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R E FIELD SPORT

EDUCATING THAI DEMOCRACYChai-Anan Samudavanija

C h a i - A n a n S a m u d a v a n i j a , d i r e c to r o f t he I n s ti tu t e o f P u b l i c P o l i c yS t u d i e s i n B a n g k o k , i s a l so p ro f e s so r o f p o l i t i c a l s c i e n c e a n d a R o y a lS c h o l a r a t C h u l a l o n g k o rn U n i v e r s i t y . H e h a s w r i t t e n n u m e ro u s b o o k sa n d a r t i c l e s i n b o t h T h a i a n d E n g l i sh o n t h e p o l i t i c s a n d h i s t o ry o fT h a i la n d , a n d h a s b e e n a v i s it in g f e l l o w a t P r i n c e t o n U n i v e r s i t y ' sW o o d r o w W i l s o n S c h o o l o f P u b l i c a n d I n t e r n a t io n a l A f fa i rs . I n 1 9 8 6 , h ew a s re c o g n i ze d a s t h e n a t i o n ' s l e a d i n g re se a rc h e r i n p o l i t i c a l s c i e n c e b yt h e T h a i N a t i o n a l R e se a rc h C o u n c i l . H e h a s a l so h e l d a w i d e v a r i e t y o fg o v e rn m e n t p o s t s , s e rv i n g a s a m e m b e r o f t h e C o n s t it u t io n a l D ra f t i n gC o m m i t t e e i n 1 9 7 4 a n d a s a n a d v i so r t o t h e p r i m e m i n i s t e r in 1 9 8 0 -8 1 . H e w a s a p p o i n t e d t o t h e T h a i S e n a t e i n 1 9 8 9 .

S i n c e t h e b e g i n n i n g o f m y c a r e e r a s a p o li t ic a l s c i e n t is t i n T h a i l a n da l m o s t t w o d e c a d e s a g o , I h a v e p u r s u e d a p a r a l l e l c a r e e r a s a n a d v o c a t ea n d a c t i v is t o n b e h a l f o f re p r e s e n ta t iv e d e m o c r a c y a n d p a r t ic i p a t o ryp o l i t i c a l i n s t i t u t i o n s . A t o n e t i m e o r a n o t h e r I h a v e s e r v e d a s a l e a d e r o fs t u d e n t d e m o n s t r a t o r s , a n a d v i s o r t o p r i m e m i n i s t e r s , a d r a f t e r o fp r o p o s e d l a w s a n d c o n s t i t u t i o n s , a u n i v e r s i t y p r o f e s s o r , a n d - - m o r er e c e n t l y ~ i r e c t o r o f th e In s ti tu t e o f P u b l ic P o l i c y S tu d ie s, ap r o d e m o c r a t i c " t h i n k t a n k . " T h e s i n g l e t h e m e t h a t l i n k s t o g e t h e r a l l m yv a r i o u s t i t le s a n d j o b d e s c r i p t i o n s i s, I b e l i e v e , m y r o l e a s a c i v i ce d u c a t o r . T o e x p l a i n t o m y f e l l o w c i t i z e n s w h y t h e y s h o u l d w a n t t om a k e t h e i r c o u n t r y a d e m o c r a c y , a n d t o s h o w t h e m h o w i t c a n b e d o n e ,h a v e a l w a y s b e e n m y g o a l s .

Journal of Democracy Vo l.l, No .4 F all 1990

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Chai-Anan Samudavanija 105The t a sk ha s no t be e n s im p le , no t l e a s t be c a use the g r ound ha s o f t e n

g ive n wa y unde r m y f e e t . R e c e n t Tha i h i s to r y i s a s to r y o f swe e p ingt r a ns f o r m a t ions a nd d i z z y ing po l i t ic a l unc e r t a in ty . The l a t e 1950s a nd1960s us hered in a se r ies of rap id , fa r - reaching soc ia l and eco no m icc ha nge s whose e f f e c t s a r e s t i l l m a k ing the m se lve s s t r ong ly f e l t . Thee c o no m y e xp a nde d a t a c l ip o f a r ound 7 pe r c e n t a ye a r a s u r ba n iz a tiona nd indus t r i a l i z a t ion su r ge d , e spe c ia l ly in a nd a r ound the c a p i t a l o fB a ngkok . I m pr ove d pub l i c he a l th p r og r a m s we r e f o s t e r ing e xp los ivepopu la t ion g r owth ; f o r t he f i r s t t im e e ve r i n Tha i h i s to r y , ne w l a nd f o ra g r i c u l tu r e wa s r unn ing sho r t a nd the c oun t r ys ide wa s be c om ingc r owde d . I nc om e d i spa r i t i e s , m e a nwhi l e , we r e w ide n ing in wa ys a ppa r e n tto r i c h a nd poo r a l ike . M or e ove r , Tha i s we r e c om ing in to c lo se c on ta c tw i th the m o de r n W e s t i n t he f o r m o f t ou ri s ts , im po r t e d goods , a nd thethousa nds o f U .S . so ld i e r s s t a t ione d on Tha i so i l . I n v i e w o f t h i st r e m e ndous f e r m e n t , i t i s ha r d ly su r p r i s ing tha t ne w g r oups we r ee m e r g ing in Tha i soc i e ty , o r t ha t h i the r to m u te d de m a nds f o rpa r t i c ipa t ion we r e m oun t ing in vo lum e a nd in t e ns i ty .

Ye t t h r oughou t t he c ou r se o f t he se e ve n t f u l ye a r s , Tha i l a nd ' s po l i t i c a lsys t e m r e m a ine d sa d ly s t a gna n t . M i l i t a r y r u l e r s l i ke F ie ld M a r sha l S a r i tTha n a r a t ( p r im e m in i s t e r, 1958- 63 ) a nd h i s su c c e s so r F ie ld M a r sha lT h a n o m K i t t ik a c h o r n ( 1 9 6 3 - 7 3) m a i n ta i n e d o r d e r th r o u g h a c o m b i n a t i o no f b r ibe s , t h r e a t s , a nd c oe r c ion . P o te n t i a l oppone n t s be c a m e t a r ge t s o fin t im ida t ion o r supp r e s s ion , i n t e l l e c tua l s a nd bus ine s sm e n we r e c o - op te d ,a nd the m e d ia wa s sub je c t e d to s t a t e c on t r o l . P a t r ona ge a nd ou t r igh tc o r r up t ion we r e w ide sp r e a d . S uc h a n o s s i f i e d po l i t i c a l sys t e m c ou ld nolonge r m e e t e x i s t i ng ne e ds , l e t a lone those o f t he f u tu r e .

B e f o r e 1973, r a te s o f po l it i c a l pa rt i c ipa t ion w e r e ve r y low . N a t iona le l e c t ions w e r e he ld in t e r m i t t e n tly a nd tu r nou t w a s a lwa ys r e l a t ive ly l igh t .S uc h o r ga n iz e d in t e r e s t g r oups a s d id e x i s t we r e m a in ly c om m e r c ia l a ndt rade assoc ia t ions , a l l opera t ing under c lose of f ic ia l superv is ion . Groupsse e k ing to in f lue nc e pub l i c po l i c y in the in t e r e s t o f f a r m e r s a nd wor ke r swe r e a lm os t none x i s t e n t . A t t he sa m e t im e , howe ve r , a m u l t i t ude o fsubgr oups ba se d o n in t ri c a te ne twor ks o f pa t r ona ge c o u ld be f oundc lus t e r e d a r ound Tha i l a nd ' s powe r f u l s t a t e bu r e a uc r a c y . The se g r oupsc om pe te d f o r c on t r o l ove r l im i t e d budge t s a nd suc h luc r a tive bu r e a uc r a ti cfunc t ion s as the gran t ing of pub l ic cont rac ts , pe rm i ts , and l icenses . B igbus ine s s i n t e r e s t s , m e a nwhi l e , f o r m e d t igh t a l l i a nc e s w i th bu r e a uc r a t i cpo l i t i c i a ns , P e r va s ive c o r r up t ion e nsu r e d the tho r ough in t e r m ing l ing o fpe r sona l a nd g r oup in t e r e s t s .

A s tude n t - l e d up r i s ing in Oc tobe r 1973 topp le d P r im e M in i s t e rT h a n o m a n d l e d K i n g B h u m i b o l A d u l y a d e j , T h a i l a n d ' s c o n s t i t u t i o n a lm o n a r c h , t o n a m e S a n y a T h a m m a s a k , o n e - t i m e c h i e f j u s ti c e o f t h eS u p r e m e C o u r t a n d r e c t o r o f T h a m m a s a t U n i v e r s i ty , a s t h e n e w p r e m i er .Ope n po l i t i c s a nd de m oc r a t i c e xpe r im e n ta t ion ha d r e tu r ne d . The ne wd e m o c r a t i c r e g i m e , h o w e v e r , s u f f e r e d f r o m a n e x t r e m e l y l o w l e v e l o f

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106 Journal of Democracypo l i t ic a l i n s t it u t iona l i z a ti on , w h i l e t he " o pe n i ng up " o f po li t ic s s oo nr e s u l t e d i n a n ove r l oa d o f f r e s h de ma nds on t he s y s t e m.

A m o n g t h e m a n y n e c e s s i t i e s p r e s s i n g o n T h a i l a n d ' s p o l i t i c a l s y s t e mi n t he w a ke o f t he s t ude n t de mons t r a t i ons a nd t he mi l i t a r y ' s f a l l f r ompow e r , t w o s t ood ou t a s mos t c r i t i c a l . T he f i r s t w a s t he ne e d t or e s t r uc t u r e t he o l d po l i t i c a l a nd pa t r ona ge r e l a t i ons h i p s l e f t be h i nd by t heous t e d mi l i t a r y r u l e r s . S e c ond , t he c ons t i t u t i on , t he N a t i ona l A s s e mbl y ,a nd t he pa r t y s y s t e m- - t he i n s t i t u t i ona l gua r a n t o r s o f s t a b l ed e m o c r a c y - - w o u l d h a v e t o b e c o m p l e te l y r e fu r b is h ed . T h e s e t w opr ob l e ms , kno t t y i n t he ms e l ve s , w e r e a l s o i n t r i c a t e l y i n t e r t w i ne d . A s t hee uphor i a t ha t i mme d i a t e l y fo l l ow e d t he up r i s i ng be ga n t o s ubs i de , t hec ha l l e nge t he y pos e d be c a me ma n i f e s t i n a l l i t s t r ue i mme ns i t y .

D r a f t i n g a N e w C o n s t i t u t i o nI w a s 2 9 t h e n , a n a c a d e m i c g r e e n h o r n w h o h a d c o m e b a c k f r o m

gr a dua t e s c hoo l a t t he U n i ve r s i t y o f Wi s c ons i n j u s t i n t i me t o t a ke pa r ti n t he e ve n t s t ha t l e d t o t he s t ude n t uphe a va l o f O c t obe r 1973 . T heu p r is in g h a d b a r e l y e n d e d , i t se e m e d , b e f o r e I f o u n d m y s e l f n a m e d t ot he 1 8 - m e m be r c om m i t t e e t ha t w a s t o d r a f t a ne w c ons t it u t ion . I n m ys e ve r a l me e t i ngs w i t h P r i me M i n i s t e r S a ny a a t a r ound t h i s t i me , hee x p r e s s e d h i s c o n c e r n o v e r t h e p a s t l a c k o f d e m o c r a t i z a t i o n a n dr e c o m m e n d e d t h a t t h e d r a f t i n g a n d p r o m u l g a t i o n o f t h e n e w c o n s t i t u t i o n( w h i c h h e h a d p u b l i c l y p r o m i s e d w o u l d b e f i n i s h e d i n s i x m o n t h s ) b er e i n fo r c e d by a n u r ge n t d r i ve t o fo s t e r pub l i c a w a r e ne s s o f a ndpa r t i c i pa t i on i n t he po l i t i c a l p r oc e s s . T he goa l w a s t o e ns u r e t ha tT ha i l a nd c ou l d e f f e c t a s m oo t h t r a ns i ti on f r o m t he a u t ho r i t a r i a n i s m o f t hep a s t t o a n e w e r a o f f r e e d o m a n d d e m o c r a c y .

T he p r i me mi n i s t e r s pe c i f i c a l l y a s ke d a g r oup o f a c t i ve po l i t i c a ls c i e n t i s t s t o he l p h i m w i t h t h i s g r e a t t a s k ; i t w a s a nob l e - - a ndfo r m i da b l e - - - c h a l l e nge fo r u s a ll . A m on g t he Cons t i tu t i on D r a f t i ngCommi t t e e ' s f i r s t a c t s w a s t he e s t a b l i s hme n t o f a s e c r e t a r i a t a nd t h r e eope r a t i ona l s ubc ommi t t e e s ( de vo t e d t o r e s e a r c h , l e ga l d r a f t i ng , a nd pub l i cpa r t i c i pa t i on , r e s pe c t i ve l y ) . T he a i m w a s t o a c qu i r e mor e know l e dgea bou t va r i ous t y pe s o f e l e c t o r a l s y s t e ms , r e f e r e nda , a nd l oc a lgove r nme n t a l s t r uc t u r e s , a s w e l l a s t o g i ve t he pub l i c oppo r t un i t i e s t opa r t i c i pa t e i n p r e pa r i ng t he ne w c ons t i t u t i on . I be c a me t he s poke s ma n fo rt h e w h o l e c o m m i t t e e w h i l e s e r v i n g c o n c u r r e n t l y a s d e p u t y c h a i r m a n o ft h e s u b c o m m i t te e o n p u b li c p a r ti c ip a t io n . M y s u b c o m m i t t e e ' s c h a i r m a nw a s t h e e ld e r s t a t e s m a n M . R . K u k r i t P r a m o j , t h e p re s i d e n t o f th eN a t i o n a l A s s e m b l y .

T he Cons t i t u t i on D r a f t i ng Commi t t e e w a s t e d l i t t l e t i me , c ompl e t i ng i t se f f o rt s o n 8 J a n u a r y 1 97 4. T h e R e s e a r c h S u b c o m m i t t e e p r o d u c e d 1 2 0s t ud i e s a nd r e po r t s i n t h r e e mon t hs , w h i l e t he L e ga l D r a f t i ngS u b c o m m i t t e e w o r k e d o n a l t e r n a t i v e l a n g u a g e f o r v a r i o u s s e c t i o n s o f t h e

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Chai-Anan Samudavanija 107ne w c ons t i t u t i on . A s t he de pu t y c ha i r ma n o f t he P ub l i c P a r t i c i pa t i onS ubc ommi t t e e , I r e c e i ve d fu l l a u t ho r i t y f r om t he c ha i r ma n t o p l a n a ndi mp l e me n t i t s a c t i v i t i e s .

M y i n v o l v e m e n t i n t h i s a s s i g n m e n t t a u g h t m e t h e v a l u e o fpa r t i c i pa t i on t h r ough ne t w or k i ng . M y f i r s t move w a s t o e n l i s t t he s uppo r tn o t o n l y o f m e m b e r s o f t h e a c a d e m i c c o m m u n i t y , b u t o f b u s i n e s s a n dt h e m e d i a a s w e l l . A c a d e m i c s t h r o u g h o u t t h e c o u n t r y f o r m e d a n e t w o r kt ha t w e u s e d t o o r ga n i z e d i s c us s i on g r oups , s e mi na r s , e xh i b i t i ons , a ndf r e e w h e e l i n g p u b l i c d e b a t e s i n t h e s t y l e m a d e f a m o u s b y " S p e a k e r s 'C o m e r " i n L o n d o n ' s H y d e P a r k. W e i n v it ed a n u m b e r o f p r o m i n e n tj ou r na l i s t s a nd b r oa dc a s t e r s t o s e r ve on t he s ubc ommi t t e e a nd t a ke a na c t i ve pa r t i n pub l i c me e t i ngs a nd d i s c us s i ons . F i na l l y , I r e c r u i t e d ag r oup o f y oung , e ne r ge t i c a r t i s t s f r om t he w or l d o f p r i va t e a dve r t i s i ngt o c r e a t e e a s i l y unde r s t a nda b l e pos t e r s , pa mph l e t s , a nd s l i de p r og r a mse x p o u n d i n g t h e e s s e n t i a l s o f d e m o c r a c y .

F r om l a t e O c t obe r 1973 t o J a nua r y 1974 , I o r ga n i z e d mor e t ha n 120s e mi na r s , pa ne l d i s c us s i ons , a nd pub l i c me e t i ngs a l l ov e r T ha i l a nd . W hi l et he s e w e r e go i ng on , s ma l l t e a ms o f s t ude n t s w e r e t r a ve l i ng t he c oun t r yo n b e h a l f o f o u r s u b c o m m i t t e e c o m p i l in g l is ts o f p e o p l e ' s d e m a n d s ,g r i e va nc e s , a nd e xpe c t a t i ons . I n ma ny a r e a s , t he s t ude n t s ' s o l i c i t ous ne s st o w a r d t h e p e o p l e ' s c o n c e r n s r o u s e d t h e i r e o f l o c a l o f f i c i a l s . W e h a dbe c ome a t h r e a t t o t he e n t r e nc he d bu r e a uc r a t i c s y s t e m.W e h a d a l so b e c o m e a n e v e n m o r e d i r e c t t h r e at to e x t r e m i s t s o f b o t hl e f t a nd r i gh t . L e f t - l e a n i ng s t ude n t s a nd t he Communi s t P a r t y o f T ha i l a nd( CP T ) s a w us a s " r e fo r mi s t s " w hos e s uc c e s s a t i n s t i t u t i ona l i z i ng" b o u r g e o i s d e m o c r a c y " w o u l d d e a l a g r i e v o u s s e t b a c k t o t h er e vo l u t i ona r y c a us e . T he mi l i t a r y a nd i t s u l t r a c ons e r va t i ve s uppo r t e r s , ont h e o t h e r ha n d , s u s p e c te d u s o f b e i n g s t al k in g h o r s e s f o r c o m m u n i s m .O ur a t t e mp t s t o mob i l i z e t he ma s s e s , i t w a s t hough t , w e r e unde r t a ke ns o l e l y f o r t h e s a k e o f s u b j e c t i n g t h e m t o c o m m u n i s t s u b v e r s i o n .

A l t h o u g h a r o u s i n g e n m i t y w a s n o t o u r i n t e n t i o n , s o m e t i m e s w e h a dt o a c c e p t i t a s a n i ne v i t a b l e c ons e que nc e o f ou r p r o j e c t . T he t a s k w a s al ong - t e r m one , a nd c a l l e d fo r g r e a t pa t i e nc e . T he P ub l i c P a r t i c i pa t i onS ubc ommi t t e e a nd i t s w or k w e r e u t t e r l y w i t hou t p r e c e de n t i n t he h i s t o r yo f T ha i la nd . T he he a r i ngs w e he ld , t he d is c us s i ons w e s pons o r e d , a nd t hei n f o r m a t i o n w e d i s s e m i n a t e d w e r e h e l p i n g t o p r o d u c e s o m e t h i n g w h o l l yne w : t he c l o s e i nvo l ve me n t o f nume r ous o r d i na r y c i t i z e ns i n a na t i ona lpol i t i ca l i s sue .

O u r a c c e s s t o t h e m e d i a o f m a s s c o m m u n i c a t i o n s p r o v e d a g r e a t h e l p .P ub l i c me e t i ngs a nd pa ne l d i s c us s i ons w e r e b r oa dc a s t l i ve on r a d i o a ndt e l e v i s i on . A f t e r t he Cons t i t u t i on D r a f t i ng Commi t t e e f i n i s he d i t s d r a f t i nJ a nua r y 1974 , I w e n t on na t i ona l t e l e v i s i on w i t h P r i me M i n i s t e r S a ny a ,t h e d e p u t y p r i m e m i n i s t e r ( w h o s e r v e d e x - o f f i c i o a s c h a i r m a n o f t h ec o m m i t t e e ) , a n d M . R . K u k r i t P r a m o j t o r e p o r t t o th e p e o p l e o n i m p o r t a n tf e a t u r e s o f t he p r opos e d c ha r t e r .

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108 Journal of DemocracyI a ls o a s k e d m a j o r r a d io b r o a d c a s t e rs a n d n e w s p a p e r c o l u m n i s t s t o

i nv i t e t he pub l i c t o w r i t e t he D r a f t i ng Commi t t e e w i t h t he i r v i e w s . F r omN ove mbe r 1973 t o J a nua r y 1974 , w e r e c e i ve d a bou t 2 , 500 l e t t e r s , mos t l yf r om r u r a l a r e a s . A f t e r t he d r a f t c ons t i t u t i on ha d be e n c ompl e t e d a nds u b m i t t e d t o t h e N a t i o n a l A s s e m b l y , t h e D r a f t i n g C o m m i t t e e c h a i r m a npe r s ona l l y s i gne d l e t t e r s t ha nk i ng e ve r y l e t t e r - w r i t e r a nd s e n t e a c h o fthem a pr in ted copy of the dra f t cons t i tu t ion . I kep t these l e t t e r s , l a t e rp u b l i sh i n g s o m e o f t h e m w i th m y i n t r o d u c to r y r e m a r k s i n a b o o k e n t i tl e dV o ic e o f t h e P e o p le .

Ca r e fu l s t udy o f t he s e l e t te r s r e ve a l e d a s e r i ous p r o b l e m . F o r a l l t oom a n y T h a i s , c o n s t i t u t i o n a l i s m w a s o n l y a w o r d , a n a i r y c o n c e p t b e r e f to f a n y s u b s t a n t i v e s i g n i f i c a n c e . M o s t c o r r e s p o n d e n t s e x p r e s s e d v a g u eh o p e s t h a t t h e n e w c o n s t i tu t io n w o u l d s o m e h o w i m p r o v e th e i r l iv e l ih o o d .Yet the l e t t e r s a l so conta ined many s igns of in tense po l i t i ca l d i s t rus t . Ama j o r i t y c on fe s s e d t o ha v i ng mi xe d f e e l i ngs a bou t t he c ons t i t u t i on a ndde moc r a c y ; b i t t e r pa s t e xpe r i e nc e s w i t h po l i t i c i a ns , bu r e a uc r a t s , a nd o t he rs uc h " i n f l ue n t i a l pe r s on s " ha d l e f t t he m w i t h a s e ns e o f a l ie na t i on .N one t he l e s s , ma ny e xp r e s s e d a de s i r e t o pa r t i c i pa t e i n t he po l i t i c a lprocess desp i t e the i r f rus t ra t ions .

T he a c t i v i t i e s o f t he t h r e e s ubc ommi t t e e s t hus s t ood i n s t r ong c on t r a s tt o t he t r a d i t i ona l pa t t e r n , a c c o r d i ng t o w h i c h t he po l i t i c a l e l i t e r e ma i ne di n s u l a t e d f r o m p u b l i c o p i n i o n a n d p o p u l a r d e m a n d s . T h e r e s p o n s e o u rs ubc ommi t t e e s e l i c i t e d s how e d c l e a r l y t ha t t he r e w e r e s t r ong , a l be i tl a t e n t , de ma nds fo r po l i t i c a l pa r t i c i pa t i on i n T ha i s oc i e t y ; g i ve n t he r i gh to p p o r t u n i t y , t h e s e d e m a n d s c o u l d q u i c k l y b e c o m e a p o t e n t f o r c e f o rde moc r a t i z a t i on .

T he d r a f t c ons t i t u t i on o f 1974 w a s t he mos t l i be r a l po l i t i c a l c ha r t e rT ha i l a nd ha d e ve r s e e n . I t ge ne r a l l y r e f l e c t e d t he v i e w s o f t hep r o g r e s s i v e s w h o g a i n e d d r a m a t i c a l l y g r e a t e r a c c e s s t o p o w e r f o l l o w i n gt h e e v e n ts o f O c t o b e r 1 97 3. T h e d o c u m e n t c o v e r e d th e e n ti re g a m u t o fi n s t i t u t i ona l i s s ue s f a c i ng t he po l i t i c a l s y s t e m, r e mov i ng ma ny o f t hei n s t i t u t i ona l me c ha n i s ms t ha t t he a r me d fo r c e s a nd t he bu r e a uc r a c y ha dus e d t o domi na t e po l i t i c s f o r 40 y e a r s . I n a ma j o r i nnova t i on de s i gne dt o e f f e c t a s e pa r a t i on o f pow e r s , f o r i n s t a nc e , i t de c r e e d t ha t a ny mi l i t a r yo r c i v i l i a n o f f i c i a l e l e c t e d t o e i t he r hous e o f t he l e g i s l a t u r e ha d t o r e s i gnf r o m t h e e x e c u t i v e b r a n c h .

T h e n e w c h a r t e r f o r m e d a p r o m i s i n g b a s i s f o r t h e r e c o n s t r u c t i o n o fT ha i po l i t i c a l l i f e . M a ny o f i t s p r ov i s i ons , how e ve r , d i d no t s u r v i ves ubs e que n t r e v i e w by t he ne w , i nd i r e c t l y e l e c t e d N a t i ona l A s s e mbl y . I tw a s e v i d e n t t h a t t h e m o r e c o n s e r v a t i v e e l e m e n t s i n s o c i e t y h a d b e g u n t or e a s s e r t t he ms e l ve s a f t e r t he a be r r a t i on o f O c t obe r 1973 .

A l t hough I w a s a mong t he 299 de l e ga t e s e l e c t e d t o t he N a t i ona lA s s e m b l y , I w a s d i s q u a l i f i e d b e c a u s e I h a d n o t y e t r e a c h e d t h e m i n i m u ma ge o f 35 r e qu i r e d by t he 1968 c ons t i t u t i on t he n i n e f f e c t . U nda un t e d ,h o w e v e r , I r e s o l v e d t o c o n t i n u e t h e p r o d e m o c r a c y w o r k I h a d b e g u n w i t h

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Chai-Anan Samudavanija t09t he Cons t i t u t i on D r a f t i ng Commi t t e e by e s t a b l i s h i ng a L e g i s l a t i veI nnova t i on P r o j e c t . U s i ng a g r a n t f r om t he F o r d F ounda t i on , I r e c r u i t e d12 g r a dua t e s t ude n t s t o w or k a l ong w i t h me a s l e g i s l a t i ve s t a f f e r s f o r t hem e m b e r s o f t h e N a t i o n a l A s s e m b l y . W e m a d e i t o u r m i s s i o n t o s u p p l yt he m w i t h i n fo r ma t i on ne c e s s a r y fo r t he c ons i de r a t i on o f ma j o r b i l l s .

A t t he s a me t i me , I w a s a ppo i n t e d t o a c t a s s e c r e t a r y t o t heL e g i s l a t i v e R e f o r m C o m m i t t e e , a n d m y u n i v e r s i t y s e c o n d e d m e t o t h eS e c r e t a r i a t o f t he N a t i ona l A s s e mbl y . M y j ob t he r e w a s t o e s t a b l i s hl e g i s l a t i ve r e f e r e nc e a nd r e s e a r c h d i v i s i ons fo r t he S e c r e t a r i a t , w h i c h i n1974 ha d no s uc h d i v i s i ons a nd r e s t r i c t e d i t s e l f t o a dmi n i s t r a t i ve du t i e sc o n n e c t e d w i t h c h a m b e r b u s i n e s s .

I pe r s ua de d a bou t t e n o t he r pe op l e f r om un i ve r s i t i e s a nd o t he rg o v e r n m e n t d e p a r t m e n t s t o w o r k w i t h m e . W i t h t h e h e l p o f t h e p r i m em i n i s t e r , w e m a n a g e d t o s e c u r e m o r e t h a n a h u n d r e d n e w p o s i t i o n s a n da muc h l a r ge r budge t f o r t he S e c r e t a r i a t . D ur i ng t he l a t t e r ha l f o f 1974 ,a r e o r ga n i z a t i on de c r e e w a s p r omul ga t e d t ha t o f f i c i a l l y e s t a b l i s he d t hen e w r e f e r e n c e a n d r e s e a r ch d i v i s io n s . I n N o v e m b e r , h o w e v e r , o u r h o p e f u lp l a n s w e r e d a s h ed . T h e p r e s id e n t o f t h e N a t i o n a l A s s e m b l y , g i v i n g w a yb e f o r e i n t e n s e p r e s s u r e f r o m m i l i t a r y f o e s o f r e f o r m , d i s m i s s e d m e a n dm y s t a f f f r o m t h e S e c r e t a ri a t. M y 1 8 - m o n t h - l o n g e f f o r t t o c r e a t e a v i a b l es uppo r t s y s t e m fo r na s c e n t de moc r a t i c i n s t i t u t i ons w a s a t a n e nd .

A C o u p a n d I t s A f t e r m a t hI n O c t ob e r 1976 , a y e a r a f t e r t he ne w c on s t it u t i on w a s p r om ul ga t e d ,

t he mi l i t a r y s t a ge d t he b l ood i e s t c oup d ' e t a t i n T ha i h i s t o r y . H undr e dso f s t ude n t s w e r e k i l l ed ; m or e t ha n t w o t hous a n d o t he r s f le d t o j o i n t heC o m m u n i s t s . B y t h a t t i m e I h a d b e c o m e t o t a l l y d i s i l l u s i o n e d w i t h t h ew ho l e po l i t i c a l s y s t e m, a nd l e f t t he c oun t r y t o be c ome a v i s i t i ng f e l l owa t P r i n c e to n U n i v e r s i t y ' s W o o d r o w W i l so n S c h o o l o f P u b l ic a n dI n t e r na t i ona l A f f a i r s . T he r e I c onc e n t r a t e d on s c ho l a r l y w or k . M y bookP o l i t i c a l Co n f l i c t i n Th a i la n d , c o a u t h o r e d w i t h m y g o o d f r i e n d a n dP r i nc e t on c o l l e a gue D a v i d M or e l l , da t e s f r om t ha t pe r i od .

F o r t he t h r e e y e a r s f o l l ow i ng t he O c t obe r 1976 c oup , T ha i s oc i e t yw a s s e ve r e l y po l a r i z e d i n t o l e f t- w i ng a nd r i gh t - w i ng f a c t i ons . N e i t he r theg o v e r n m e n t n o r a n y o t h e r i m p o r t a n t o r g a n i z a t i o n s h o w e d a n y s e r i o u si n t e r e s t i n de moc r a t i c r e fo r m. T he on l y one s t o be ne f i t f r om t h i sp o l a r i z a t i o n w e r e t h e C o m m u n i s t s . L i b e r a l d e m o c r a t s , o n t h e o t h e r h a n d ,f o u n d t h e i r r a n k s t h i n n e d b y d e f e c t i o n s f r o m t h e c e n t e r - l e f t , m a n y o fw h o s e m e m b e r s e i t h e r b e c a m e r a d i c a l i z e d a n d f l e d t o j o i n t h eC o m m u n i s t c a d r e s i n t h e c o u n t r y s i d e , o r s u c c u m b e d t o p a r a l y z i n gd i s i l l u s i o n m e n t a n d n u m b i n g c y n i c i s m a b o u t e v e r y t h i n g c o n n e c t e d w i t hthe s ta te .

I n M a r c h 1 9 8 0 , a n e w g o v e r n m e n t l e d b y G e n e r a l P r e m T i n s u l a n o n dc a m e t o p o w e r w i t h t h e h e l p o f y o u n g e r a r m y o f f i c e r s . T h e P r e m

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110 Journal of Democracya dmi n i s t r a t i on s how e d a ge nu i ne de s i r e t o he a l t he w ounds i n f l i c t e d byt he 1976 c oup . I my s e l f w a s a ppo i n t e d a n a dv i s o r t o the p r i me m i n i st e r .W e t o o k a s o n e o f o u r m a i n t a s k s t h e r e e s t a b l i s h m e n t o f d e m o c r a t i cgov e r nm e n t . U s i ng l e s s ons l e a r ne d f r om t he 1970s, t he mi l i t a r y o f f i c e r sa nd t he t e c hnoc r a t s f o r ge d a mor e mode r a t e c ons t i t u t i on p r ov i d i ng fo r anone l e c t e d p r i m e mi n i st e r . F r om 1980 t o 1988, t he t e c hnoc r a t s ru l e d t hec oun t r y , c r e a t i ng po l i t i c a l s t a b i l i t y a nd fo s t e r i ng unp r e c e de n t e d e c onomi cg r o w t h .

I gno r i ng p l e a s t o s t a y on , I r e s i gne d my a dv i s o r ' s pos t i n 1981 . I l e f tb e c a u s e I s a w t h a t w h a t w a s b e i n g c r e a t e d u n d e r P r e m w a s a ne n t r e n c h e d t e c h n o c r a ti c p o l i t y r a th e r t h a n t h e d e m o c r a c y o f m y h o p e s .G o v e r n m e n t r e m a i n e d s t a b l e , t o b e s u r e , b u t o n l y a t t h e p r i c e o f ac ons c i ou s e f fo r t t o de po l i ti c i z e e ve r y i m por t a n t de c i s i on . By 1987 , t heg o v e r n m e n t w a s c o m i n g u n d e r s e v e r e c r i t i c i s m f o r b e i n g t o o c o n c e r n e dw i t h s t r e ng t he n i ng t he p r i va t e bus i ne s s s e c t o r a t the e xp e ns e o f t he va s tm a j o r i t y o f t h e p e o p l e . T h e r e w a s n o s y s t e m a t i c e f f o r t e v e n a ta dmi n i s t r a t i ve de c e n t r a l i z a t i on , l e t a l one de moc r a t i z a t i on . T he H ous e o fR e p r e s e n t a t i v e s , t h e o n l y e l e c t e d b o d y i n o u r g o v e r n m e n t , w a so v e r s h a d o w e d b y t h e a p p o i n t e d S e n a t e a n d b y t h e p r i m e m i n i s t e r a n d h i smi l i t a ry a l l i e s .

A f t e r I r e s i g n e d f r o m t h e p r i m e m i n i s t e r ' s a d v i s o r y g r o u p , I d e c i d e dt o g i ve de moc r a t i c a c t i v i s m y e t a no t he r t r y . I n 1984 , w i t h fund i ng f r omt he K o n r a d A d e n a u e r F o u n d a t i o n o f W e s t G e r m a n y , I f o u n d e d t h eI ns t it u t e o f P ub l i c P o l i c y S t ud i e s, a nong ove r nm e n t a l bo dy de d i c a t e d t ot h e c i v i c e d u c a t i o n o f t h e T h a i p e o p l e . T h e s i z e a n d c o m p l e x i t y o f t h et a s k w e r e i m m e n s e ; t h e r e c o u l d b e n o h o p e o f a c c o m p l i s h i n g i t w i t h o u tb o t h a w e l l- i n te g r a t ed p a c k a g e o f p r o g r a m s a n d a n a t i o n w i d e n e t w o r kt h r ough w h i c h t o d i s s e mi na t e t he m.

T h e I n s t i t u t e o f P u b l i c P o l i c y S t u d i e sT he I n s t it u t e i t s e lf ha s a f u l l - t i me s t a f f o f on l y s i x pe op l e ; i t s d i r e c to r

a nd p r og r a m d i r e c t o r s a r e pa r t - t i me . N one t he l e s s , i t h a s t i e s w i t h a l l o fT h a i l a n d ' s m a j o r u n i v e r si ti e s a n d t e a c h e r s ' c o l le g e s ; p r o v i n c ia l s e c o n d a r ys c h o o l s , c o u n c i l l o r s , m a y o r s , a n d c h a m b e r s o f c o m m e r c e ; a n dnongove r nme n t a l o r ga n i z a t i ons a l l ove r t he c oun t r y . T he I n s t i t u t e a l s ow or ks c l o s e l y w i t h a l l t he s t a nd i ng c ommi t t e e s o f t he N a t i ona l A s s e mbl y ,a nd c oope r a t e s w i t h bo t h t he A s s e mbl y S e c r e t a r i a t a nd t he S e c r e t a r i a t o ft he C a b i ne t i n a num be r o f j o i n t a c t i v it ie s .

T he I n s t i t u t e w or ks t o b r i ng t oge t he r pub l i c o f f i c i a l s , pa r l i a me n t a r i a ns ,s c ho l a r s , a nd t he ge ne r a l pub l i c w i t h t he goa l o f f o s t e r i ng a nds t r e ng t he n i ng pa r t i c i pa t o r y i n s t i t u t i ons i n T ha i s oc i e t y . I t s e r ve s t h i sge ne r a l goa l by pu r s u i ng f i ve mor e pa r t i c u l a r ob j e c t i ve s :

9 T o i de n t i fy s i gn i f i c a n t s oc i a l a nd e c onomi c i s s ue s , a nd t o e nc ou r a gea nd s uppo r t r e s e a r c h on t he s e ma t t e r s .

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Chai-Anan Samudavanija 11 l9 T o p r o m o t e c o n t a c t a n d c o o p e r a t i o n a m o n g a c a d e m i cs , e l e c t e d

o f f i c i a l s , c iv i l s e r va n t s , t he m e d ia , a nd o the r c onc e r ne d g r oups a ndind iv idua l s f o r t he inde pe nde n t s tudy o f pub l i c po l i c y i s sue s a f f e c t ingT h a i l a n d ' s e c o n o m i c d e v e l o p m e n t a n d p o p u l a r p a r t i c i p a t i o n i ng o v e r n m e n t .

9 To o r g a n iz e t ra in ing p r og r a m s , c on f e r e nc e s , wor kshops , a nd se m ina r sf o r m e m be r s o f na t iona l , p r ov inc ia l , a nd loc a l r e p r e se n ta t ive bod ie s .

9 To inc r e a se kno wle d ge c onc e r n ing the ge ne r a l p r inc ip l e s o fde m oc r a c y , a nd c onc e r n ing the l e g i s l a t ive a nd a dm in i s t r a t ive p r oc e s se so f T h a i l a n d ' s e m e r g i n g d e m o c r a ti c s y s te m .

9 To f o s t e r the e xc ha ng e o f i n f o r m a t ion , i de a s, a nd e xpe r i e nc e sc o n c e r n i n g e c o n o m i c d e v e l o p m e n t a n d d e m o c r a t i z a t i o n a m o n g s c h o l a r sa nd de c i s ion m a ke r s i n a l l t he c oun t r i e s o f S ou the a s t As ia . Th i s i nc lude sthe e nc our a ge m e n t a nd suppor t o f e xc ha nge s w i th o the r S ou the a s t As ia nsc ho la r s , a s we l l a s w i th r e se a r c he r s f r om the Un i t e s S ta t e s , C a na da ,We s te r n Eur ope , Aus t r a l i a , a nd Ne w Ze a la nd .

The I n s t i t u t e de f ine s i t s r o l e a s a m e d ia to r i n t he ne twor k o f po l i t i c a leduca t ion . I t i s s t r ic t ly nonpar t i san , and never a t tempts to in te r fe re in anyde c i s ion - m a k ing p r oc e ss . I t a im s on ly to p r ov ide r e l e va n t i n f o r m a t iona nd po l i c y op t ions to c onc e r ne d pa r t i e s a t a l l l e ve l s o f gove r nm e n t a ndc iv i l soc i e ty . I t s e e ks to m a r sha l i n t e l l e c tua l r e sou r c e s f r om va r ioussc ho la r ly d isc ip l ine s a nd pa r ts o f t he pub l i c a nd p r iva t e s e c to rs i n o r de rto e n r i c h r e f l e c t ion a nd in f o r m de ba te a bou t t he v i t a l que s t ions o f t heda y .

The I n s t i t u t e ha s c on t inuous ly m a in ta ine d f ive m a jo r p r og r a m s s inc e1984. These are : 1) the Parliamentary Newspaper, 2 ) t h e " M P s 'D ia logue " p r og r a m , 3 ) pub l i c a t ions , 4 ) t he " P ub l i c P o l i c y Thr oughR a d io" p r og r a m , a nd 5 ) s e m ina r s a nd wor kshops .Parliamentary Newspaper

T h e Parliamentary Newspaper i s a m on th ly pub l i c a t ion w i th ac i r c u la t ion o f ove r 20 ,000 c op ie s pe r i s sue . I t i s d i s t r ibu te d f r e e tom e m b e r s o f t h e N a t io n a l A s s e m b l y , m e m b e r s o f t h e S o c ia l S c i e n c eAssoc ia t ion , t e a c he r s ' c o l l e ge s , a nd m a jo r s e c onda r y sc hoo l s a l l ove r t hec o u n t r y . T h e p a p e r g i v e s e q u a l c o v e r a g e t o g o v e r n m e n t a n d o p p o s i t i o npar t ie s . I t covers leg is la t ive ac t iv i t ie s , and ca r r ies in te rv iews wi th MPs;r e po r t s o f l e g i s l a t ive c om m i t t e e s , l e g i s l a t ive c on f e r e nc e s , s e m ina r s , a ndwor kshops ( e spe c ia l ly those o r ga n iz e d by the I n s t i t u t e ) ; a nd f e a tu r e sa r t i c l e s on the l e g i s l a t ive sys t e m s , c om m i t t e e sys t e m s , a nd l e ga l a ndc ons t i t u t iona l sys t e m s o f o the r de m oc r a c ie s ."MPs' Dialogue" Program

The I n s t i t u t e , w i th the c oope r a t ion o f t he S e c r e t a r i a t o f t he Na t iona lA s s e m b l y , s p o n s o r s a n " M P s ' D i a l o g u e " p r o g r a m i n v o l v i n g p a n e ld iscuss ions and lec tures a t va r ious provinc ia l un ivers i t ie s , co l leges , and

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112 Journal of Democracys e c ond a r y s c hoo l s . I n s ti t u te po l i c y r e qu i r e s tha t me m be r s o f pa r l i a m e n tw ho pa r t i c i pa t e i n t he p r og r a m mus t no t s pe a k a t pa ne l s he l d i n t he i rhome p r ov i nc e s o r e l e c t o r a l c ons t i t ue nc i e s . T h i s i s a ve r y i mpor t a n tme a s u r e , f o r i t gua r a n t e e s t he I n s t i t u t e ' s s t r i c t l y nonpa r t i s a n s t a nc e .I n i t ia t e d in 1987, t h i s p r o g r a m h a s ga i ne d t r e me ndou s r e c ogn i t i on a nds u p p o r t f r o m e v e r y p o l i t i c a l p a r t y . P r o m i n e n t m e m b e r s o f g o v e r n m e n ta nd oppos i t i on pa r t i e s a l i ke ha ve pa r t i c i pa t e d . I n ke e p i ng w i t h t he p l a no f t he I n s t i t u t e , t he P ub l i c Re l a t i ons D i v i s i on o f t he S e c r e t a r i a t o f t heN a t i ona l A s s e mbl y ha s be e n t r a i ne d t o r un t h i s p r og r a m, a t a s k i t w i l la s sume by 1992 a t the l a t es t .Publications

T he I n s t i t u t e ' s pub l i c a t ions c ov e r a b r oa d r a nge o f t op i c s i nc l ud ingr u r a l de ve l opme n t , pub l i c a dmi n i s t r a t i on , na t i ona l - l e ve l de c i s i on ma k i ng ,t r a de po l i c y , t he e nv i r onme n t , a nd e l e c t o r a l i s s ue s . T o da t e , t he I n s t i t u t eha s g r oupe d i t s pub l i c a t i ons i n t o t h r e e s e r i e s : " A c a de mi c D oc ume n t s , "" A m e n d m e n t s o f L a w s f o r D e v e l o p m e n t ," a n d " R e s e a rc h a n d I n f o r m a t io non P ub l i c P o l i c y . " T h i s y e a r a ne w s e r i e s w i l l a ppe a r de d i c a t e d t o" E l e c t o r a l P o l i t i c s . " T he a dd i t i on i s t i me l y , f o r e l e c t i on c a mpa i gn i ng ,e l e c t i on f i na nc i ng , a nd t he ge ne r a l w or k i ngs o f t he e l e c t o r a l s y s t e m ha vebe c ome ma j o r c ons t i t u t i ona l a s w e l l a s s oc i a l a nd po l i t i c a l i s s ue s ."Public Policy Through Radio" Program

T h i s p r o g r a m , w h i c h s e e k s t o p r o v i d e e x p e r t p o l i t i c a l c o m m e n t a r y i na w i de l y a c c e s s i b l e ma nne r , ha s be c ome ve r y popu l a r s i nc e i t f i r s t w e n to n t h e a ir in 1 98 7. M e m b e r s o f th e N a t i o n a l A s s e m b l y , p r o m i n e n t p u b l i cf i gu r e s , a nd bus i ne s s me n a r e i nv i t e d t o s pe a k o r be i n t e r v i e w e d fo r ape r i od o f 50 mi nu t e s . T he s how a i r s na t i onw i de e ve r y S a t u r da y . T a pe sa nd t r a ns c r i p t s a r e ma de r e a d i l y a va i l a b l e .Seminars and WorkshopsT h e c o m m i t t e e s o f t h e N a t i o n a l A s s e m b l y h a d n o t r a d i t i o n o fo r ga n i z i ng he a r i ngs t o s e e k op i n i ons a nd i n fo r ma t i on un t i l t he I n s t i t u t ei n i ti a te d t he f ir s t s e mi na r on t he i s sue o f c opy r i gh t s a t the A s s e m bl y i n1987 . I n t he pa s t , a l t hough va r i ous l e g i s l a t i ve c ommi t t e e s ha d t r i e d t oc a l l c i v i l s e r va n t s t o t e s t i f y , mos t w e r e r e l uc t a n t t o c ome a nd u s ua l l ysen t low- leve l o f f i c i a l s ins tead . S ince the re i s no such th ing as ac o n t e m p t o f p a r l i a m e n t p r o v i s i o n , l e g i s l a t i v e c o m m i t t e e m e e t i n g s i nT ha i l a nd w e r e , un t i l r e c e n t l y , c l o s e d - doo r de l i be r a t i ons on b i l l s a mongM P s . T he I n s t i t u t e s t a r t e d a nd e nc ou r a ge d s e mi na r s a nd w or ks hops ,in i t i a l ly he ld ou t s ide the Assembly . S ince 1987 , however , the Ins t i tu teha s be e n a b l e t o o r ga n i z e i t s s e mi na r s a nd w or ks hops i n c oope r a t i on w i t hva r i ous l e g i s l a t i ve c ommi t t e e s . T he s e mi na r s a nd c on fe r e nc e s a r e a t t e nde dby M P s , s e na t o r s , a c a de mi c s , bus i ne s s me n , c onc e r ne d i n t e r e s t g r oups , a ndt he me d i a .

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Chai-Anan Samudavanija 113I n e a r ly 1989 the I n s t i tu t e , t h r ough the go od o f f i c e s o f t he H ouse

Af f a i r s C om m i t t e e o f t he House o f R e pr e se n ta t ive s , i n i t i a t e d the f i r s tP a r l i a m e n t a r y D e v e l o p m e n t P l a n . U n a n i m o u s l y a c c e p t e d a f t e r l e n g t h yle g i s l a t ive de ba te in m id - 1989 , t he p l a n se t s t he f r a m e wor k f o rde m oc r a t i c i n s t i t u t ion bu i ld ing a nd f o r t he f i r s t t im e g ive s the Na t iona lA s s e m b l y a l e a d in g r o l e to p l a y i n th e p r o m o t i o n o f T h a i d e m o c r a c y .The p l a n c a l l s f o r t he Asse m bly a nd i t s S e c r e t a r i a t t o p r opa ga ted e m o c r a c y t h r o u g h v a r i o u s m e a n s , i n c lu d i n g t h e o p e r a t i o n o f a r a d i os t a t ion a nd the c onduc t o f r e se a r c h a nd de ve lopm e n t p r og r a m s .

L e s s o n s L e a r n e d

M y e x p e r i e n c e s i n s e e k i n g t o s t r e n g t h e n p a r l i a m e n t a r y d e m o c r a c yha ve t a ugh t m e se ve r a l im por t a n t l e s sons . The f i r s t o f t he se i s t heim por t a nc e o f d i s in t e r e s t e dne ss a nd nonpa r t i s a nsh ip . Tha i l a nd i s r i ve nwi th c om pe t ing f a c t ions a nd po l i t i c a l pa r t i e s ; i t i s t he r e f o r e e s se n t i a l f o rm e to s t r e s s t ha t I a nd m y wor k w i l l no t be ne f i t a ny pa r t i c u la r pa r ty , bu tw i l l be u se f u l t o the l e g i s l a tive de ve lo pm e n t p r oc e s s a s a w ho le .

S im i l a r ly , i t i s v i t a l t o a vo id unne c e ssa r y o r p r e m a tu r e invo lve m e n tin a ny o f t he h igh ly c on t r ove r s i a l i s sue s be f o r e the Na t iona l Asse m bly ,s inc e suc h inv o lve m e n t c a n on ly im pe de the l a r ge r goa l o f s tr e ng the n ingthe de m oc r a t i c p r oc e s s i t s e l f .Th i r d , ne twor k ing ha s be e n the ke y tha t ha s e na b le d m e to ge ts ign i f i c a n t r e su l t s w i th a shoe s t r ing budge t a nd a ske le ton s t a f f . M y ownr e sou r c e s a r e s l im , so I m us t s e e k a s m uc h suppor t a s poss ib l e f r omothe r o r ga n iz a t ions , bo th pub l i c a nd p r iva t e .

F our th , I ha ve l e a r ne d tha t I m us t f i r m ly e s t a b l i sh m y own c r e de n t i a l sa s a l i be ra l de m o c r a t i n o r de r t o d i s ti ngu i sh m yse l f f r om ther e vo lu t ion a r y soc ia l is t s . Th i s l e s son wa s l e a r ne d the ha r d w a y , a t t he c os to f m u c h m i s u n d e r s t a n d i n g f r o m c o n s e r v a t i v e g r o u p s t o w h o m t h ed i s t inc t ion be twe e n r e f o r m e r s a nd r e vo lu t iona r i e s wa s no t a lwa ys c l e a r .Us ing the se l e s sons , I g r a dua l ly bu i l t up the " P ub l i c P o l i c y P r og r a m "wi th a s s i s t a nc e f r om a num be r o f c o l l e a gue s a nd s tude n t s . I c hose to c a l li t a " pub l i c po l i c y" p r og r a m be c a use the p r og r a m i s c onduc te d unde r t hea usp ic e s o f t he S oc ia l S c i e n c e Assoc ia t ion o f Tha i l a nd , a nd the r e is al a w p r oh ib i t i ng a s soc ia t ions f r om be ing invo lve d in " po l i t i c a l " a c t iv i t i e s .S inc e I go d i r e c t ly to l e g i s l a t ive c om m i t t e e s in s t e a d o f t o po l i t i c a lpa r t ie s , I could de fend our ac t iv i t ie s a s pa r t and parce l of the leg is la t iveprocess i t se l f .

Af t e r f i ve ye a r s o f pa t i e nc e a nd low- p r o f i l e ge s tu r e s , I a c c e p te d theo f f e r o f t h e c h a i rm a n o f t h e H o u s e A f f ai r s C o m m i t te e t o b e t h eC om m i t t e e ' s e xpe r t . I a l so a c c e p te d the p r im e m in i s t e r ' s nom ina t ion tothe S e na te in Apr i l 1989 .

M y f o r m a l i n s t i t u t iona l l i nka ge s w i th bo th the e l e c t e d House o fR e pr e se n ta t ive s a nd the a ppo in te d S e na te ha ve be e n t r e m e ndous a s se t s

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114 Journal of Democracyf o r m e . I h a v e b e e n a b l e t o w o r k " w i t h i n t h e s y s t e m " w h i l e m a i n t a i n i n gve r y s t r ong l i nks ou t s i de i t , w i t h a c a de mi a a nd nongove r nme n t a lo r ga n i z a t i ons . M y e f fo r t s a r e a l s o me e t i ng w i t h mor e unde r s t a nd i ng a nda pp r e c i a t i on a s bo t h t he mi l i t a r y a nd t he ge ne r a l pub l i c ga i n a c l e a r e rp i c t u r e o f t he ge nu i ne l y de moc r a t i c f o r c e s ope r a t i ng i nde pe nde n t l y i nsoc ie ty .

D e s p i t e t h i s c ha nge o f a t t i t ude , t he S e c r e t a r i a t o f t he N a t i ona lA s s e mbl y i s s t i l l a ma j o r obs t a c l e t o l e g i s l a t i ve de ve l opme n t . T hepo l i t ic a l c on f l i c t a nd i n s ta b i l it y t ha t ha ve p r e do m i na t e d ov e r the pa s td e c a d e h a v e m a d e A s s e m b l y s t a f fe r s in d i f fe r e n t to t h e p o l i c y - m a k i n g r o leo f t he l e g i s l a t u r e . T he y ha ve g r a dua l l y de ve l ope d a de e p - r oo t e d be l i e ft ha t t he i r c h i e f f unc t i on i s t o p r ov i de e f f i c i e n t s uppo r t , c h i e f l y i n t hefo r m o f c l e r i c a l a s s i s t a nc e , f o r c ha mbe r a c t i v i t i e s . S i nc e t he l e g i s l a t i vep r o c e s s i n T h a i l a n d h a s a l w a y s b e e n m o r e a m a t t e r o f s y m b o l t h a ns ubs t a nc e , A s s e mbl y s t a f f e r s o f t e n do no t s e ns e a ny ne e d t o do mor e .L e g i s l a t i v e c o m m i t t e e s a r e m o v i n g t o w a r d g r e a t e r r o l e s i n p o l i c yc ons i de r a t i on , bu t ve r y s l ow l y . I n t he me a n t i me , mos t i nd i v i dua lme mbe r s s t i l l r e l y on t he bu r e a uc r a c y fo r i n fo r ma t i on .

M a ny s e n i o r s t a f f e r s , t he ms e l ve s fo r me r c l e r k s , a r e a t t a c he d t o t he o l di n s t i t u t i ona l c u l t u r e o f t he A s s e mbl y a nd r e ma i n a n t a gon i s t i c t ow a r d t hene w L e g i s l a t i ve Re fe r e nc e a nd Re s e a r c h S e c t i ons . T he o l d gua r d s e e sl e g i s l a t i ve de ve l opme n t no t on l y a s a t h r e a t t o e s t a b l i s he d r ou t i ne s , bu tt o t he e s t a b l i s he d d i s t r i bu t i on o f pow e r a s w e l l . T he ne w l y e s t a b l i s he di n fo r ma t i on a nd r e s e a r c h b r a nc he s , i t i s f e a r e d , w i l l qu i c k l y ove r s ha dowthe res t o f the Secre ta r i a t .

T he s e c ons t r a i n t s ha ve ke p t my e f fo r t s f r om be i ng a s f r u i t f u l a s I ha dhope d t he y w ou l d be . Y e t a c ombi na t i on o f a l e r t ne s s , s e ns i t i v i t y , a ndf l e x i b i l i t y ha ve s e c u r e d a de g r e e o f s uc c e s s fo r t he I n s t i t u t e ' sunde r t a k i ngs . Ce r t a i n l y t he I n s t i t u t e ' s pos i t i on ou t s i de bo t h t hebu r e a uc r a c y a nd t he l e g i s l a t u r e ha s be e n a he l p . We ma i n t a i n a na pp r op r i a t e d i s t a nc e f r om t he S e c r e t a r i a t a nd c on t i nue t o w or k t h r ought he c ommi t t e e s . A t t he s a me t i me , how e ve r , ou r i n t e n t i on i s no t t od i s p l a c e t he S e c r e t a r i a t bu t t o t r a i n i t t o pe r fo r m t he k i nds o fs oph i s t i c a t e d l e g i s l a t i ve s e r v i c e s t ha t t he I n s t i t u t e ha s be e n pe r fo r mi ngover the pas t s ix yea rs . We seek to ins t i tu t iona l i ze the Ins t i tu te ' sp r og r a m, bu t no t t he I n s t i t u t e i t s e l f . T he S e c r e t a r i a t mus t r e ma i n , e ve nw h i l e i t s i n s t i t u t i ona l be ha v i o r mus t c ha nge .

Problems of Legit imacyRe pr e s e n t a t i ve de moc r a c y i n T ha i l a nd ha s y e t t o be i n s t i t u t i ona l i z e d .

I n a c o u n t r y w h e r e m i l i t a r y a n d c i v i l i a n b u r e a u c r a c i e s h a v e d o m i n a t e dpo l i t i c s f o r s o l ong , t he r e i s w i de s p r e a d c on t e mp t fo r t he e l e c t e dl e g i s l a t u r e . P r e s s u r e a nd i n t e r e s t g r oups a t a l l l e ve l s by pa s s pa r t i c i pa t o r yins t i tu t ions l ike pa r t i e s and the Na t iona l Assembly , a r t i cu la t ing the i r

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Chai-Anan Samudavanija 115de ma nds t h r ough t he e xe c u t i ve b r a nc h i n s t e a d . T he l e g i s l a t i ve b r a nc hr e ma i ns f a r f r om t he c e n t e r o f po l i t i c s .

U nde r t he s e i na us p i c i ous c i r c ums t a nc e s , pa r t i c i pa t o r y i n s t i t u t i ons ne e dc ons t a n t f i na nc i a l a nd t e c hn i c a l s uppo r t . A s pa r l i a me n t a r y de moc r a c yd e v e l o p s a n d p o w e r i s g r a d u a l l y t r a n s f e r r e d f r o m m i l i t a r y m e n a n dt e c hnoc r a t s t o e l e c t e d po l i t i c i a ns , i t i s i mpor t a n t t ha t t he A s s e mbl y ' sS e c r e t a r i a t be w e l l e qu i ppe d a nd w e l l s t a f f e d . I n a n i n fo r ma t i on a ge ,t h e N a t i o n a l A s s e m b l y n e e d s m o d e m i n f o r m a t i o n t e c h n o l o g y . I n t h e p a s t ,i n t e l l e c t ua l s ha ve be e n a l l t oo r e a dy t o he l p mi l i t a r y a nd bu r e a uc r a t i ce l i te s l eg i t im ize the i r ru le . I f de m oc rac y is to succeed , in te l l ec tua l s andt e c h n o c r a t s m u s t f o r m a c t i v e p r o d e m o c r a t i c n e t w o r k s w i t hn o n g o v e r n m e n t a l v o l u n t a r y o r g a n i z a t i o n s a n d t h e N a t i o n a l A s s e m b l y .

T h e c h a l l e n g e s f a c i n g t h e m o v e m e n t f o r d e m o c r a c y a n d f r e e d o m i nT h a i l a n d a r e e s s e n t i a l l y p r o b l e m s o f l e g i t i m a c y . L e g i t i m a c y i n t h e T h a ic a s e i nvo l ve s t w o l e ve l s o f c ons e ns us . T he f i r s t i s i n t e r e l i t e c ons e ns usc onc e r n i ng t he r u le s o f the ga m e ; t he s e c ond i s c ons e ns us b e t w e e n t hee l i t e a nd t he ma s s e s . F o r t he pa s t f i ve y e a r s , t he I n s t i t u t e ha s be e ne m p h a s i z i n g c o n s e n s u s b u i ld i n g a m o n g e li te s . T h e c h a l l e n g e o f t h e f u t u r ew i l l be t o bu i l d c ons e ns us a mong t he ma s s e s .

P o l i t i c a l pa r t i e s i n T ha i l a nd a r e ve r y w e a k a nd a r e e s s e n t i a l l y e l e c t o r a lpa r t i e s r a t he r t ha n g r a s s - r oo t s o r ga n i z a t i ons ; t he y w i l l ne e d he l p i f t he ya r e t o b r oa de n t he i r a ppe a l a nd c r e a t e e f f e c t i ve o r ga n i z a t i ons . T heIns t i tu te cannot a s s i s t pa r t i e s d i rec t ly , bu t i t has begun severa l p ro jec t sde s i gne d t o e duc a t e r u r a l op i n i on l e a de r s , a mus t i f w i de - s c a l e po l i t i c a lmob i l i z a t i on i s t o oc c u r .

I n We s t e r n h i s t o r y , c a p i t a l i s m a nd l i be r a l de moc r a c y ha ve r e i n fo r c e de a c h o t h e r . I n T h a i l a n d ' s c a s e , h o w e v e r , e c o n o m i c d e v e l o p m e n t h a s l e f tp o l i t i c a l d e v e l o p m e n t f a r b e h i n d . W i t h r a p i d e c o n o m i c g r o w t h a n di ndus t r i a l i z a t i on , T ha i c i v i l s oc i e t y ha s unde r gone a h i gh l y c ompl e xt r a ns fo r ma t i on ; w ha t w a s un t i l r e c e n t l y a n a g r a r i a n s oc i e t y ( a l be i t a na d v a n c e d o n e ) h a s n o w b e c o m e a c o m p l e x , u r b a n i z e d s o c i e t y w i t h ad y n a m i c i n d u s t r i a l i z i n g e c o n o m y . Y e t d e m o c r a c y h a s n o t b e e n a b l e t ome e t t he c ha l l e nge o f c r e a t i ng a nd ma i n t a i n i ng a na t i ona l c ons e ns usunde r t he s e c ond i t i ons , a nd t he mona r c hy ha s r e ma i ne d t he s o l ea u t ho r i t a t i ve s ou r c e o f po l i t i c a l l e g i t i ma c y .

T he c ha l l e nge s f a c i ng de moc r a t i z a t i on i n T ha i l a nd a r e fo r t una t e l ypo l i t i c a l a nd e c onomi c r a t he r t ha n r e l i g i ous , r a c i a l , o r e t hn i c a s t he y a r ei n ma ny o t he r c oun t r i e s . T hus w e a r e hope fu l t ha t ou r e f fo r t s w i l l no tbe i n va i n . T i me i s on ou r s i de , a nd i f t he de moc r a t i c p r oc e s s i s no ti n t e r r up t e d by a c oup , t he po l i t i c a l f u t u r e o f T ha i l a nd w i l l be a s b r i gh ta s t ha t o f i t s e c onomy . T he a pp r oa c h o f t he t w e n t y - f i r s t c e n t u r y f i ndsT h a i l a n d g r a d u a l l y m o v i n g t o w a r d f u l l m e m b e r s h i p i n th e n e w a n d l a rg e rc omi t y o f l i be r a l de moc r a t i c na t i ons t ha t ha s be gun t o e me r ge a s a r e s u l to f t he d r a ma t i c c ha ng e s i n E a s t e r n E u r ope a nd e l s e w he r e .