner's theory challenges traditional, narrower views of intelligence. Previously accepted ideas of

human intellectual capacity contend that an individual's intelligence is a fixed entity throughout his lifetime

and that intelligence can be measured through an individual's logical and language abilities. According to

Gardner's theory, an intelligence encompasses the ability to create and solve problems, create products

or provide services that are valued within a culture or society. Originally, the theory accounted for seven

separate intelligences. Subsequently, with the publishing of Gardner's Intelligence Reframed in 1999, two

more intelligences were added to the list. The nine intelligences are outlined in more detail in the section

below. Listed below are key points of Gardner's theory:

All human beings possess all nine intelligences in varying degrees.

Each individual has a different intelligence profile.

Education can be improved by assessment of students' intelligence profiles and designing activities

accordingly.

Each intelligence occupies a different area of the brain.

The nine intelligences may operate in consort or independently from one another.

These nine intelligences may define the human species.

Gardner, a Professor of Education at Harvard University, and other researchers and educators continue

to work towards a more holistic approach to education through Project Zero. For more information on the

projects and research involved in Project Zero, visit the website at http://www.pz.harvard.edu.

Although the theory was not originally designed for use in a classroom application, it has been widely

embraced by educators and enjoyed numerous adaptations in a variety of educational settings Teachers

have always known that students had different strengths and weaknesses in the classroom. Gardner's

research was able to articulate that and provide direction as to how to improve a student's ability in any

given intelligence. Teachers were encouraged to begin to think of lesson planning in terms of meeting the

needs of a variety of the intelligences. From this new thinking, schools such the Ross School in New

York, an independent educational institution, and the Key Learning Community, a public magnet school in

Indianapolis emerged to try teaching using a Multiple Intelligences curriculum. The focus of this part of the

chapter will be on lesson design using the theory of Multiple Intelligences, and providing various

resources that educator's may use to implement the theory into their classroom activities.

The Eight Intelligences

Verbal/Linguistic

Verbal/Linguistic intelligence refers to an individual's ability to understand and manipulate words and

languages. Everyone is thought to possess this intelligence at some level. This includes reading, writing,

speaking, and other forms of verbal and written communication. Teachers can enhance their students'

verbal/linguistic intelligence by having them keep journals, play word games, and by encouraging

discussion. People with strong rhetorical and oratory skills such as poets, authors, and attorneys exhibit

strong Linguistic intelligence. Some examples are T.S. Elliot, Maya Angelou, and Martin Luther King Jr.

Traditionally, Linguistic intelligence and Logical/Mathematical intelligence have been highly valued in

education and learning environments.

Logical/Mathematical

Logical/Mathematical intelligence refers to an individual's ability to do things with data: collect, and

organize, analyze and interpret, conclude and predict. Individuals strong in this intelligence see patterns

and relationships. These individuals are oriented toward thinking: inductive and deductive logic,

numeration, and abstract patterns. They would be a contemplative problem solver; one who likes to play

strategy games and to solve mathematical problems. Being strong in this intelligence often implies great

scientific ability. This is the kind of intelligence studied and documented by Piaget. Teachers can

strengthen this intelligence by encouraging the use of computer programming languages, critical-thinking

activities, linear outlining, Piagetian cognitive stretching exercises, science-fiction scenarios, logic

puzzles, and through the use of logical/sequential presentation of subject matter. Some real life examples

people who are gifted with this intelligence are Albert Einstein, Niehls Bohr, and John Dewey.

Visual/Spatial

Visual/Spatial intelligence refers to the ability to form and manipulate a mental model. Individuals with

strength in this area depend on visual thinking and are very imaginative. People with this kind of

intelligence tend to learn most readily from visual presentations such as movies, pictures, videos, and

demonstrations using models and props. They like to draw, paint, or sculpt their ideas and often express

their feelings and moods through art. These individuals often daydream, imagine and pretend. They are

good at reading diagrams and maps and enjoy solving mazes and jigsaw puzzles. Teachers can foster

this intelligence by utilizing charts, graphs, diagrams, graphic organizers, videotapes, color, art activities,

doodling, microscopes and computer graphics software. It could be characterized as right-brain activity.

Pablo Picasso, Bobby Fischer, and Georgia O'Keefe are some examples of people gifted with this

intelligence.

Bodily/Kinesthetic

Bodily/Kinesthetic intelligence refers to people who process information through the sensations they feel

in their bodies. These people like to move around, touch the people they are talking to and act things out.

They are good at small and large muscle skills; they enjoy all types of sports and physical activities. They

often express themselves through dance. Teachers may encourage growth in this area of intelligence

through the use of touching, feeling, movement, improvisation, "hands-on" activities, permission to squirm

and wiggle, facial expressions and physical relaxation exercises. Some examples of people who are

gifted with this intelligence are Michael Jordan, Martina Navratilova, and Jim Carrey.

Naturalistic

Naturalistic intelligence is seen in someone who recognizes and classifies plants, animals, and minerals

including a mastery of taxonomies. They are holistic thinkers who recognize specimens and value the

unusual. They are aware of species such as the flora and fauna around them. They notice natural and

artificial taxonomies such as dinosaurs to algae and cars to clothes. Teachers can best foster this

intelligence by using relationships among systems of species, and classification activities. Encourage the

study of relationships such as patterns and order, and compare-and-contrast sets of groups or look at

connections to real life and science issues. Charles Darwin and John Muir are examples of people gifted

in this way.

Musical Intelligence

Musical intelligence refers to the ability to understand, create, and interpret musical pitches, timbre,

rhythm, and tones and the capability to compose music. Teachers can integrate activities into their

lessons that encourage students' musical intelligence by playing music for the class and assigning tasks

that involve students creating lyrics about the material being taught. Composers and instrumentalists are

individuals with strength in this area. Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart and Louis Armstrong are examples.

Interpersonal

Although Gardner classifies interpersonal and intrapersonal intelligences separately, there is a lot of

interplay between the two and they are often grouped together. Interpersonal intelligence is the ability to

interpret and respond to the moods, emotions, motivations, and actions of others. Interpersonal

intelligence also requires good communication and interaction skills, and the ability show empathy

towards the feelings of other individuals. Teachers can encourage the growth of Interpersonal

Intelligences by designing lessons that include group work and by planning cooperative learning activities.

Counselors and social workers are professions that require strength in this area. Some examples of

people with this intelligence include Gandhi, Ronald Reagan, and Bill Clinton.

Intrapersonal

Intrapersonal Intelligence, simply put, is the ability to know oneself. It is an internalized version of

Interpersonal Intelligence. To exhibit strength in Intrapersonal Intelligence, an individual must be able to

understand their own emotions, motivations, and be aware of their own strengths and weaknesses.

Teachers can assign reflective activities, such as journaling to awaken students' Intrapersonal

Intelligence. Its important to note that this intelligence involves the use of all others. An individual should

tap into their other intelligences to completely express their Intrapersonal Intelligence. Authors of classic

autobiographies such as Jean Paul Satre and Frederick Douglas are examples of individuals who

exhibited strong Interpersonal Intelligence in their lifetimes.

There is a ninth intelligence that has yet to experience full acceptance by educators in the classroom.

This is Existential intelligence, which encompasses the ability to pose and ponder questions regarding the

existence -- including life and death. This would be in the domain of philosophers and religious leaders.

The table below summarizes the strengths, learning preferences, and needs that correspond to the

intelligences.

Table 1. Summary of the Eight Intelligences

Intelligence

AreaStrengths Preferences

Learns best

throughNeeds

Verbal /

Linguistic

Writing, reading,

memorizing dates,

thinking in words,

telling stories

Write, read, tell

stories, talk,

memorize, work

at solving

puzzles

Hearing and seeing

words, speaking,

reading, writing,

discussing and

debating

Books, tapes, paper

diaries, writing tools,

dialogue, discussion,

debated, stories, etc.

Mathematical/

Logical

Math, logic, problem-

solving, reasoning,

patterns

Question, work

with numbers,

experiment,

solve problems

Working with

relationships and

patterns,

classifying,

categorizing,

working with the

abstract

Things to think about and

explore, science

materials, manipulative,

trips to the planetarium

and science museum,

etc.

Visual /

Spatial

Maps, reading charts,

drawing, mazes,

puzzles, imagining

things, visualization

Draw, build,

design, create,

daydream, look

at pictures

Working with

pictures and colors,

visualizing, using

the mind's eye,

drawing

LEGOs, video, movies,

slides, art, imagination

games, mazes, puzzles,

illustrated book, trips to

art museums, etc.

Bodily /

Kinesthetic

Athletics, dancing,

crafts, using tools,

acting

Move around,

touch and talk,

body language

Touching, moving,

knowledge through

bodily sensations,

processing

Role-play, drama, things

to build, movement,

sports and physical

games, tactile

experiences, hands-on

learning, etc.

Musical

Picking up sounds,

remembering

melodies, rhythms,

singing

Sing, play an

instrument, listen

to music, hum

Rhythm, singing,

melody, listening to

music and melodies

Sing-along time, trips to

concerts, music playing

at home and school,

musical instruments, etc.

Interpersonal

Leading, organizing,

understanding

people,

communicating,

resolving conflicts,

selling

Talk to people,

have friends, join

groups

Comparing,

relating, sharing,

interviewing,

cooperating

Friends, group games,

social gatherings,

community events, clubs,

mentors/

apprenticeships, etc.

Intrapersonal

Recognizing

strengths and

weaknesses, setting

goals, understanding

self

Work alone,

reflect pursue

interests

Working alone,

having space,

reflecting, doing

self-paced projects

Secret places, time

alone, self-paced

projects, choices, etc.

Naturalistic

Understanding

nature, making

distinctions,

identifying flora and

fauna

Be involved with

nature, make

distinctions

Working in nature,

exploring living

things, learning

about plants and

natural events

Order, same/different,

connections to real life

and science issues,

patterns

Multiple Intelligences in the Classroom

There are many ways to incorporate Multiple Intelligences theory into the curriculum, and there is no set

method by which to incorporate the theory. Some teachers set up learning centers with resources and

materials that promote involving the different intelligences. For example, in the above scenario, Ms.

Cunningham creates an area with art supplies in her classroom. Other instructors design simulations that

immerse students into real life situations. Careful planning during the lesson design process will help to

ensure quality instruction and valuable student experiences in the classroom.

Other instructional models, such as project-based and collaborative learning may be easily integrated into

lessons with Multiple Intelligences. Collaborative learning allows students to explore their interpersonal

intelligence, while project-based learning may help structure activities designed to cultivate the nine

intelligences. For instance, Ms. Cunningham uses aspects of project-based learning in her classroom by

allowing students to plan, create, and process (through reflection) information throughout the Civil Rights

unit, while also integrating activities that teach to the intelligences. This particular instructional model

allows students to work together to explore a topic and to create something as the end product. This

works well with Multiple Intelligences theory, which places value on the ability to create products. By

collaborating with the Media Specialist to give students the opportunity to choose from a variety of

resources to complete their assignments, Ms. Cunningham uses aspects of resource-based learning, an

instructional model that places the ultimate responsibility of choosing resources on the student.

It is important for teachers to carefully select activities that not only teach to the intelligences, but also

realistically mesh with the subject matter of the lesson or unit. Multiple Intelligences theory should

enhance, not detract from what is being taught.

Disney's website entitled Tapping into Multiple Intelligences suggests two approaches for implementing

Multiple Intelligences theory in the classroom. One is a teacher-centered approach, in which the instructor

incorporates materials, resources, and activities into the lesson that teach to the different intelligences.

The other is a student-centered approach in which students actually create a variety of different materials

that demonstrate their understanding of the subject matter. The student-centered approach allows

students to actively use their varied forms of intelligence. In a teacher-centered lesson, the number of

intelligences explored should be limited to two or three. To teach less than two is nearly impossible since

the use of speech will always require the use of one's Verbal/Linguistic intelligence. In a student-centered

lesson, the instructor may incorporate aspects of project-based learning, collaborative learning, or other

inquiry-based models. In such a case, activities involving all nine intelligences may be presented as

options for the class, but each student participates in only one or two of the tasks.

Ms. Cunningham incorporates both student-centered and teacher-centered activities into her unit on the

Civil Rights Movement. The teacher-led lecture is a standard example of a teacher-centered activity. The

lecture teaches to students' Verbal/Linguistic Intelligence. The viewing of the videotape is another

example of a teacher-centered activity. This activity incorporates Visual/Spatial Intelligence into how the

unit is learned. It is important to note that many activities, although designed to target a particular

intelligence, may also utilize other intelligences as well. For example, in Ms. Cunningham's classroom the

students may work together on creating a mural of Civil Rights Leaders. This is a student-centered activity

that directly involves Visual/Spatial intelligence, but also gives students a chance to exercise their

Interpersonal Intelligence. The journal assignment, also a student-centered activity, is designed to

enhance students' Intrapersonal Intelligence by prompting them to reflect on their feelings and

experiences in relation to the Civil Rights movement. This activity also taps into Verbal/Linguistic

Intelligence. The timeline and map assignments are student-centered activities that are designed to

enhance students' Logical/Mathematical Intelligence, but they also delve into Visual/Spatial Intelligence.

Students must collect and organize information for both the timeline and the map therefore using their

Logical/Mathematical intelligence. In creating these items, students must think visually as well. By

incorporating dance into one lesson, Ms. Cunningham is able to promote awareness of her students'

Bodily-Kinesthetic intelligence. By showing videos of popular dances from the time period, or inviting an

expert from the community to talk about the social aspects of dance, Ms. Cunningham might incorporate

a teacher-centered activity. Having students learn and perform dances is a student-centered way of

teaching through Bodily-Kinesthetic intelligence. The short plays that students prepare involve Bodily-

Kinesthetic intelligence, as well as Interpersonal and Verbal/Linguistic intelligences. Class discussions

provide an opportunity for students to exercise both areas of their personal intelligences, as well as to

reinforce the subject matter.

Planning and Implementing Student-Centered Lessons

This type of lesson revolves around student created materials. The types of activities and assignments

that support student-centered lessons can be easily designed in concert with many of the inquiry-based

models discussed in the text of this book. One of the most important aspects of student-centered lessons

is allowing students to make choices. Teachers should encourage students to exercise their weaker

intelligences, but allow them to explore their stronger areas as well. In Ms. Cunningham's class, the

student named James is very strong in Visual/Spatial Intelligence and always leans towards this type of

project. The teacher encourages James to participate in other activities, but when it is obvious that his

interest lies in working on the mural Ms. Cunningham allows him to work on the project.

Listed below are steps to implement a student-centered lesson or unit:

Carefully identify instructional goals, objectives, and instructional outcomes.

Consider activities that you can integrate into the lesson or unit that teach to the different

intelligences. Teachers need not incorporate all nine intelligences into one lesson.

When gathering resources and materials, consider those which will allow students to explore their

multiple intelligences.

Specify a timeframe for the lesson or unit.

Allow for considerable element of student choice when designing activities and tasks for the

intelligences

Design activities that are student-centered, using inquiry-based models of instruction.

Provide a rubric for student activities. You might consider having students help create rubrics.

Incorporate assessment into the learning process.

In an effort to maximize students' interest in both the subject matter and their own learning proclivities,

teachers may wish to teach their students a little bit about Multiple Intelligences. Teachers can brief the

class about each type of intelligence and then follow up with a self-assessment for each student. In this

way, students will be able to capitalize on their strengths and work on their weaker areas. Disney's

Tapping Into Multiple Intelligences website includes a self-assesment.

Planning and Implementing a Teacher-Centered Lesson

Structured, teacher-centered activities provide an opportunity for teachers to introduce material and

establish prior knowledge and student conceptions. Teachers may lecture students, show informational

videos and posters, perform drills, pose problem-solving exercises, arrange museum visits, and plan

outings to concerts. There are all examples of teacher-centered activities. All of these activities integrate

the Multiple Intelligences into the subject matter being taught. Teacher-centered lessons should be limited

to a few activities that provide a foundation for students to later complete more exploratory tasks in which

they can demonstrate understanding of the material. A teacher may choose to start an instructional unit or

lesson with teacher-centered activities and then follow up with subsequent student-centered lessons.

Teachers may follow these steps when designing and implementing a teacher-centered lesson:

Identify instructional goals and objectives

Consider teacher-centered activities that teach to students' Multiple Intelligences. In a teacher-

centered lesson, limit the number of activities to two or three.

Consider what resources and materials you will need to implement the lesson. For example, will you

need to schedule a museum visit or to consult the Media Specialist for videos or other media?

Specify a timeframe for the lesson or unit.

Provide an opportunity for reflection by students

Provide a rubric to scaffold student activities

Integrate assessment into the learning process

Assessment is one of the biggest challenges in incorporating Multiple Intelligences in the classroom. Ms.

Cunningham's students are given the option of working on several mini-projects during the course of the

Civil Rights unit. At the end of the unit, their performance is assessed through a portfolio that represents

their work on these projects. It is very important for assessment to be integrated into the learning process.

Assessment should give students the opportunity to demonstrate their understanding of the subject

matter. One of the main goals of acknowledging and using Multiple Intelligences in the classroom is to

increase student understanding of material by allowing them to demonstrate the ways in which they

understand the material. Teachers need to make their expectations clear, and may do so in the form of a

detailed rubric.

Benefits of Multiple Intelligences

Using Multiple Intelligences theory in the classroom has many benefits:

As a teacher and learner you realize that there are many ways to be "smart"

All forms of intelligence are equally celebrated.

By having students create work that is displayed to parents and other members of the community,

your school could see more parent and community involvement.

A sense of increased self-worth may be seen as students build on their strengths and work towards

becoming an expert in certain areas

Students may develop strong problem solving skills that they can use real life situations

Multiple Intelligences: Classroom Application (Table added by Brandy Bellamy and Camille Baker, 2005)

Table 2. Multiple Intelligences: Classroom Application (Table added by Brandy Bellamy and

Camille Baker, 2005)

Teacher Centered Student Centered

Verbal/Linguistic

Present content verbally

Ask questions aloud and look for

student feedback

Interviews

Student Presents Material

Students read content and

prepare a presentation for his/her

classmates

Students debate over an issue

Logical/Mathematical

Provide brain teasers or

challenging questions to begin

lessons.

Make logical connections between

the subject matter and authentic

situations to answer the question

"why?"

Students categorize information in

logical sequences for

organization.

Students create graphs or charts

to explain written info.

Students participate in webquests

associated with the content

Bodily/Kinesthetic

Use props during lecture

Provide tangible items pertaining

to content for students to examine

Review using sports related

examples (throw a ball to

someone to answer a question)

Students use computers to

research subject matter.

Students create props of their

own explaining subject matter

(shadow boxes, mobiles, etc...)

Students create review games.

Visual/Spatial

When presenting the information, use

visuals to explain content:</br>

PowerPoint Slides, Charts, Graphs,

cartoons, videos, overheads,

smartboards

Have students work individually or

in groups to create visuals

pertaining to the information:

Posters; timelines; models;

powerpoint slides; maps;

illustrations, charts; concept

mapping

Musical

Play music in the classroom

during reflection periods

Show examples or create musical

rhythms for students to remember

things

Create a song or melody with the

content embedded for memory

Use well known songs to

memorize formulas, skills, or test

content

Interpersonal

Be aware of body language and

facial expressions

Offer assistance whenever

needed

Encourage classroom discussion

Encourage collaboration among

peers

Group work strengthens

interpersonal connections

Peer feedback and peer tutoring

Students present to the class

Encourage group editing

Intrapersonal

Encourage journaling as a positive

outlet for expression

Introduce web logging (blogs)

Make individual questions

welcome

Create a positive environment.

Journaling

Individual research on content

Students create personal

portfolios of work

Naturalistic

Take students outside to enjoy

nature while in learning process

(lecture)

Compare authentic subject matter

to natural occurrences.

Relate subject matter to stages

Students organize thoughts using

natural cycles

Students make relationships

among content and the natural

environment (how has nature had

an impact?)

that occur in nature (plants,

weather, etc)

Students perform community

service

Learning Styles Section

Scenario

A group of four city planners in Boston is working on a project to improve the methods of repairing streets.

They have spent a lot of time in the field looking at streets and learning about the stresses they receive,

how engineers currently deal with those problems, and the public's perceptions of street conditions. Some

improvements have been made including a new system of diagnosing problems and new methods of

repairing the streets. The final stage of their project is to determine how to educate the city's employees

on these improvements.

Jessica believes that showing maps of where the various sidewalks in various states of decay would be

helpful. She also wants to use a flow chart to represent the new repair process. Maybe a computer

instruction guide could be utilized in the employee education program.

Patrick feels that the planners need to discuss these improvements with the city's employees. A question

and answer session could also be implemented in an attempt to answer any questions concerning the

new system of diagnosing problems and new methods of repairing the streets.

Will has already begun work on an extensive training manual, which will provide a concrete resource to

guide employees in training and for later reference. The manual will be available in hard copy and on the

web.

Claire thinks that the city employees would benefit the most from a multimedia presentation as well as a

CD-ROM with links to other useful information. She also wants the employees to go into the field and see

some of the streets that were used as models in the new program. If that is not possible, pictures could be

provided as examples to give the employees a concrete idea of the improvements.

Learning Styles

The term "learning styles" is commonly used throughout various educational fields and therefore, has

many connotations. In general, it refers to the uniqueness of how each learner receives and processes

new information through their senses. The National Association of Secondary School Principals defines

learning style as, "the composite of characteristic cognitive, affective, and physiological factors that serve

as relatively stable indicators of how a learner perceives, interacts with, and responds to the learning

environment." Other phrases are used interchangeably with learning styles. Some include perceptual

styles, learning modalities, and learning preferences.

Each person is born with certain preferences toward particular styles, but culture, experience, and

development influence these preferences. The four most common learning styles are visual, aural,

reading/writing, and kinesthetic/tactile. Most people learn through all modalities, but have certain

strengths and weaknesses in a specific modality. Some people have an equal propensity for more than

one style, which is titled as the multimodal style. This preference can be determined through various

testing instruments. Once a person's learning style is ascertained, accommodations can be made to

increase academic achievement and creativity, as well as improve attitudes toward learning.

What is your learning style? Take the VARK Questionnaire!

The Visual Learning Style

Visual learners process information most effectively when the information is seen. Depictions can include

charts, graphs, flow charts, and all the symbolic arrows, circles, hierarchies and other devices that

instructors use to represent what could have been presented in worlds. These learners think in pictures

and have vivid imaginations. Most people are classified as visual learners.

Jessica is a visual learner. Her suggestions focus on the use of visual aids to increase information

processing.

The Aural Learning Style

Aural learners process information most effectively when spoken or heard. These learners respond well to

lectures and discussions and are excellent listeners. They also like to talk and enjoy music and dramas.

When trying to recall information, aural learners can often "hear" the way someone told them the

information.

Patrick is an aural learner. His need to discuss the new improvements points to the benefits of obtaining

information in an oral language format.

The Reading/Writing Learning Style

Reading/Writing learners process information most effectively when presented in a written language

format. This type of learner benefits from instructors that use the blackboard to accent important points or

provide outlines of the lecture material. When trying to recall information, reading/writing learners

remember the information from their "mind's eye." Many academics have a strong preference for the

reading/writing style.

Will is a reading/writing learner. His comprehensive training manual allows the employees to utilize the

written language format.

The Kinesthetic/Tactile Learning Style

Kinesthetic/Tactile learners process information actively through physical means. Kinesthetic learning

refers to whole body movement while tactile learning refers only to the sense of touch. These learners

gesture when speaking, are poor listeners, and lose interest in long speeches. Most students that do not

perform well in school are kinesthetic/tactile learners. The crux of this learning style is that the learner is

connected to real situations through experience, example, practice, or simulation.

Claire is a kinesthetic/tactile learner. Her method of instruction utilizes "hands on" demonstrations and

field experiences.

Learning Strategies for Each Learning Style

The Visual Learning Style

Replace words with symbols or initials.

Translate concepts into pictures and diagrams.

Underline or highlight your notes or textbooks with different colors.

Practice turning your visuals back into words.

Make flashcards of key information with words, symbols, and diagrams.

The Aural Learning Style

Attend lectures and tutorials.

Discuss topics with your instructor and other students.

Put summarized notes on tape and listen to them.

Join a study group or have a "study buddy."

Tape record your lectures.

When recalling information or solving problems, talk out loud.

The Reading/Writing Learning Style

Write out important information again and again.

Read your notes silently.

Organize any diagrams into statements.

Rewrite the ideas and principles in other words.

Make flashcards of words and concepts that need to be memorized.

The Kinesthetic/Tactile Learning Style

Sit near the instructor in classroom situations.

Read out loud from your textbook and notes.

Copy key points onto large writing surfaces (i.e. chalkboard or easel board).

Copy key points using word processing software.

Listen to audiotapes of your notes while exercising.

Take in information through field trips, laboratories, trial and error, exhibits, collections, and hands-on

examples.

Put real life examples into your notes summary.

Recall experiments and role-play.

Use pictures and photographs that illustrate an idea.

Click Here to Play the Presentation Caption: This PowerPoint presentation shows several concrete

examples of the VARK learning styles applied to math, language arts, social studies and science.. By

Rebecca Homan, Troy Perkins, Jean Pirkle, and Kathy Traylor (2005)

Educational Implications for Learning Styles

Teachers that rely on learning styles have opened their classrooms to more than one approach to

intellectual work. The activities planned by these teachers are more student-centered than traditional

activities and have engaged in learning-style based instruction.

The first step in implementing learning style-based instruction is diagnosing the individual learning styles

of each student. A variety of methods exist for testing learning styles in a relatively quick manner. Many

are available online, like the VARK Questionnaire listed above.

The second step is profiling group preferences and weaknesses. Are most of the students visual

learners? Does your class have very few kinesthetic/tactile learners?

The third step is assessing current instructional methods to determine whether they are adequate or

require more flexibility. If modifications need to be made, various activities can be developed and/or

adapted to conform with learning styles. Three techniques have been proposed.

1. Teachers can add alternative activities that could replace or supplement ones. This could create

increased opportunities for students to use different styles. For example, hands on activities can

be conducted after a lecture to confirm abstract concepts.

2. Teachers can also challenge students to develop skills in other areas by completing assignments

that utilize all learning styles. For example, the students can complete multidimensional packets,

which contain activities from each learning style.

3. Another approach to include learning styles in an education curriculum is to organize activities

around complex projects. These projects would require that students use all learning styles. An

example of a complex activity would be a project-based learning project.

When teaching an individual, teachers should present the most difficult concepts in the preferred style.

Easier concepts should be introduced in a different style. When teaching an entire class, teachers should

use all learning styles in their presentations if they are to reach every student. This can be fairly simple.

For example, Mrs. Erwin, a fifth grade teacher is going to teach a unit on Charlotte's Web. In order to

accommodate all learning styles, she will have the students read sections of the book silently and out loud

to others, act out various scenes, and complete a timeline of events on the bulletin board. Mrs. Erwin

understands that students must be exposed to the concepts in a variety of ways to ensure full

comprehension.

References

Armstrong, T. (1994). Multiple Intelligences in the classroom. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision

and Curriculum Development.

Campbell, L., & Campbell, B. (1992). Teaching and learning through Multiple Intelligences. Seattle, WA:

New Horizons for Learning.

Curry, Lynn. (1983). An organization of learning style theory and constructs. ERIC Document, 235, 185.

Dunn, R., and Dunn, K. (1978). Teaching students through their individual learning styles. Reston, VA:

Reston Publishing Company, Inc.

Fogarty, R. (1997). Problem-based learning and other curriculum models for the Multiple Intelligences

classroom. Arlington Heights, IL: IRI/Skylight Training and Publishing.

Gardner, H. (1983). Frames of mind: the theory of Multiple Intelligences. New York, NY: Basic Books.

Gardner, H. (1999). Intelligence reframed: Multiple Intelligences for the 21st century. New York, NY: Basic

Books.

Zhang, Li-Fang. (2002). Thinking styles: Their relationships with modes of thinking and academic

performance. Educational Ps

Websites:

Concept to Classroom: Cooperative and Collaborative Learning

Concept to Classroom: Tapping into Multiple Intelligences

Education World: Multiple Intelligences: A Theory for Everyone

Gardner's Eight Criteria for Identifying Multiple Intelligences

Multiple Intelligences

Project Zero

Technology and Multiple Intelligences

Citation

APA Citation: Giles, E., Pitre, S., Womack, S. (2003). Multiple intelligences and learning styles. In M.

Orey (Ed.), Emerging perspectives on learning, teaching, and technology. Retrieved <insert date>,

from http://epltt.coe.uga.edu/