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Cody Norenberg & Laura RawlettThe George Washington University

Education 246: Administrative Issues in Education

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Video URL: http://www.pbs.org/wnet/wherewestand/reports/testing-no-child-left-behind/video-report/27/SOURCE: Public Broadcasting Service (2008)

Click on the image to view video

1859, Charles Darwin’s Theory of “Survival of the Fittest” Late 1880’s, an influx of immigrants arriving in America 1900’s, administrators initiated a comprehensive and comparable

measurement determining student success rates, subjective teaching methodologies and diverse student bodies (Gallagher, 2003)

1960’s, Civil Rights activists questioning the authenticity of these broad tests (Gallagher, 2003)

1974, Title 1 of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA) was established (Gallagher, 2003)

1994, Improving America’s School Act expanded upon ESEA 2002, George W. Bush signed “No Child Left Behind Act” (Aldridge &

Goldman, 2007) Create ACCOUNTABILITY Strengthen Teachers in the Classroom Implement Scientifically-Based Teaching Methodology

“The NCLB Act is the most significant attempt to date by the federal government to hold states and local school districts accountable for educating all of their

students to high standards and to assure the effective use of federal Title 1 funds”Association of American Publishers, 2000

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According to the American Educational Research Association (AERA), "The content of the test and the cognitive processes engaged in taking the test should adequately represent the curriculum. High-stakes tests should not be limited to that portion of the relevant curriculum that is easiest to measure" (AERA, 2000, para. 10).

Valli & Chambliss (2007) found specific examples of ‘test-centered’ classes using reading intervention goals and tasks primarily for training students to perform well on state assessments while the standard reading classes aimed at building on and connecting student knowledge to personal experiences and cultural backgrounds. Moreover, in reading intervention classes, students spent more time simply listening to teacher talk (32 percent vs. 13 percent) and were less likely to connect class work to real-life context or engage in meaningful discussion (23 percent vs. 5 percent).

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Providing “high-quality hard data” of student performance, specifically showing areas of strength, weakness and promises

“Without these data, schools cannot make appropriate decisions about curriculum quality or power of specific programs to enhance learning” (Nelson, Palonsky & McCarthy, 2010, p. 344).

Ability to determine a school’s ACCOUNTABILITY Published test scores gauge the progression of student achievement

across the nation thus providing competition and motivation for strengthening school curriculum and delivery (Nelson, Palonsky & McCarthy, 2010)

Regular assessments give the parents, teachers and students necessary measurements

“Regular assessments, at input, throughput, and output stages of a student’s education, contribute a wealth of knowledge that educators can use effectively

manage each student’s progress in scaffolding knowledge” (Wolf, 2007, p. 696).

Prevents subjective grading, varied classroom curriculums and grade inflation (Nelson, Palonsky & McCarthy, 2010)

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Average scale scores for long-term reading by race (Age 13)

SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education (2010)

1999 2004 2008

8SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education (2010)

Average scale scores for long-term mathematics by race (Grade 12)

1996 2000

9SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education (2010)

Average scale scores for long-term writing by race (Grade 12)

1997 2002 2007

Gunzenhauser (2003) uses one North Carolina school to illustrate the effects of high-stakes testing:

In order to devote more time for test preparation, the principal adopted a policy teachers called "90/90/60," in which instruction each day encompassed 90 minutes of reading, 90 minutes of math, and 60 minutes of writing, the only three areas of the curriculum tested in the state's elementary schools (Gunzenhauser & Noblit, 2001). Other subjects, including science, social studies, physical education, and the arts…vied for the remaining time in the school day. Test scores improved, and the school eventually lost its low performing label, but large portions of the state curriculum were left untaught (p. 55).

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Lomax, West, Harmon, Viator & Madaus (1995) found that teachers of high-minority classes were more likely to state that their curriculum and assessment were greatly or somewhat influenced by mandated standardized tests and also reported engaging more in test preparation activities than did teachers of low minority classes (Lomax, West, Harmon, Viator & Madaus, 1995).

Elmore and Fuhrman (2001) found that in most schools pressured by

high-stakes testing, teachers are working harder, spending more time, and exerting more effort in preparing students for testing. However, they contend, schools are not fundamentally improving what they are doing; instead they are devoting inordinate time to concern about students' scores and not enough time to students' learning.

11SOURCE: U.S. Department of Education (2010)

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•Testing prevents students from slipping through the cracks enabling parents, teachers and administrators to pinpoint areas of need (Wolf, 2007)

•Test taking skills are present in everyday life, students must be ready to handle these situations with confidence (Wolf, 2007)

•Scores allow administrators and teachers to gauge the performance of students’ acceptance and effectiveness of the current curriculum (Nelson, Palonsky & McCarthy, 2010)

•Results are used to create change in the classroom, ultimately strengthening our educational system and international position (Association of American Publishers, 2000)

“Curriculum-based external exit examinations improve the signaling of academic achievement to colleges and the labor market and

this increases extrinsic rewards for learning” (Bishop, 2004, p. 36)

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Course Credits

Graduates are Earning More Credits in Computer Related Studies, Fine Arts and Foreign Language

Year of Graduation

National Center for Education Statistics. (2007). The nation’s report card: America’s high school graduates—Results from the 2005 national assessment of educational progress high school transcript study. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.

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ALL Grade Point Averages for High School Students Have Increased

*Grade Point Average is based on a 4.0 scale

Grade Point

Average

Graduating Year

National Center for Education Statistics. (2007). The nation’s report card: America’s high school graduates—Results from the 2005 national assessment of educational progress high school transcript study. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.

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Percentage of High School Students Completing Mid to Above Level CurriculumP

erce

ntag

e

Graduating Year

National Center for Education Statistics. (2007). The nation’s report card: America’s high school graduates—Results from the 2005 national assessment of educational progress high school transcript study. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.

“We find that Latinos differ from African American and White respondents regarding high-stakes testing because they tend to be more optimistic about

government policies than either of the other racial groups” (Lay & Strokes-Brown, 2009, p. 444)

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Aldridge, J. & Goldman, R. (2007). Current issues and trends in education. New York: Pearson Education.

Association of American Publishers. (2000). Standardized assessment: A primer. Washington, DC: Association of American Publishers. Retrieved from http://www.aapschool.org/pdf/Testing%20Primer%20Revised.pdf

American Educational Research Association. (2000, July). AERA position on high stakes testing. Retrieved from http://www.aera.net/about/policy/stakes.htm

Bishop, J. H. (2004). Drinking from the fountain of knowledge: Student incentive to study and learn—externalities, information problems and peer pressure (CAHRS Working Paper #04-15). New York: Cornell University, School of Industrial and Labor Relations, Center for Advanced Human Resource Studies.

Public Broadcasting Service. (2008). Testing: No Child Left Behind. Episode Four [Internet Video]. Available from http://www.pbs.org/wnet/wherewestand/reports/testing-no-child-left-behind/video-report/27/

Elmore, R.F., & Fuhrman, S.H. (2001). Holding schools accountable: Is it working? Phi Delta Kappan, 83, 67-72.

Gallagher, C. J. (2003). Reconciling a tradition of testing with a new learning paradigm. Educational Psychology Review, 15(1), 83-99.

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Gunzenhauser, M.G. (2003, Winter). High-Stakes Testing and the Default Philosophy of Education. Theory into Practice, 42, 51-58.

Lay, J.C., & Stokes-Brown, A.K. (2004, May). Put to the test: Understanding differences in support for high-stakes testing. American Politics Research. 37(4), 429-448.

Lomax, R. G., West, M. M., Harmon, M.C., Viator, K. A. & Madaus, G. F. (1995). The impact of mandated standardized testing on minority students. The Journal of Negro Education, 64, 171-185.

National Center for Education Statistics. (2007). The nation’s report card: America’s high school graduates—Results from the 2005 national assessment of educational progress high school transcript study. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.

Nelson, J.L., Palonsky, S., & McCarthy, M.R. (2010). Critical issues in education: Dialogues and dialectics. New York: McGraw Hill Higher Education.

United States Department of Education. (2010). National Assessment of Education Progress [Data set]. Retrieved from http://nces.ed.gov/nationsreportcard/naepdata/

Wolf, P. J. (2007). Academic improvement through regular assessment. Peabody Journal of Education, 82(4), 690-702.

Valli, L. & Chambliss, M. (2007). Creating classroom cultures: One teacher, two lessons, and a high-stakes test. Anthropology & Education Quarterly, 38, 57–75.

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