EDU5824Topic 1 Quality Concepts
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EDU5824
PENGURUSAN KUALITI DALAM
INSTITUSI PENGAJIAN TINGGI
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Students expectation
Todays students expect of colleges and universities
what they demand elsewhere: better service, lower
costs, higher quality, and a mix of products that satisfy
their own sense of what a good education ought to
provide. They want the enterprises that serve them tobe efficientnot for efficiencys sake, but because
efficiency promotes the flexibility and adaptability they
seek in the marketplace.
(quoted in Lewis & Smith, 1994, p. 4)
Quality concepts Topic 1
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Quality Concepts
After completing this topic, you should be able to:
Understand various definitions of quality
Learn about dimensions of quality
Understand the forces affecting quality management Understand the importance of quality
Readings:
Chapter 1 B. Janakiraman & R.K. Gopal, 2007Maureen Brookes & Nina Becket, Quality Management in Higher Education
What is quality in higher education (dalam LMS)
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Defining Quality
Defining quality is a challenging task Education quality is vague and its conception is
open to debate
Two important groups involve the internal andexternal stakeholders
Students and staff internal
Employers, government bodies, professional
bodies external
Concept is complex and dependent upon
stakeholder perspectives
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Contradictory objectives
In the academic world quality assessment
has traditionally assumed two
apparently contradictory objectives:
Quality improvement
Accountability
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Universities mostly emphasize quality
improvement, while the government pays
special attention to accountability, aiming
at guaranteeing the quality of the servicesprovided to society by higher education
institutions.
Alberto Amaral, 2006
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Factors
Emergence of markets as tools of public
policy to increase efficiency and to
maximize the provision of social benefits.
The rise of New Public Management policy
Globalisation
Growing supranational organizationsinterference in higher education.
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New Public Management
Under NPM, students are referred to as
customers or clients, and quality
assurance and accountability measures
have been put in place to ensure thatacademic provision meets the clients
needs and expectations.
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Globalization
World wide organizations have produced
codes of good practice.
Countries that are exporters of higher
education (US, UK, Australia) have
established codes and/or principles of
ethical and/or good practice for the
assurance of academic quality andstandards in the provision of education to
foreign students.
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3E
Economy in the acquisition of
resources,
Efficiency in the use of resources,
and
Effectiveness in the achievement
of objectives.
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Quality
The concept of quality is not new: it has
always been part of the academic
tradition. It is the outside world that now
emphasizes the need for attention toquality. It is the relationship between
higher education and society which has
changed.
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Quality
By the end of the 1990s concern for
quality and standards was global. From a
UK perspective this was viewed in terms
of the withdrawal of trust (Trow, 1994)and the drive towards managerialism
(Kogan, 1989).
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Confusion in Quality
Becher (1989) - a creature of political fashion.
Neave (1986) - elusive (vague)
Harvey and Green (1993) - slippery and value-
laden
Scott (1994) - No authoritative definition of
quality in higher education is possible
(Westerheidjen, 1999) - Lack of theory ofquality in higher education literature
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Higher Education Institution
HEI means and educational institution whether or not
established under any written law and including
private educational institution providing higher
education leading to the award of a certificate,
diploma, degree or the equivalent thereof. (Akta MajlisPendidikan Tinggi Negara 1996 - Akta 546)
Institusi pendidikan tinggi ialah institusi pendidikan
yang menyediakan pendidikan tinggi yang membawakepada penganugerahan diploma, ijazah atau yang
setaraf dengannya (Akta Pendidikan 1996)
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University or University College
University or University College means:
(a) University or University Collegeestablished under the Universities and
University Colleges Act 1971; or(b) a private higher educational institution withthe status of a University or UniversityCollege, a branch campus of a foreign
University or University College, establishedunder the Private Higher EducationalInstitutions Act 1996 (Act 546)
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Management as defined
Management is defined as the effectiveuse and coordination of resources such ascapital, plant, materials, and labour to
achieve defined objectives with maximumefficiency (International Dictionary of Management).
Covers the relevant aspects of efficiency,effectiveness in the usage of resources,financial management and implementationof stated programs.
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Accountability/ Kebertanggungjawaban
The obligation to give answers and explanations
concerning ones action and performance, to those with
a right to require such answers and explanations
(Ahmad Sarji Abdul Hamid, 1991 Perkhidmatan Awam
Yang Berkualiti).
Bertanggungjawab kepada atau terhadap sesuatu
tindakan dan perbuatan (Kamus Dewan).
Seorang pegawai bertanggungjawab kepada pihak
atasan mengenai cara sesuatu tindakan atau keputusanyang diambil olehnya mengikut garispanduan dan
peraturan yang ditetapkan.
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Accountability/ Kebertanggungjawaban
Therefore, an organization / university has the obligation
to give answers and explanations concerning its own
action and performance, to those with a right to require
such answers and explanations (government,
stakeholders).
Bertanggungjawab kepada atau terhadap sesuatu
tindakan dan perbuatan (Kamus Dewan).
Seorang pegawai bertanggungjawab kepada pihak
atasan mengenai cara sesuatu tindakan atau keputusanyang diambil olehnya mengikut garispanduan dan
peraturan yang ditetapkan.
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Accountability
It implies an agreement
An exchange between two parties in which one saysessentially, You give me the means and I will dowhat we agreed upon. The other says, Fine, as long
as you demonstrate you are doing it well.Based on the above definition, an accountabilityrelationship has the following elements:
(a) Resources and/or authority conferredconditionally,
(b) Agreement to use what ism given to carry outparticular responsibilities
(c) Obligation to demonstrate that what is given isused conscientiously for the agreed purposes
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Government commitment
The Malaysian Public Service Commitments 2008
Launched by Tan Sri Mohd Sidek Hassan Chief
Secretary to the Government of Malaysia January
2008. Towards a Customer Centric Malaysian Public
Service
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Government commitment
Mewujudkan budaya perkhidmatan yang berfokuskan
pelanggan berdasarkan ciri-ciri berikut:
Kebolehpercayaan dan kebolehjangkaan (reliability
and predictability) Responsif (high level of responsiveness)
Menepati masa (timeliness of responsiveness)
Berbudi bahasa dan cekap (courtesy and
competence) Persekitaran mesra pelanggan (customer friendly
environment)
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Factors for the Increase in
Public Demand for Accountability
Fiscal pressures
Competition in funds
Faced with tighter budgets
Rise in perceived importance of the function ofpostsecondary institutions
The benefits of postsecondary education
Increase in students employability value added the value that is added to students capabilities andknowledge as a consequence of their education at aparticular college or university.
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Factors for the Increase in
Public Demand for Accountability
Human resource development and knowledge-basedeconomy
Non-financial value to individuals, society and thenation
Postsecondary education can contribute to enhancedcultural integrity, tolerance, and respect, which are all
highly valued in the global society
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The Big Questions of Quality
Some of the questions:
How do higher education institutions satisfyingstakeholders demands on their education?
What is the role of quality management?
What factors exert influence on higher educationinstitutions?
Through what kind of mechanisms do highereducation institutions react?
What are the effects of the reactions taken by highereducation institutions?
Is/Are there any model(s) suitable for highereducation institutions?
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The Pressures
Some of the pressures:
State of uncertainty faced by educational leaders.
Expectations for greater performance in a climate ofincrease financial accountability.
The existence of alternatives to public educationproviders.
The expectation on universities as change agent.
1990s has been the decade of quality in higher
education (changes in approaches to achieve quality inhigher education).
External quality monitoring and procedures.
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Quality Concepts
What is quality? In simple form quality answers two questions: What is
wanted? and How do we do it?
Quality means staying in business.
Quality means optimizing the whole system of valueexchange.
Two dominant meanings of quality:
Quality consists of those products features, which meet
the needs of customers, hence provides product
satisfaction.
Quality consists of freedom from deficiencies.(Janakiraman & Gopal, 2007, p.2)
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Quality Management System (QMS)
Quality An expectation of other products and services we all use.
A product or service delivered to a very high specification at a veryhigh price, only accessible to customers or clients who have high
incomes and wealthThe totality of features and characteristics of a product or servicethat bear on its ability to satisfy stated or implied needs
Ability of a set of inherent characteristics of a product,process/system to fulfill requirements of customers and otherinterested parties (ISO9001:2000)
Quality Management System
Well documented system that ensures consistency andimprovement of working practices, including products and servicesproduced.
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Quality Management (QM)
Quality management (QM) refers to structures within ahigher education institution that assist in themanagement of quality issues (Luxton, 2005).
Quality improvement (refers to process) is concernedwith an ongoing cycle of agreeing on a set of standardsand/or goals, gathering relevant information, evaluatingfeedback and ensuring the implementation of change.
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Various Definitions of Quality
Fitness for purpose or use - Juran
Conformance to requirements Crosby
Total composite of product and services characteristics
of marketing, engineering, manufacturing and
maintenance through which the product and service in
use will meet the expectation by the customer
Feigenbaum
Should be aimed at the needs of the customers,
present and future Deming
The degree of excellence at an acceptance price and
control of variability at an acceptable cost - Broh
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Various Definitions of Quality
The totality of features and characteristics of a product
or service that bear on its ability to satisfy stated or
implied needs ISO 840: Quality vocabulary
Meets the requirements of customers, both internal and
external, the organization for defect-free product,services and business processes IBM
Quality as exceptional (Lee & Diana, 1993)
something special, distinctive, excellent (exceeding
very high standards), passing a set of requiredstandards.
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Quality as something special
Quality as special refers the traditional view of quality.
Implies the exclusiveness or the elitist view.
It is judged based on distinctiveness (unattainable for
most people).
Education provided by Cambridge, Oxford, Yale,
Harvard is always viewed as something special.
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Quality as excellence
Only possible in limited circumstances.
The best is required if excellent is what you want.
A lecture by a Nobel Prize Winner is an example of
quality excellence.
Ivory towers universities are status given only to those
widely reputable universities in the USA and UK.
Institutions that take only the best students is an
example of quality in terms of input and output.
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Quality as fitness for purpose
Ensures products or services meet the specifications
of the customers.
Quality products meet the customers requirements.
For HEI, is the system providing the right number of
required workforce?
Is the course providing the right balance of
knowledge, skills and understanding?
How about the degree offered by universities?
Who actually are the customers in HEI?
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Defining Quality in Higher education
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Defining quality is a challenging task (Becket & Brookes, 2006)
What is meant by quality?
Basic concepts:
Continuous improvement an ongoing effort to improveproducts, services or processes. Incremental improvement
Four step quality model plan-do-check-act (PDCA) cycle
Cost of quality (COQ) the cost of not creating a quality
product or service. Isnt the price of creating a quality product. Quality costs are the total cost incurred by investing in the
prevention of non-conformance to requirements, failing to
meet requirements.
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Defining Quality in Higher education
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Harvey & Knight (1996)
Quality can be broken into five dimensions:
- Quality as exceptional (high standards)
- Quality as consistency (zero defects)
- Quality as fitness for purpose (fitting customer specifications)- Quality as value for money (efficiency and effectiveness)
- Quality as transformative (an ongoing process that includes
empowerment and enhancement of customer satisfaction)
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Defining Quality in Higher education
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Campell & Rozsnayi (2002)
Quality can be defined as:
- Quality as excellence (goal to be the best)
- Quality as zero errors
- Quality as fitness for purpose (fitting customer specifications)- Quality as transformation (an ongoing process that includes
empowering students with skills, knowledge and attitudes
which enable them to live and work in the k-society)
- Quality as threshold (setting certain norms and criteria)
- Quality as value for money (accountability)- Quality as enhancement or improvement (pursuit of
continuous improvement)
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Eight Dimensions of Quality
Performance:
The primary operating characteristics of a product. An
example is about television, should have clear sound,
picture, colour and able to receive distant stations.
Features:
Secondary characteristics of products that
supplement the basic functioning of the products. An
example would be automatic tuners on a colour tv and
power steering in a car.
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Eight Dimensions of Quality
Reliability:
It reflects the probability of a product failing within a
specified period of time.
Conformance:
The degree to which product design and operating
characteristics match pre-established standards.
Durability:
A measure of product life the period of use one getsfrom a product before it physically deteriorates.
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Eight Dimensions of Quality
Serviceability:
The speed, competency and efficiency of repair the
elapsed time before service is restored.
Aesthetics:
How a product looks, feels, sounds, tastes or smells.
Perceived quality:
Indirect measures when comparing brands on
products attributes.
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Determinants of Service Quality
Reliability:
Involves consistency of performance and
dependability. The performance of service should be
right the first time and provider honours promises. It
must ensure accuracy in billing, keeping recordscorrectly and performing the service at the designated
time.
Responsiveness:
Concerns the willingness or readiness of employeesto provide service (timeliness of service, giving
prompt service).
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Determinants of Service Quality
Competence:
Possessing the required skills and knowledge to
perform the service.
Access:
Involves approachability and ease of contact
(accessible by phone, convenient hours of operation,
convenient location of service facility).
Courtesy:
Involves politeness, respect, consideration, and
friendliness of contact personnel.
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Determinants of Service Quality
Communication:
Keeping customers informed in the language they can
understand (explain the service, how much is the
cost, trade-off between service and cost, problem will
be handled).
Credibility:
Involves trustworthiness, believability and honesty.
Security:
The freedom from danger, risk or doubt (physical
safety, confidentiality).
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Determinants of Service Quality
Understanding / knowing the customer:
Making the efforts to understand the needs of the
customer (learning customers specific requirements,
providing individual attention, recognizing regular
customer).
Tangibility:
Includes the physical evidences of the service such
as physical facilities, appearance of personnel, other
customers in the service facility).
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Why is Quality Important to HEI?
Four assumptions reflect the environment of HEI:
Conditions and conventions within the environmentare changing
Changes are faster than in the past
Changes will continue to rapidly occur in the 21stcentury
Changes are essential and their implications to HEIsmust be anticipated (Lewis & Smith, 1994)
If in companies quality leads to efficiency andprofitability, in HEIs it leads to better learning andexperiences on the parts of students
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Factors affecting the assumptions
whether HEIs are quality driven
The perception of quality in HE is becoming a problem for manyoutside the HEIs.
Economic conditions have generated increasing concern aboutcareer opportunities and economic well-being.
General public is increasingly concern about access to HE as a
mean towards employment and economic security. Students, parents, legislators and employers have increasing
expectations on HEIs and willing to commit funds to evaluate theperformance of HEIs.
Decreased in trust on institutions of higher education.
(Lewis & Smith, 1994)
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Characteristics of HEI that focus on quality
Open culture to constructive evaluation and to change. High level of satisfaction from students, employees and external
customers. Institution-wide embracing of the concept of quality improvement,
including commitment to participate in institutional improvement and
growth.
Measurable improvement in institutional performance in agreedareas of need.
Open communication within and between different areas ofoperation.
Self-confidence of the institution in its ability to manage its ownfuture, and evidence of its success in doing so, particularly inrelation to any external accreditation bodies.
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Some Questions on Quality
What are the determinants of quality?
Differentiate between service quality and
product quality.
How globalization affect quality?
What dimension of service quality is more
critical in education service?
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Quality Management in Higher education
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Issue of quality management agenda of HEIs Higher education is viewed as international business
Forces for effective quality management:
1. Growing concern on accountability
2. An expansion of student populations
3. Diverse student population
4. Diminishing resources
5. Increasing competitive nature of higher education6. Greater expectations of students as paying customers
7. More flexible provision of higher education
8. Increase collaborative provision between institutions
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Drivers of change in Higher education
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Political forces:1. Government initiatives to widen access
2. Government development of more HEIs
3. Government control over curriculum and management
4. No unified or centralized system for government control
Economic forces:
1. Reduced or limited funding per student
2. Reliance on private sector funding
3. Reliance on international student fees4. Rising cost per student
5. Increase in number of private HEIs
6. Greater emphasis on internationalization
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Drivers of change in Higher education
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Socio-cultural forces:
1. Greater demand for student places
2. Greater diversity of student population
3. Greater diversity of provision4. Consumer pressure for greater accountability or value for
money
Source: Brookes & Becket, 2006
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Drivers of change in Higher education
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Access and diversity
The democratization of higher education through
financial assistance, affirmative action, employer
expectations for educational credentials, and etc.
Technology and distance learning
Technology has allowed for the expansion of
distance learning, E-learning
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Drivers of change in Higher education
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Assessment
Accountability to the public, governing boards,
accrediting agencies, and etc.
Growing emphasis on teaching and learning issuesStudent-Centered Learning (SCL)
Teaching vs. research
What are the basic missions?
Privatization
Privatization was an emerging trend: Student
housing, management information system and etc.
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Drivers of change in Higher education
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Emphasizing career preparations over liberal education
A trend to emphasize specific career preparation
over a quality liberal education
Rising costs and changing finances
The economic of higher education
Commercialization
University becomes more entrepreneurial and enter
new marketsThe impact of corporate values: Corporate
colleges/university alliances or collaboration
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Key quality management dimensions
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Comprehensive audit tool as suggested:
1. Internal and external stakeholder perspectives
2. Education as a system of inputs, processes and outputs
3. Different quality dimensions - conceptualization
4. Qualitative versus quantitative
5. Quality snapshot or longitudinal benchmarking
6. Quality assurance or quality enhancement
Source: Brookes & Becket, 2006
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Higher education in South-East Asia
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An overview of higher education in South East Asia.
Higher education is greatly influenced by the
countries historical past, nation-building efforts,
and current global trends.
Among the less-developed countries, higher
education systems are chronically under-funded
and face escalating demand, under qualified
academic staff, poorly planned curricula.
Higher education systems face similar problems
and challenges have budgets to balance,
faculties to satisfy, social demands to meet.
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Massification of Higher education in South-East Asia
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Massification reflects developments and trends in
higher education reform to increase access.
Transforming higher education systems from being
elitist to ensuring mass participation across
different social, income and geographical groups.
Some countries have achieved significant
increases in participation rates and tackled social
exclusion.
Escalating demand was brought about by
population growth, democratization of secondary
education, growing affluence, social mobility.
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Massification of Higher education in South-East Asia
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At the national level, it is a key instrument for
human capital development to sustain economic
growth, restructure society, promote national unity.
Higher education to maintain the countries
competitiveness in a globalized knowledge
economy (Malaysia, Singapore).
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Expansion of Higher education by gross enrolment ratios (%)
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Country 1965 1975 1985 1995 2000
Singapore 10 9 12 34 na
Thailand 2 4 20 20 32
Philippines 19 18 38 30 30
Malaysia 2 3 6 11 23
Indonesia 3 2 7 11 na
Brunei na na na 7 14
Vietnam na na na 4 10Myanmar 1 2 na 6 8
Cambodia na na na 2 3
Lao PDR na na na 2 3
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Diversification of Higher education
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Various types of higher education institutions have emerged
with different missions or purposes.
Many countries witness rapid expansion of private sector.
Levels of differentiation - traditional teaching and researchuniversities, virtual universities, polytechnics, technical
institutes, open learning institutes, community colleges.
Higher education runs by for-profit corporations, non-profit
organizations and religious bodies.
Open and distance learning universities and regionaluniversities widening participation and access to HE.
Trend towards transnational education has been noted ,
Malaysia one of the most developed and experienced in the
region.
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Internationalization of Higher Education
U58
Mobility of students and academics around the world have
become common.
The increasing development of foreign branch campuses
reveals that HE can be exported to give access to studentswho otherwise may not be able to afford or obtain scholarship
Transnational education is defined as any teaching or learning
activity in which students are in a different country to that in
which the institution providing education is based.
Malaysia, Thailand and Vietnam are importers of transnationaleducation from Australia, UK.
Some countries have national objectives to become
educational hubs in the region.
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Marketization of Higher Education
The rapid expansion calls for restructuring of HE involving
privatization of HE, corporatization of public universities,
implementation of student fees and formation of strategic
partnerships between public and private sectors.
Market forces led to more entrepreneurial universities
whereby universities market their teaching, research and
other knowledge-based services as well as setting up
commercial enterprises or joint ventures with business firms.
The development of private HE expands enrolments in manycountries. In Philippines and Indonesia the private HE
outnumbered public HE.
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Implications on Institutions of Higher Education
HEs become more bureaucratic and regulated to ensure
consistency in the management of HE systems.
HEs become more complex, creating a variety of institutions
with different missions and scattered in different places. Many governments are reducing their public and social
expenditure on universities. Universities need to seek
alternative sources of funding.
Universities need to be more market oriented, flexible and
able to respond quickly to market signals and pressures.Academic leaders have to find ways to make their universities
more entrepreneurial and autonomous.
Limited resources have made stakeholders including the state
to be more concerned with the quality of education.
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Implications on Institutions of Higher Education
Universities are increasingly subject to external pressures to
achieve greater accountability for their performances, and are
encouraged to develop systems for self-evaluation and
assessment.
Trading autonomy for accountability
States and universities are constantly redefining their
interactions and relationships.
An increase in autonomy is coupled with more accountability.
Restructuring has led to changes in governance and
management.
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Changing academic profession
Academics are subjected to more rules and regulations,
tighter control to increase productivity, more rules and
regulations, rigorous assessment procedures.
The development of corporate culture has requiredacademics to behave like entrepreneurs and to market their
expertise, services and research findings.
Academic freedom in some countries remains limited on what
can be researched and what can be disseminated to public.
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Future developments and challenges
Continuing expansion of universities.
Universities need to seek different sources of funding.
Growing diversity of higher education institutions.
More calls for institutional autonomy, financial diversificationand quality control will be made.
Greater pressure for relevance and flexibility curriculum
development and adaptability to changes in the society.
The emergence of multiple competitors as knowledge
disseminator from corporate universities, research institutes,industrial laboratories, think tanks and consultancies.
Universities have to promote multiculturalism and universal
values.
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Conclusion
Quality has driven HEIs to be responsive to the changes
happening both inside and outside HEIs.
Several forces including political, economic and socio-cultural
forces have been identified as the factors. Key impacts accountability requirements and necessity for
enhancing efficiency and effectiveness.
Eight dimensions of quality plus several other definitions of
quality have been crucially linked with quality management.
Reviews show that many HEIs are adopting or implementingthe quality management models that were initially developed
for the industrial sectors.