Educational Development Challenges in Rural...
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Transcript of Educational Development Challenges in Rural...
Educational Development Challenges in Rural Fiji: A Case Study of Naitasiri Province
Saimoni Cabealawa
A SRP submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of
Master of Arts in Development Studies
Development Studies Programme School of Government, Development and International Affairs
Faculty of Business and Economics The University of the South Pacific
Suva
Copyright © June 2013
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ABSTRACT
Education is a basic right and a pre-requisite for sound economic development. It is the most
valuable asset a person can possess. A well-informed and educated people are assets to any
society’s well-being. It is through education that individuals can achieve fulfillment, attain
their goals, and improve their standard of living. Rural children and adults – most of whom
are poverty-stricken – have very limited opportunities to obtain a viable basic education that
would help them ‘break free’ from the poverty cycle. Many rural children never frequent a
school; many of those who do enroll fail to complete the full primary cycle; and even among
those who do complete it, many leave school barely literate. When they do exist, rural
schools in remote areas are often in need of repair, poorly equipped and staffed with
inadequately trained and under paid teachers. In Fiji, although access to health and education
is reasonably good by Pacific standards, the quality of services is poor, especially in rural
areas.
The present study aims to examine the challenges and constraints of educational development
in the rural areas of Fiji with special reference to Naitasiri province. Although the overall
research was largely qualitative in nature, the research methodology employed was not
restricted to qualitative alone. The data for this research was gathered from both primary and
secondary sources. A primary survey was conducted based on structured questionnaire.
The study found that while there are many primary schools being established in the rural
areas of Fiji, secondary schools are few and are located far from each other. Primary schools
are established almost in every three villages to ensure that children have easy access to
primary education as well as assisting students who travel long distances to attend other
schools. The study suggests that incentives for rural teachers in the form of allowance be
increased and this should be categorized depending on the locality of schools.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The realization of this thesis was possible through the support and assistance of a large
number of people, to whom I wish to extend my sincere gratitude.
Firstly, I would like to thank my Academic Supervisor Dr. Manoranjan Mohanty, Associate
Professor of Development Studies Programme, School of Government, Development and
International Affairs, at the University of the South Pacific, Suva, for his timely guidance and
endless hours of sacrifice through the challenging times in this academic journey.
I also thank Professor Vijay Naidu, the Head of the School, School of Government,
Development and International Affairs at the University of the South Pacific, Suva for giving
me the approval to join Master’s programme, without which this academic pursuit would not
have been possible.
I am grateful to the head teachers and principals of schools in Naitasiri for their support and
assistance for gathering required information for this research, notably Marika Naiyaga
(Principal, Waidina Secondary), Josateki Malani (Principal, Naitasiri Secondary), Epeli
Tawake (Principal, Wainimala Secondary), Asaeli Katonivualiku (Principal, Muaniweni
Secondary) Eroni Tubuitamana (HT, Nakurukuruvakatini Primary) Malakai Vucago (HT,
Nawaisomo Primary), Ravi Shankar (HT, Shantiniketan Pathshala), Rajendra Prasad (HT,
Vunidawa Primary) and Paulo Vueti (HT, Naitavuni Catholic).
Last but not the least, I would like to thank my wife Bulou Tarisi Cabealawa and my four
children, Adi Miriama Naiobasali Cabealawa, Rt. Manasa Rakabikabi Cabealawa, Asaeli
Ratuwara Cabealawa and Adi Tupou Lagi Cabealawa for their patience and moral support.
This academic journey has been made possible through their understanding and having to live
with the stress that such academic journey entails.
To all of you, Vinaka Vakalevu!
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CONTENTS Page
Abstract i
Acknowledgements ii
Tables vi
Figures vii
Maps viii
Photographs viii
Abbreviations ix
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
1.1Background 1
1.1.1 Rationale 7
1.2 Research Questions 8
1.3 Objectives 9
1.4 Research Methodology and Methods 9
1.5 Relevance of Research 10
1.6 Organization of Thesis 11
CHAPTER TWO: RURAL EDUCATION DEVELOPMENT: A CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK AND LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction 12
2.2 A Conceptual Framework and Literature Review 12
2.2.1 Poverty and Education 12
2.2.2 Education and Development 14
2.2.3 Education and Human Rights 15
2.2.3.1 Components of the Rights to Education 17
2.2.4 Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) and Education 19
2.2.5 Education for All (EFA) 20
2.3 Rural Education Development Challenges in Developing Countries 22
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2.4 Educational Development Challenges in Rural areas of the PICs 24
2.4.1 The Rural Sector of the Pacific 24
2.4.2 Educational Development Challenges in the Pacific 24
2.4.3Education in Fiji 25
2.5 Conclusion 29
CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1 Introduction 30
3.2 Research Methodological Approaches 30
3.3 Sources of Data 31
3.4 Research Design 32
3.4.1 Methods of Data Collection 32
3.4.1.1 Questionnaire 32
3.4.1.2 Interview 33
3.4.2 Area of Study 34
3.4.3 Sampling 35
3.5 Limitation 36
3.6 Ethical Considerations 36
3.7 Conclusion 37
CHAPTER FOUR: A BACKGROUND OF FIJI ISLANDS
4.1 Introduction 38
4.2 Geography 38
4.2.1 Climate 40
4.3 Brief History of Fiji 43
4.4 Economy and Economic Development 45
4.5 Poverty 47
4.6 Society and Culture 48
4.7 Demography and Population Composition 50
4.8 Education and Human Resource 51
4.9 Conclusion 52
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CHAPTER FIVE: RESEARCH FINDINGS 5.1 Introduction 53
5.2 Documentation Analysis 53
5.2.1 Educational Challenges in Rural Fiji 53
5.3 Survey Analysis 56
5.3.1 Survey of Students 56
5.3.1.1 Boarding Status of Primary Children in Rural Areas 56
5.3.1.2 Boarding Status of Secondary Children in Rural Areas 57
5.3.1.3 Distance Travelled by Students to Reach School 59
5.3.1.4 Difficulties Faced by Children while Travelling to School 60
5.3.1.5 Difficulties Faced at Home Environment 61
5.3.1.6 Difficulties Faced at School Environment 62
5.3.2 Survey of Teachers 64
5.3.2.1 Trained and Untrained Teachers 64
5.3.2.2 Qualification Level of Primary and Secondary Teachers 65
5.3.2.3 Number of Years of Experience of Teachers in Study Area 67
5.3.2.4 Satisfaction Level of Teachers with Living Quarters 67
5.3.2.5 School Management 68
5.3.2.6 Parental Support 69
5.3.2.7 Satisfaction with Salary 71
5.4 Education Policies in Fiji 73
5.5 Conclusion 74
CHAPTER SIX: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
6.1 Conclusion 75
6.2 Theoretical Linkages with Findings 77
6.3 Summary of Broad Findings 77
6.4 Recommendations 81
6.5 Future Research 82
BIBLIOGRAPHY 83
APPENDICES 94
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TABLES
Page
Table 1.1 Educational Indicators in selected Pacific Countries 4
Table 4.1 Percentage of Population in Poverty 47
Table 4.2 Poverty by Divisions in Fiji 2002 – 2003 and 2008 – 2009 48
Table 4.3 Percentage of Religious Affiliation in Fiji, 2007 48
Table 4.4 Trends in Population in Fiji by Ethnicity: 1996 – 2007 51
Table 4.5 Student Enrolments and Teacher Number in Schools 52
Table 5.1 Educational Budget (2004 – 2008) 55
Table 5.2 Boarding Status of Children in Rural Areas in Fiji 58
Table 5.3 Distance Travelled by Students to Reach School 59
Table 5.4 Difficulties Faced by students in rural schools in Fiji 60
Table 5.5 Difficulties Faced at Home Environment 62
Table 5.6 Difficulties Faced at School Environment 63
Table 5.7 Trained and Untrained Teachers at Primary and Secondary level 65
Table 5.8 Qualification Level of Teachers at Primary and Secondary level Area 67
Table 5.9 Number of Years of Experience of Teachers 69
Table 5.10 Response of Level of Parental Support 70
Table 5.11 Satisfaction Level of Teachers 71
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FIGURES
Figure 5.1: Boarding Category of Primary Level Students 57
Figure 5.2: Boarding Status of Secondary School Children in Rural Area 58
Figure 5.3: Distances Travelled by Students to School from Home 59
Figure 5.4: Trained and Untrained Primary Teachers 64
Figure 5.5: Trained and Untrained Secondary Teachers 65
Figure 5.6: Qualification Levels of Primary Teachers 66
Figure 5.7: Qualification Levels of Secondary Teachers 66
Figure 5.8: Satisfaction of Teachers with their Accommodation Provision 68
Figure 5.9: Supporting Managements 69
Figure 5.10: Parent Support in Primary Schools 70
Figure 5.11: Parent Support in Secondary Schools 71
Figure 5.12: Primary Teachers View on Salary 72
Figure 5.13: Secondary Teachers View on Salary 72
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MAPS
Map 1.1 The Pacific Islands 3 Map 4.1 The Fiji Islands 42
PHOTOGRAPHS
Photo 5.1A Typical Rural Primary School – Muaira District School in Naitasiri 54
Photo 5.2Boarding Facilities at Nakurukuruvakatini Primary School in Naitasiri 58 Photo 5.3 Track students follow to Nakurukuruvakatini Primary School Naitasiri 63
Photo 5.4 Status of Teacher’s Living Quarters in Rural Schools 68
Photo 5.5Talanoa Session with School Management of Nakurukuruvakatini Primary 69 Photo 5.6 Talanoa Session with Parents and Management 73
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ABBREVIATIONS
ADB Asian Development Bank
ERP Education for Rural People
CRC Convention of the Rights of the Child
EFA Education for All
FAO Food and Agriculture Organization
ICESCR International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights
MDG Millennium Development Goal
PIC Pacific Island Country
UDHR Universal Declaration of Human Rights
UN United Nations
UNDP United Nations Development Programme
UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
UNICEF United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund
UNFPA United Nations Fund for Population Activity
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CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION 1.1 Background Education is a basic right and a pre-requisite for sound economic development
(Government of Fiji, 2000). Education is the most valuable asset a person can
possess. A well-informed and educated people are assets to any society’s well-being.
It is through education that individuals can achieve fulfillment, attain their goals, and
improve their standard of living.
More than half of the world’s population, and more than 60 per cent of the world’s
poor are to be found in rural areas where hunger, literacy and low school
achievement are common (FAO/UNESCO, 2002). Rural schools operate under a host
of serious constraints. Among the more serious of them are declining enrolments as
the lure of the city continues to draw high school pupils and those unfortunate
young people who opt to leave school, insufficient funding for remote rural schools,
lack of accessibility to higher-order urban centres with adequate health care
facilities, teacher graduates not as highly trained as their urban and suburban
counterparts and generally higher levels of poverty (Pitzel, 2007).
Education for a large number of people in rural areas is crucial for achievement of
sustainable development1. Strategies are now placing emphasis on rural
development that encompasses all those who live in rural areas. Such strategies
need to address the provision of education for the many target groups: children, 1 Sustainable development is defined as “development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs” (World Commission on Environment and Development, 1987:43). It contains within it two key concepts:
the concept of needs, in particular the essential needs of the world's poor, to which overriding priority should be given; and
the idea of limitations imposed by the state of technology and social organization on the environment's ability to meet present and future needs.
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youth and adults, giving priority to gender imbalances. This complex and urgent
challenge should be addressed systematically, through an intricate set of policy
measures at all levels of education systems (FAO/UNESCO, 2002).
‘Education for All’2 under the leadership of UNESCO, is the great flagship for the war
against the constraints that still bar a billion human beings from taking up their
rights to an adequate education. Sharing the tasks of ‘Education for All’ are a
number of specialized flagships. Each carries the flag of a specific concern within the
range of educational priorities. The nine flagships that have already been launched
are: early childhood development; literacy; girls education; education in emergency
situations; school health; HIV/AIDS; teachers and the quality of education;
education and disability; and education for rural people (FAO/UNESCO, 2002). Acker
and Gasperini (2009) stated that ensuring access to and completion of quality
education for the world’s poor living in rural areas is a major challenge to the
achievement of the ‘Education for All’ targets. According to Acker and Gasperini
(2009) “Education for Rural People (ERP) is a policy approach aimed at contributing
to the reduction of the 963 million food insecure people, the 776 million illiterate
adults and the 75 million illiterate children within the Millennium Development Goals
(MDGs) framework”.
Boylan and Alston (1993) reported that a major concern of education in rural areas
is the staffing of rural schools. Rapid teacher turnover, while considered
advantageous because of ‘new blood’ continually infused into the system, is
generally not welcomed by rural communities because of disruptions and the
constant adjustment to new teachers demanded of pupils.
Baden and Green (1994) reported that overall literacy rates in the Pacific region
rates 63 per cent and women’s literacy rates are lower than those of men. Female
literacy is very low in Solomon Islands, Papua New Guinea, Vanuatu, Federated
States of Micronesia and Marshall Islands (UNDP, 1999). Literacy programmes are
2Education for All emphasizes the need to provide access to education for traditionally marginalized groups, including girls and women, indigenous populations and remote rural groups, street children, migrants and nomadic populations, people with disabilities, and linguistic and cultural minorities (UNESCO, 2007).
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seen as vital for the empowerment of adults, children and the national workforce.
The aim of these literacy programmes is also to combat illiteracy among young
children at an age when they are still self-motivated to learn and more receptive to
internalizing new ideas. In certain areas of the Pacific, investment in education is
low, particularly in the remote rural areas where the majority of the nations’
population resides. This explains the poor literacy rates among the rural population
with some as low as 30 per cent in literacy levels.
Map 1.1 The Pacific Islands
Source: Maps.com, 2010.
The centrality of basic education for rural development is now widely accepted. The
lack of basic learning opportunities is both a contributing cause and an effect of rural
poverty in the low-income countries. Even where schools exist, various economic
and social obstacles prevent some children, especially girls, from enrolling. The
opportunity cost of schooling is one of the main obstacles for poor families, who
often count on their children’s labour and earnings.
In general terms, rural children and adults – most of whom are poverty-stricken –
have very limited opportunities to obtain a viable basic education that would help
them ‘break free’ from the poverty cycle. Many rural children never frequent a
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school; many of those who do enroll fail to complete the full primary cycle; and even
among those who do complete it, many leave school barely literate. When they do
exist, rural schools in remote areas are often in need of repair, poorly equipped and
staffed with inadequately trained and underpaid teachers.
Table 1.1 shows a higher correlation between higher teacher pupil ratio and lower
youth literacy rates in the Pacific. In Papua New Guinea for instance, with a
teacher- pupil ratio of 1:36, the literacy rate is as low as 67 per cent. On the other
hand, countries with higher literacy rates such as Samoa, Tonga and Tuvalu tend to
have lower teacher pupil ratio in their school systems. Dropout rates are also less in
Fiji, Tonga and Samoa as compared to the other Pacific countries.
Table 1.1 Educational Indicators in selected Pacific Countries Country Youth
Literacy Rate (2004-2008) (%)
Primary net Enrolment Ratio (2005– 2009)
Teacher: Pupil Ratio in Primary School
Survival Rate to last Primary Grade (%)
Fiji .. 89 1:28 96 Tonga 99 99 1:20 95 Samoa 100 93 1:25 96 Solomon Is. 85 67 1:19 Na PNG 67 .. 1:36 58 Tuvalu 99 100 1:19 63 Niue .. 99 1:12 .. Vanuatu 94 97 1:20 71 Marshall Is. 95 66 1:17 .. Nauru 97 72 1:22 25
Source: UNESCO, 2008b.
The curriculum and sometimes the language of instruction are not suited to local
conditions. Therefore, ‘school learning’ may appear quite irrelevant to poor rural
children in comparison with their more immediate survival needs. Often,
programmes targeting rural adolescents and adults are neither well organized, nor
well adapted to local learning needs and depend on untrained or inadequately
trained, underpaid personnel (Atchoaren and Gasperini, 2003).
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Samoa, gives priority to education and health in its development strategy. The
Samoan education system and infrastructure are well established despite its being
classified as a Least Developed country. Australian aid is helping to improve access
to primary education in Samoa by providing school fee grants that will allow for the
phasing out of school fees at all Government funded primary schools throughout the
country. This means poorer students who otherwise would have missed out, will be
able to attend school (UNFPA, 2009). This has not only improved access. It has also
enhanced delivery of educational services particularly in rural areas. (ADB, 2009)
In Fiji, although access to health and education is reasonably good by Pacific
standards, the quality of services is poor, especially in rural areas. The government
has received some assistance, which is all directed towards uplifting rural education.
About 48 per cent of Fiji’s population live in rural areas and 45 per cent live in
poverty (Fiji Times, 21 April 2010).
Fiji’s school system is based on the notion of partnership between the state and
communities. Almost all institutions are owned and managed by village communities,
religious bodies or cultural organizations. The government sees this as a mechanism
to provide a strong and vital education system throughout the country which
provides opportunities for schools to develop their own special character while also
ensuring that common standards and operating requirements are met. According to
the Fiji Islands Bureau of Statistics (2007), 72 per cent of Fiji’s Primary schools are
rural primary and 50 per cent of secondary schools are located in the rural areas.
In Fiji, the Ministry of Education operates only three of the 710 primary schools and
12 of the 154 secondary schools (Fiji Ministry of Education, 2012). At the primary
level, 75 per cent of schools are being controlled by community based committees,
while 18 per cent are operated by religious bodies and about 4 per cent by cultural
organizations. At the secondary level, 41 per cent of schools are controlled by
community based committees, 41 per cent of schools are also operated by religious
bodies and 7 per cent by cultural organizations. The few remaining institutions are
operated by private enterprises and various other organizations. At the primary level
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within Fiji’s school system, the government pays all teachers except for a few part-
time language teachers. At the secondary level, the government pays all teachers
who have civil-servant status and 80 per cent of the salaries of teachers who are
employed on grant-in-aid terms. The government also sets curricula for all levels,
and provides teaching materials. Schools are not permitted to charge fees for tuition,
but can impose levies for books, stationery, buildings, etc. The government forbids
schools from sending children home for non-payment of levies, but this injunction is
widely ignored (Tavola, 2000: 15).
Narsey (2008) carried out research based mostly on secondary education in rural
areas, at Waibau settlement and Waitolu village in the province of Naitasiri. He
argued that one of the challenges faced by rural people is the high cost of schooling
because children have longer expensive bus journeys. While this may be true to
some extent, it may not be realistic for all rural areas as bus services are not readily
available to all rural areas especially very isolated places within the boundaries of
Naitasiri. Narsey’s research sites, Waibau and Waitolu are just outside Sawani area
and are accessible to essential services such as electricity and transport. In my view,
these areas may not fit into the category of rural and as such, the research findings
may not be true reflections of the real challenges faced by the rural community. The
term ‘rural’ in my context will mean areas that are isolated, located far away from
urban areas and are disadvantaged in many facets of development, such as the
provision of essential services like electricity, health services and regular transport.
Narsey (2008) argued that poverty cannot be solved by money alone but by an
educated workforce. An educated workforce will be able to support change and at
the same time know how to support these changes.
Similarly, Morrison (2008) carried out an action research on the improvement of
livelihoods of women in rural areas through distance education. Morrison
emphasized her study mostly on rural women and distance education. Her
methodology approach as being a participant as well as an observer may not be a
reliable method as her presence amongst other participants could in some way have
had some effect on the findings of her research. She states that poverty can be
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solved through the training of rural people in leadership skills so that they can be
empowered with confidence and self-esteem and this will assist them in making right
choices and better decisions.
On the other hand, Kedrayate (2008) conducted research on nation building and
how best to combat poverty through non-formal education, especially in rural areas.
She claims that poverty can be solved through the training of skills and knowledge
so that people are self-reliant.
The three pieces of research, although different in context and the areas that they
address, all agree that poverty is most prevalent in rural areas. They share different
views on how to deal with poverty; yet they share a belief in the power of education
and community involvement in grappling with the challenges posed by that poverty.
1.1.1 Rationale This study is important for many reasons. Firstly, Education is a fundamental issue.
Without education, all facets of development in any given society will always be
difficult to achieve. An educated society will be all that is needed to bring about
positive changes in any locality. Malassis (1966) stated that Education in the widest
meaning of the term lies at the heart of development. It empowers people and
strengthens nations. It is a powerful ‘equalizer’, opening doors to all to lift
themselves out of poverty. Investment in education benefits the individual, society,
and the world as a whole. Broad-based education of good quality is among the most
powerful instruments known to reduce poverty and inequality.
Secondly, the slow pace of the development of education in the rural areas of Fiji
compared to urban schools is of particular concern. It has been seen that significant
disparities exist between the quality of education in rural and urban areas in the
country. While urban schools are accessible to almost everything that makes
learning worthwhile and more meaningful, rural schools are disadvantaged to a
considerable extent by their isolation, locality and their distance from learning
institutions.
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Thirdly, the lack of education for the rural poor feeds into a number of other issues
facing our society and holding back not just individual progress but the progress of
the nation (Narsey, 2008). Despite the substantial assistance that has been directed
to rural schools, development as well as its impact seems to be very slow and
minimal.
Fourthly, socio-economic background of the communities is another marked problem
that has caused major differences between rural and urban communities. Urban
communities are more advantaged than rural communities in the sense that they are
closer to the business outlets as well as having more access to many employment
opportunities. Rural communities face a lot of difficulties in finding income
generating activities and if they do, they may be faced with other problems that are
brought about by their geographical isolation, which normally goes hand in hand
with poor transportation and infrastructures.
Lastly, little study has been done about rural education in Fiji. There is a need to
look at the development of education in rural areas.
This study will therefore aim at examining the challenges and constraints of the
development of education in rural settings and will identify some critical areas of
recommendations that will be addressed through policies and bring about equity in
the delivery of educational services in rural schools.
1.2 Research Questions
The central research question that this study seeks to answer is, what is the state of
education and educational development in rural Fiji? In doing so, several questions
arise which this study attempts to find answers to. These questions are:
� What are some of the challenges faced by rural people in terms of the
provision of education in their localities?
� What are the qualifications of teachers that are posted to rural schools?
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� Are existing infrastructure and teaching materials in rural schools adequate to
contribute to positive learning?
� Does the curriculum introduced by the Fiji Ministry of Education meet the
educational needs of the rural communities?
1.3 Objectives
The general objective of this study is to examine the challenges and constraints of
educational development in the rural areas of Fiji with special reference to Naitasiri
province.
The specific objectives are to:
� examine the quality of teachers that are posted to rural schools.
� study the working conditions of teachers in rural schools.
� identify the accessibility and infrastructures that are available to children in
rural schools.
� study the distance travelled by students daily to the nearest educational
institution.
� examine the perceptions of parents and other stakeholders towards
educational development in rural areas.
� examine the curriculum offered by the Ministry of Education and its relevancy
in rural Fiji.
� study the school fees structures school managements levy fees in rural
schools.
� investigate the teacher – pupil ratios in schools in the rural areas of Fiji.
1.4 Research Methodology and Methods3
Epistemology is the philosophy of knowledge. Methodological approach is derived in
practice from epistemology. The research is largely qualitative in nature. The raw
data gathered from the survey was tabulated and analysed.
3 A detailed methodology is discussed in Chapter Three.
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The data for this research was gathered from both primary and secondary sources.
A primary survey was conducted based on a structured questionnaire. The
secondary sources of information included apart from books and journals, the
government and non-government reports, Fiji National Population census report, UN
reports and Fiji Times reporting.
Questionnaires and interviews are the methods of data collection used in this
research. Snowball sampling was used in this research. Altogether 94 sample
respondents was drawn covering teachers and students and from both primary and
secondary schools. Questions for teachers will cover their living and working
conditions and the constraints they face in delivering their services in a rural setting.
Similarly, questions for students covered about the distance they travel and
difficulties they face to reach school.
Questions regarding school management issues were gathered covering aspects of
school fees, sources of funding, and constraints faced in running of schools etc. A
separate set of unstructured questionnaires was used for gathering information from
government officials covering aspects of policies and challenges faced in regard to
rural educational development.
1.5 Relevance of Research
The proposed research targets the issue of rural education in terms of identifying
contributing factors that are considered a hindrance to the development of education
in rural communities in Fiji. This research hopes to address these factors and more
importantly, higher authorities of the Ministry of Education through the findings of
this research can probably find some leeway in combating this long -standing issue.
The stakeholders who are anticipated to be benefited from this study are rural
parents, school management, students, teachers, rural communities, government
officials and policy makers. The findings of this research will be disseminated
through seminar presentations and necessary publications.
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1.6 Organization of Thesis
This thesis is divided into six chapters. The first chapter is the introductory section of
the thesis dealing with the background of the study, rationale and justification of the
study, objectives, brief methodology employed in the study as well as the relevance
of the study.
The second chapter provides a conceptual framework linking key concepts revolving
around the research subject. This chapter provides an overview of relevant
approaches and perspectives in rural education. It also discusses some of the studies
of rural education that had already been conducted before in the Pacific, particularly
in Fiji.
The third chapter describes the research methodology in detail. It discusses the
research design, sources of data and the area of study in which this research was
undertaken.
The fourth chapter provides a background of the study area focusing on the
geography, brief history, economy and population of Fiji.
Chapter five focuses on research findings and analysis of the study while the last
chapter deals with conclusions and recommendations based on the research
findings.
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CHAPTER TWO
RURAL EDUCATION DEVELOPMENT: A CONCEPTUAL
FRAMEWORK AND LITERATURE REVIEW 2.1 Introduction This chapter focuses on basic concepts and linkages revolving around educational
challenges in rural areas. In particular, it discusses the conceptual linkages between
various elements, e.g. education and poverty. This chapter also reviews models and
approaches relating to the subject. An extensive literature review covers various
studies undertaken elsewhere in developing countries and in the South Pacific
countries including Fiji.
2.2 A Conceptual Framework and Literature Review
Rural development is complex and multidimensional. Rural areas that lie outside the
urban areas are generally referred to as villages. The boundary between rural and
urban is ill defined and transitional. Rural areas are generally defined in terms of
their land use characteristics and economic functions. Rural areas are non–cash
income areas with high concentration of population engaged in primary activities
such as farming, forestry, fisheries and mining. Rural areas suffer from relative
deprivations and with a high degree of poverty.
2.2.1 Poverty and Education The decades over which the World Bank has been involved in education have
witnessed profound changes in how education is seen to relate to poverty,
development and economic globalization. A complex mix of ideas has emerged,
some building on what has gone before, others challenging or upsetting previous
orthodoxies.
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Poverty and education are intricately linked. Poverty puts constraints on educational
development. On the other hand, lack of education makes people to remain
unemployed and become poor.
Many conventional views have seen education as a natural ally in the war against
poverty, a simple matter of helping people out of their poverty. It is common sense,
surely, that education is a dependable means of escaping poverty and that the
higher the educational level, the lower the level of poverty. The human capital
perspective explains the inter-linkages between education and poverty. Such a view
suggests that it is for the poor to lift themselves out of poverty, once a suitable
education has been made available to them. Psacharopoulos and Woodhall (1985)
state that:
Education like other forms of investment in human capital can contribute to economic development and raise the incomes of the poor just as much as investment in physical capital, such as transport, communications, power or irrigation.
Education and poverty resemble a parallel view that education produces people with
better work skills. This will in turn, make them more employable and productive and
increase productivity, which will stimulate economic growth and provide greater
personal returns in the form of higher wages. This is the kind of optimistic,
straightforward thinking behind human capital perspectives that has enormous
appeal to policymakers because of its simple solution to complex problems.
Education is related to poverty at both the micro and the macro-levels. At the micro-
level is the under-achievement of an individual coming from a home which might be
insecure, lacking in material resources and possessing a wealth of society’s
disadvantages. At the other end there is the persistent under–achievement of
particular social groups concentrated in social class five and areas of the inner city.
The task of policy is to be alive to each of these levels and to clarify what is, and can
be, attempted. The response to the macro-challenge of poverty must be a broad
framework of policy that is developed in conjunction with other government
departments.
14
2.2.2 Education and Development
Poor people cannot achieve much educational development. A vicious cycle
continues to occur in the rural areas in terms of poverty and educational
development. Rural areas lack educational infrastructure and experience severe
constraints to educational development.
Education is a cornerstone of economic and social development. Primary education is
the foundation of development. It improves the productive capacity of societies and
their political, economic and scientific institutions. It also helps to reduce poverty by
mitigating its effects on population, health and nutrition and by increasing the value
and efficiency of the labour offered by the poor. As economies worldwide are
transformed by technological advances and new methods of production that depend
on a well trained and intellectually flexible labour force, education becomes even
more significant (Lockheed and Verspoor, 1991).
If one examines educational developments in the third world during the past
decades, it could be argued that there has been a degree of neo-colonial and
metropolitan power influence. It could also be argued that many of the ideas have
been politically neutral but pedagogically sound. Individual countries have adapted
ideas from many parts of the world, capitalist and socialist, industrially advanced and
rural developing, and have used and modified them to fit their own local situations.
There has been a concerted effort to maximise education’s role in development and
to improve the efficiency of existing education systems.
Education systems reflect and respond to a whole range of social, economic,
political, religious and cultural influences in any given national and regional context.
To argue that these systems, at least at primary level, and perhaps even at
secondary level are very much dependent upon the metropolitan powers is hard to
prove in many circumstances, especially as over 90 per cent of educational budgets
are generated locally (Watson, 1984).
15
Education is key to development. It empowers people and strengthens nations. It
is a powerful ‘equalizer’, opening doors to all to lift themselves out of poverty.
Education—especially girls’ education—has a direct and proven impact on the goals
related to child and reproductive health and environmental sustainability. Education
also promotes economic growth, national productivity and innovation, and values of
democracy and social cohesion.
Investment in education benefits the individual, society, and the world as a whole.
Broad-based education of good quality is among the most powerful instruments
known to reduce poverty and inequality. With proven benefits for personal health, it
also strengthens nations’ economic health by laying the foundation for sustained
economic growth. For individuals and nations, it is key to creating, applying, and
spreading knowledge—and thus to the development of dynamic, globally competitive
economies. And it is fundamental for the construction of democratic societies (World
Bank, 2011).
2.2.3 Education and Human Rights A right4 is a privilege or opportunity to which an individual is entitled. It is related to
a particular aspect of life and the privileges people acquire because of their
membership in a particular group. Human rights are held equally by all persons
simply by virtue of being human: they go beyond the basic rights of life and liberty
to include cultural, economic, social and political rights essential for the maintenance
of human dignity.
Education is a basic human right. Like all human rights, it is universal and
inalienable—everyone, regardless of gender, religion, ethnicity or economic status, is
entitled to it.
Every woman, man, youth and child has the right to education, training and
information, and to other fundamental human rights dependent upon realization of
4 Right is a legal, social or ethical principle of freedom and is considered fundamental to human beings (Wikipedia, 2013).
16
the right to education. The right of all persons to education is explicitly set out in the
Universal Declaration of Human Rights 1948, the International Covenants, the
Convention on the Rights of the Child and other widely adhered to international
human rights treaties and Declarations powerful tools that must be put to use in
realizing the right to education for all (PDHRE, 2012). The fundamental right to
education is generally regarded as being a cultural right, one of a group that
includes the right to take part in cultural life, the freedom to engage in scientific
research, the right to creative activity and the right to intellectual property. In
international legal practice, the right to education contains three elements: the right
to teach, the right to receive education, and the freedom of choice of education
(Daniel, Hartley, Lador, Nowak and Vlaming, 1995).
The right to education (UNESCO, 2000), entitles every woman, man, youth and child
to:
free and compulsory elementary education and to readily available forms of
secondary and higher education.
freedom from discrimination in all areas and levels of education, and to equal
access to continuing education and vocational training.
information about health, nutrition, reproduction and family planning.
education is inextricably linked to other fundamental human rights rights
that are universal, indivisible, interconnected and interdependent including
the right to:
equality between men and women and to equal partnership in the family and
society.
work and receive wages that contribute to an adequate standard of living.
freedom of thought, conscience, religion and belief.
an adequate standard of living.
participate in shaping decisions and policies affecting ones community, at the
local, national and international levels.
17
2.2.3.1 Components of the Right to Education Education has been regarded in all societies and throughout human history both as
an end in itself and as a means for the individual and society to grow. Its
recognition as a human right derives from the indispensability of education to the
preservation and enhancement of the inherent dignity of the human person.
Several international, regional and national legal instruments recognize the right to
education.
The Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR, 1948) says “everyone has the
right to education”.
In addition, it says that it shall be free, at least in the elementary and fundamental
stages. Elementary education shall be compulsory. Higher education shall be
equally accessible to all on the basis of merit, and technical and professional
education shall be made generally available.
The UDHR also stipulates that education should be directed towards the full
development of the human personality and strengthen respect for human rights.
Finally, it acknowledges that parents have a prior right to choose the kind of
education that shall be given to their children.
Beginning with the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, adopted by the United
Nations General Assembly in 1948, several international human rights instruments
recognize the right to education.
The international Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights has the most
comprehensive formulation of this fundamental human right. The right to education
is also specified in the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of
Racial Discrimination, the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of
Discrimination against Women and the Convention on the Rights of the Child.
18
Of the various international human rights instruments that enumerate a right to
education, the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights
(ICESCR) has the most comprehensive treatment. Under Article 13 of the covenant,
states parties agree that education shall be directed to the full development of the
human personality and strengthen respect for human rights and fundamental
freedoms. Additional goals for education are to enable all persons to participate
effectively in a free society, promote understanding, tolerance and friendship among
all nations and all racial, ethnic or religious groups, and further the activities of the
United Nations for the maintenance of peace.
Articles 13 and 14 of the ICESCR set out detailed formulations of the right to
education. Article 13 contains a general statement that everyone has the right to
education and that education should contribute to the full development of the
human personality. It also specifically stipulates that primary education shall be
compulsory and available free to all, secondary education, including technical and
vocational education, shall be made generally available and accessible to all by every
appropriate means, in particular by the progressive introduction of free education,
Higher education shall be made equally accessible to all, on the basis of capacity, by
every appropriate means, in particular by the progressive introduction of free educa-
tion, Fundamental education shall be intensified for those persons who have not
received or completed the whole period of their primary education, Systems of
schools shall be established and the material condition of teaching staff shall be
continuously improved and the liberty of parents or guardians to choose for their
children schools, other than those established by the public authorities, that conform
to minimum educational standards shall be respected.
In addition, article 13 recognizes the liberty of parents or guardians to ensure the
religious and moral education of their children in conformity with their own
convictions.
Article 14 requires each state party that has not been able to secure compulsory
primary education free of charge, to undertake, "within two years, to work out and
19
adopt a detailed plan of action for the progressive implementation . . . of compulsory
primary education free of charge for all.”
Articles 28 and 29 of the Convention of the Rights of the Child (CRC) deal with the
right of the child to education. Article 28 is similar to the provisions contained in
ICESCR. In addition, it states that school discipline should be administered in a
manner consistent with a child’s human dignity.
Article 29 stipulates that the education of the child shall be directed towards the
development of the child’s personality, talents, and mental and physical abilities to
their fullest potential.
2.2.4 Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) and Education
Education is central to development. It creates choices and opportunities for people,
reduces the twin burdens of poverty and disease, and gives a stronger voice in
society. For nations it creates a dynamic workforce and well-informed citizens able to
compete and cooperate globally – opening doors to economic and social prosperity
(World Bank, 2004).
Education is a major catalyst for human development. The Millennium Development
Goals (MDG) are the world's time-bound and quantified targets for addressing
extreme poverty in its many dimensions income poverty, hunger, disease, lack of
adequate shelter, and exclusion while promoting gender equality, education, and
environmental sustainability. They are also basic human rights the rights of each
person on the planet to health, education, shelter, and security. The 1990
Conference on ‘Education for All’ pledged to achieve universal primary education by
2000. But in 2000, 104 million school-age children were still not in school, 57 per
cent of them girls and 94 per cent were in developing countries mostly in South Asia
and Sub-Saharan Africa (World Bank, 2003).
The second Millennium Development Goal set a deadline of 2015 when all children
everywhere should be able to complete a full course of primary schooling. The
success of this goal will be measured based on the number of children enrolled in
20
primary education, the proportion who reach the last grade of primary school, and
literacy rates for those aged 15 to 24. This is an important goal because it is
believed that through education, future generations will have the ability to reduce or
put an end to world poverty and help to achieve worldwide peace and security
(Government of Guyana, 2011).
2.2.5 Education for All (EFA) The Education for All movement is a global commitment to provide quality basic
education for all children, youth and adults.
Achieving the Education for All goals is critical for attaining all millennium
development goals—in part due to the direct impact of education on child and
reproductive health, as well as the fact that EFA has created a body of experience in
multi-partner collaboration toward the 2015 targets. Simultaneously, achieving the
other MDGs, such as improved health, access to clean drinking water, decreased
poverty, and environmental sustainability, are critical to achieving the goals of
Education for All (World Bank, 2013).
Although there has been steady progress towards achieving many EFA goals,
challenges remain. Today, there are about 77 million children of school age,
including 44 million girls, who are still not in school due to financial, social, or
physical challenges, including high fertility rates, HIV/AIDS, and conflict (World
Bank, 2013).
Although the gender gap in education is narrowing, girls are still at a disadvantage
when it comes to access and completion of both primary and secondary school.
Despite recent gains in girls’ enrolment at both the primary and secondary levels—
particularly in low-income countries in Sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia—24
countries are unlikely to achieve gender parity at either the primary or at secondary
level by 2015. The majority of these countries (13) are in Sub-Saharan Africa (World
Bank, 2013).
21
Poor learning outcomes and low-quality education also remain overriding concerns in
the education sector. For example, in many developing countries, less than 60 per
cent of primary school pupils who enrol in first grade reach the last grade of
schooling (ibid).
Education for All (EFA) is an international initiative first launched in Jomtien,
Thailand, in 1990, to bring the benefits of education to “every citizen in every
society.” According to World Bank (2013) in order to realize this aim, a broad
coalition of national governments, civil society groups, and development agencies
such as UNESCO and the World Bank committed to achieving six specific education
goals:
Expand and improve comprehensive early childhood care and education,
especially for the most vulnerable and disadvantaged children.
Ensure that by 2015 all children, particularly girls, those in difficult
circumstances, and those belonging to ethnic minorities, have access to and
complete, free, and compulsory primary education of good quality.
Ensure that the learning needs of all young people and adults are met
through equitable access to appropriate learning and life-skills programs.
Achieve a 50 per cent improvement in adult literacy by 2015, especially for
women, and equitable access to basic and continuing education for all adults.
Eliminate gender disparities in primary and secondary education by 2005, and
achieve gender equality in education by 2015, with a focus on ensuring girls'
full and equal access to and achievement in basic education of good quality.
Improve all aspects of the quality of education and ensure the excellence of
all so that recognized and measurable learning outcomes are achieved by all,
especially in literacy, numeracy and essential life skills.
Underlying these goals is the realization that mere access to education is not
sufficient—the quality and duration of education is equally important. In many
developing countries, less than 60 per cent of primary school pupils who enrol in first
grade reach the last grade of schooling. Children must not only enrol in school; they
22
must complete it. And human rights values and principles must be the guiding force
in the classroom (UNICEF, 2012).
The EFA agenda assumes that public policy can radically transform education
systems and their relation to society given adequate political will and resources, and
that national policies and implementation must emphasize inclusion, literacy, quality
and capacity development (UNICEF, 2012).
Indeed, EFA goals are critical to attaining all the MDGs. Education can improve
health, increase environmental sustainability and help eradicate poverty and hunger.
In turn, achieving the MDGs will help children access and benefit from quality
education (ibid).
As one of the five EFA conveners, UNICEF is a key contributor to EFA, responsible
for education in emergencies, early childhood care and technical and policy support.
Achieving ‘Education for All’ will require a truly global commitment. Governments,
civil society, development agencies and the media must work together to help every
child, in every country in the world, realize his or her inalienable right to a good
quality education (UNICEF, 2012).
2.3 Rural Education Development Challenges in Developing Countries
An estimated 1. 3 billion people worldwide are classified as poor (World Bank, 2013).
A startling fact is that over seventy per cent of the poor in developing countries live
in the rural areas. They are caught in the ‘vicious cycle’ of being unable to access
the services and opportunities that might take them out of poverty, such as
education. In rural areas of low income countries, the problem of access to
education is acute (Atchoaren and Gasperini, 2003).
In developing countries, the lack of basic learning opportunities is both a
contributing cause and an effect of rural poverty. Even where schools exist, various
economic and social obstacles prevent some children, especially girls from enrolling.
The opportunity cost of schooling is one of the main obstacles for poor families who
23
often count on their children’s labour and earnings. Many rural people look at school
learning as irrelevant with respect to their immediate survival needs.
The rural children are poor and have very limited opportunities to obtain good
education. Many rural children do not enter a school. Many others who do enter a
school fail to complete the primary education. Many cases the curriculum and the
medium of instruction are not suited to the local conditions. Rural schools are often
in a poor state, poorly equipped. The teachers are not prepared to go to rural
schools due to poor working conditions and they are poorly paid.
The correlation between illiteracy, food insecurity and poverty is high. The fact that
hunger, illiteracy and lack of schooling affect many of the same areas and people is
no coincidence. Nor does it merely reflect the fact that both hunger and lack of
education are facets of extreme poverty. Hunger, malnutrition and food insecurity
erode cognitive abilities and reduce school attendance. Conversely, lack of education
reduces productivity and earning capacity and increases vulnerability to hunger and
extreme poverty (UNESCO, 2006).
In most developing countries, the provision of schools in every village cannot be
attained due to limited funds. On the other hand, enrolment falls very rapidly in
proportion to the distance from home to school. The children may lack the physical
strength to go from their village to the nearest school which can be several
kilometres away.
The rural population in developing countries may be further marginalised from the
mainstream by ethnicity, culture, language or religion. The centrally determined
school curriculum may appear to them as quite irrelevant to their very different basic
learning needs and culture.
The report prepared by the Food and Agricultural Organization (2006) stated that:
…the curricula and textbooks in Primary and Secondary schools are often urban biased with content not particularly relevant to the needs of rural people and seldom focusing on the skills needed for improving their livelihood. The margin for adapting the curriculum to fit local learning needs is often too limited.
24
2.4 Educational Development Challenges in Rural areas of the Pacific Island Countries
2.4.1 The Rural Sector of the Pacific
Distance and isolation are two of the predominant features of the Pacific Islands
region. Its twenty- two countries with their total land area of only 551,000 square
km are scattered over almost 29 million square km of ocean. These countries vary
greatly in size and topography from Papua New Guinea, the largest island, to
Tuvalu, one of the smallest islands in the Pacific. Distances are not only great
between countries of the region but also within the countries. Distance and isolation
therefore pose serious challenges for the social and economic development of many
Pacific nations. In most countries, the rural sector has the major role in
development. Most live in small village communities or settlements and because of
the widely scattered nature of islands within countries, they live in isolation
(Bamford, 1986).
Life in the isolated rural areas of the South Pacific islands of Fiji, Kiribati and Tonga
can be challenging. These nations are groupings of scattered islands, where the
outlying islands may be hundreds of kilometres from the main island. In Tonga, for
example, there are 45 inhabited islands, some as far as 562 kilometres from the
main island of Tongatapu.
Several studies such as Narsey (2008) and Lingam (2012) have tried to examine
challenges faced in education by the rural population of the Pacific Islands with
strategies on how best these challenges can be addressed.
Reeves and Bylund, 2005 cited in Tuimavana (2010:17) had suggested that rural
schools were capable of achieving a sustained academic improvement that could be
comparable to urban and well facilitated schools.
2.4.2 Educational Development Challenges in the Pacific
There are many challenges in the islands of the South Pacific: isolation, lack of
access, little or no resources, lack of information and training.
25
Distance and isolation are two of the contributing factors to the challenges faced by
the Pacific Island countries in the area of education. The location and the way the
islands are scattered affect the development of education to some extent. Being
scattered means the islands are isolated and distances from the mainland and
important centres can be great. Teachers posted in isolated places as these islands
often lose interest very quickly and teaching morale is also low. Due to the far
distances, these areas are hardly visited by Education Officers to monitor and check
on performance of teachers. The students in these isolated areas are affected in the
way they are being taught as a result of this. Due to isolation and distance, schools
in these areas often miss out on certain training opportunities such as workshops
that may be organized to improve teaching performance. The distance also affects
the mailing system as important documents that are sent to schools can take a
longer time to reach the school and by the time it reaches some of these scattered
schools, it may already be too late.
2.4.3 Education in Fiji
About 60 per cent of the population in Fiji live in rural areas and 40 per cent live in
urban areas. The term ‘rural’ refers to the settled places outside of towns and cities,
on the outskirts of towns, the countryside, isolated, or remote areas with limited
access to roads and electricity. It also includes the islands and their villages.
The disparity between rural and urban education is an area of great concern in Fiji.
The examination results of rural schools tend to be lower than those of urban
schools. Unfortunately, these results are currently the basis for decisions about
schools efficiency and effectiveness. It is generally recognized that rural schools face
a combination of disadvantages that contribute to this (Government of Fiji, 2000).
Several studies have been carried out to determine possible solutions to narrow the
gap between the development of education in the rural and urban areas of Fiji.
Some of them are presented here.
26
Narsey (2008) conducted a study on students who were attending the Vutikalulu
centre, which is based at Waibau in Naitasiri. The Vutikalulu Centre is a Charitable
Trust Building, a technical vocational school and centre of excellence in sustainable
technology. According to Narsey (2008: 1), in terms of adult literacy, Fiji rates with
some of the most highly developed countries like France, the USA and Australia.
However, Fiji‘s high position drops off at secondary school level, with many children
not attending beyond class 8 and many more dropping out after Form 4. Of the
group of 20 young people the Vutikalulu Centre is working with in Waibau
settlement and Waitolu village, more than half have no formal education beyond
Form 4 and 30 per cent have no secondary education at all.
Narsey (2008) noted a number of reasons or obstacles holding back children from
advancing for higher education. He finds that people in rural areas spend a higher
proportion of their income on education. Yet fewer children are able to attend
school.
Some of the obstacles that Narsey (2008) identified are the belief that rural dwellers
do not need secondary education and that farming can be done without technical
skills. School fees increase as you enter secondary education and again at Form 4,
leading to high dropout rates at these times from families who cannot afford fees;
average wages for those in formal work are much lower and subsistence farmers
find it difficult to save for school fees, costs of schooling are higher in rural areas
because children have longer expensive bus journeys on top of those fees and
parents are less able to benefit from cut-price offers on uniforms, books and other
essentials available in towns. Thus subsistence farmers are at a double disadvantage
in sending their children to school. Schooling costs are higher in rural areas and they
also lose the benefit of young people working on the farm and many students do not
feel an academic education has relevance for their lives when it is not a pathway to
a better job.
Fiji’s technical vocational education is good but it starts too late. Those who have left
school before 14 and get jobs on farms or subsistence farming do not have the
27
opportunity to learn better farming methods. Those that get technical vocational
training leave rural areas. In our view technical vocational training needs to be
started younger and to compromise more relevant hands-on skills that can make a
real difference. Practical skills need to combine with basic English, maths and
computing so that young people can not only learn how to learn but continue their
learning throughout their life through the Internet and other resources (Narsey,
2008:2).
Lingam (2012) conducted research to examine the pre-service training program of a
teacher education institution in Fiji to determine whether it equipped beginning
teachers for work in rural schools. Specifically, the study focused on the preparation
of teachers at the pre-service level for work in rural schools.
Data for the study was gathered by means of interviews with key people in the case
study institution and beginning teachers posted to a rural school. Also, analysis of
documents such as the College Handbook was carried out to gather relevant
information.
Analysis of the data showed that a course entitled DPE230, an enrichment activity
known as Rural Home-stay, together with rural teaching practice, were the
innovations introduced to cater for the preparation of pre-service teachers for work
in rural schools. The college staff felt the innovations introduced in the pre-service
program had a positive impact in the preparation of teachers for work in rural
schools. Likewise, the analysis of the feedback obtained from the beginning teachers
clearly indicated that they were satisfied with their preparation as they adjusted
themselves well to work in rural schools.
Lingam (2012: 1) stated that teachers with little knowledge and skills of teaching in
rural contexts are likely to have an adverse impact on the education of rural children
who are already at risk. For effective teaching practice in rural schools, teachers
need adequate professional preparation during their initial teacher education
program and also ongoing education and training whilst they are in service. As often
28
highlighted, teachers with good professional preparation are a catalyst not only for
the provision of better quality education for all children but also in terms of national
development.
Baba et al. (2012) have worked on rural and remote schools in Udu in Fiji focusing
on vanua, indigenous knowledge, development and professional support for
teachers.
Veramu (1992) conducted research in a rural Fijian school focussing on the problems
faced in school, the problems faced by school leavers and drop outs and the
complacency and lack of concern by parents and elders as inter-related. In
highlighting these problems, Veramu (1992: 3) stated that:
The pupils’ problems included the inability to understand and write in English, low marks in other subjects as a result of this weakness and absenteeism. Out of school youths suffered from the problems of alcoholism, violent behaviour, a high level of premarital sex and low farm productivity.
The research that Veramu conducted looked at the district of Solevu in Bua from a
wider perspective, as a community undergoing change and malaise. The traditional
chiefly system in this district had been weakened by two opposing forces from within
Solevu, both vying for the leadership position. The ensuing polarization of power
had brought about a situation bordering on anarchy as the people, without a
charismatic leader, looked more to their individual needs and desires, sometimes at
the expense of the society at large. Because the community was in disarray, the
traumatic effects had been felt in school and by school leavers and drop outs, as
parents and elders did not assume their role of community responsibility (Veramu,
1992: 2).
Veramu (1992) conducted and obtained information for this research mostly through
participant observation and in working in collaboration with the headmen of the
villages within the tikina of Solevu as well as the secretaries of youth clubs in each
village. His findings relied very much on his own interpretations of events. He also
listened to the views of the students, teachers, youth groups and parents to
29
understand their side of the story, before strategies are put in place to improve the
situation at hand.
As a result of his research, regular meetings were held with parents, elders and out
of school youths who were likely to become parents within a few years. Informal
discussions were often held with all stakeholders especially around a bowl of grog to
discuss and map out ways for improvement.
Veramu (1992) found out that the main problems hindering learning in Solevu were
attributed to home conditions such as food, clothing, the state of the home,
reinforcement activities, cultural factors, fatalism and religious misconceptions.
Students’ lunches were mostly of poor quality in spite of the rich food resources in
the area. Uniforms worn to school were often torn, old and dirty and this affected
their learning because of their discomfort brought through by teasing by other
students. Parents did not allocate a set time in the evenings for students to study at
home and were often engaged in other family chores. The Solevu environment does
not intellectually stimulate the students in their learning. Sometimes parents,
especially the older parents, thought education made their children disrespectful and
made them disregard the traditional values of elders and their store of empirical
wisdom. They also saw education as causing dissension in the clan.
The teachers felt that the success of education in this rural community not only
depended on the efforts of the teachers and students but also on the cooperation
and support of the parents and elders.
2.5 Conclusion
This chapter has provided a conceptual and theoretical framework and the linkages
for understanding issues relating to rural education, particularly in Fiji. The chapter
also discussed the challenges of the development of education in the rural areas of
the developing countries as well as the rural Pacific. Through these discussions, it
has been possible to point out the linkages of the challenges faced in education by
people living in the rural communities.
30
CHAPTER THREE
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3.1 Introduction This chapter deals with the research approach and methodology adopted for the
study. It begins with a general discussion on research methodological approaches.
This is then followed by a discussion on the sources of data and research design
adopted in the study. The sampling and sampling size, study area, limitations of
research and ethical considerations governing the study are also discussed in this
chapter.
3.2 Research Methodological Approaches
Positivism and phenomenology are the two overarching perspectives that shape our
understanding of research. Within the larger discussion of the history of science,
positivism has come to mean objective inquiry based on measurable variables and
provable propositions. The positivist research orientation holds that science is or
should be primarily concerned with the explanation and the prediction of observable
events. It is the insistence on explanation, prediction and proof that are the
hallmarks of positivism (Maykut and Morehouse, 1994).
A phenomenological approach is a focus on understanding the meaning events have
for the person being studied. The phenomenological approach to inquiry includes
qualitative research. Qualitative research is a distinct approach to inquiry that
encompasses micro- and macro-analyses drawing on historical, comparative,
structural, observational and interactional ways of knowing. The interdisciplinary
landscape of qualitative research is rich because it does not privilege one
philosophical grounding or methodological approach to the research process. It is
the array of epistemological, theoretical and methodological choices made by
31
qualitative researchers that sets qualitative research apart as a particular and fruitful
way of understanding social phenomena.
Qualitative research is based on a phenomenological position while quantitative
research is based on a positivist position.
In discussing the two forms of research, Strauss and Corbin (1998: 34) state that:
Qualitative and quantitative forms of research both have roles to play in theorizing. The issue is not whether to use one form or another but rather how these might work together to foster the development of theory.
According to Strauss and Corbin (1998), although most researchers tend to use
qualitative and quantitative methods in supplementary or complementary forms,
what they are advocating is a true interplay between the two. The qualitative should
direct the quantitative and the quantitative feedback into the qualitative in a circular,
but at the same time evolving, process with each method contributing to the theory
in ways that only each can.
On qualitative research, Walsh (2005:103) stated that:
...qualitative research ask questions which cannot be asked by quantitative research. These qualitative researchers look to ‘contextualize’ their research in their search for underlying and often hidden meanings and deeper causation.
According to Walsh (2005), the objectives are to document the feelings and
experiences of people living under the issues being studied.
3.3 Sources of Data For this thesis, both primary and secondary sources of data were used. The primary
data was obtained through questionnaires, interviews and informal discussions. Two
sets of questions were prepared for the surveys undertaken in the study area. The
first questionnaire was prepared to gather information from students in regard to
their learning, learning environment, distance travelled to school and the difficulties
32
that they face to reach school. The second questionnaire aimed to collect as much
information as possible from teachers regarding their living and working conditions
and the constraints they face in delivering their services in their different rural
settings.
The secondary sources of data or information for this thesis included journals, the
government and non-government reports, Fiji National Population census report, UN
reports and Fiji Times reporting.
3.4 Research Design The research design for this study includes methods of data collection, sampling and
methods of research analysis.
3.4.1 Methods of Data Collection
Questionnaires, interviews and key informant discussion were used to derive
primary data. The following section provides a brief account of each of these
methods of data collection.
3.4.1.1 Questionnaire
A good questionnaire should obtain the most complete and accurate information
possible. The questionnaire designer needs to ensure that respondents fully
understand the questions and are not likely to refuse to answer, lie to the
interviewer or try to conceal their attitudes. A good questionnaire is organized and
worded to encourage respondents to provide accurate, unbiased and complete
information.
In this survey, a structured questionnaire was used. Questionnaires were designed
in such a manner as to capture all the issues that were the focus of this study.
The questionnaires given were divided into two parts and contained both open-ended
and closed questions.
33
The first part of the questionnaire was designed to gather as much information as
possible in regard to the background of teachers, their living and working conditions
as well as their views and opinions on the challenges of the development of
education in their locality.
The second part of the questionnaire sought to understand the background of
students under study and their views and opinions on the provision of education,
drawing their experiences from their current schools.
3.4.1.2 Interview
An interview is not so much an informal chat as a controlled interaction that uses
verbal exchange as the main method of eliciting information. It serves a specific
purpose and it involves both the interviewer and the respondent in a dynamic
relationship. It provides an opportunity to explore the reasons behind the person’s
answers and to verify the reliability of those answers with further questioning (Keats,
2000).
The interview conducted for this study was a semi–structured one. The defining
characteristic of a semi-structured interview is that they have a flexible and fluid
structure, unlike structured interviews, which contain a structured sequence of
questions to be asked in the same way of all interviewees. The semi-structured
interview is usually organized around an interview guide. This contains topics,
themes, or areas to be covered during the course of the interview, rather than a
sequenced script of standardized questions. The aim is usually to ensure flexibility in
how and in what sequence questions are asked, and in whether and how particular
areas might be followed up and developed with different interviewees. In this
research, the interview was carried out in a more informal gathering through talanoa
sessions or group interviews.
34
On group interviews, Lichtman (2010:139) clearly stated that:
Group interviewing provides opportunities for members of a group to interact with each other and stimulate each other’s thinking. It is not desirable or necessary for the group to reach consensus in their discussion.
This allows respondents to express freely their views and opinions on issues and
questions that have been raised by the researcher. The important issues and points
were recorded on paper during this session.
During the group interview, the researcher made sure that all participants from the
different communities were allowed to respond, as views and opinions also differ
across different villages and communities.
In the Fijian communities the talanoa session was conducted in the Fijian language
(Bauan dialect) as it was understood by all; however, in the Indian communities, the
talanoa session was conducted in both English and Fijian language since the majority
of the rural Indians also understood the Fijian language very well.
3.4.2 Area of Study
Naitasiri is one of the fourteen provinces in the Fiji Islands. The selection of this
study area was influenced by reports of the progress of educational development in
the rural areas of the province as being very slow, as well as by the researcher’s
personal experience of visiting rural schools and communities.
Five villages within the province of Naitasiri were selected, covering both Fijian
Villages and Indian settlements or villages. The Fijian villages included Nawaisomo,
Narokorokoyawa and Delailasakau and the Indian rural settlements that were
selected were Vunidawa and Muainaweni settlements. These villages were selected
on the basis of their locality, remoteness and isolation. Altogether nine schools, both
primary and secondary, were chosen for this study. The primary schools included
Nawaisomo, Nakurukuruvakatini, Naitavuni Catholic, Vunidawa and Muainaweni. The
secondary schools were Wainimala, Waidina, Muainaweni and Naitasiri.
35
3.4.3 Sampling Creswell (2008: 142) defines sampling as: Individuals who are selected to represent the entire group of individuals and the individuals selected are typical of the population under study enabling the researcher to draw conclusions from the sample about the population as a whole. Sampling is as important in qualitative research as it is in quantitative research as
we cannot study everyone everywhere doing everything (Punch, 2001).
The snowball sampling method was used in this research. A snowball sample is a
non-probability sampling technique that is appropriate to use in research when the
members of a population are difficult to locate. It is one in which the researcher
collects data on the few members of the target population he or she can locate, then
asks those individuals to provide information needed to locate other members of
that population whom they know.
In this survey, the researcher sent the questionnaires to the Principals and Head
teachers of the selected schools, who then gave out the questionnaires to the
teachers and students whom he considered were affected by the provision of quality
education in their different areas and who would be able and willing to provide more
information on the areas studied. The purpose was to gain a deeper insight into
issues surrounding the challenges of education in the rural areas.
A total of ninety-four respondents were taken using a structured questionnaire. The
respondents were mostly teachers and students. Of the total respondents, 52 were
students and 42 were teachers spread across the rural schools in the study area.
The samples were segregated on the basis of ethnicity and gender. There were 25
male student respondents and 27 females. There were also 37 Fijian students and
15 Indian students who responded to the questionnaire. Similarly, of the 42 teachers
who participated in the survey, 30 respondents were Fijians, 11 Indians and 1 other
category. There were 24 males and 18 female teachers who responded to the
questions.
36
3.5 Limitations
Despite the proper organized study that was conducted by the researcher, there
were several limitations to this survey.
The sampled population chosen for this study was only a few villages and a few
schools within the Naitasiri province. The province consists of 40 schools which
means that only 22.5 per cent of the Naitasiri schools were chosen for this study.
With the sampling method used by the researcher, the findings may not be a true
representation of the Naitasiri province. Therefore, the findings are valid only for the
sampled population and may not be readily generalized.
Fiji consists of fourteen provinces. Since only one province out of the fourteen was
taken for this study, the findings may not truly reflect the whole situation in the
country thus cannot be generalized beyond the one province.
Time constraint was a hindrance to this study due to the unfavourable weather
conditions in the interior of Naitasiri where the study was undertaken; it was the wet
season, which slowed the researcher in undertaking this study.
Furthermore, the unavailability of required data by government agencies has also
put a limitation for an in-depth study on the topic. Moreover, the limited time and
inadequate funding are also major limiting factors in this study.
3.6 Ethical Considerations
A researcher who engages in data collection through interviews or questionnaire
must always place emphasis on anonymity and confidentiality. Respondents’
response to both interviews and questionnaires depends to a large extent on how
well the researcher is able to guarantee anonymity and confidentiality and build their
confidence. For this study, questionnaires were given to students and teachers while
school committee members and parents were engaged by the researcher in informal
37
discussion. Participants were given a hundred per cent assurance about the purpose
of study and the researcher built their confidence to allow them to engage in
discussion on issues pertinent to this study. The researcher also sought the
permission of the respondents before taking photographs. Participants were assured
that the interviews and the photographs taken would be used only for study
purposes.
3.7 Conclusions This chapter has provided a background of methodological approaches and research
methodology used in this study. It provides the research design for the study
including data collection methods and justification for the adoption of these
methods. A presentation of sources of data as well as data analysis methods is
covered in the chapter. Finally, the chapter provides an account of research
limitation and ethical considerations involved in this study.
38
CHAPTER FOUR
A BACKGROUND OF FIJI ISLANDS 4.1 Introduction
This chapter provides a brief background of the Fiji Islands, where the study was
undertaken. It focuses on providing the geographical, demographic, climatic,
historical and economic background of the country. This is in order to contextualize
the subject, in the Fiji situation, the background information covering geography,
climate, brief history, economy, society and culture and demography have been
presented in the following sections since all these factors are relevant to a country’s
economic development.
The chapter then provides a brief background of the human resources of the
country, which focuses on the literacy rate, human resource potentials and school
enrolments.
4.2 Geography The geography of a country including such things as location, terrain conditions and
climatic conditions affect greatly educational development and development in
general, so it is imperative to deal with the basic geographic facts and then bring out
their linkages with the educational development or backwardness.
Fiji, a tropical island nation located in Oceania in the South Pacific Ocean, and
comprises an archipelago of more than 332 islands, of which 110 are permanently
inhabited. Located between longitude 176° 53’ east and 178° 12’ west and latitude
between 15° 42’ and 20° 02’ south, Fiji covers a total land area of 194,000 square
kilometres of which less than 10 per cent is land.
Viti Levu, the largest island, covers about 57 per cent of the nation's land area, hosts
the two official cities (Suva and Lautoka) and most other major towns, such as Ba,
39
Nasinu, and Nadi (the site of the international airport), and contains some 69 per
cent of the population. Vanua Levu, 64 km to the north of Viti Levu, covers just over
30 per cent of the land area though is home to only some 15 per cent of the
population. Its main towns are Labasa and Savusavu. In the northeast it features
Natewa Bay, carving out the Loa peninsula. Both islands are mountainous, with
peaks up to 1300 m rising abruptly from the shore, and covered with tropical
forests.
The geography of the country to some extent affects the development of education
especially in the rural areas of Fiji. The mountainous nature of the larger islands
affects student attendance. Students have to climb hills and mountains in order to
reach school. If the school is not a boarding school, students are expected to walk
and climb these mountains daily. At times, when they become too tired, especially
the younger students, they may miss school. In this way, their school work and
performance are greatly affected.
Because of the geographical features of the main islands, especially in the interior
with the high mountains and dense forest, schools are not located within easy reach
of some villages. This means that students have to walk long distances in order to
reach school. Tiredness and fatigue after walking such long distances often affect
student regular attendance as well as doing homework at home. After a day’s
walking due to long distances, there is often no more energy left in the evenings to
study and do home work. When schools are located too far from home, students are
expected to wake up and leave for school very early in order to reach their school on
time for classes. When this happens, by the time students reach their school, they
are often exhausted and feel sleepy in the day. This in turn affects their school work
as they may lose concentration during the day.
A part of Fiji is made up of many islands scattered and dispersed over a large area
of ocean. The only means to reach most of these islands is through boats. Boats
servicing these areas are not regular and may service the islands once a month if
the weather is fine. Education is affected in schools which are located on these
islands in many ways. One way in which education is affected is the late arrival of
40
mails due to irregular service of boats. Most of these island schools are not
connected through internet and so mails is the only way to connect with them apart
from radio telephones. When mails are delayed, important information sent through
mails is delayed as well. During external exams, examination papers are delayed as
well and this affects student preparation and sometimes students are affected
psychologically. Education is also affected in these island schools when teachers
arrive late due to transportation. Sometimes after holidays teachers who have come
on holidays to the main island miss out school when boats servicing these islands do
not leave on time. These teachers are often stranded and the poor students back in
the islands may be without a teacher for weeks and even months in certain cases.
By the time teachers return, it may only be a few weeks left before the end of the
term. As a result, children’s education is affected as some part of their work
coverage may not be covered due to time limitations.
4.2.1 Climate
Fiji usually has the warmest weather between the months of December and April
and the coolest between May and November. During the warmer months, the
average high temperature is 85°F (29.4°C), while the low temperature is at around
75°F (23.8°C). The cooler months bring an average high of around 81°F (27.2°C)
and low of around 70°F (21.1°C).
Viti Levu, Fiji’s main Island, lies 17.5° South of the Equator. The island has a humid
tropical climate which is continually moist with all months receiving at least 50 – 100
mm of rainfall. However, there is a distinct seasonal rainfall pattern with a wet
season occurring from November to April and a dry season from May to October.
There is also a zonal distribution in rainfall across Viti Levu, because of the dominant
Southeast Trade Winds and the orographic influence of the interior highlands (Terry,
1998:73).
Fiji does have a wet season, which is characterized by heavy, brief local showers and
contributes most of the country’s annual rainfall. The wet season is normally from
November to April and results from the southerly movements of the South Pacific
41
Convergence Zone. Typically the smaller islands in Fiji receive less rainfall than the
main island with various amounts according to their location and size. Cyclones do
occur in Fiji and are normally confined to the wet season.
In February and March, the winds often shift and come from the east, bringing
rainfall with them. The humid south-eastern shorelines of the big islands receive
3,000 mm of annual rainfall, increasing to 5,000 mm inland. The leeward north-
western coasts are drier and receive about 1,500 to 2,000 mm of rainfall per year.
Because humidity normally increases as the climate becomes hotter, the warmest
period in Fiji is also the wettest. Fiji’s rainy season is between the warmer months of
November to March. During the wet season, Fiji is also more prone to experience
hurricanes and tropical storms. Fiji’s hurricane season usually lasts from November
to April.
Certain areas in the Fijian archipelago receive much more rainfall than others. The
islands have distinct wet and dry zones. Roughly speaking, the wet zone is located
mostly in the southeast region of each island, while the leeward areas in the north
and west are usually drier. An exception to this rule is Suva, which is not always dry
in the official dry season (June to October). However, much of the rain falls at night.
Climate also affects the development of education in Fiji in the rural areas. Changes
in weather patterns have forced schools to close. During unfavourable weather
conditions, transportation to island schools is delayed and as a result, schools are
without teachers for several months. Because of this, children in these areas often
lag behind in the different subject areas due to non-completion of the syllabus.
42
Map 4.1 The Fiji Islands
Source: 2012 Google.
During bad weather and flooding, river crossing by children is a hazard and affects
their education. In the interiors of the main islands of Fiji where public roads are
inaccessible, children have to cross rivers in order to reach their schools. During
flooding and bad weather, children’s attendances in school are affected greatly and
as a result work coverage may not be completed.
The changing weather pattern like temperature during certain parts of the year also
affects the education of children in the rural areas mostly. During cold weather,
43
children are often late to school thus missing morning lessons. The cold mornings in
the interior of the main islands can force children in bed especially the younger ones
who have to travel far to reach their schools.
Natural hazards like cyclones, drought and earthquakes affect education a lot in rural
areas. Flooding, landslides and destruction of schools during cyclones usually force
schools to close for some period of time before they are re-opened. Children are
affected psychologically when a disaster occurs. Their school work and subjects
coverage are affected a lot. In these situations, government assistance is often
delayed due to transportation problems.
4.3 Brief History of Fiji
According to Fijian legend, the great chief Lutunasobasoba led his people across the
seas to the new land of Fiji. Most authorities agree that people came into the Pacific
from Southeast Asia via the Malay Peninsula. Here the Melanesians and the
Polynesians mixed to create a highly developed society long before the arrival of the
Europeans.
The European discoveries of the Fiji group were accidental. The first of these
discoveries was made in 1643 by the Dutch explorer, Abel Tasman, and English
navigators, including Captain James Cook, who sailed through in 1774, and made
further explorations in the 18th century (Fiji High Commission, 2010).
Major credit for the discovery and recording of the islands went to Captain William
Bligh, who sailed through Fiji after the mutiny on the Bounty in 1789.
The first Europeans to land and live among the Fijians were shipwrecked sailors and
runaway convicts from the Australian penal settlements. Sandalwood traders and
missionaries came by the mid-19th century. Cannibalism that was practiced in Fiji at
that time quickly disappeared as missionaries gained influence. Fijian history shows
that the country accepted Christianity and the tribal wars came to an end (Fiji High
Commission, 2010).
44
Arrangements were made in 1878 with the Indian Government for Indian labourers
to be bought to Fiji for a period of five years. The labourers were to work as directed
by the Government and were to be free to return to India at their own expense at
the end of five years. If they elected to stay in Fiji for another five years, their return
as well as those of their children would be paid by the Fiji Government. If they
wished at the end of ten years to stay in Fiji, they could do so. The Indian
government insisted that for every hundred men sent to Fiji, forty women should
also be sent. On May 14, 1879, the ‘Leonidas’ landed the first shipload of labourers
from India (Donelly, Quanchi and Kerr, 1994: 49).
Many stayed here as independent farmers or businessman when the indentured
system was abolished. The Indo-Fijian people comprise 43.6 per cent of the
population.
British colonialism gave the foundation to Fiji’s education system. In education, all
school systems are shaped by the course of history and by the physical and cultural
milieu in which they function. In Fiji, nearly a century of British colonial rule has left
an unmistakable legacy of British educational institutions and practices, clearly
reflected in the system of grant aided voluntary schools, the use of indigenous
languages in the early years of primary schooling, the use of English as the medium
of instruction at the secondary and tertiary levels and the widespread practice of
wearing school uniforms (Whitehead, 1981: 1).
The curricula, teaching methods, assessment and evaluation methods, language of
instruction, administration and management models and organizational structures of
schooling in the Pacific continue in hegemonic forms, usually closely resembling
those in place during the colonial days (Puamau, 2005).
One new system of education brought by the British was the establishment of
curricula that required children to learn special subjects and skills to meet the new
opportunities for employment. In pre-colonial days, the children were mostly taught
through socialization processes the culture, traditions and survival skills of the
society they belonged to. Mission and colonial education transformed this during the
45
colonial era, with the move towards learning of the outside world thus the
establishment of a formal schooling system and curriculum.
Another impact of colonialism was the establishment of schools away from homes
and villages to centrally located areas. The children were expected to leave their
villages to attend such schools. As teachers were trained in institutions specially
built by missions and governments, they were then posted to these newly
established schools. Townsend and Elder (1998) stressed that these newly
established schools continued to gain the support of parents who wanted to educate
their children to the new demands placed upon them.
Puamau (2005) states that the education system in Fiji is still caught up in a
colonised time warp despite the fact that most Pacific nations have been politically
independent for some decades.
4.4 Economy and Economic Development Fiji is a middle-income developing country whose economy is based on tourism,
sugar cane, fisheries, timber and gold.
Since independence from Britain in 1970, Fiji's economy has enjoyed both good and
bad times. Endowed with forest, mineral and fish resources, Fiji is one of the most
developed of the Pacific island economies, though it remains a developing country
with a large subsistence agriculture sector. Agriculture accounts for 18 per cent of
Gross Domestic Product, although it employed some 70 per cent of the workforce as
of 2001. The potential is great, with diverse natural resources, a large labour force,
a central position in the South Pacific and a very successful tourism industry. Sugar
exports and a growing tourist industry are the major sources of foreign exchange
(Parker, Nemani, Arrowsmith and Gouglas, 2011).
In recent years, growth in Fiji has been largely driven by the strong tourism
industry. Tourism, which is the country’s largest source foreign income has
expanded since the early 1980s and is the leading economic activity in the islands.
Tourist arrivals grew by nearly 16 per cent in 2010. About 45 per cent of Fiji's
46
visitors come from Australia, with large contingents also coming from New Zealand,
the United States, the United Kingdom, and the Pacific Islands. In 2010 more than
53,000, or around 8 per cent, of the tourists were American. Fiji's gross earnings
from tourism from January to November 2010 totalled US $400 million (F$728
million), more than the combined revenues of the country’s top five exports (fish,
water, garments, timber and gold). Gross earnings from tourism continue to be Fiji's
major source of foreign currency (Parker, Nemani, Arrowsmith and Gouglas, 2011).
Sugar is traditionally the largest export product, accounting for a quarter of the
country's foreign exchange, and feeds over 20,000 farmers and their families. Sugar
cane processing makes up one-third of industrial activity; coconuts, ginger, and
copra are also significant (Malua, 2005).
Fisheries is one of the important sectors in Fiji, and fish is the leading domestic
export, amounting to about 10 per cent of the country’s foreign exchange with a
total value of about F$100m (Malua, 2005).
Fiji has about a million hectares of forest, almost half of which is untouched
hardwood forests, and around 100,000 hectares of pine forest under cultivation.
Wood chip exports amount to almost F$50m (Malua, 2005).
Gold from Fiji’s only working gold mine is also an important export industry and is
expected to continue its positive performance with rising gold prices. Fiji also has
substantial gold mines with an estimated 3 million ounces of gold reserves. Emperor
Gold Mines has been mining the gold reserves in Vatukoula on the north side of Viti
Levu since 1934 and produces about 130,000 ounces of gold each year, with its
exports accounting for six per cent of the country's foreign income (Fiji Government
, 2012).
However, in recent years Fiji’s economy has been showing a sluggish growth. As a
result, poverty and hardship have increased, especially in the rural areas.
Food imports have increased significantly over the years from $255 million in 2000
to $521 million in 2009 (Government of Fiji, 2011).
47
The increase of import of goods has led to the increase in food prices and this has a
lot of impacts especially to the rural poor. The cost of goods increases as distances
from town increases. This certainly means that shops and canteens located far away
from urban centres in rural areas can be selling goods with prices almost double the
price in towns. School attendances therefore are affected as a result of this as
parents find it difficult to prepare lunches, pay school fees and send their children to
school.
4.5 Poverty More than 250,000 people in the Fiji islands live in poverty and many more live on or
just above the poverty line. With a population dispersed over a multitude of islands,
efficient delivery of health care, education and other social services is incredibly
difficult. Fijian communities, especially those in rural area, suffer the most extreme
consequences of this poverty (Think Pacific, 2012).
Many schools are in poor condition and lack the necessary basic materials. Poverty
forces many children to drop out of education and many do not continue beyond
primary school level. With the rise in cost of living, Parents in rural areas find it
difficult to pay school levies, pay school textbooks and attend to other school based
obligations. The best option that is always available is for the child to leave school
and assist on the farm for the family’s source of income. Children in rural
communities are often forced into a future of limited education and opportunity.
Table 4.1 Dimensions of Poverty in Fiji
Area Percentage (%)
2002 - 2003 2008 - 2009
Fiji 35.0 31.0
Urban 28.0 19.0
Rural 40.0 43.0
Source: Government of Fiji, 2010c.
48
The Table 4.1 shows that although there has been a drop in poverty from 35 per
cent in 2002-2003 to 31 per cent in 2008–2009 in Fiji, incidence of poverty has
actually increased from 40 per cent to 43 per cent in the rural areas. The level of
poverty has an impact on the development of education in the rural areas of Fiji.
The Fiji Islands Bureau of Statistics report (2011) revealed that the majority of
people living in poverty live in the rural areas.
Table 4.2 – Poverty by Divisions in Fiji 2002 – 2003 and 2008 - 2009
Division Poverty (%)
2002 – 2003 2008 – 2009
Central 29 36
Eastern 35 40
Northern 57 51
Western 38 43
Source: Fiji Islands Bureau of Statistics, 2007. The statistics show that the Northern Division had the highest proportion of people
living in poverty in rural areas and the Central Division had the lowest proportion of
people living in poverty (Table 2.1). Interestingly, the Northern Division was the only
one showing a decline in the poverty rate between 2002-2003 and 2008-2009.
4.6 Society and Culture
The country's religious affiliations include 52 per cent Christian, 38 per cent Hindu,
and 8 per cent Muslim (Table 4.3). The largest Christian denomination is the
Methodist Church, which claims approximately 218,000 members, nearly one-quarter
of the population. Other Protestant denominations and the Roman Catholic Church
also have significant followings. The Methodist Church is supported by the majority
of the country's chiefs and remains influential in the ethnic Fijian community,
particularly in rural areas.
49
Religious affiliation runs largely along ethnic lines. Most indigenous Fijians are
Christians and most Indo-Fijians, are Hindu. Hindu and Muslim communities
maintain a number of active religious and cultural organizations.
Numerous Christian missionary organizations are nationally and regionally active in
social welfare, health and education. Many major Christian denominations have
missionaries in the country. The Adventist, Anglican, Catholic, Hindu, Methodist,
Mormon, Muslim and other communities operate numerous schools, including
colleges, which are not subsidized by the government (UNHCR, 2012).
Table 4.3 Percentage of Religious Affiliation in Fiji, 2007
Religion Affiliation Percentage
Hindus 38.0
Methodists 37.0
Roman Catholics 9.0
Muslims 8.0
Other Christians 6.0
Source: Government of Fiji, 2008.
Culture has some effects on the development of education in Fiji, especially in the
rural areas. As the norm in rural villages, when there is a village function like
weddings, funerals or any traditional gathering, children are often told not to go to
school. These children may stay home to assist in looking after his or her younger
brothers and sisters while the parents attend to the function. In some rural
communities in Fiji, it can be perceived as a sign of disrespect when there is a
function in the village and yet children are being sent to school. Everyone is
expected to participate or present in any traditional functions in the village. Being
absent from these village functions is sometimes regarded as an insult, especially to
the family or mataqali5 responsible for the function. The children’s attendance in
5 Social unit in a Fijian village which can consist of a number of families that are all related.
50
school is affected therefore in situations like this and may have a bearing on overall
performance.
In rural villages, family houses usually consist of a large living room and one or two
bedrooms. In this living room, the family gathers to have their meals and it is also
where children do their studies during evenings. When there is any family gathering
or even grog sessions taking place, the children do not have any other place to
study. Studies are affected in this way as designs of Fijian bures in villages do not
take into account special rooms like study rooms. A Fijian bure is usually made up of
a large living room and a bedroom separated by sheets of clothing or wooden
partition.
4.7 Demography and Population Composition
Fiji's ethnic composition is largely split between indigenous Melanesian Fijians and
those of Indian descent. The remaining population is comprised of Europeans,
Chinese, and other Melanesians and Polynesians.
The native Fijians live throughout the country, while the Indo-Fijians reside primarily
near the urban centres and in the cane-producing areas of the two main islands.
The population of Fiji declined until the beginning of the twentieth century, mainly
in response to severe epidemics that reduced the ethnic population. From 1911, the
population began to increase dramatically. A contributing factor to this increase was
the importation of indentured Indian labourers from 1879 to 1916. The population
began to increase rapidly from 1936 onwards (Chandra and Bryant, 1990).
According to the 2007 Census of Fiji, the number of Fijians increased from 389,139
to 475,739, while the number of Indians decreased from 337,623 to 313,798. The
latest estimated population of Indigenous Fijians is counted at 511,838, while there
are 290,129 Indians and 56,071 others (Fiji Islands Bureau of Statistics, 2007).
Fiji’s population is highly diversified. The country is a multi-racial one. Population
consists of indigenous I – taukei of about 57 per cent, indo Fijians of about 38 per
51
cent and others including Chinese, Europeans and Pacific Islanders which is about 6
per cent. The Table 4.4 shows the increase in population from 1996 to 2007. Table 4.4 Trends in Population in Fiji by Ethnicity, 1996-2007
Ethnic Group Population % Population in
2007 1996 2007
Fijians (I- Taukei) 389,139 475,739 56.8 Indians 337,623 313,798 37.5 Others 41,040 47,734 5.7 Total 767,802 837,271 100.0
Source: Government of Fiji, 2007. 4.8 Education and Human Resources
Fiji has a high literacy rate of 93 per cent. Education is free and compulsory for the
year 6 to 16 age group. Classes are taught in the pupil's parent tongue (Fijian for
the Fijians and Hindi or Urdu for the Indians) and in English for the first few years
until students have learnt enough English to continue their schooling in English.
Table 4.5 shows the rate of enrolment and the numbers of teachers in both primary
and secondary schools in Fiji for the period 2007 to 2009. The table also indicates
the student: teacher ratios in this period. While there has been a slight decrease in
the number of primary schools as well as the number of students that attend
primary education from 2008 to 2009, there has been an increase in the number of
teachers that teach in the primary schools. In the secondary schools, even though
the number of schools increased in the same period, the number of teachers and
students that attend secondary schools decreased. The pupil: teacher ratio in
primary in this period was about 25:1 on average while in secondary it was about
16:1 in 2009 (Table 4.5).
52
Table 4.5 Student Enrolments and Teacher Number in Primary and Secondary Schools in Fiji (2007–2009) Type of Information
2007 2008 2009
Primary
No. of Schools
720 724 721
No. of Students
133,835 132,722 129,444
No. of Teachers
5,131 5,107 5,173
Student – Teacher Ratio
26.08 25.99 25.02
Secondary
No. of Schools
162 169 172
No. of Students
69,535 68,904 67,072
No. of Teachers
4,141 4,327 4,273
Student – Teacher Ratio
16.79 15.92 15.70
Source: Government of Fiji, 2011. 4.9 Conclusion
This chapter has provided some background information on the Fiji Islands and the
study area. It has introduced the social, economic and political setting of the Fiji
Islands and has examined in some detail the geographical and climatic background
of the country. It has also provided some background in the history of the country
highlighting the major transition that has taken place through the ages since Fiji was
discovered by well known navigators, the arrival of the early missionaries and the
impact of colonial rule to the present situation.
53
CHAPTER FIVE
RESEARCH FINDINGS
5.1 Introduction This chapter deals with an analysis of the educational challenges and hardships
faced by the students, teachers and parents in the selected rural communities of
Naitasiri. The chapter discusses educational policies, educational finance and
expenditure, infrastructure and challenges faced by the rural population in Fiji in
regard to the development of education. The chapter is divided into two main parts.
The first deals with a discussion on the challenges faced by the rural communities in
education while the second part presents in detail the analysis of the findings.
5.2 Document Analysis 5.2.1 Educational Challenges in Rural Fiji Rural schools tend to have lower examination results and success rates than urban
schools. It is generally recognized that rural schools face a combination of
disadvantages that contribute to rural-urban disparity (Government of Fiji, 2000).
Some problems that exist in rural schools in regard to the development of education
in Fiji are lack of parental support for education, poor school facilities, limited
resources and infrastructure to support the delivery of good quality education,
posting and retention of highly quality teachers in rural schools and the difficulty of
students reaching schools which is due largely to the remoteness of many villages
from schools.
The remote location and difficult conditions faced by rural communities often mean
that rural schools are resource poor and unattractive to many teachers (Tuimavana,
2010:17).
54
As mentioned in chapter 4, the incidence of poverty is high and rising in the rural
areas. The relative poverty of Fiji’s rural areas is the main challenge of many rural
schools. The 1997 Fiji Poverty Report states that two-thirds of Fiji’s poor are found in
rural areas. Many rural dwellers do not have reliable sources of income. Fijians living
in villages rely on subsistence farming and fishing for food but also need cash for
other needs including education. As there are few sources of regular employment in
rural areas, providing for the education of their children and supporting local schools
is one of the many competing demands on meagre incomes. In rural areas,
traditional obligations and donations to churches take priority over contribution to
schools (Government of Fiji, 2000).
Photo 1 shows a typical rural primary school in Muaira District in Naitasiri.
Photo 5.1 A Typical Rural Primary School – Muaira District in Naitasiri
Source: Photo by the Researcher, 2012.
There are children in Fiji who come from very poor family backgrounds and are
facing problems in schools or are not attending school at all. In some areas
problems of unemployment of parents have given rise to the poor status of families.
55
Government is trying its best to increase subsidies to education to assist the very
poor to send their children to schools. Legislation is being introduced to streamline
levies charged by schools so that education is affordable to all families (UNESCO,
2008a).
Education remains a major spending priority for the Government. The budget
provided to the Ministry of Education by the Government determines to a large
extent how the Ministry implements its plans on education. New initiatives are
usually put on hold due to non-budgetary allocations. The lack of appropriate
legislation has also limited the Ministry of Education’s powers in enforcing school
attendance and retention of students in schools. A major problem in the Fiji school
system is school drop outs, Students’ retention in the school system can be
improved through legislation to force parents to play their role in this respect.
Table 5.1 Educational Budget (2004–2008)
Year Total National Budget (in F$ million)
Ministry of Education Budget (in F$ million)
% of National Budget
2004 1,313.3 239. 98 21.47
2005 1,424.5 260.42 21.30
2006 1,548. 7 301.19 19.45
2007 1,572. 4 320.68 20.39
2008 1,527.9 296.49 19.41
Source: Government of Fiji, 2008.
Poor infrastructure connecting the schools is a feature of many rural areas. While
there have been improvements since independence, many rural areas still lack
facilities, such as roads, electricity, telecommunications and water supply. While the
impact of poor infrastructure on schools varies, work is more difficult without proper
facilities. Without electricity, there can be insufficient light on dull days and no
photocopiers and computers. Without telecommunication, there is isolation and
without proper water supply schools cannot function and may be forced to close on
certain days.
56
According to Tuimavana (2010:17):
Apart from poor infrastructure, transport is another area of concern for rural schools. Teachers have to travel the long distances over gravelled roads in order to access normal services such banking, postal, communications and medical services. Whilst, outer island teachers have to either hire boats or fly if this service is available. The exorbitant amounts required for such trips have to be met by teachers and parents themselves.
Transport difficulties plague many rural schools. On the main islands of Viti Levu and
Vanua Levu, there are problems with roads especially during the rainy season and
times of flooding. Children and teachers have to travel long distances every day to
reach school. The outer islands of Fiji face much more isolation as they may be cut
off for long periods. Transport to and from these islands by sea or air is costly and
irregular. Teachers may be late to reach school due to transport difficulties. The lack
of adequate educational equipment, materials and resources in addition to the poor
quality or lack of proper school facilities have been a consistent challenge facing
many rural schools. Other school facilities such as libraries, laboratories, offices and
staffrooms tend to be lacking in rural schools due primarily to the lack of financial
resources (Government of Fiji, 2000).
5.3 Survey Analysis The following section provides an analysis based on data gathered from the field.
Children, teachers and school managers were consulted and information was
gathered regarding educational development challenges in the rural areas of Fiji.
5.3.1 Survey of Students 5.3.1.1 Boarding Status of Primary Children in Rural Areas Residential schools are limited in Fiji. A majority of the children is in the non-
boarding category and travel from home to schools daily. The survey reveals that of
the 32 primary students that were surveyed, 19 per cent attended school as
boarders while 81 per cent were day students.
57
Figure 5.1 Boarding Category of Primary Level Students
Source: Survey by the Researcher, 2012. Table 5.2 shows the boarding status of children in rural areas in Fiji.
Table 5.2 – Boarding Status of Children in Rural Areas in Fiji Level Boarders (%) Day Students (%) Primary 19.0 81.0 Secondary 45.0 55.0
Source: Survey by the Researcher, 2012. 5.3.1.2 Boarding Status of Secondary Children in Rural Areas At the secondary level, relatively higher proportions of children live in boarding
schools. The survey shows that of the 20 secondary students that were surveyed, 45
per cent were boarders while 55 per cent were day students (Fig. 5.2).
19%
81%
Boarders
Day Students
58
Figure 5.2 Boarding Status of Secondary School Children in Rural Areas
Source: Field Survey by the Researcher, 2012.
Photo 2 shows boarding facilities at Nakurukuruvakatini primary school in rural Naitasiri.
Photo 5.2 Boarding Facilities at Nakurukuruvakatini Primary School in Rural Naitasiri
Source: Photo by the Researcher, 2012. 5.3.1.3 Distance Travelled by Students to Reach School
45%
55%
Boarders
Day Students
59
The locations of schools in rural areas in Fiji are widely dispersed away from the
majority of the children’s homes. The question of access to education is a critical
issue in the rural areas.
In regard to the distance travelled by students to school, 67 per cent of the primary
and secondary students surveyed travelled about 1–3 km to reach school every day.
17 per cent travelled 4–6 km while 14 per cent travel 7–10 km and about 2 per cent
travelled more than 10 km to school every day. A vast majority (nearly one third) of
the students surveyed reported traveling more than 4 km to reach their schools.
Table 5.3 - Distance Travelled by Students to Reach School Distance No. Percentage (%) 1 – 3 Km 35 67.0 4 – 6 Km 9 17.0 7 – 10 Km 7 14.0 More than 10 Km 1 2.0 Total 52 100.0 Source: Field Survey by the Researcher, 2012.
Figure 5.3 Distance Students Travel to School from Home
Source: Field Survey by the Researcher, 2012. 5.3.1.4 Difficulties Faced by Children while Travelling to School
67%
17%
14%
2%
1 - 3 km
4 - 6 km
7 - 10 km
More than 10km
60
Students were asked to identify the difficulties that they face in travelling to school.
About 23 per cent mentioned they have to cross at least one flooded river during
rainy season. This reflects the hardships students face in accessing education in
rural areas. Another 22 per cent revealed they walk through muddy, slippery and
wet tracks during the rainy season. About 15 per cent of students surveyed
mentioned walking long distances to school from home as one of the major
difficulties. About 8 per cent of the students identified that the cold weather in the
morning is a contributing factor to their late arrival to school every day while another
8 per cent mentioned that due to unaffordability, wearing no shoes to protect their
feet to school is a difficulty.
Table 5.4 - Difficulties Faced by Students in Rural Schools in Fiji
Difficulties Faced by Students No. % 1. Crossing flooded river during rainy season.
12 23.0
2. Walk through muddy, wet and slippery track during wet and rainy season.
11 22.0
3. Walking long distance to school from home. 8 15.0
4. No shoes to protect feet when walking to school. 4 8.0 5. The cold weather especially in the morning causes us to be late to school.
4 8.0
6. Crossing a lot of rivers daily.
1 2.0
7. Problem of transport to carry children to school
2 4.0
8. The late bus causes us to miss the first period
1 2.0
9. During rainy season, I could not board the bus on time due to difficulties faced in crossing the river by boat.
1 2.0
10. When the bus is full, I am forced to walk to school.
1 2.0
Source: Field Survey by the Researcher, 2012.
Table 5.4 shows about 2 per cent of the students surveyed identify the crossing of
rivers daily as a difficulty in their travelling. Another 2 per cent mentioned the
problem of transport servicing their villages. Once they miss the only transport
available, they end up missing school for the day. 2 per cent of students also
61
revealed the difficulties in catching the school bus on time due to having to cross the
river by boat. Another 2 per cent identified the non-availability of transport as a
major problem and nearly 2 per cent mentioned the late arrival of school bus and
another 2 per cent revealed having to walk to school if the school bus is full.
Photo 5.3 shows the track students follow to have access to education at
Nakurukuruvakatini primary school in interior Naitasiri.
Photo 5.3 Track students follow to Nakurukuruvakatini Primary School in interior Naitasiri
Source: Photo by the Researcher, 2012.
5.3.1.5 Difficulties Faced in the Home Environment
The survey reveals that in many cases, the home environment is not conducive for
studies. The factors contributing to such adverse conditions include overcrowding,
household work, lack of electricity and proper light, lack of space and a poor study
environment.
About 52 per cent responded that there is always no time for study at home due to
a lot of work. Another 40 per cent reported a poor study environment at home, and
62
disturbances caused by other members of the family watching TV and listening to
radio; 25 per cent identified no proper lights as a difficulty to study at home; About
28 per cent revealed no study space at home due to overcrowding and 13 per cent
said there was no parental support at home. Furthermore, 2 per cent revealed that
reaching home late from school due to more travelling time from school prevented
them doing homework regularly and coping with their studies.
Table 5.5 - Difficulties Faced at Home Environment Difficulties at Home Environment No. (%) 1. Have to do a lot of work at home and no time to study. 27 52 2. Disturbances caused by other members of family watching TV or listening to radio.
21 40
3. No proper lights. 13 25 4. No space for study and overcrowding. 14 28 5. No parental support 7 13 6. Reaching home late from school due to more travelling time.
1 2
Source: Field Survey by the Researcher, 2012. 5.3.1.6 Difficulties Faced in the School Environment
An analysis of students difficulties at school was done on the basis of responses by
the students. Table 5.6 shows that a majority (about 48 per cent) stated
disturbances caused by other students in class as a difficulty that they commonly
face at school.
At the same time, 19 per cent indicated lack of textbooks as a hindrance to their
learning. Further15 per cent revealed lack of school stationery as a problem and 15
per cent said lack of library books for reading is a difficulty.
With less frequency, 8 per cent reported that they do not understand their teachers
during teaching and 8 per cent reported that the non payment of fees affects their
school work; 8 per cent responded that they do not understand English well while 8
per cent identified no proper facilities as a difficulty that they face in school; 6 per
cent of the students revealed that they are being overloaded with Class Based
63
Assessment (CBA) while 4 per cent mentioned about no matron to look after sick
students.
Table 5.6 - Difficulties Faced at School Environment Difficulties Faced in School No. Percentage 1. Disturbances from other students in class 25
48
2. Lack of textbooks / Sharing Textbooks 10
19
3. Lack of school stationeries(pen, ruler, note books etc ) 8 15 4. Lack of library books for reading 8
15
5. Do not understand the teacher’s teaching 4 8 6. Paying School Fees 4
8
7. Do not understand English language well 4
8
8. No proper facilities 4
8
9. Overloaded with CBA tasks. A lot of research needs to be done, which takes a lot of time.
3 6
10. No matron to look after the sick students 2
4
11. Afraid to learn when teacher is angry 1
2
12. Lot of home work given and no time to study 1
2
13. Overcrowded hostel 1
2
14. Shy/ afraid to ask teacher for clarification in class 1 2 15. Teacher writes quickly and can’t copy work on time. 1 2 Source: Field Survey by the Researcher, 2012.
Table 5.6 shows that 2 per cent respondents stated that they are afraid to learn
when their teacher is angry and another 2 per cent mentioned that a lot of home
work is given and as a result there is no time for voluntary individual study. Two per
cent mentioned an overcrowded hostel while another 2 per cent indicated that they
are afraid and shy to ask the teacher questions in the classroom and 2 per cent
revealed that their teachers write notes quickly on the board, making it very difficult
for them to copy notes.
64
5.3.2 Survey of Teachers
5.3.2.1 Trained and Untrained Teachers With the survey undertaken to see the number of teachers that were trained or not
trained, it was found that 96 per cent of the primary teachers were trained while 4
per cent surveyed were not trained.
Figure 5.4 Trained and Untrained Primary Teachers
Source: Field Survey by the Researcher, 2012.
For secondary level teachers, the survey indicated that all teachers (100 per cent)
were trained.
Figure 5.5 shows the trained and untrained secondary teachers.
Figure 5.5 Trained and Untrained Secondary Teachers
96%
4%
Trained
Untrained
65
Source: Field Survey by the Researcher, 2012. Table 5.7 is a summary of trained and untrained teachers in both primary and
secondary schools in the study area as shown in figures 5.4 and 5.5.
Table 5.7 Trained and Untrained Teachers at Primary and Secondary level in Study Area Total
Response Trained Untrained Trained
(%) Untrained (%)
Primary 25 24 1 96.0 4.0 Secondary 17 17 0 100.0 0 Total 42 41 1 97.6 2.4 Source: Field Survey by the Researcher, 2012.
5.3.2.2 Qualification Level of Primary and Secondary Teachers Analysis of the qualifications held by teachers in the study area reveals that a small
majority (52 per cent) of the Primary teachers were certificate holders while 48 per
cent indicated that they were diploma holders.
Figure 5.6 Qualification Levels of Primary Teachers
100%
Secondary Teachers
Trained
66
Source: Field Survey by the Researcher, 2012.
Figure 5.7 and table 5.8 reveal that at the secondary level, 29 per cent were diploma
holders, 59 per cent were degree holders and 12 per cent were Post Graduates. The
study showed that the majority of the secondary teachers were degree holders.
Figure 5.7 Qualification Levels of Secondary Teachers
Source: Field Survey by the Researcher, 2012. The table 5.8 shows qualification level of teachers at primary and secondary level in the study area.
52%
48%
Primary Teachers
Certificate
Diploma
29%
59%
12%
Secondary Teachers
Diploma
Degree
P/Graduate
67
Table 5.8 Qualification Level of Teachers at Primary and Secondary level in the Study Area Category No. %
Primary Secondary Primary Secondary Certificate 13 0 52 0 Diploma 12 5 48 29 Degree 0 10 0 59 Post Graduate 0 2 0 12 Source: Field Survey by the Researcher, 2012.
5.3.2.3 Number of Years of Experience of Teachers in Study Area
The results displayed in Table 5.9 indicate that 44 per cent of the Primary teachers
said that they had an experience of working between 1 and 5 years. 24 per cent
mentioned having worked 11–15 years and 32 per cent having experience of more
than 16 years. For secondary teachers, 82 per cent have had experience of working
between 1 and 5 years, 6 per cent of having an experience of 6–10 years, another 6
per cent of having 11–15 years of experience and another 6 per cent of having an
experience of more than 16 years.
Table 5.9 Number of Years of Experience of Teachers Experience (year)
No. % Primary Secondary Primary Secondary
1 – 5 11 14 44.0 82.0 6 – 10 0 1 0.0 6.0 11 – 15 6 1 24.0 6.0 16 or more 8 1 32.0 6.0 Source: Field Survey by the Researcher, 2012. 5.3.2.4 Satisfaction Level of Teachers with Living Quarters Figure 5.8 shows that 45 per cent of the teachers indicated that they were satisfied
with their teacher’s quarters while 43 per cent mentioned that they were not
satisfied. The remaining 12 per cent responded to say that they were not using
school quarters but travelling from their own homes.
68
Figure 5.8 Teacher Satisfaction with their Accommodation Provision
Source: Field Survey by the Researcher, 2012.
The photograph 5.4 shows the status of teacher’s living quarters in rural schools. Photo 5.4 Status of Teacher’s Living Quarters in Rural Schools
Source: Photo by the Researcher, 2012.
5.3.2.5 School Management Of the teachers surveyed, 79 per cent responded that school managements were
supportive while 21 per cent indicated otherwise.
45%
43%
12%
Satisfied
Not Satisfied
Travelling from own home
69
Figure 5.9 Supportive Managements
Source: Field Survey by the Researcher, 2012.
Photo 5.5 Talanoa Session with Management of Nakurukuruvakatini Primary School
Photo: School committee members and teachers during the Talanoa Session, 2012.
5.3.2.6 Parental Support
On the critical question of parental attitudes to the school, 72 per cent of primary
teachers responded that parents are very supportive in their schools while 28 per
cent felt that parents are not at all supportive. In secondary schools, 29 per cent
79%
21%
Supportive Management
Not Supportive Management
70
indicated that parents are supportive of them while 71 per cent responded that they
are not supportive. From the overall perspective, 55 per cent of teachers surveyed
confirmed that parents are supportive while 45 per cent have indicated otherwise
(Table 5.10 and Figures 5.10 and 5.11).
Table 5.10 Response on Level of Parental Support Level Total Respondents Supportive
(%)
Not Supportive
(%)
Primary 25 72.0 28.0
Secondary 17 29.0 71.0
Total 42 55.0 45.0
Source: Field Survey by the Researcher, 2012.
Figure 5.10 shows the level of parental support in primary schools in the study area.
Figure 5.10 Parental Support in Primary Schools
Source: Field Survey by the Researcher, 2012.
Figure 5.11 shows the level of parental support in secondary schools in the study
area.
72%
28%
Primary Schools
Supportive Parents
Not Supportive Parents
71
Figure 5.11 Parent Support in Secondary Schools
Source: Field Survey by the Researcher, 2012. 5.3.2.7 Satisfaction with Salary An analysis was done regarding level of satisfaction of teachers with the salary they
receive. As table 5.11 shows, 36 per cent of Primary teachers surveyed indicated
that they are satisfied with their salary while 64 per cent mentioned that they are
not satisfied.
Table 5.11 – Satisfaction Level of Teachers Level No. Of
Respondents Satisfied
(%) Not Satisfied
(%) Primary 25 36.0 64.0
Secondary 17 47.0 53.0
Total 42 40.0 60.0
Source: Field survey by the Researcher, 2012.
Figure 5.12 shows the satisfaction level of teachers in primary schools as shown in
Table 5.11.
29%
71%
Secondary Schools
Supportive Parents
Not Supportive Parents
72
Figure 5.12 Primary Teachers View on Salary
Source: Field Survey by the Researcher, 2012.
For secondary teachers, 47 per cent responded that they are satisfied while 53 per
cent indicated they are not satisfied. Overall, 40 per cent of the teachers are
satisfied while 60 per cent are not satisfied.
Figure 5.13 Secondary Teachers View on Salary
Source: Field Survey by the Researcher, 2012.
36%
64%
Primary Schools
Satisfied with salary
Not Satisfied with Salary
47%
53%
Secondary Teachers
Satisfied with Salary
Not Satisfied with Salary
73
Photo 5.6 Talanoa Session with Parents and Management
Source: Photo by the Researcher, 2012. 5.4 Education Policies in Fiji Policies aim to promote effectiveness of all the Ministry of Education’s (MOE)
operations to ensure compliance with national and existing regulations and policies,
safeguard individuals, and protect its assets and programmes.
The Ministry of Education since 2005 has formulated more than 20 policies that are
continually reviewed and modified every year to ensure that the education being
provided will best equip students for the rapidly changing realities of the 21st
century. Policies formulated try to address as many areas of education as possible to
ensure that smooth progress of education services is provided at all levels. Some of
these policies that have been formulated since 2005 within the Ministry of Education
are Behaviour Management Policy, Child Protection Policy, Early Childhood Education
Policy, Grant Distribution Policy, Examination and Assessment Policy, Professional
Development Policy, Counselling Policy and Occupational Health Policy.
74
5.5 Conclusion
The chapter has provided an analysis of the hardships and challenges faced by
teachers, students and parents in the province of Naitasiri. The chapter also
discusses budgetary allocation towards education, infrastructure and school Policies
that are currently in place and may have influence on how education is
administered.
75
CHAPTER SIX
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS 6.1 Conclusion The quality of education is an issue that developing countries and all other education
systems will continue to face and be challenged with. Educational quality
improvement involves various areas such as teachers, infrastructure, equipment and
resources, learning environment and community support. Access to basic education
is still a major problem in most countries due to cultural, social, conflict-related and
economic factors. Developing countries have their own problems in regard to basic
education, with children continuing to face hardships in travelling to schools daily.
While some schools have advanced into modern technology, others are still
struggling to provide basic facilities such as telephone, electricity and water.
The slow pace of the development of education in the rural areas of Fiji compared to
urban schools continues to be an area of concern. It has been seen that significant
disparities exist in the delivery of good-quality education to rural and urban areas in
the country. While urban schools are accessible to almost everything that makes
learning worthwhile and more meaningful, rural schools on the other hand are
disadvantaged and left behind because of their isolation, locality and their distance
from other learning institutions.
Against this backdrop, this study was based on the central objective of investigating
the challenges of the development of education in the rural areas of Fiji. The study
was undertaken within the confines of the key research question posed in the thesis:
what factors are evident in the province of Naitasiri that best capture the realities of
the challenges of education in the rural areas of Fiji.
76
The study focussed on the status, levels, challenges and constraints associated with
the development of education in the rural areas, with special reference to the
Naitasiri Province.
The data for this research was gathered from both primary and secondary sources.
A primary survey was conducted based on a structured questionnaire. The
secondary sources of information was gathered from books and journals, the
government and non-government reports, Fiji National Population census report, UN
reports and Fiji Times reporting.
Although the overall research was largely qualitative in nature, the research
methodology employed was not restricted to qualitative alone. Both qualitative and
quantitative approaches were interwoven in order to arrive at a valid, reliable and
justifiable research results. For this study, the research tools adopted include
questionnaires and interviews as the methods of data collection. A snowball
sampling method was used in this research. Altogether ninety-four sample
respondents were drawn covering teachers and students from both primary and
secondary schools. Questions for teachers covered their living and working
conditions and the constraints they face in delivering their services in rural settings.
Similarly, questions for students covered the distance they travelled and difficulties
they faced in order to reach school.
In the execution of this research, five villages within the province of Naitasiri were
selected, covering both Fijian Villages and Indian settlements and villages. The
villages were selected on the basis of their locality, remoteness and isolation.
Altogether nine schools, both primary and secondary, were included in this study.
The province of Naitasiri was chosen for this study as progress of educational
development in rural areas in the province has been very slow and the academic
results over the last few years do not show any significant improvement.
77
6.2 Theoretical Linkages with Findings The theory stating that poverty is directly linked to the development of education in
rural areas was analyzed. Poverty in its most general sense is the lack of necessities.
The non-payment of school fees, students not being provided with complete school
stationery and other school requirements and non-supportiveness of parents on
school activities and programmes are proof and indicators that poverty is strongly
linked to the development of education, especially in rural areas. In fact, one might
say that poverty is one of the main causes of the slow down in the progress of
education in the rural areas.
We cannot argue that the urban context is free of the challenges or dynamics found
in rural environments, but we can suggest that one of the defining characteristics of
rurality is its intensity. For example, even though there is poverty in the urban
context, the fact is that there is better support and infrastructure and a better
chance of obtaining assistance (in the form of social services); but such support
often is either absent or inaccessible in rural areas, owing to distance, poor
transportation and neglect. An example of this occurs in relation to schools and
clinics, which, even if they exist in close proximity to each other, often are accessed
by communities that are remote in time and distance. The experience of such
intensity is altogether different from that experienced in the city, where the
multiplicity of stimuli makes for both the need for additional stimulation and its other
side: alienation, anonymity, and loneliness.
6.3 Summary of Broad Findings The study found that while there were many primary schools established in the rural
areas of Fiji, secondary schools were few and were located far from each other.
Primary schools were established almost in every three villages to ensure that
children have easy access to primary education as well as assisting students who
travel long distances to attend other schools.
78
The initial impetus for establishing small rural schools in Fiji seems to have come
from varied sources such as the churches in the early days, governments and
communities more recently. The schools therefore reflect, in varying degrees, the
concern for the education of children in rural areas by the educational authorities on
the one hand and the aspirations of rural communities on the other.
The study on the challenges of education in the rural areas of Naitasiri found the
following:
In regard to attending school as a boarder or day student, the majority of the
Primary school students were day students who travel daily to school. As for
Secondary students, there were almost the same numbers of boarders as day
students. This reflected the many number of Primary schools being
established in the rural areas within walking distance from nearby villages.
Many attended secondary school as a boarder because of the distance from
their villages as secondary schools were scarce and located far apart.
In terms of the distance travelled to school, 67 per cent indicated that they
travelled between 1 and 3 km daily. The other 33 per cent were travelling
more than 3 km to school. Students that were travelling from 4 km and more
mainly attend as boarders in these schools.
Regarding the difficulties that students face especially in travelling, a majority
of them with about 23 per cent indicated that the river is their main difficulty,
especially during rainy weather when rivers are flooded and crossing becomes
a difficulty. As a result, many students who live alongside the main rivers are
stranded and may be forced to stay away from school for a couple of days or
weeks thus missing out on school work. Some 22 per cent of the students
mentioned having to walk through the muddy and slippery track to school as
their main problem. This reflected the slow development of certain parts of
the province of Naitasiri where roads are still not yet constructed and rural
people still use traditional means of transportation to go from one place to
79
another. In fact 15 per cent of the students highlighted having to walk long
distances as their main problem. About 8 per cent of the students pointed out
that no shoes and the cold weather is a problem in travelling to school. This
shows that there are parents who cannot afford to buy shoes and sandals for
their children and this is a reflection of the level of poverty that they are in.
In terms of the difficulties that students face at home, 52 per cent of the
students revealed that being engaged in a lot of household work after school
and having no time to study is their main difficulty. Another 40 per cent
indicated that disturbances by other members of the family during study time
at home are a disruption to their learning. About 28 per cent reported about
overcrowding in the home and no space for study while 25 per cent indicated
that poor light is a difficulty in their study, and 13 per cent reflected that the
lack of parental support is a barrier to their learning.
In relation to the difficulties faced at school, 48 per cent of the students
highlighted disturbances by other students in the classroom as a disruption to
their study. Nineteen per cent indicated the lack of textbooks while 15 per
cent reflected on the lack of stationery and library books while 8 per cent
showed that they do not understand the teacher well and another 8 per cent
indicated that they do not understand the English language well.
Regarding the status of teachers in the area studied, it was found that 96 per
cent of the Primary teachers were trained with 4 per cent not trained. All the
secondary teachers surveyed were trained teachers but with varying
qualifications: 52 per cent of the Primary teachers were certificate holders
while 48 per cent were Diploma holders. The majority of the secondary
teachers were graduates with 59 per cent while 29 per cent were Diploma
holders, and 12 per cent of the secondary teachers studied have completed
their Post graduate certificates.
80
In terms of the number of years of experience of the teachers surveyed, the
study found that the majority of the teachers were still on to their first five
years of service with 44 per cent for Primary teachers and 82 per cent for
secondary.
Regarding how teachers view their living quarters, the study found out that
45 per cent were satisfied with their quarters, while 43 per cent were not
satisfied. The other12 per cent of the teachers indicated that they were using
their own accommodation and travelling to school daily.
The study revealed that 79 per cent of the teachers surveyed mentioned that
school committees were very supportive in their schools while 21 per cent
showed otherwise.
In relation to parental support, 72 per cent of the primary teachers indicated
that parents are supportive while 28 per cent reported that parents are not so
supportive as expected. In secondary schools studied, the study revealed a
different reflection. A worrying 71 per cent showed that parents are not
supportive while 29 per cent reported otherwise. This disparity could be due
to the locality of the schools. As the Primary schools were closer to the
villages, it was easier for parents to attend to all school organized activities
and show support to the teachers and their students. The story could have
been different in the secondary schools as they are located far away from
their homes, which could have led to their absence from all school organized
activities. Being absent from these school activities can be interpreted as
showing no support to their children’s education.
The study showed that 60 per cent of the teachers are not satisfied with their
salary. They feel that they should be paid more because of the difficulty that
they face in trying to deliver their services to their best in these rural schools.
81
The study showed that parents show a lot of support when schools are located
closer to their village because the problem of transportation is acute in the rural
areas of Naitasiri, which are inaccessible by public transport.
6.4 Recommendations Based on the findings from this study, some suggestions are outlined to address the
challenges of the development of education in the rural areas of Fiji. These
suggestions are for the government and other government agencies such as the
Ministry of Education that are involved with the delivery of education in Fiji. These
suggestions are:
The government should assist in establishing more secondary schools in rural
areas to cater for students in villages that are far away from secondary
schools.
The Ministry of Education needs to increase its assistance to boarding
schools, especially in the rural areas.
The government should ensure that roads are constructed to reach out into
the very remote places so that students have easy access to schools.
The Ministry of Education should strengthen community awareness outreach
programmes especially in rural villages so that parents and stakeholders are
informed of their roles and responsibilities in the education of their children.
This should then be monitored from time to time to ensure that positive
changes take place.
The Ministry of Education should properly scrutinize teachers before they are
appointed as a school Head. Certain criteria should be prepared for this
position. A teacher should fulfil these criteria before being appointed as a
school leader whether in a primary or secondary school.
82
Currently, the number of minimum years of services of teachers in rural
schools is for three years which may be extended to five years for continuity
and effectiveness of rural education system.
The Ministry of Education should work with other ministries and relevant
authorities in improving infrastructure in rural areas.
An ongoing capacity building programme for school management should be
instituted regularly, followed up by close monitoring and close supervision.
The government should increase incentives for rural teachers in the form of
an allowance, which should be categorized depending on the locality of
schools. Teachers that teach in very remote and isolated schools that are
inaccessible by roads should receive a greater allowance.
The Ministry of Education should strengthen their supervision on the
performances of teachers in rural schools.
6.5 Future Research There is a need to undertake further in-depth study on the difficulties faced by
students and teachers at the schools especially in rural areas in Fiji. This will require
detailed assessments of current assistance given by the government in terms of
textbook, food voucher, transport, rural allowance, boarding allowance, salaries of
teachers and building and school improvement grants for infrastructure. More
studies are needed to explore whether these forms of government assistance are
making an impact for the retention of students and the development of education as
a whole.
The present study had limited time and resources for a detailed study of this nature
and a relatively narrow sample that may not necessitate for a wider generalization.
83
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APPENDICES
95
APPENDIX 1
QUESTIONNAIRE Confidentiality: The responses will be kept confidential and will be used for study purposes only. PART 1 – FOR STUDENTS 1. Which type of school do you attend? A. Primary B. Secondary 2. Which category applies to you? A. Boarder B. Day scholar 3. What class/form are you in? __________________ 3. How far is your home or hostel from the school? A. 1- 3km B. 4 – 6km C. 7 – 10km D. More than 10km 4. How do you travel to school? A. Walking B. Boat C. Horseback D. Carrier E. Bus F. Others 5. At what time do you leave home or hostel for school in the morning? ___________________________________________________________ 6. At what time do you reach home or hostel from school? ___________________________________________________________ 7. Do you face any difficulty in traveling to school? A. Yes B. No If ‘Yes’, what are your difficulties? i)._______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ ii).______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ iii).______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ iv).______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ v).______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 8. Do you understand your teachers well in the classroom? A. Yes B. No If your answer above is ‘No’, please list your difficulties in the classroom. i)._______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
96
ii).______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ iii).______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ iv).______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________v).______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 9. What are the Government assistance that you get? A. Transport / Busfare B. Textbook C. Others (Specify below) ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 10. List down all the difficulties you face for studying at home: i)._______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ ii).______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ iii).______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ iv).______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________v).__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 11. List down all the difficulties you face for studying at School: i)._______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ ii).______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ iii).______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ iv).______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________v).__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ PART 2 – FOR TEACHERS 1. Which school category do you teach in? A. Primary B. Secondary
97
2. Are you trained to teach in this category? A. Yes B. No 3. What qualification have you gained? A. Certificate B. Diploma C. Degree D. Post graduate 4. State your years of experience? A. 1- 5 years B. 6 – 10 years C. 11 – 15 years D. More than 15 years 5. Which applies to you? A. Temporary civil servant B. Contractual civil servant C. Contractual re-engagement D. Confirmed civil servant 6. What is your substantive level? e.g. ED5C – HOD/ ED5E- HT _________________________ 7. Are you satisfied with your living quarters? A. Yes B. No If your answer above is ‘No’, explain briefly why you are not satisfied. _________________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 8. Generally, what is the academic level of students in your school? A. Poor B. Satisfactory C. Good D. Above expectation 9. What can be done to further improve their level of achievement? ____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 10. How do you rate your school management? A. Not supportive B. Supportive If your answer above is ‘A’, what could be the reasons for this? _____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 11. How does the management raise funds for the school? ___________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 12. Are parents supportive in all school activities? A. Yes B. No If your answer above is ‘No’, explain briefly why this is so. _________________________________________________________________________
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__________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 13. How has government assistance this year benefited your school? These are assistance such as bus fare assistance, textbook assistance and increase in tuition fees through rural index. _______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 14. Are you satisfied with your salary? A. Yes B. No If your answer above is ‘No’, explain briefly why this is so. ____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ 15. In your view, what are the challenges of the development of education in your school and rural schools in Fiji generally? ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Thank you for your cooperation
