徵　稿

《香港幼兒學報》是為香港幼兒教育工作者而設的專業期刊，每年出版兩冊。《香港幼兒學報》編委會現誠徵各類有關幼兒教育、照顧及發展的文章，題材不限，不同類別而有關家庭與孩子成長的文章也無任歡迎。

本學報的辦刊宗旨是為香港幼教同仁提供一個分享知識和經驗的園地，以及辯論不同議題的平台；為實踐優質幼兒教育作出貢獻；及讓幼教研究成果和創新實踐經驗得以發表。學報可透過專題形式刊出，故編委會歡迎各界人士就專題項目提供意見。

《香港幼兒學報》第10卷第1冊將於2011年5月出版，題材不限，歡迎有興趣的人士來稿。稿例刊於本學報封底內頁。

Invitation to AuthorsHong Kong Journal of Early Childhood (HKJEC) is published twice a year especially for early childhood educators in Hong Kong. The Editorial Board of the HKJEC invites contributions on all aspects of the education, care, and development of young children. Contributions from all disciplines concerned about young children and their families are welcome.

At times, articles may be published under a special theme. The Editorial Board welcomes suggestions for themed issues. The journal aims at providing opportunities for Hong Kong’s early childhood professionals to share their experience and knowledge, and debate issues; to contribute to quality early childhood practices; and to disseminate research findings and innovative practices.

Contributions are invited for the next edition of the HKJEC Volume 10, Number 1, to be published in May 2011. Papers on any topic are welcome. Notes for contributors can be found on the back inside cover of this journal.

SubscriptionsPlease contact the HKJEC for details of subscriptions through email (hkjec@ied.edu.hk) or by post to the Editorial and Publication Office. A subscription order form can also be found on the last page of this journal.

Editorial and Publication OfficeDepartment of Early Childhood EducationThe Hong Kong Institute of Education10 Lo Ping Road,Tai Po, New Territories, Hong KongFacsimile: (852) 2948 7160E-mail: hkjec@ied.edu.hkWebsite: http://www.ied.edu.hk/ece/publications/journal/journal.html

AcknowledgementOur thanks to The Hong Kong Institute of Education and Educational Publishing House Limited for sponsorship of the publication from 2002 to 2006 and from 2007 to 2011 respectively, and all the reviewers who have contributed their expert advice to the journal.

Views published in the journal do not necessarily represent those of the Editorial Board, the Department of Early Childhood Education, The Hong Kong Institute of Education or Educational Publishing House Limited.

Copyright© 2010 The Hong Kong Institute of EducationAll right reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or any means, or stored in a database or retrieval system, without the prior permission of The Hong Kong Institute of Education.

ISSN 1682-878X

Edition EditorsDr. LAU Grace 劉慧中博士The Hong Kong Institute of Education, Hong Kong

Dr. LEUNG Cheung Shing Sam 梁長城博士The Hong Kong Institute of Education, Hong Kong

Regular FeaturesMs. MA Siu Wai Kitty 馬小慧女士The Hong Kong Institute of Education, Hong Kong

Editorial BoardDr. CHENG Zi Juan 成子娟博士The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong

Mrs. CHU TANG Lai Kuen 朱鄧麗娟女士

Dr. LEUNG Cheung Shing Sam 梁長城博士The Hong Kong Institute of Education, Hong Kong

Professor WONG Ngai Chun Margaret 黃艾珍教授The Hong Kong Institute of Education, Hong Kong

Dr. WONG Wai Yum Veronica 黃蕙吟博士The Hong Kong Institute of Education, Hong Kong

Ms. YEUNG Suet Ching Priscilla 楊雪貞女士Yew Chung Education Foundation, Hong Kong

International Panel of AdvisorsDr. CHAN Po King Betty 陳保琼博士Yew Chung Education Foundation, Hong Kong

Professor CHEN Hui Chang 陳會昌教授Beijing Normal University, China

Dr. CHIU Kwan Hung Angela 趙鈞鴻博士Creative Kindergarten and Day Nursery, Hong Kong

Professor George FORMANUniversity of Massachusetts, USA

Dr. Elizabeth Jean MELLORQueensland University of Technology, Australia

Professor Christine PASCALUniversity College of Worcester, UK

Professor Nirmala RAOThe University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong

Professor Bernard SPODEKUniversity of Illinois, USA

Professor ZHU Jiaxiong 朱家雄教授East China Normal University, China

The Hong Kong Institute of Education Library

For private study or research only. Not for publication or further reproduction.

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Hong Kong Journal ofEarly Childhood香港幼兒學報 Vol. 9 No. 2 December 2010

目錄 Contents

編者序言

Editorial

劉慧中、梁長城．LAUGrace&LEUNGCheungShingSam�������������������������������������������������������3

學前教育推行統整課程的爭議：香港幼稚園的個案研究Exploring the issues of implementing integrated curriculum: A case study of Hong Kong kindergartens

趙麒、何彩華．ZHAOQi&HOChoiWaDora�����������������������������������������������������������������������������6

一位幼教老師從西方幼教學者的觀點看一所香港幼稚園的方案教學Understanding the Project Approach from the view of the western scholars through an early childhood teacher in Hong Kong

鄧綺雯．TANGYeeManElate���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������13

探索如何從十兄弟故事去重建幼兒的心靈Re-constructing Young Children's Spirituality Through the Story of “The Ten Brothers”

黃樹誠．WONGShuSingPaul��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������18

Learning through Play in the early childhood classroom: Myth or Reality?

於幼教課室上推行從遊戲中學習：是空談還是實際可行？

LAUGrace&CHENGPuiWahDoris．劉慧中、鄭佩華������������������������������������������������������������27

兒童繪本與心智理論的發展：從麥兜到三隻小豬的真實故事Children’s picture book and theory of mind development: From McDull to the True Story of Three Little Pigs

王貞琳．WANGZhenlin��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������44

Dissonant voices of kindergarteners in an English immersion experience

幼兒英語沉浸活動實驗計劃：一些負面聲音的啟示

NGMeiLee．吳美莉�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������52

廣州市省一級幼兒園幼師運用信息技術的現狀研究Research on preschool teachers' ICT adoption in the first-level kindergartens in Guangzhou

黃美賢、胡馨允．WangMeixian&HUXinyun���������������������������������������������������������������������������58 The Hong Kong Institute of Education Library

For private study or research only. Not for publication or further reproduction.

2

Hong Kong Journal ofEarly Childhood香港幼兒學報 Vol. 9 No. 2 December 2010

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Hong Kong Journal ofEarly Childhood香港幼兒學報 Vol. 9 No. 2 December 2010

編者序言Narration of a Change Agent

一位學校發展推動者的省思CHAN Po Lin Pauline．陳寶蓮���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������68

「自擁式」校本教師發展模式A Self-owned Model of School-based Teacher Development

陳錦榮．CHAN Kam Wing Paul��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������75

幼教研究方法重要概念學習清單A checklist for learning the important concepts in early childhood research methods

林浩昌．LAM Ho Cheong �����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������79

香港幼師薪酬及年資的現況A Study on the Salaries and Qualifications of Hong Kong Preschool Teachers

劉寶蓮．LAUPoLinBecky���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������88

專欄 Feature

强化語文環境──繪本教育

黃玉卿�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������93

Errata Slip for Hong Kong Journal of Early Childhood Volume 9 Number 1

《香港幼兒學報》第9卷第1冊勘誤表������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������99

鳴謝學報評審Reviewer Acknowledgement����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������102

　　香港在過去十多年來的幼兒教育模式都是由不同知識範疇的哲學家塑造而成。幼教持份者把哲學家提出的問題及觀察所得的結論，加以整理和發展，說明孩子怎樣學習及不同的教育體制如何使孩子們學得最有成效。雖然學者對於幼兒期的哲理、心理和生理各持不同論據，但在啓蒙時代當代及往後的著名哲學家大致都贊成幼兒教育應以兒童為中心，讓孩子自由地遊戲、全面統整地學習及親身體驗事物。例如美國的幼教專家William於一九九九年所提出的「全人教育哲學觀(whole-childphilosophy)」便有強調有效的課程應統整且均衡地啟發幼兒認知的、情緒的、身體的、社會的及創造的全能力。因此，幼兒教育課程設計應該是統整的。課程實施的最終目的即為達到全人教育理念。不過，並非所有家長及其他幼教持份者也接受這種教育方式；他們會擔心孩子的教育水平，希望能加以確定、提升並保持，為孩子進入下一學習階段作好準備(白敬理，2004)。

　　在多元化持續發展中的香港社會，幼教持份者對同一幼教模式持有不盡相同的意見是不難理解的；此外，我們亦明白到幼教持份者對不同幼教議題的關注，因此今期學報沒有預訂一項議題，好讓投稿者能自由發揮。期盼讀者能透過閱讀不同旨趣的文章擴闊視野，加深認識目前幼兒教育最關注及熱烈討論的課題。

　　趙麒、何彩華的文章立足於統整課程的基本含義，通過回顧學者論述的推行統整課程存在的爭議，繼而對香港一所幼稚園推行統整課程的現狀作出研究和分析，旨在透過該所幼稚園的現況反映目前香港幼稚園在推行統整課程中存在的一些問題和不足之處。

　　方案教學是一種促進統整課程的課程模式。鄧綺雯嘗試以一位幼教老師從西方幼教學者的觀點看一所香港幼稚園的方案教學，並指出教師、學校和家長因素是問題產生的關鍵所在。

　　為了促進統整課程全面並完滿進行，幼兒教育課程設計上應以遊戲為主。因為遊戲能給

予幼兒均衡、多元化的發展學習歷程，增進認知概念獲得、改善生活適應能力，還有更重要的情緒抒發以及學習關懷他人。多項心靈教育研究報告顯示心靈教育與遊戲的密切關係，這些關係可讓讀者反思到為達到全人教育的理念，遊戲實在不能缺少。

　　《十兄弟》是六十年代非常賣座的粵語長片。黃樹誠望透過他寫有關「十兄弟」的文章啟迪幼兒之十項心靈教育的核心價值，和心靈的重建。

　　劉慧中及鄭佩華透過「於幼教課室上推行從遊戲中學習：是空談還是實際可行?」一文娓娓報導了一項個案研究結果並分析香港推行從游戲中學習的迷思。

　　在語文教學方面，王貞琳給本期讀者介紹了心智理論的發展和分析兒童繪本的心智意義，指出成人與兒童共讀繪本是促進兒童心智理解發展的重要途徑。吳美莉報告了三所本地幼稚園與國際幼稚園英語交流的實驗計劃，探究此項計劃能否有效提升幼兒對學習英語的興趣。結果顯示數位幼兒對是次部份英語浸淫經驗發出強烈負面的聲音，這些聲音向老師及家長揭示了一些重要訊息，值得日後計劃同類活動時作參考。

　　在資訊科技發達的社會中，身為現代的幼兒教育從業員，懂得運用資訊實屬需要。黃美賢、胡馨允的研究是為廣州中心城區13間一級幼兒園的251名幼師進行問卷調查及跟蹤訪談。研究目的在於瞭解幼師運用資訊技術的技能和策略，及分析所面臨的挑戰。

　　作為課程的變革推動者實在不容易，陳寶蓮通過記敘一位大學教師在一所幼稚園內作為變革推動者的反思，帶出促進學校變革的複雜性及其所引致的問題。陳錦榮的「自擁式」校本教師發展模式讓教師能按學生、家長、教師和校長大家所能適應的步伐進行，互相扶持邁向共同的目標，結果為大家所享。

　　無論是依校本精神推行課程變革的推動者 The Hong Kong Institute of Education Library

For private study or research only. Not for publication or further reproduction.

2

Hong Kong Journal ofEarly Childhood香港幼兒學報 Vol. 9 No. 2 December 2010

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Hong Kong Journal ofEarly Childhood香港幼兒學報 Vol. 9 No. 2 December 2010

編者序言Narration of a Change Agent

一位學校發展推動者的省思CHAN Po Lin Pauline．陳寶蓮���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������68

「自擁式」校本教師發展模式A Self-owned Model of School-based Teacher Development

陳錦榮．CHAN Kam Wing Paul��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������75

幼教研究方法重要概念學習清單A checklist for learning the important concepts in early childhood research methods

林浩昌．LAM Ho Cheong �����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������79

香港幼師薪酬及年資的現況A Study on the Salaries and Qualifications of Hong Kong Preschool Teachers

劉寶蓮．LAUPoLinBecky���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������88

專欄 Feature

强化語文環境──繪本教育

黃玉卿�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������93

Errata Slip for Hong Kong Journal of Early Childhood Volume 9 Number 1

《香港幼兒學報》第9卷第1冊勘誤表������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������99

鳴謝學報評審Reviewer Acknowledgement����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������102

　　香港在過去十多年來的幼兒教育模式都是由不同知識範疇的哲學家塑造而成。幼教持份者把哲學家提出的問題及觀察所得的結論，加以整理和發展，說明孩子怎樣學習及不同的教育體制如何使孩子們學得最有成效。雖然學者對於幼兒期的哲理、心理和生理各持不同論據，但在啓蒙時代當代及往後的著名哲學家大致都贊成幼兒教育應以兒童為中心，讓孩子自由地遊戲、全面統整地學習及親身體驗事物。例如美國的幼教專家William於一九九九年所提出的「全人教育哲學觀(whole-childphilosophy)」便有強調有效的課程應統整且均衡地啟發幼兒認知的、情緒的、身體的、社會的及創造的全能力。因此，幼兒教育課程設計應該是統整的。課程實施的最終目的即為達到全人教育理念。不過，並非所有家長及其他幼教持份者也接受這種教育方式；他們會擔心孩子的教育水平，希望能加以確定、提升並保持，為孩子進入下一學習階段作好準備(白敬理，2004)。

　　在多元化持續發展中的香港社會，幼教持份者對同一幼教模式持有不盡相同的意見是不難理解的；此外，我們亦明白到幼教持份者對不同幼教議題的關注，因此今期學報沒有預訂一項議題，好讓投稿者能自由發揮。期盼讀者能透過閱讀不同旨趣的文章擴闊視野，加深認識目前幼兒教育最關注及熱烈討論的課題。

　　趙麒、何彩華的文章立足於統整課程的基本含義，通過回顧學者論述的推行統整課程存在的爭議，繼而對香港一所幼稚園推行統整課程的現狀作出研究和分析，旨在透過該所幼稚園的現況反映目前香港幼稚園在推行統整課程中存在的一些問題和不足之處。

　　方案教學是一種促進統整課程的課程模式。鄧綺雯嘗試以一位幼教老師從西方幼教學者的觀點看一所香港幼稚園的方案教學，並指出教師、學校和家長因素是問題產生的關鍵所在。

　　為了促進統整課程全面並完滿進行，幼兒教育課程設計上應以遊戲為主。因為遊戲能給

予幼兒均衡、多元化的發展學習歷程，增進認知概念獲得、改善生活適應能力，還有更重要的情緒抒發以及學習關懷他人。多項心靈教育研究報告顯示心靈教育與遊戲的密切關係，這些關係可讓讀者反思到為達到全人教育的理念，遊戲實在不能缺少。

　　《十兄弟》是六十年代非常賣座的粵語長片。黃樹誠望透過他寫有關「十兄弟」的文章啟迪幼兒之十項心靈教育的核心價值，和心靈的重建。

　　劉慧中及鄭佩華透過「於幼教課室上推行從遊戲中學習：是空談還是實際可行?」一文娓娓報導了一項個案研究結果並分析香港推行從游戲中學習的迷思。

　　在語文教學方面，王貞琳給本期讀者介紹了心智理論的發展和分析兒童繪本的心智意義，指出成人與兒童共讀繪本是促進兒童心智理解發展的重要途徑。吳美莉報告了三所本地幼稚園與國際幼稚園英語交流的實驗計劃，探究此項計劃能否有效提升幼兒對學習英語的興趣。結果顯示數位幼兒對是次部份英語浸淫經驗發出強烈負面的聲音，這些聲音向老師及家長揭示了一些重要訊息，值得日後計劃同類活動時作參考。

　　在資訊科技發達的社會中，身為現代的幼兒教育從業員，懂得運用資訊實屬需要。黃美賢、胡馨允的研究是為廣州中心城區13間一級幼兒園的251名幼師進行問卷調查及跟蹤訪談。研究目的在於瞭解幼師運用資訊技術的技能和策略，及分析所面臨的挑戰。

　　作為課程的變革推動者實在不容易，陳寶蓮通過記敘一位大學教師在一所幼稚園內作為變革推動者的反思，帶出促進學校變革的複雜性及其所引致的問題。陳錦榮的「自擁式」校本教師發展模式讓教師能按學生、家長、教師和校長大家所能適應的步伐進行，互相扶持邁向共同的目標，結果為大家所享。

　　無論是依校本精神推行課程變革的推動者 The Hong Kong Institute of Education Library

For private study or research only. Not for publication or further reproduction.

4

Hong Kong Journal ofEarly Childhood香港幼兒學報 Vol. 9 No. 2 December 2010

5

Hong Kong Journal ofEarly Childhood香港幼兒學報 Vol. 9 No. 2 December 2010

Editorial Over the past ten years, the practice of early

childhood education has been shaped and formed by

philosophers of different realms of knowledge. The

questions they have raised and the observations they

have made have been organized and extended to reflect

ideas about how individuals learn and how they can learn

more effectively under different educational systems.

Although scholars, of and after the Enlightenment period,

have differed as to its philosophical, psychological

and physiological bases; it has, for the most part, been

accepted that early childhood education should be child-

centred and that children should be encouraged to enjoy

free play, integrated learning and first hand experiences.

Take for example, a renowned early childhood scholar

in the United States of America, William (1999) has

advocated the notion of ‘whole-child philosophy’ and

emphasized that educators should provide a curriculum

that could ensure the balanced, holistic and integrative

development of the cognitive aspect, affective aspect,

physical aspect, social aspect and creativity aspect of

the young children. This approach has not always found

favour with anxious parents, individual teachers and

early childhood stakeholders who are concerned that

academic standards should be set, raised and maintained,

and that children should be adequately prepared for their

next stage of education (Bickley, 2004).

It is not surprising that in a dynamic society like

Hong Kong, early childhood stakeholders hold different

views towards the same mode of curriculum practice. It

is also understandable that different stakeholders have

different areas of concern about the subject. For this

reason, the editorial board has not set aside a specific

theme for this issue of the paper, so that those who

contributed articles could freely choose their topic of

interest. It is hoped that, through high quality articles

of different focus and interest, it would help broaden

the perspective and deepen the understanding of readers

on the current issues and ongoing debate in the early

childhood field.

In the first article, Zhao Qi and Dora Ho set out

the basic meaning of an integrated curriculum and

through a review of literature and a case study on a local

kindergarten, discuss the problem and inadequacies in the

implementation of integrated curriculum in Hong Kong

kindergartens.

The Project Approach is designed to promote

the integrated curriculum practice. Tang’s paper looks

at the project-based teaching from the view of the

western scholars and tried to apply it in a Hong Kong

或專注於各種學科、術科範疇上進行教學的老師，藉著進行有關方的理論與實踐的研究也是重要的一環。林浩昌的「幼教研究方法中重要概念的學習清單」一文能提供一份關於幼教研究方法的學習清單，作為老師學習之用。

　　實況說明現今的社會對幼教從業員在職業上的要求已趨專業化及多元化，理應在薪酬上能合理地反影出情況，但事實又是否如此呢？劉寶蓮撰文報告其調查有關香港幼師薪酬及年資的現況，並建議政府在要求幼師專業進修及

提升學歷之餘,亦必須要對幼師提供合理的薪酬保障制度。

　　一如以往，每期專欄也會介紹一所幼教機構，今期我們很高興得到東華三院田灣幼稚園的黃玉卿校長為本期的專欄撰寫了「強化語文環境繪本教育」給讀者參考。

執行編輯

劉慧中、梁長城

kindergarten and points out that pre-primary educators,

parents and the community are the key issues to the

problem encountered.

To ensure the full and complete implementation

of an integrated curriculum, the design of the early

childhood curriculum should be play-based. Play helps to

enhance a balanced and multiple development of young

children, promote their cognitive growth, and improve

their emotional intelligence and social skills. Many

research findings conducted on spirituality education

suggest a close relationship between play and spirituality

development of young children. These findings enable

readers to reflect on the important role “play” performs

in achieving the aim of a holistic education.

“The Ten Brothers” was a popular Cantonese movie

in the 60’s. Wong Shu Sing, through his article on the

film, reflects on the 10 core values of spiritual education

and the spiritual development of young children.

Lau and Cheng’s paper details the findings of a

study to ascertain whether learning through play is a

myth in Hong Kong, a question which has long puzzled

practitioners and academics.

In the language teaching arena, Wang’s paper

introduces readers to the theory of mind development and

analyses the mental meaning of children’s picture books,

pointing out that reading of children’s picture book by

adult and child together can play an important role in

promoting children’s mind development. Ng Mei Lee

reports on the findings of an experiment on interchange

between three local and three international kindergartens

on teaching of English, exploring whether the project

can raise the children’s interest in learning English. The

results show that several children have negative feelings

about the English immersion experience. They provide

important messages to teachers and parents, which are

worth considering in organising similar future activities.

As an early childhood education practitioner in a

modern, technological advanced society, the ability to

harness the use of technology is very important. Wang

and Hu’s research was to conduct a questionnaire

survey and interviews with 251 preschool teachers. The

objective of the research is to understand the ability

and strategy of preschool teachers in using information

technology and the challenges that they face.

It has never been an easy task to be a change agent

in curriculum reform. Through her reflection on the role

of a change agent of a university teaching staff, Pauline

Chan brings out the complexity and problems of school

reform. Paul Chan’s “A Self-owned Model of School-

based Teacher Development” enables teachers to work

with children, parents, teachers and school principals

and through moving in a mutually comfortable pace and

mutual support to achieve the common goal, sharing the

fruit of success.

Whether it is a reformer of school-based curriculum

or a teacher concentrating on teaching the academic

and non-academic subjects, it is important to conduct

research that could link theory with practice. Lam’s paper

on “A checklist for learning the important concepts in

early childhood research methods” provides a checklist

for reference by teachers in conducting early childhood

research.

Practical experience has demonstrated that the job

nature of early childhood practitioners has become more

professional and multi-dimensional, which should be

reflected in their pay package, but is it true in reality?

Lau’s paper reports on the findings of a survey on the pay

level and seniority of early childhood teachers and urges

government to provide teachers with a reasonable salary

while requiring them to undertake professional training

and raise their academic qualifications.

As usual, in each edition of the Features section

we will introduce one early childhood institution. In

this issue, we are glad to have Ms Wong Yuk Hing, the

principal of T.W.G.Hs Tin Wan Kindergarten, contributed

a paper on “Enhancing language learning through picture

books” for reference to our readers.

LAU Grace & LEUNG Cheung Shing Sam

Edition Editors

The Hong Kong Institute of Education Library

For private study or research only. Not for publication or further reproduction.

4

Hong Kong Journal ofEarly Childhood香港幼兒學報 Vol. 9 No. 2 December 2010

5

Hong Kong Journal ofEarly Childhood香港幼兒學報 Vol. 9 No. 2 December 2010

Editorial Over the past ten years, the practice of early

childhood education has been shaped and formed by

philosophers of different realms of knowledge. The

questions they have raised and the observations they

have made have been organized and extended to reflect

ideas about how individuals learn and how they can learn

more effectively under different educational systems.

Although scholars, of and after the Enlightenment period,

have differed as to its philosophical, psychological

and physiological bases; it has, for the most part, been

accepted that early childhood education should be child-

centred and that children should be encouraged to enjoy

free play, integrated learning and first hand experiences.

Take for example, a renowned early childhood scholar

in the United States of America, William (1999) has

advocated the notion of ‘whole-child philosophy’ and

emphasized that educators should provide a curriculum

that could ensure the balanced, holistic and integrative

development of the cognitive aspect, affective aspect,

physical aspect, social aspect and creativity aspect of

the young children. This approach has not always found

favour with anxious parents, individual teachers and

early childhood stakeholders who are concerned that

academic standards should be set, raised and maintained,

and that children should be adequately prepared for their

next stage of education (Bickley, 2004).

It is not surprising that in a dynamic society like

Hong Kong, early childhood stakeholders hold different

views towards the same mode of curriculum practice. It

is also understandable that different stakeholders have

different areas of concern about the subject. For this

reason, the editorial board has not set aside a specific

theme for this issue of the paper, so that those who

contributed articles could freely choose their topic of

interest. It is hoped that, through high quality articles

of different focus and interest, it would help broaden

the perspective and deepen the understanding of readers

on the current issues and ongoing debate in the early

childhood field.

In the first article, Zhao Qi and Dora Ho set out

the basic meaning of an integrated curriculum and

through a review of literature and a case study on a local

kindergarten, discuss the problem and inadequacies in the

implementation of integrated curriculum in Hong Kong

kindergartens.

The Project Approach is designed to promote

the integrated curriculum practice. Tang’s paper looks

at the project-based teaching from the view of the

western scholars and tried to apply it in a Hong Kong

或專注於各種學科、術科範疇上進行教學的老師，藉著進行有關方的理論與實踐的研究也是重要的一環。林浩昌的「幼教研究方法中重要概念的學習清單」一文能提供一份關於幼教研究方法的學習清單，作為老師學習之用。

　　實況說明現今的社會對幼教從業員在職業上的要求已趨專業化及多元化，理應在薪酬上能合理地反影出情況，但事實又是否如此呢？劉寶蓮撰文報告其調查有關香港幼師薪酬及年資的現況，並建議政府在要求幼師專業進修及

提升學歷之餘,亦必須要對幼師提供合理的薪酬保障制度。

　　一如以往，每期專欄也會介紹一所幼教機構，今期我們很高興得到東華三院田灣幼稚園的黃玉卿校長為本期的專欄撰寫了「強化語文環境繪本教育」給讀者參考。

執行編輯

劉慧中、梁長城

kindergarten and points out that pre-primary educators,

parents and the community are the key issues to the

problem encountered.

To ensure the full and complete implementation

of an integrated curriculum, the design of the early

childhood curriculum should be play-based. Play helps to

enhance a balanced and multiple development of young

children, promote their cognitive growth, and improve

their emotional intelligence and social skills. Many

research findings conducted on spirituality education

suggest a close relationship between play and spirituality

development of young children. These findings enable

readers to reflect on the important role “play” performs

in achieving the aim of a holistic education.

“The Ten Brothers” was a popular Cantonese movie

in the 60’s. Wong Shu Sing, through his article on the

film, reflects on the 10 core values of spiritual education

and the spiritual development of young children.

Lau and Cheng’s paper details the findings of a

study to ascertain whether learning through play is a

myth in Hong Kong, a question which has long puzzled

practitioners and academics.

In the language teaching arena, Wang’s paper

introduces readers to the theory of mind development and

analyses the mental meaning of children’s picture books,

pointing out that reading of children’s picture book by

adult and child together can play an important role in

promoting children’s mind development. Ng Mei Lee

reports on the findings of an experiment on interchange

between three local and three international kindergartens

on teaching of English, exploring whether the project

can raise the children’s interest in learning English. The

results show that several children have negative feelings

about the English immersion experience. They provide

important messages to teachers and parents, which are

worth considering in organising similar future activities.

As an early childhood education practitioner in a

modern, technological advanced society, the ability to

harness the use of technology is very important. Wang

and Hu’s research was to conduct a questionnaire

survey and interviews with 251 preschool teachers. The

objective of the research is to understand the ability

and strategy of preschool teachers in using information

technology and the challenges that they face.

It has never been an easy task to be a change agent

in curriculum reform. Through her reflection on the role

of a change agent of a university teaching staff, Pauline

Chan brings out the complexity and problems of school

reform. Paul Chan’s “A Self-owned Model of School-

based Teacher Development” enables teachers to work

with children, parents, teachers and school principals

and through moving in a mutually comfortable pace and

mutual support to achieve the common goal, sharing the

fruit of success.

Whether it is a reformer of school-based curriculum

or a teacher concentrating on teaching the academic

and non-academic subjects, it is important to conduct

research that could link theory with practice. Lam’s paper

on “A checklist for learning the important concepts in

early childhood research methods” provides a checklist

for reference by teachers in conducting early childhood

research.

Practical experience has demonstrated that the job

nature of early childhood practitioners has become more

professional and multi-dimensional, which should be

reflected in their pay package, but is it true in reality?

Lau’s paper reports on the findings of a survey on the pay

level and seniority of early childhood teachers and urges

government to provide teachers with a reasonable salary

while requiring them to undertake professional training

and raise their academic qualifications.

As usual, in each edition of the Features section

we will introduce one early childhood institution. In

this issue, we are glad to have Ms Wong Yuk Hing, the

principal of T.W.G.Hs Tin Wan Kindergarten, contributed

a paper on “Enhancing language learning through picture

books” for reference to our readers.

LAU Grace & LEUNG Cheung Shing Sam

Edition Editors

The Hong Kong Institute of Education Library

For private study or research only. Not for publication or further reproduction.

6

Hong Kong Journal ofEarly Childhood香 港 幼 兒 學 報 Vol. 9 No. 2 December 2010

7

Hong Kong Journal ofEarly Childhood香 港 幼 兒 學 報 Vol. 9 No. 2 December 2010

學前教育推行統整課程的爭議：香港幼稚園的個案研究Exploring the issues of implementing integrated curriculum:

A case study of Hong Kong kindergartens

趙麒保良局慧妍雅集幼稚園暨幼兒園

何彩華香港教育學院幼兒教育學系

摘要課程發展是近代西方國家教育改革的重要內容之一，課程統整的議題一直都備受爭議。香港教育局推出的《學前教育表現指標》（2000）和《學前教育課程指引》（2006）均要求本地幼稚園推行統整課程，以融合六大學習範疇。本文立足於統整課程的基本含義，通過回顧學者論述的推行統整課程存在的爭議，繼而對香港一所幼稚園推行統整課程的現狀作出研究和分析，旨在透過該所幼稚園的現況反映目前香港幼稚園在推行統整課程中存在的一些問題和不足之處，在此基礎上深入討論在課程統整的過程中教師協作、以研究為基礎的實踐和課程管理三個問題。

AbstractCurriculum development has long been an agenda of education reform in many Western developed countries. Currently, the issues in curriculum integration are at the centre of debates. In Hong Kong, the Education Bureau published the first edition of Performance Indicators in 2000 and a Guide to Pre-primary Curriculum in 2006. Both documents advocate an integrated approach to curriculum organization. Preschools are encouraged to provide holistic, meaningful experience through integrating the six domains of curriculum area. This article aims to offer an understanding of the issues of implementing integrated curriculum through a case study of Hong Kong kindergartens. It will begin with a literature review on curriculum integration. Following that, a brief background of curriculum development in the local field of early childhood education will be provided. The issues of implementing an integrated curriculum and related influencing factors were investigated from the perspectives of teachers of a case study school. The findings revealed the significance of, difficulties with, and issues driving the process of curriculum implementation. In this respect, the implications on teacher collaboration, research-based practice and curriculum management are discussed.

引言 長期以來，統整課程的推行在學術界和學前教育專業中都存在爭議，簡言之，爭議的焦點表現為：一方面，是統整課程與分科課程的對比，支持統整課程的學者一直以來批判分科課程存在的不足，例如 Rugg, Hopkins, Brady, Beane, Connell 等人指出的“分科的方式把知識

當成教育的目的，而不是教育的工具”（轉引自周珮儀，2000，頁 14），而教育工作者亦認為統整課程確實彌補了分科課程中存在的知識破碎、孤立、無實際意義等缺點；但另一方面，在教育實踐中，統整課程又遭遇了實際操作的種種困難，例如教育工作者存在對統整課程的認識和設計能力的欠缺，統整課程亦弱化了知

識和技能的要求等，這些實際操作的缺陷，使統整課程的推行面臨諸多困難（周珮儀，2000；朱家雄，2006）。對於幼兒學習而言，簡楚瑛

（1990）在論述完整學習中指出：“教育的目的就是增進生活各層面的能力，因此課程應該提供整體學習的機會”（頁 2），此意即是說幼稚園課程需設計統整課程。 事實上，目前香港幼稚園在課程選擇上也大都使用統整課程，而課程內容並無統一版本。正是因為課程的推行存在上述的矛盾和爭議，因此更需要對課程理論和務實有深入的研究和討論，幼稚園也正是需要在這些爭議中進行不斷的課程改革和創新，尋求對幼兒發展更為適切的途徑，這也正是本文作此次研究的目的所在。

統整課程的概念 統整課程的概念在學界並未達成共識，尚無權威性定義（遊家政，2000）。Good （1973）界定的統整課程為 :“一種課程組織，貫穿學科教材的界限，關注廣泛的生活問題或寬廣的學習領域，將各種分割的課程組合成有意義的連結”（轉引自遊家政，2000，頁20）。

課程學者 Tyler （1975）曾指出有關編制課程的三大原則——繼續性、程式性與統合性，這些原則意在揭示課程在橫向和縱向上的整合相關。在此基礎上，幼教學者 Breddekamp 與Rosegrant （1995）定義統整課程為：在兒童經驗範圍內提供一個組織的主題或概念，讓兒童能探索和從事於涉及多學科目標的學習活動。周淑惠（2002）認為課程統整是：師生共同選定與生活有關且含涉多學科的議題或概念，作為學習之探討主題，並設計相關的學習經驗，以統整與該主題脈絡相關的知識及試圖理解該主題或解決該問題（頁6）。

凡此種種界定，都從不同層面闡釋了統整課程的含義。本文將稱 Integrated Curriculum 為統整課程，是指“課程成份的橫向聯繫或水準銜接，希望讓特定的課程內容能夠和其他的課程內容建立融合一致的關係，讓學生能夠把所學的各種課程貫串起來，瞭解不同課程彼此之間的關連性，以增加學習的意義性、應用性和效

率性”（黃政傑，1997；遊家政，2000）。本文將採用此定義作為以下分析和討論的基礎。

在幼稚園推行統整課程的爭議之處 學者遊家政（ 2 0 0 0 ）、陳伯璋（ 2 0 0 0 ，2001）、歐用生（2001）均強調統整課程具時代意義（李坤崇、歐慧敏，2001，頁 82）。其一，統整課程將學科加以統合，消除不必要的重複學習；同時，圍繞一個主題來進行教學，強調能力的培養，更能有效地運用教學時間。其二，統整課程能改善課程因學科分化所產生的區隔，以及流於零碎、不能統合，並與生活脫節的現象（李坤崇、歐慧敏，2001，頁 75）。但是無論學術界還是學前教育專業均對統整課程理論及實踐存在疑惑，本文針對學前教育之情況，認為其爭議主要有三個方面，即師資能力、課程內容和課程實踐。本文也正是根據此三方面作為依據，展開下文個案研究的論述。

第一，師資能力上的爭議。朱家雄（2006）認為統整課程不可能達到知識完整性的要求，更會失去了每個科目的獨特性，幼兒沒有足夠的參與時間，而在分科課程中，幼兒參與的時間是充分的。另外，朱家雄亦質疑教育工作者本身是否能根本理解各學科科目之間的共同之處和差異，理解綜合能夠實 現的價值和所起的作用？

第二，歐用生（2002）認為統整課程有知識淺化的危機。課程統整的組織中心，偏重事實，很少使用概念、原理和原則等，不能達到知識完整性的要求；尤其是課程設計偏重活動，缺少對能力和學習內容的考慮，全校學生都玩在一起，有些課程甚至只有活動，沒有學習內容。

第三，統整課程在香港幼稚園推行的實際困難。本地大多數學前機構的教學活動是按照出版商所提供的教材套進行的，而這些教材套作為商業產品，具有很強的市場導向，並且這些不統一的學習資料只能給教師的個人課程決策提供很少的支援。也就是說，香港目前還沒有找到有效的課程統整模式，還不能推行真正

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Hong Kong Journal ofEarly Childhood香 港 幼 兒 學 報 Vol. 9 No. 2 December 2010

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Hong Kong Journal ofEarly Childhood香 港 幼 兒 學 報 Vol. 9 No. 2 December 2010

學前教育推行統整課程的爭議：香港幼稚園的個案研究Exploring the issues of implementing integrated curriculum:

A case study of Hong Kong kindergartens

趙麒保良局慧妍雅集幼稚園暨幼兒園

何彩華香港教育學院幼兒教育學系

摘要課程發展是近代西方國家教育改革的重要內容之一，課程統整的議題一直都備受爭議。香港教育局推出的《學前教育表現指標》（2000）和《學前教育課程指引》（2006）均要求本地幼稚園推行統整課程，以融合六大學習範疇。本文立足於統整課程的基本含義，通過回顧學者論述的推行統整課程存在的爭議，繼而對香港一所幼稚園推行統整課程的現狀作出研究和分析，旨在透過該所幼稚園的現況反映目前香港幼稚園在推行統整課程中存在的一些問題和不足之處，在此基礎上深入討論在課程統整的過程中教師協作、以研究為基礎的實踐和課程管理三個問題。

AbstractCurriculum development has long been an agenda of education reform in many Western developed countries. Currently, the issues in curriculum integration are at the centre of debates. In Hong Kong, the Education Bureau published the first edition of Performance Indicators in 2000 and a Guide to Pre-primary Curriculum in 2006. Both documents advocate an integrated approach to curriculum organization. Preschools are encouraged to provide holistic, meaningful experience through integrating the six domains of curriculum area. This article aims to offer an understanding of the issues of implementing integrated curriculum through a case study of Hong Kong kindergartens. It will begin with a literature review on curriculum integration. Following that, a brief background of curriculum development in the local field of early childhood education will be provided. The issues of implementing an integrated curriculum and related influencing factors were investigated from the perspectives of teachers of a case study school. The findings revealed the significance of, difficulties with, and issues driving the process of curriculum implementation. In this respect, the implications on teacher collaboration, research-based practice and curriculum management are discussed.

引言 長期以來，統整課程的推行在學術界和學前教育專業中都存在爭議，簡言之，爭議的焦點表現為：一方面，是統整課程與分科課程的對比，支持統整課程的學者一直以來批判分科課程存在的不足，例如 Rugg, Hopkins, Brady, Beane, Connell 等人指出的“分科的方式把知識

當成教育的目的，而不是教育的工具”（轉引自周珮儀，2000，頁 14），而教育工作者亦認為統整課程確實彌補了分科課程中存在的知識破碎、孤立、無實際意義等缺點；但另一方面，在教育實踐中，統整課程又遭遇了實際操作的種種困難，例如教育工作者存在對統整課程的認識和設計能力的欠缺，統整課程亦弱化了知

識和技能的要求等，這些實際操作的缺陷，使統整課程的推行面臨諸多困難（周珮儀，2000；朱家雄，2006）。對於幼兒學習而言，簡楚瑛

（1990）在論述完整學習中指出：“教育的目的就是增進生活各層面的能力，因此課程應該提供整體學習的機會”（頁 2），此意即是說幼稚園課程需設計統整課程。 事實上，目前香港幼稚園在課程選擇上也大都使用統整課程，而課程內容並無統一版本。正是因為課程的推行存在上述的矛盾和爭議，因此更需要對課程理論和務實有深入的研究和討論，幼稚園也正是需要在這些爭議中進行不斷的課程改革和創新，尋求對幼兒發展更為適切的途徑，這也正是本文作此次研究的目的所在。

統整課程的概念 統整課程的概念在學界並未達成共識，尚無權威性定義（遊家政，2000）。Good （1973）界定的統整課程為 :“一種課程組織，貫穿學科教材的界限，關注廣泛的生活問題或寬廣的學習領域，將各種分割的課程組合成有意義的連結”（轉引自遊家政，2000，頁20）。

課程學者 Tyler （1975）曾指出有關編制課程的三大原則——繼續性、程式性與統合性，這些原則意在揭示課程在橫向和縱向上的整合相關。在此基礎上，幼教學者 Breddekamp 與Rosegrant （1995）定義統整課程為：在兒童經驗範圍內提供一個組織的主題或概念，讓兒童能探索和從事於涉及多學科目標的學習活動。周淑惠（2002）認為課程統整是：師生共同選定與生活有關且含涉多學科的議題或概念，作為學習之探討主題，並設計相關的學習經驗，以統整與該主題脈絡相關的知識及試圖理解該主題或解決該問題（頁6）。

凡此種種界定，都從不同層面闡釋了統整課程的含義。本文將稱 Integrated Curriculum 為統整課程，是指“課程成份的橫向聯繫或水準銜接，希望讓特定的課程內容能夠和其他的課程內容建立融合一致的關係，讓學生能夠把所學的各種課程貫串起來，瞭解不同課程彼此之間的關連性，以增加學習的意義性、應用性和效

率性”（黃政傑，1997；遊家政，2000）。本文將採用此定義作為以下分析和討論的基礎。

在幼稚園推行統整課程的爭議之處 學者遊家政（ 2 0 0 0 ）、陳伯璋（ 2 0 0 0 ，2001）、歐用生（2001）均強調統整課程具時代意義（李坤崇、歐慧敏，2001，頁 82）。其一，統整課程將學科加以統合，消除不必要的重複學習；同時，圍繞一個主題來進行教學，強調能力的培養，更能有效地運用教學時間。其二，統整課程能改善課程因學科分化所產生的區隔，以及流於零碎、不能統合，並與生活脫節的現象（李坤崇、歐慧敏，2001，頁 75）。但是無論學術界還是學前教育專業均對統整課程理論及實踐存在疑惑，本文針對學前教育之情況，認為其爭議主要有三個方面，即師資能力、課程內容和課程實踐。本文也正是根據此三方面作為依據，展開下文個案研究的論述。

第一，師資能力上的爭議。朱家雄（2006）認為統整課程不可能達到知識完整性的要求，更會失去了每個科目的獨特性，幼兒沒有足夠的參與時間，而在分科課程中，幼兒參與的時間是充分的。另外，朱家雄亦質疑教育工作者本身是否能根本理解各學科科目之間的共同之處和差異，理解綜合能夠實 現的價值和所起的作用？

第二，歐用生（2002）認為統整課程有知識淺化的危機。課程統整的組織中心，偏重事實，很少使用概念、原理和原則等，不能達到知識完整性的要求；尤其是課程設計偏重活動，缺少對能力和學習內容的考慮，全校學生都玩在一起，有些課程甚至只有活動，沒有學習內容。

第三，統整課程在香港幼稚園推行的實際困難。本地大多數學前機構的教學活動是按照出版商所提供的教材套進行的，而這些教材套作為商業產品，具有很強的市場導向，並且這些不統一的學習資料只能給教師的個人課程決策提供很少的支援。也就是說，香港目前還沒有找到有效的課程統整模式，還不能推行真正

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Hong Kong Journal ofEarly Childhood香 港 幼 兒 學 報 Vol. 9 No. 2 December 2010

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Hong Kong Journal ofEarly Childhood香 港 幼 兒 學 報 Vol. 9 No. 2 December 2010

的統整活動（Li，2006；李輝，2008）。

香港學前教育課程發展的背景 伴隨著過去幾十年的全球教育改革，課程模式逐漸從學科中心課程（Discipline-based curriculum）向非結構性課程（Non-structural curriculum）變化，這種趨勢中最突出的表現就是校本課程的發展。Skilbeck（2005）在其著作中，將校本課程發展描述為：校本課程主要是指對課程的設計、內容、組織以及教學法和學習的評估均由學校決定。近年來，香港也捲入了全球教育改革的浪潮，受全球化的影響。香港教育局出版的《學前教育課程指引》（2006，頁 34）中指出，“學前機構應以遊戲貫穿各學習範疇內容，以綜合方式去設計課程”，政府鼓勵各學前機構基於“指引”的基本方針設計校本的統整課程，以此為幼兒提供有意義的學習經驗。然而，實際上本地學前教育機構的校本課程的發展趨勢卻與新的課程政策的發展方向出現矛盾，如上文李輝（2008）所述的在香港幼稚園推行統整課程的爭議：目前學前階段所謂的統整課程只是依賴出版商編寫的教材套開展主題教學活動，並非具有真正意義的校本特色的統整課程。同時，“因為要適應小學教育而存在的壓力（backwash effect），知識的學習在早期教育中被視為是必要的”（Biggs, 1998）。Ho

（2008）對香港兩所被教育局評為優質的幼稚園進行個案研究，結果同樣發現：家長對學前教育質素的觀點雖從單純的育兒轉向了注重幼兒的全面發展，但整體觀念仍存在強調知識的學習。在這樣的背景下，校本統整課程的發展面臨了新的挑戰，同時也對香港學前機構的校長和教師提出了新的質素要求和專業問責。

研究個案的背景 針對幼稚園推行統整課程之實際情況，筆者對香港一所幼稚園的教師進行了半結構式的問卷調查，並對該校之課程設計大綱和教師的教學計劃進行了分析。個案研究幼稚園位於新界，是一所非牟利幼稚園，該校自 2001 年創校起至今已有 8 年歷史。該校現有學生 140 人，校長一名、主任兩名、教師十二名，以及七位支援職員。根據調查發現，該校有兩個特點，其

一是師幼比例低，香港教育局對學前教育的師幼比例要求是 1：15，而該校保持了 1：8 的較低師幼比例；第二個特點是教師整體專業訓練水準較高，除所有教師均持有教育證書外，其中 8 人還持有幼稚教育學士學位資格。該校的課程採用建構主義的“問題—探究—經驗”的模式，結合學校實際情況擬定出教學主題活動課程，例如：學校與我、大自然等。

對研究個案推行統整課程情況的分析 本次問卷是根據黃政傑、游家政、朱家雄等學者關於統整課程的文獻設計而成，因為本次研究的目的是針對幼稚園統整課程的教學實踐的具體情況，所以調查對象為幼稚園的教師。調查採用的半結構問卷是有目標地對受訪者的意見進行調查的方法。當中內容包括受訪學校推行課程的模式、受訪者對統整課程的認識、推行統整課程的困難等。問卷共發放 12 份，收回有效問卷 10 份。此外，筆者對該校課程設計理論大綱及教師的教學計劃進行了個別實例查證分析，作為研究的三角檢測法

（triangulation）。

問卷結果顯示，所有受訪教師均認為學校推行的是統整課程，也同意推行統整課程。但是在考察教師是否認識統整課程的題目中，所有教師均表現出對統整課程的認識不足。其表現是：首先，在“統整課程的種類”一題中，90% 的教師只認為“跨學科統整”才是統整課程，只有 10% 的教師認為“單一學科內的統整”也是統整課程，可見所有教師對統整課程的不同形式認識並不全面；其次，40% 的教師認為，統整課程的缺點在於“浪費太多時間在瑣碎活動中”，但也有60%的教師認為統整課程並無任何缺點，其實課程模式作為一種教學工具，無論分科還是統整課程，其不足已有不少學者提出過論述；最後，對“學校推行統整課程存在的困難”，30% 的教師認為並無任何困難，60%的教師認為困難主要來自於“政府資源不足”，另有10%的教師認為是“教師認識不足”。

總括而言，該幼稚園在推行統整課程中遇到的困難和不足有以下幾個方面：

第一，師資專業技能的問題。“教師的工作就是發展出能讓學生獲得整體學習的課程”（簡楚瑛，1990，頁 2）。一方面，統整課程要求將各學科知識融會貫通，設計而成，即，通過統整課程之設計使六大範疇涵蓋的知識、技能和態度融合，從而促成幼兒的全面發展。調查研究幼稚園全校教師的學歷比政府規定的專業訓練要求為高，即 12 位教師中，有 8 名具幼兒教育學士學位。但筆者置疑是否所有老師都已具有學科專業知識設計和執行課程，此學科專業知識，筆者認為包括以下含義：其一為有關幼兒體能與健康 、語文 、早期數學 、科學與科技 、個人與群體及藝術六大學習範疇（教育局，2006）的學科專業知識；其二為掌握幼兒在體能、認知、語言、情意和群性等領域的發展特徵的知識；其三為能兼具不同學習範疇和幼兒的整體發展，按幼兒學習特點將各學科知識融匯設計以及執行和檢討課程的能力。問卷結果顯示，該校所設計之課程已具有一定的示範作用和校本特點，課程已涵蓋幼兒的“學習範疇”和“發展範疇”兩方面，但也仍有欠缺。如問卷調查中發現該幼稚園主題活動課程之一：“學校與我”，此課程是讓幼兒認識周圍的環境與自己的關係。此主題大部分涵蓋的是語言、情緒等方面的內容，但並未能涉及數學、科學等知識範疇。同時，筆者發現該校其他主題活動課程也有此特點，大部分主題活動統整的都是社交發展、動作技能、語言表達、情緒發展等幼兒發展範疇，但是數前概念、科學概念、閱讀能力等學習範疇成了統整過程中的盲點，而這類較少涉及的知識範疇又需要在其他時間用分科教學的方式進行。這種設計可看作為該校校本課程發展的一個特點，即重視幼兒自身探索和經驗獲得的過程，但也相對弱化了教師作為支持者和引導者的能動性。

第二，教師實踐統整課程能力的問題。如問卷所示，大部份教師對統整課程本身認識不足，教師在主題活動中對教學的設計還處於低結構化的統整教育活動的狀態。“低結構化的統整教育活動是指教學仍然偏向於以教師計劃為主，教師很少從兒童的回饋中調整原定計劃”

（朱家雄，2006，頁218）。例如，在教師的教學

計劃記錄中發現，在一個四歲班“小小藝術家” 的主題活動中，教師提出的問題為 25 個，幼兒只 16 個；在一個三歲班，相同主題教師提問為16 個，幼兒為 7 個。由此可見，教師在活動課程中居於主導地位（teacher-directed activity）；同時，所提問題中有重疊和類似，也有幼兒思維延伸到其他認知範疇的內容，但是教師仍然按計劃進行，並沒有適時針對幼兒問題引申和擴展。如，筆者通過查看教案所見，“學校與我”主題活動中，一位四歲班教師設計的主要目標是，由幼兒觀察並製作各種形態的花，從而使幼兒瞭解學校環境、植物和環保方面的知識。因此，教學提問主要為：“你們在哪些地方見過花，有哪些？”、“怎樣把科室變成好似戶外環境一樣美麗？”、“用什麼材料製作花？”等，但幼兒在探索過程中發現新的問題，如：“為什麼有這麼多花？”（此問題可延伸到自然科學範疇的學習）、“花是誰種的？”（此問題可延伸到個人與群性的發展）、“怎樣畫花”（此問題可延伸到藝術範疇，教師也有涉及），“怎樣叫別人不摘花？”（此問題可延伸到德育、情意教育）等，為了在有限的時間內完成預期的教學目的，教師往往難以顧及幼兒的探索，只能按教學計畫完成既定內容。不能充分抓住隨機的教學時機的重要性，以形成更完善的統整性活動，是未能建立有效的統整課程模式的又一表現。

第 三 ， 課 程 的 設 計 在 統 整 上 的 缺 失 。Tyler（1975）對統整課程提出了“水平統整”

（Horizontal organizat ion）和“垂直統整”（Vertical organization）的概念，即，既要注意各範疇領域之間的橫向聯繫，又要兼顧其縱向發展。該幼稚園由於其課程均由學者擬定，在業界具有代表性，也有嚴謹的學科理論基礎；但是因為現實教學的靈活性和多變性，因此，如前所述，教師在具體推行課程時，只能涵蓋一部分的知識範疇，很多知識範疇的內容難融其中。筆者在教師的教學計劃中所見教師的教學反思，其通常性的描述為“選取教學內容方面有矛盾”，即教師難以在學者的課程規劃與自身的教學實踐之間作出平衡，此矛盾可理解為學者在課程的設計和教師在課程的執行中的理論與

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的統整活動（Li，2006；李輝，2008）。

香港學前教育課程發展的背景 伴隨著過去幾十年的全球教育改革，課程模式逐漸從學科中心課程（Discipline-based curriculum）向非結構性課程（Non-structural curriculum）變化，這種趨勢中最突出的表現就是校本課程的發展。Skilbeck（2005）在其著作中，將校本課程發展描述為：校本課程主要是指對課程的設計、內容、組織以及教學法和學習的評估均由學校決定。近年來，香港也捲入了全球教育改革的浪潮，受全球化的影響。香港教育局出版的《學前教育課程指引》（2006，頁 34）中指出，“學前機構應以遊戲貫穿各學習範疇內容，以綜合方式去設計課程”，政府鼓勵各學前機構基於“指引”的基本方針設計校本的統整課程，以此為幼兒提供有意義的學習經驗。然而，實際上本地學前教育機構的校本課程的發展趨勢卻與新的課程政策的發展方向出現矛盾，如上文李輝（2008）所述的在香港幼稚園推行統整課程的爭議：目前學前階段所謂的統整課程只是依賴出版商編寫的教材套開展主題教學活動，並非具有真正意義的校本特色的統整課程。同時，“因為要適應小學教育而存在的壓力（backwash effect），知識的學習在早期教育中被視為是必要的”（Biggs, 1998）。Ho

（2008）對香港兩所被教育局評為優質的幼稚園進行個案研究，結果同樣發現：家長對學前教育質素的觀點雖從單純的育兒轉向了注重幼兒的全面發展，但整體觀念仍存在強調知識的學習。在這樣的背景下，校本統整課程的發展面臨了新的挑戰，同時也對香港學前機構的校長和教師提出了新的質素要求和專業問責。

研究個案的背景 針對幼稚園推行統整課程之實際情況，筆者對香港一所幼稚園的教師進行了半結構式的問卷調查，並對該校之課程設計大綱和教師的教學計劃進行了分析。個案研究幼稚園位於新界，是一所非牟利幼稚園，該校自 2001 年創校起至今已有 8 年歷史。該校現有學生 140 人，校長一名、主任兩名、教師十二名，以及七位支援職員。根據調查發現，該校有兩個特點，其

一是師幼比例低，香港教育局對學前教育的師幼比例要求是 1：15，而該校保持了 1：8 的較低師幼比例；第二個特點是教師整體專業訓練水準較高，除所有教師均持有教育證書外，其中 8 人還持有幼稚教育學士學位資格。該校的課程採用建構主義的“問題—探究—經驗”的模式，結合學校實際情況擬定出教學主題活動課程，例如：學校與我、大自然等。

對研究個案推行統整課程情況的分析 本次問卷是根據黃政傑、游家政、朱家雄等學者關於統整課程的文獻設計而成，因為本次研究的目的是針對幼稚園統整課程的教學實踐的具體情況，所以調查對象為幼稚園的教師。調查採用的半結構問卷是有目標地對受訪者的意見進行調查的方法。當中內容包括受訪學校推行課程的模式、受訪者對統整課程的認識、推行統整課程的困難等。問卷共發放 12 份，收回有效問卷 10 份。此外，筆者對該校課程設計理論大綱及教師的教學計劃進行了個別實例查證分析，作為研究的三角檢測法

（triangulation）。

問卷結果顯示，所有受訪教師均認為學校推行的是統整課程，也同意推行統整課程。但是在考察教師是否認識統整課程的題目中，所有教師均表現出對統整課程的認識不足。其表現是：首先，在“統整課程的種類”一題中，90% 的教師只認為“跨學科統整”才是統整課程，只有 10% 的教師認為“單一學科內的統整”也是統整課程，可見所有教師對統整課程的不同形式認識並不全面；其次，40% 的教師認為，統整課程的缺點在於“浪費太多時間在瑣碎活動中”，但也有60%的教師認為統整課程並無任何缺點，其實課程模式作為一種教學工具，無論分科還是統整課程，其不足已有不少學者提出過論述；最後，對“學校推行統整課程存在的困難”，30% 的教師認為並無任何困難，60%的教師認為困難主要來自於“政府資源不足”，另有10%的教師認為是“教師認識不足”。

總括而言，該幼稚園在推行統整課程中遇到的困難和不足有以下幾個方面：

第一，師資專業技能的問題。“教師的工作就是發展出能讓學生獲得整體學習的課程”（簡楚瑛，1990，頁 2）。一方面，統整課程要求將各學科知識融會貫通，設計而成，即，通過統整課程之設計使六大範疇涵蓋的知識、技能和態度融合，從而促成幼兒的全面發展。調查研究幼稚園全校教師的學歷比政府規定的專業訓練要求為高，即 12 位教師中，有 8 名具幼兒教育學士學位。但筆者置疑是否所有老師都已具有學科專業知識設計和執行課程，此學科專業知識，筆者認為包括以下含義：其一為有關幼兒體能與健康 、語文 、早期數學 、科學與科技 、個人與群體及藝術六大學習範疇（教育局，2006）的學科專業知識；其二為掌握幼兒在體能、認知、語言、情意和群性等領域的發展特徵的知識；其三為能兼具不同學習範疇和幼兒的整體發展，按幼兒學習特點將各學科知識融匯設計以及執行和檢討課程的能力。問卷結果顯示，該校所設計之課程已具有一定的示範作用和校本特點，課程已涵蓋幼兒的“學習範疇”和“發展範疇”兩方面，但也仍有欠缺。如問卷調查中發現該幼稚園主題活動課程之一：“學校與我”，此課程是讓幼兒認識周圍的環境與自己的關係。此主題大部分涵蓋的是語言、情緒等方面的內容，但並未能涉及數學、科學等知識範疇。同時，筆者發現該校其他主題活動課程也有此特點，大部分主題活動統整的都是社交發展、動作技能、語言表達、情緒發展等幼兒發展範疇，但是數前概念、科學概念、閱讀能力等學習範疇成了統整過程中的盲點，而這類較少涉及的知識範疇又需要在其他時間用分科教學的方式進行。這種設計可看作為該校校本課程發展的一個特點，即重視幼兒自身探索和經驗獲得的過程，但也相對弱化了教師作為支持者和引導者的能動性。

第二，教師實踐統整課程能力的問題。如問卷所示，大部份教師對統整課程本身認識不足，教師在主題活動中對教學的設計還處於低結構化的統整教育活動的狀態。“低結構化的統整教育活動是指教學仍然偏向於以教師計劃為主，教師很少從兒童的回饋中調整原定計劃”

（朱家雄，2006，頁218）。例如，在教師的教學

計劃記錄中發現，在一個四歲班“小小藝術家” 的主題活動中，教師提出的問題為 25 個，幼兒只 16 個；在一個三歲班，相同主題教師提問為16 個，幼兒為 7 個。由此可見，教師在活動課程中居於主導地位（teacher-directed activity）；同時，所提問題中有重疊和類似，也有幼兒思維延伸到其他認知範疇的內容，但是教師仍然按計劃進行，並沒有適時針對幼兒問題引申和擴展。如，筆者通過查看教案所見，“學校與我”主題活動中，一位四歲班教師設計的主要目標是，由幼兒觀察並製作各種形態的花，從而使幼兒瞭解學校環境、植物和環保方面的知識。因此，教學提問主要為：“你們在哪些地方見過花，有哪些？”、“怎樣把科室變成好似戶外環境一樣美麗？”、“用什麼材料製作花？”等，但幼兒在探索過程中發現新的問題，如：“為什麼有這麼多花？”（此問題可延伸到自然科學範疇的學習）、“花是誰種的？”（此問題可延伸到個人與群性的發展）、“怎樣畫花”（此問題可延伸到藝術範疇，教師也有涉及），“怎樣叫別人不摘花？”（此問題可延伸到德育、情意教育）等，為了在有限的時間內完成預期的教學目的，教師往往難以顧及幼兒的探索，只能按教學計畫完成既定內容。不能充分抓住隨機的教學時機的重要性，以形成更完善的統整性活動，是未能建立有效的統整課程模式的又一表現。

第 三 ， 課 程 的 設 計 在 統 整 上 的 缺 失 。Tyler（1975）對統整課程提出了“水平統整”

（Horizontal organizat ion）和“垂直統整”（Vertical organization）的概念，即，既要注意各範疇領域之間的橫向聯繫，又要兼顧其縱向發展。該幼稚園由於其課程均由學者擬定，在業界具有代表性，也有嚴謹的學科理論基礎；但是因為現實教學的靈活性和多變性，因此，如前所述，教師在具體推行課程時，只能涵蓋一部分的知識範疇，很多知識範疇的內容難融其中。筆者在教師的教學計劃中所見教師的教學反思，其通常性的描述為“選取教學內容方面有矛盾”，即教師難以在學者的課程規劃與自身的教學實踐之間作出平衡，此矛盾可理解為學者在課程的設計和教師在課程的執行中的理論與

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實踐的差距所致，即理論與現實的複雜性難以配合（Cheng，2001）。

第四，統整課程模式以主題活動為主，較少其他模式，而主題活動時間嚴重不足。李輝

（2008）曾指出，香港幼稚園現有的統整模式有四種，包括方案教學法（Project Approach ）、高廣度教學法（High Scope Approach）、瑞吉歐教學法（Reggio Emilia Approach）和以故事為骨幹的統整課程（Story Approach）。但是通過本次調查，筆者瞭解到該幼稚園只有“主題活動”唯一模式。例如，上文提到的“學校與我”的主題。這個研究個案某程度反映了香港一些幼稚園的現況，就是欠缺人力物力，模式單一，很多教學法也沒有靈活運用起來，形成有效的統整課程模式。另外，此間幼稚園主題活動時間為早上，但是實際上在一小時內，要完成集體活動、分組活動、個人活動，以及培養幼兒有關的態度、知識和技能是非常困難的。

第 五，政府資源不足。本次問卷調查的幼稚園教師大都認為，在推行統整課程的過程中，最大的困難來自政府資源不足。政府雖有相關課程政策，但是缺乏對幼稚園場地、資金、人力和設施等資源方面的支援，也缺乏對政策與實踐之間的鴻溝和矛盾等問題的考慮，因而導致課程推行過程中產生許多實際困難。政府的支援不足，還主要表現為上文已述的李輝（2006，2008）研究發現的香港推行統整課程實際困難的源頭—─出版商的教材套，正是這些材料抑制了教師自下而上共同決策課程的空間。也就是說大部分幼稚園自行開發課程的能力尚欠，而政府迅速推行校本課程的政策，此間形成了巨大落差，而政府並未對此困難和矛盾給予足夠的後續支援，使學校推行統整課程難脫現狀的困局。

個案研究的反思第一，加強教師的專業能力以推行統整課程的設計和實行

如前所述，教師在主題活動過程中仍處於低結構化的階段，並且對學科專門知識和教學法掌握不足，使統整課程並不完善和有效。

在教學法上，教師應注意捕捉隨機的教學機會，對於幼兒在互動中的延伸性思考和問題給予積極回饋，或者借此展開其他領域的學習探索；通過教師之間的小組合作學習深化學科知識和有關教學法，共同討論和設計有效的統整模式。在課程設計中，教師應注意擬定每一活動的目的，規劃在此目標下可涉及哪些知識範疇，並將目前缺乏的知識範疇適當地加入主題活動中，彌補現有形式的不足。雖然，統整課程並不是要將所有的學科領域都統整在一個主題中，強行納入各個學科領域的活動，將成為一個“人為化的活動集錦”

（Jacobs,1991;Jacobs,2006;周淑惠，2001），但是在當前的幼兒課程中仍存在各領域的可統整連結之處，卻仍未有效的識別和設計。

第二，學者需建立和教師教學實踐更密切的聯繫，在研究統整課程時應首先確定統整的廣度和深度

學 者 和 教 師 都 應 通 過 實 踐 研 究 ， 發 展實踐知識，從而縮小理論與實踐之間的鴻溝

（Cheng，2001）。教學實踐中，實踐的難易程度和可操作性，往往與學者觀念中設想的狀態是有出入的，因而學者需與教師一起對建立有效統整課程模式達成共識，學者在課程設計中，更應以專業知識的廣度和深度彌補師資課程設計的欠缺；而教師也不是只是課程的執行者，而應充分發揮“自下而上”的作用形成有效的符合客觀事實的課程模式。

此外，確定課程統整的廣度和深度（李坤崇、歐慧敏，2001，頁82）。學者應釐清六大範疇的可統整之處及用何種方式統整更適合幼兒的學習和發展，幫助其構建完整的知識架構。課程統整中要注意：一方面要顧及六大範疇之間的統整，避免現階段知識缺失的繼續（水平統整）；另一方面，要能兼顧幼兒在整個幼稚園學習階段的統整，既能避免不必要的重複又能注重知識的遞進性和延伸性（垂直統整）。學者亦應與教師進行協作的課程研究，以瞭解實踐的困難，達至以研究為基礎的實踐（Research-based practice ）。

以 K3 幼兒“學校與我”該主題的統整設計為例，筆者認為該校目前的設計已較完整，上文所提欠缺之處，其彌補空間也有跡可循。“學校與我”主題所要達至的目的，總目的為使幼兒認識自身及自身與環境（包括人與物）的關係，總目標下，六大範疇所涵蓋的知識、技能和態度在教案中基本可見設計統整。如，組織幼兒參觀學校設施，根據所觀所感，以畫圖配以文字的方式進行彙報（藝術和語文的範疇）；閱讀有關學校和周圍環境的資料（語文範疇）；表達對學校和身邊人的情緒（個人與群體範疇）。按上文所述統整課程的廣度，早期數學也可納入此主題統整的範疇，如，可讓幼兒統計所在班的人數或教師人數，讓其瞭解一定範圍的數與量及統計的初步概念。也可通過讓幼兒認識學校的地理位置及擴大至學校與周圍環境的關係，可帶入地理自然等科學知識的介紹。統整方式和內容因具體情況而異，其目的都是幫助幼兒獲得完整的知識架構。

第三，改革現有政策和資源的不足 政府目前積極推動有校本特色的統整課程，但是“主題化、生活化與活動化的統整課程，其過程乃由下而上的”（李坤崇、歐慧敏，2001，頁 80），具有校本特色的統整課程應是前線教師結合實際學校資源和幼兒需要編訂而成，因此，現時的政策顯示出政府在推動政策時並未充分考量現實的困難阻礙及其可行性，而在變革過程中，如果開始時就能釐定有一個現實和有限的範圍，便能夠增加成功變革的可能性（Ho，2005），新政策的制定和推行有待對實踐性的充分考量，避免政策的推行衍生出諸多困難，出現政策釐定和政策實踐脫軌的情況。

上文提及的出版商編訂的教材套的資源問題，反映了香港目前課程編訂還未能達到“由下而上”的理想狀態。出版商教材套大部分都囊括了教學所需的課程內容、方法、步驟、教具，以至幼兒所需用工作紙，在以兒童為中心、針

對幼兒的發展能力和需要（教育局，2006）的教育觀念下，教材套雖減輕了教師繁重的工作負擔，但也限制了教師專業能力的學習和發展。筆者認為出版商也應在觀念更新的教育改革中，作好自身的專業化改變，如教材研發可傾向於發揮幼兒創造力、解難能力和多向思維的活動，將現時未能統整的範疇有效加入到教學活動中以及配合香港特點設計課 程等，總而言之，其提供的教材套應是給教師的有利資源，而不是統一藍本。

如上文所述，此次研究之幼稚園教師的專業訓練程度都達到，部分甚至超過教育局的要求，加上 1：8 的師幼比例，這些優點是目前香港很多幼稚園尚欠缺的條件。但是該間幼稚園在推行統整課程時仍有不足之處。對大部分幼稚園而言，他們還欠缺這些有利條件，可想，情況更堪然。因此，對香港的現狀而言，大學和學前機構的合作交流，對彌補教師專業能力的不足，擴闊教師視野顯得愈為重要，政府應在此方面給予更多的推動和支持。

結語 通過以上的探討，概括而言，統整課程的推行在學術界仍有不同聲音。但在香港學前教育，政府官方大力推動統整課程的政策，從不同的文獻中也顯示出統整課程能配合幼兒的發展，是幼兒學習最有效的方式。就筆者本次透過個案研究所瞭解的香港幼稚園推行統整課程的情況，課程的推行雖在大部份幼稚園得到認同，但是，因受以上所述的四種限制，分別是：教師實踐能力不足、課程設計的缺失、活動方式單一且時間不足和政府支援不足，以致未能有效推行統整課程。因此，香港學前教育統整課程的實踐仍然存在很多不足和尚待發展的空間。更有效的課程模式有待於政府、學界、學校和教師的通力合作，使更多的幼兒受惠於不斷改善的學前教育。

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Hong Kong Journal ofEarly Childhood香 港 幼 兒 學 報 Vol. 9 No. 2 December 2010

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Hong Kong Journal ofEarly Childhood香 港 幼 兒 學 報 Vol. 9 No. 2 December 2010

實踐的差距所致，即理論與現實的複雜性難以配合（Cheng，2001）。

第四，統整課程模式以主題活動為主，較少其他模式，而主題活動時間嚴重不足。李輝

（2008）曾指出，香港幼稚園現有的統整模式有四種，包括方案教學法（Project Approach ）、高廣度教學法（High Scope Approach）、瑞吉歐教學法（Reggio Emilia Approach）和以故事為骨幹的統整課程（Story Approach）。但是通過本次調查，筆者瞭解到該幼稚園只有“主題活動”唯一模式。例如，上文提到的“學校與我”的主題。這個研究個案某程度反映了香港一些幼稚園的現況，就是欠缺人力物力，模式單一，很多教學法也沒有靈活運用起來，形成有效的統整課程模式。另外，此間幼稚園主題活動時間為早上，但是實際上在一小時內，要完成集體活動、分組活動、個人活動，以及培養幼兒有關的態度、知識和技能是非常困難的。

第 五，政府資源不足。本次問卷調查的幼稚園教師大都認為，在推行統整課程的過程中，最大的困難來自政府資源不足。政府雖有相關課程政策，但是缺乏對幼稚園場地、資金、人力和設施等資源方面的支援，也缺乏對政策與實踐之間的鴻溝和矛盾等問題的考慮，因而導致課程推行過程中產生許多實際困難。政府的支援不足，還主要表現為上文已述的李輝（2006，2008）研究發現的香港推行統整課程實際困難的源頭—─出版商的教材套，正是這些材料抑制了教師自下而上共同決策課程的空間。也就是說大部分幼稚園自行開發課程的能力尚欠，而政府迅速推行校本課程的政策，此間形成了巨大落差，而政府並未對此困難和矛盾給予足夠的後續支援，使學校推行統整課程難脫現狀的困局。

個案研究的反思第一，加強教師的專業能力以推行統整課程的設計和實行

如前所述，教師在主題活動過程中仍處於低結構化的階段，並且對學科專門知識和教學法掌握不足，使統整課程並不完善和有效。

在教學法上，教師應注意捕捉隨機的教學機會，對於幼兒在互動中的延伸性思考和問題給予積極回饋，或者借此展開其他領域的學習探索；通過教師之間的小組合作學習深化學科知識和有關教學法，共同討論和設計有效的統整模式。在課程設計中，教師應注意擬定每一活動的目的，規劃在此目標下可涉及哪些知識範疇，並將目前缺乏的知識範疇適當地加入主題活動中，彌補現有形式的不足。雖然，統整課程並不是要將所有的學科領域都統整在一個主題中，強行納入各個學科領域的活動，將成為一個“人為化的活動集錦”

（Jacobs,1991;Jacobs,2006;周淑惠，2001），但是在當前的幼兒課程中仍存在各領域的可統整連結之處，卻仍未有效的識別和設計。

第二，學者需建立和教師教學實踐更密切的聯繫，在研究統整課程時應首先確定統整的廣度和深度

學 者 和 教 師 都 應 通 過 實 踐 研 究 ， 發 展實踐知識，從而縮小理論與實踐之間的鴻溝

（Cheng，2001）。教學實踐中，實踐的難易程度和可操作性，往往與學者觀念中設想的狀態是有出入的，因而學者需與教師一起對建立有效統整課程模式達成共識，學者在課程設計中，更應以專業知識的廣度和深度彌補師資課程設計的欠缺；而教師也不是只是課程的執行者，而應充分發揮“自下而上”的作用形成有效的符合客觀事實的課程模式。

此外，確定課程統整的廣度和深度（李坤崇、歐慧敏，2001，頁82）。學者應釐清六大範疇的可統整之處及用何種方式統整更適合幼兒的學習和發展，幫助其構建完整的知識架構。課程統整中要注意：一方面要顧及六大範疇之間的統整，避免現階段知識缺失的繼續（水平統整）；另一方面，要能兼顧幼兒在整個幼稚園學習階段的統整，既能避免不必要的重複又能注重知識的遞進性和延伸性（垂直統整）。學者亦應與教師進行協作的課程研究，以瞭解實踐的困難，達至以研究為基礎的實踐（Research-based practice ）。

以 K3 幼兒“學校與我”該主題的統整設計為例，筆者認為該校目前的設計已較完整，上文所提欠缺之處，其彌補空間也有跡可循。“學校與我”主題所要達至的目的，總目的為使幼兒認識自身及自身與環境（包括人與物）的關係，總目標下，六大範疇所涵蓋的知識、技能和態度在教案中基本可見設計統整。如，組織幼兒參觀學校設施，根據所觀所感，以畫圖配以文字的方式進行彙報（藝術和語文的範疇）；閱讀有關學校和周圍環境的資料（語文範疇）；表達對學校和身邊人的情緒（個人與群體範疇）。按上文所述統整課程的廣度，早期數學也可納入此主題統整的範疇，如，可讓幼兒統計所在班的人數或教師人數，讓其瞭解一定範圍的數與量及統計的初步概念。也可通過讓幼兒認識學校的地理位置及擴大至學校與周圍環境的關係，可帶入地理自然等科學知識的介紹。統整方式和內容因具體情況而異，其目的都是幫助幼兒獲得完整的知識架構。

第三，改革現有政策和資源的不足 政府目前積極推動有校本特色的統整課程，但是“主題化、生活化與活動化的統整課程，其過程乃由下而上的”（李坤崇、歐慧敏，2001，頁 80），具有校本特色的統整課程應是前線教師結合實際學校資源和幼兒需要編訂而成，因此，現時的政策顯示出政府在推動政策時並未充分考量現實的困難阻礙及其可行性，而在變革過程中，如果開始時就能釐定有一個現實和有限的範圍，便能夠增加成功變革的可能性（Ho，2005），新政策的制定和推行有待對實踐性的充分考量，避免政策的推行衍生出諸多困難，出現政策釐定和政策實踐脫軌的情況。

上文提及的出版商編訂的教材套的資源問題，反映了香港目前課程編訂還未能達到“由下而上”的理想狀態。出版商教材套大部分都囊括了教學所需的課程內容、方法、步驟、教具，以至幼兒所需用工作紙，在以兒童為中心、針

對幼兒的發展能力和需要（教育局，2006）的教育觀念下，教材套雖減輕了教師繁重的工作負擔，但也限制了教師專業能力的學習和發展。筆者認為出版商也應在觀念更新的教育改革中，作好自身的專業化改變，如教材研發可傾向於發揮幼兒創造力、解難能力和多向思維的活動，將現時未能統整的範疇有效加入到教學活動中以及配合香港特點設計課 程等，總而言之，其提供的教材套應是給教師的有利資源，而不是統一藍本。

如上文所述，此次研究之幼稚園教師的專業訓練程度都達到，部分甚至超過教育局的要求，加上 1：8 的師幼比例，這些優點是目前香港很多幼稚園尚欠缺的條件。但是該間幼稚園在推行統整課程時仍有不足之處。對大部分幼稚園而言，他們還欠缺這些有利條件，可想，情況更堪然。因此，對香港的現狀而言，大學和學前機構的合作交流，對彌補教師專業能力的不足，擴闊教師視野顯得愈為重要，政府應在此方面給予更多的推動和支持。

結語 通過以上的探討，概括而言，統整課程的推行在學術界仍有不同聲音。但在香港學前教育，政府官方大力推動統整課程的政策，從不同的文獻中也顯示出統整課程能配合幼兒的發展，是幼兒學習最有效的方式。就筆者本次透過個案研究所瞭解的香港幼稚園推行統整課程的情況，課程的推行雖在大部份幼稚園得到認同，但是，因受以上所述的四種限制，分別是：教師實踐能力不足、課程設計的缺失、活動方式單一且時間不足和政府支援不足，以致未能有效推行統整課程。因此，香港學前教育統整課程的實踐仍然存在很多不足和尚待發展的空間。更有效的課程模式有待於政府、學界、學校和教師的通力合作，使更多的幼兒受惠於不斷改善的學前教育。

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For private study or research only. Not for publication or further reproduction.

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Hong Kong Journal ofEarly Childhood香 港 幼 兒 學 報 Vol. 9 No. 2 December 2010

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臺北：心理出版社。課程發展議會（2006）：《學前教育課程指引》，瀏覽日期：26-3-2009，http://www.edb.gov.hk/FileManager/

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Education Journal .33(4), 223-229.Skilbeck, M.(2005). School-based curriculum development. In A. Lieberman (Ed.), The roots of educational change,

Netherlands: Springer.Tyler, R. (1975). Basic principles of curriculum & instruction. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.

一位幼教老師從西方幼教學者的觀點看一所香港幼稚園的方案教學

Understanding the Project Approach from the view of the western scholars through an early childhood teacher in

Hong Kong

鄧綺雯崇真會美善幼稚園暨幼兒園

摘要「以兒童為中心」是近代幼兒教育的核心價值，而方案教學則是達成優質教育的主要教學模式之一，其理念重視兒童主導學習，從而建構知識，以奠定終生學習的基礎。本文嘗試以西方幼教學者的觀點看一所幼稚園推行的方案教學，並進行分析，討論聚焦會集中兩個議題：兒童學習的主導性，以及建構知識的重要性，隨即反思影響香港幼稚園成功施行方案教學的因素。作者指出教師、學校和家長因素是問題產生的關鍵所在，成功的方案教學實有賴幼教機構、家長和社區合作，共育幼兒。

AbstractThe child-centered approach is the core value of contemporary education. The project approach to learning and curriculum is carried out in such a way to promote the quality of children’s learning. This article attempts to look at project-based teaching from the view of the western scholars and tried to apply it in a Hong Kong kindergarten. Two issues are discussed, the significance of child-directed learning and children’s knowledge building. The factors that influence the project-based teaching practiced in Hong Kong kindergarten are discussed. The author assumes the success of its implementation depends on the collaboration among pre-primary institutes, parents and the community for children’s well-being.

引言 「以兒童為中心」的教育理念是現今學前教育取向的大趨勢。有學者指出：只有真正尊重兒童的發展規律、心理能力、興趣等，並以之為幼兒教育的基礎，並且，讓兒童通過心理功能的自主驅動，發揮理性抉擇能力，其自主學習能力和獨立能力，才能提高，從而為幼兒終生學習與發展打下良好的基礎。教育理念若能以方案教學作旗幟，發揮「以兒童為中心」教學模式的理念，方能朝優質教育的方向走。現以曾任教的一所幼稚園的課程為例子，反思香港施行方案教學的情況。這幼稚園全年主要以出版社所編制的主題教材套內容編排課程，在一

年中，會進行兩次方案教學活動，筆者嘗試在方案教學中實踐「以兒童為中心」的教育理念，但過程中經歷不少困難與挑戰。現以西方觀點分析本人所推行的方案教學，藉此反思推行方案教學上不足之處，從而獲得現況改善的啟示。

西方和香港推行方案教學的社會背景在西方社會方面︰

以杜威為首的美國幼兒教育哲學思想，提出從“教育即生長、即經驗改造、即生活”及

“做中學”等基本觀點出發。1918 年，杜威的學生屈百克以「以兒童為中心」、「問題解決法」與

「做中學」的理論作基礎，發展出方案教學的教

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參考文獻簡楚瑛（1990）：課程的目的，《完整學習—幼稚教育課程通論》，臺北:五南圖書出版公司。黃政傑（1997）：《課程改革的理念與實踐》，臺北：漢文出版社。遊家政（2000）：學校課程的統整及其教學，《課程與教學》3（1），頁19-38。李坤崇、歐慧敏（2001）：《統整課程理念與實務》，臺北:心理出版社。歐用生（2002）：從綜合活動課程談台灣課程統整的趨勢，《全球教育展望》31（4），頁14-20。周淑惠（2002）：《幼兒教材教法 : 統整性課程取向》，臺北 :心理出版社股份有限公司。Heidi Hayes Jacobs著，盧美貴、謝美慧等譯（2006）:《課程地圖：統整課程與幼稚園到十二年級的評量》，

臺北：心理出版社。課程發展議會（2006）：《學前教育課程指引》，瀏覽日期：26-3-2009，http://www.edb.gov.hk/FileManager/

TC/Content_2405/pre-primaryguide-net_tc.pdf朱家雄（2006）：《幼稚園課程》，臺北：五南圖書出版有限公司，頁211—233。李輝（2008）：香港幼稚園現有課程統整模式的可行性分析，《幼兒教育》6，頁25-28。Biggs, J. (1998). Learning from the Confucian heritage: So size doesn’t matter? Inter-national Journal of Educational

Research, 29(8) , 723–738.Cheng,P.W.D (2001).Difficulties of Hong Kong teachers’understanding and implement-tation of ‘play’ in the

curriculum. Teaching and Teacher Education. 17, 857-869.Ho, C. W. D. (2005). On curriculum change: The developing role of preschool heads in Hong Kong. International

Journal of Educational Management. 19(1), 48-58.Ho, C. W. D. (2008). Exploring the definitions of quality early childhood programmes in a market driven context: Case

studies of two Hong Kong preschools. International Journal of Early Years Education, 16(3), 223-236.Jacobs, H. (1991). The integrated curriculum. Instructor Magazine, 10(2), p22-23.Bredekamp, S. & Rosegrant, T. (1995). Reaching potentials: Transforming early childhood curriculum and assessment

. Washington D. C.: NAEYC.Li, H. (2006). School-based curriculum development: An interview study of Chinese kindergartens, Early Childhood

Education Journal .33(4), 223-229.Skilbeck, M.(2005). School-based curriculum development. In A. Lieberman (Ed.), The roots of educational change,

Netherlands: Springer.Tyler, R. (1975). Basic principles of curriculum & instruction. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.

一位幼教老師從西方幼教學者的觀點看一所香港幼稚園的方案教學

Understanding the Project Approach from the view of the western scholars through an early childhood teacher in

Hong Kong

鄧綺雯崇真會美善幼稚園暨幼兒園

摘要「以兒童為中心」是近代幼兒教育的核心價值，而方案教學則是達成優質教育的主要教學模式之一，其理念重視兒童主導學習，從而建構知識，以奠定終生學習的基礎。本文嘗試以西方幼教學者的觀點看一所幼稚園推行的方案教學，並進行分析，討論聚焦會集中兩個議題：兒童學習的主導性，以及建構知識的重要性，隨即反思影響香港幼稚園成功施行方案教學的因素。作者指出教師、學校和家長因素是問題產生的關鍵所在，成功的方案教學實有賴幼教機構、家長和社區合作，共育幼兒。

AbstractThe child-centered approach is the core value of contemporary education. The project approach to learning and curriculum is carried out in such a way to promote the quality of children’s learning. This article attempts to look at project-based teaching from the view of the western scholars and tried to apply it in a Hong Kong kindergarten. Two issues are discussed, the significance of child-directed learning and children’s knowledge building. The factors that influence the project-based teaching practiced in Hong Kong kindergarten are discussed. The author assumes the success of its implementation depends on the collaboration among pre-primary institutes, parents and the community for children’s well-being.

引言 「以兒童為中心」的教育理念是現今學前教育取向的大趨勢。有學者指出：只有真正尊重兒童的發展規律、心理能力、興趣等，並以之為幼兒教育的基礎，並且，讓兒童通過心理功能的自主驅動，發揮理性抉擇能力，其自主學習能力和獨立能力，才能提高，從而為幼兒終生學習與發展打下良好的基礎。教育理念若能以方案教學作旗幟，發揮「以兒童為中心」教學模式的理念，方能朝優質教育的方向走。現以曾任教的一所幼稚園的課程為例子，反思香港施行方案教學的情況。這幼稚園全年主要以出版社所編制的主題教材套內容編排課程，在一

年中，會進行兩次方案教學活動，筆者嘗試在方案教學中實踐「以兒童為中心」的教育理念，但過程中經歷不少困難與挑戰。現以西方觀點分析本人所推行的方案教學，藉此反思推行方案教學上不足之處，從而獲得現況改善的啟示。

西方和香港推行方案教學的社會背景在西方社會方面︰

以杜威為首的美國幼兒教育哲學思想，提出從“教育即生長、即經驗改造、即生活”及

“做中學”等基本觀點出發。1918 年，杜威的學生屈百克以「以兒童為中心」、「問題解決法」與

「做中學」的理論作基礎，發展出方案教學的教

The Hong Kong Institute of Education Library

For private study or research only. Not for publication or further reproduction.

14

Hong Kong Journal ofEarly Childhood香 港 幼 兒 學 報 Vol. 9 No. 2 December 2010

15

Hong Kong Journal ofEarly Childhood香 港 幼 兒 學 報 Vol. 9 No. 2 December 2010

學模式（唐淑、何曉夏，2001），此教學模式日後成為美國幼教多元化教學當中的一個影響深遠的教學模式。

在香港社會方面︰ 香港政府於 2006 年編制新的《學前教育課程指引》，指出學前教育的核心價值是「以兒童為本」，對幼兒的認識和尊重是幼兒教育的重要原則，更提出「從遊戲中學習」的教學策略。方案教學模式正能配合這《課程指引》要求，現今香港幼教機構為配合政府政策，更普遍地嘗試施行這教學模式，形成學前教育的新趨勢。

從西方觀點看香港一所幼稚園實施的方案教學

“課程是一個有組織的架構，它寫下了幼兒所要學習的內容、幼兒達成課程目標的過程，教師幫助幼兒達成目標的作法，以及教學背景。”（轉引段慧瑩譯，2008）。筆者以西方觀點在達成課程目標的過程方面看一所幼稚園推行的方案教學，並就上述兩個議題討論這幼稚園在推行方案教學以達成教學目標的做法。

1. 在兒童學習的主導性方面 根據 S.C.Chard（1997）指出，方案教學是根基於「以兒童為本位」的理念來進行活動，方案教學內容是以幼兒的生活經驗、興趣、需要為主要依據。由於幼兒天生好奇、愛探索，幼

兒在活動中會不斷提出各種問題、在過程中會思考和再修正，並產生新的有教育價值的興趣點。由於方案教學具有生成性的特質，故能體現尊重幼兒的自主性的教學原則。L.G.Kate 和S.C.Chard（1998）指出，「方案教學提出學校即生活，讓孩子的學校經驗是真實的日常生活體驗」，可見方案教學的課程內容的決定，是根據學生的興趣並經過討論所生成的。因此，方案教學的課程內容就應具生活化的特質，不應脫離兒童的實際生活經驗。

筆者所推行的方案教學，主題內容雖以兒童生活經驗為主，但推行時卻未能「以兒童為中心」開展。方案的主題是由學校擬訂的，題材是圍繞著幼兒的生活經驗，讓幼兒從中進行探索和研究，如交通工具、食物、衣服等，都是幼兒生活經驗所能接觸到的事物，可見學校在選擇主題時是朝著方案教學所主張的「學校即生活」的理念而進行。筆者當時所開展的主題方案教學和教學活動，是以老師為主導，未能兼顧

「以兒童為中心」的理念，每天的探索活動都是由老師預先安排和設定，就以其中一個「衣服」主題的方案教學為例，老師預設分辨雨衣和普通衣服、雨衣和雨傘的教學目標，才讓幼兒進行探索，而非由幼兒從興趣和解答疑問出發，引致在教學過程中產生主導教學的問題，從下面的軼事紀錄可見一斑︰

老師的教學目標已達到，幼兒也能從中有所學習，可是，就欠缺為幼兒提供重要的學習

目標－主動學習的培養，並未有徹底實踐「以兒童為中心」的方案教學精神。

活動名稱︰「雨衣和普通衣服的分別」的實驗活動軼事紀錄︰

老師拿出一張實驗表掛在白板上，請幼兒穿上雨衣，提問幼兒：「如果老師在雨衣上噴水，水會如何呢？雨衣內的衣服會濕嗎？」有些幼兒說：「水會走去地下、雨衣內的衣服不會濕。」，相反，有幼兒則說：「雨衣內的衣服會濕。」於是，老師將幼兒的預測寫上實驗表上，然後老師就進行實驗，用噴水槍噴雨衣，於是幼兒都大叫：「啲水走到下面呀！」老師問：「走到下面邊度呀？」幼兒說：「地下。」於是老師就說：「是的。」老師請幼兒打開雨衣看看裏面的衣服有沒有濕，老師又請幼兒摸一摸，幼兒就發現是沒有濕的。老師將幼兒觀察出來的結果填上實驗表上。

活動名稱︰「不同物品的防水性」的實驗活動軼事紀錄︰

老師提問幼兒：「在日常生活上有甚麼物件是可以防水的？」大部分的幼兒都說：「雨衣和雨傘。」老師就在地上展示出五件不同的物件：膠片、布、保鮮紙、膠袋和紙，然後向幼兒逐一介紹，並請幼兒猜一猜這些物件是否可以防水的。老師與幼兒一起逐一拿起不同的物件並預測是否可以防水，然後在實驗表上劃上 “✓ ” 或 “ ✗” 記號。完成預測之後，老師就與幼兒一起合作做實驗，用噴水槍逐一噴灑各物件，然後將實驗結果在實驗表上劃上記號。有幼兒提出疑問：「玩具積木防水嗎？」老師表示：「今天時間夠了，我們要準備進行分組活動，明天有時間再作實驗吧。」

2. 在建構知識的重要性方面 方案教學理論主張以「問題解決」為學習目標，更強調「做中學」、解決問題的教育理念。L.G.Kate 和 S.C.Chard（1998）指出，「方案教學的目的是在於增進學習者對所處世界的了解，鼓勵幼兒發問，想辦法解決問題，並強化學習者繼續學習的氣質。」簡楚瑛（1994）指出，「教學是透過解決問題的過程來培養其解決問題的能力，方案教學的整個過程均強調學生的參與

及動手做的活動。」可見方案教學的核心價值包括幼兒在學習過程中獲得第一手經驗，並從發現問題和解決問題當中建構知識。

筆者推行方案教學時所遇到最大的困難是活動時間不足，未能為幼兒提供足夠的學習機會。學校在策劃方案教學的時間安排時，根本 有考慮到提供足夠時間的重要性，現以「衣服」為主題的一個方案教學活動為例說明︰

筆者為了按日程表中主題活動的時間安排，以致往往未完成教學探索活動便需要進入另一學習的活動，如分組做教具練習。筆者未有充分善用幼兒的學習時機，在幼兒認知上產生衝突和失衡時鷹架幼兒的學習，「久而久之，幼兒便懷疑自己的能力，不再發言，不自信，並堅信正確的答案永遠在教師那裡。」（張博，2004，p69）這樣，幼兒便會失去提出問題、思考解決問題的主動性，以致學習變得被動，影響幼兒在學習歷程中建構知識的果效。

影響香港幼稚園實踐方案教學理念的因素

方案教學的精神是「以兒童為中心」，而這所香港幼稚園的方案教學卻有不同的做法。以下將剖析教師、學校和家長如何影響方案教學理念的實踐。

1. 從教師因素來看 西方社會的幼師對方案教學理念有充分的掌握。例如杜威的進步主義教育思想帶動了美

國二十世紀教育改革的運動，在改革期間，教師所扮演的角色是依據新的課程設計原則和新的教學法綱領而改變，在推行「以幼兒為中心」教育政策的原則時，教師都能清楚理解（李德高，2001）。以美國的幼師為例，她們較能實踐

「以兒童為中心」的教學理念，在推行方案活動時能貫徹方案教學的精神。

香港幼教傳統一向以直接教學法為主流教學方式，而且幼教老師對方案認識貧乏。簡楚瑛（2006） 指出，「直接教學模式以教師為中心，教學內容重視讀、寫、算，強調幼兒反覆地練習與回饋，無形中幼兒的學習過程只是圍繞著被動的操練，缺乏解難和自主學習的能力。」而現今的香港幼師，本身便是傳統式、老師主導教育下的產物，故老師在教學上有意或無意地會以主導的形式進行教學，即使在理念上認同，在實踐上會出現“穿新鞋走老路”的現象。

追隨著全球教育新發展，香港政府於 2006

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Hong Kong Journal ofEarly Childhood香 港 幼 兒 學 報 Vol. 9 No. 2 December 2010

學模式（唐淑、何曉夏，2001），此教學模式日後成為美國幼教多元化教學當中的一個影響深遠的教學模式。

在香港社會方面︰ 香港政府於 2006 年編制新的《學前教育課程指引》，指出學前教育的核心價值是「以兒童為本」，對幼兒的認識和尊重是幼兒教育的重要原則，更提出「從遊戲中學習」的教學策略。方案教學模式正能配合這《課程指引》要求，現今香港幼教機構為配合政府政策，更普遍地嘗試施行這教學模式，形成學前教育的新趨勢。

從西方觀點看香港一所幼稚園實施的方案教學

“課程是一個有組織的架構，它寫下了幼兒所要學習的內容、幼兒達成課程目標的過程，教師幫助幼兒達成目標的作法，以及教學背景。”（轉引段慧瑩譯，2008）。筆者以西方觀點在達成課程目標的過程方面看一所幼稚園推行的方案教學，並就上述兩個議題討論這幼稚園在推行方案教學以達成教學目標的做法。

1. 在兒童學習的主導性方面 根據 S.C.Chard（1997）指出，方案教學是根基於「以兒童為本位」的理念來進行活動，方案教學內容是以幼兒的生活經驗、興趣、需要為主要依據。由於幼兒天生好奇、愛探索，幼

兒在活動中會不斷提出各種問題、在過程中會思考和再修正，並產生新的有教育價值的興趣點。由於方案教學具有生成性的特質，故能體現尊重幼兒的自主性的教學原則。L.G.Kate 和S.C.Chard（1998）指出，「方案教學提出學校即生活，讓孩子的學校經驗是真實的日常生活體驗」，可見方案教學的課程內容的決定，是根據學生的興趣並經過討論所生成的。因此，方案教學的課程內容就應具生活化的特質，不應脫離兒童的實際生活經驗。

筆者所推行的方案教學，主題內容雖以兒童生活經驗為主，但推行時卻未能「以兒童為中心」開展。方案的主題是由學校擬訂的，題材是圍繞著幼兒的生活經驗，讓幼兒從中進行探索和研究，如交通工具、食物、衣服等，都是幼兒生活經驗所能接觸到的事物，可見學校在選擇主題時是朝著方案教學所主張的「學校即生活」的理念而進行。筆者當時所開展的主題方案教學和教學活動，是以老師為主導，未能兼顧

「以兒童為中心」的理念，每天的探索活動都是由老師預先安排和設定，就以其中一個「衣服」主題的方案教學為例，老師預設分辨雨衣和普通衣服、雨衣和雨傘的教學目標，才讓幼兒進行探索，而非由幼兒從興趣和解答疑問出發，引致在教學過程中產生主導教學的問題，從下面的軼事紀錄可見一斑︰

老師的教學目標已達到，幼兒也能從中有所學習，可是，就欠缺為幼兒提供重要的學習

目標－主動學習的培養，並未有徹底實踐「以兒童為中心」的方案教學精神。

活動名稱︰「雨衣和普通衣服的分別」的實驗活動軼事紀錄︰

老師拿出一張實驗表掛在白板上，請幼兒穿上雨衣，提問幼兒：「如果老師在雨衣上噴水，水會如何呢？雨衣內的衣服會濕嗎？」有些幼兒說：「水會走去地下、雨衣內的衣服不會濕。」，相反，有幼兒則說：「雨衣內的衣服會濕。」於是，老師將幼兒的預測寫上實驗表上，然後老師就進行實驗，用噴水槍噴雨衣，於是幼兒都大叫：「啲水走到下面呀！」老師問：「走到下面邊度呀？」幼兒說：「地下。」於是老師就說：「是的。」老師請幼兒打開雨衣看看裏面的衣服有沒有濕，老師又請幼兒摸一摸，幼兒就發現是沒有濕的。老師將幼兒觀察出來的結果填上實驗表上。

活動名稱︰「不同物品的防水性」的實驗活動軼事紀錄︰

老師提問幼兒：「在日常生活上有甚麼物件是可以防水的？」大部分的幼兒都說：「雨衣和雨傘。」老師就在地上展示出五件不同的物件：膠片、布、保鮮紙、膠袋和紙，然後向幼兒逐一介紹，並請幼兒猜一猜這些物件是否可以防水的。老師與幼兒一起逐一拿起不同的物件並預測是否可以防水，然後在實驗表上劃上 “✓ ” 或 “ ✗” 記號。完成預測之後，老師就與幼兒一起合作做實驗，用噴水槍逐一噴灑各物件，然後將實驗結果在實驗表上劃上記號。有幼兒提出疑問：「玩具積木防水嗎？」老師表示：「今天時間夠了，我們要準備進行分組活動，明天有時間再作實驗吧。」

2. 在建構知識的重要性方面 方案教學理論主張以「問題解決」為學習目標，更強調「做中學」、解決問題的教育理念。L.G.Kate 和 S.C.Chard（1998）指出，「方案教學的目的是在於增進學習者對所處世界的了解，鼓勵幼兒發問，想辦法解決問題，並強化學習者繼續學習的氣質。」簡楚瑛（1994）指出，「教學是透過解決問題的過程來培養其解決問題的能力，方案教學的整個過程均強調學生的參與

及動手做的活動。」可見方案教學的核心價值包括幼兒在學習過程中獲得第一手經驗，並從發現問題和解決問題當中建構知識。

筆者推行方案教學時所遇到最大的困難是活動時間不足，未能為幼兒提供足夠的學習機會。學校在策劃方案教學的時間安排時，根本 有考慮到提供足夠時間的重要性，現以「衣服」為主題的一個方案教學活動為例說明︰

筆者為了按日程表中主題活動的時間安排，以致往往未完成教學探索活動便需要進入另一學習的活動，如分組做教具練習。筆者未有充分善用幼兒的學習時機，在幼兒認知上產生衝突和失衡時鷹架幼兒的學習，「久而久之，幼兒便懷疑自己的能力，不再發言，不自信，並堅信正確的答案永遠在教師那裡。」（張博，2004，p69）這樣，幼兒便會失去提出問題、思考解決問題的主動性，以致學習變得被動，影響幼兒在學習歷程中建構知識的果效。

影響香港幼稚園實踐方案教學理念的因素

方案教學的精神是「以兒童為中心」，而這所香港幼稚園的方案教學卻有不同的做法。以下將剖析教師、學校和家長如何影響方案教學理念的實踐。

1. 從教師因素來看 西方社會的幼師對方案教學理念有充分的掌握。例如杜威的進步主義教育思想帶動了美

國二十世紀教育改革的運動，在改革期間，教師所扮演的角色是依據新的課程設計原則和新的教學法綱領而改變，在推行「以幼兒為中心」教育政策的原則時，教師都能清楚理解（李德高，2001）。以美國的幼師為例，她們較能實踐

「以兒童為中心」的教學理念，在推行方案活動時能貫徹方案教學的精神。

香港幼教傳統一向以直接教學法為主流教學方式，而且幼教老師對方案認識貧乏。簡楚瑛（2006） 指出，「直接教學模式以教師為中心，教學內容重視讀、寫、算，強調幼兒反覆地練習與回饋，無形中幼兒的學習過程只是圍繞著被動的操練，缺乏解難和自主學習的能力。」而現今的香港幼師，本身便是傳統式、老師主導教育下的產物，故老師在教學上有意或無意地會以主導的形式進行教學，即使在理念上認同，在實踐上會出現“穿新鞋走老路”的現象。

追隨著全球教育新發展，香港政府於 2006

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Hong Kong Journal ofEarly Childhood香 港 幼 兒 學 報 Vol. 9 No. 2 December 2010

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Hong Kong Journal ofEarly Childhood香 港 幼 兒 學 報 Vol. 9 No. 2 December 2010

年編制新的《學前教育課程指引》，提出「以兒童為本」的核心價值，方案教學模式正能配合幼教課程改革的要求。可是，幼師學歷水平一向偏低，部份幼師尚未完成幼教證書培訓課程，對方案教學的理論和實踐未必能充份掌握。學者黎玉貞、黃國茜（2007）指出，1995年香港政府才推出「幼稚園資助計劃」，鼓勵幼師進修，提升專業能力；踏入二十一世紀，特區政府才為「提高幼兒教育工作者專業水平」設下時間表，要求於2003-04年新入職的準幼教老師須修畢一年職前合格幼稚園教師課程，但該證書課程的內容並不包括方案教學理論與實踐，以致形成幼師對方案教學理解不足。幼師每當對方案教學產生疑問時，只是靠參考有關書籍以獲取知識，卻不知如何實踐出來。簡楚瑛（2006）指出，「在方案教學的理論中，有部份的理念是抽象難理解的。」老師往往處於探索和揣摩的階段，未能真正實踐方案教學的精髓。

2. 從社會文化和家長因素來看 西方社會文化重視「以兒童為中心」的教育理念，有利方案的推行。自十九世紀，對於福祿貝爾的「遊戲中學習」和杜威的「以兒童為中心」的教育理念，已深入歐美社會文化當中，幼教工作者十分重視，家長亦能認同，故學校在實施方案教學時能得到教師和家長的配合和支持，在有利「以兒童為中心」的文化基礎上，西方幼教機構較能順利實踐方案教學的理念。

香港社會文化重視以直接教學模式進行「讀、寫、算」的教學，不利幼稚園實施「以兒童為中心」的方案教學。現今的香港家長是在老師主導的學習模式下成長的，習慣被動地接受知識和「讀、寫、算」技巧訓練，認為多操練是重要的。家長重視學習成果多於學習過程的

看法，也影響著強調學習過程的方案的教學安排。幼稚園為要滿足家長的需要，在推行方案教學時，往往要求幼兒進行技巧操練，直接減少有限的方案活動時間，以致幼兒的方案學習往往流於表面。

啟示及總結 透過是次對方案教學理論與實踐的探究，讓我了解我在曾任教幼稚園推行方案教學上的不足，從反思中得到以下的結論：

李生蘭（2003）指出，「幼兒園與家長、社區合作共育是有效發揮學前教育的整體功能、促進兒童全面發展需要的重要因素」。成功推行方案教學實有賴幼教機構、老師、家長認同「以兒童為中心」的教育理念，香港社會文化如能改變傳統「以老師為中心」、「重結果輕過程」的觀念，才有利方案教學推行。

此外，黎玉貞、黃國茜（2007）亦指出，「幼兒教育的素質與幼師的素質息息相關，而幼師的訓練有助提升幼師的素質，在嘗試改善師資的訓練時，應將重點放在服務幼兒的教師上。」學校應鼓勵教師持續進修和接受培訓，以提升其對方案教學的理解和運用所學於教學工作上。

由於社會文化因素，香港在實施方案教學時，與西方的方案教學理念有所差異是在所難免的；因此，香港的幼教機構應因地制宜，因材施教，汲取方案教學理論的精神，再配合香港社會文化，以建立具本土文化特色的方案教學模式。最後，作為幼師的我，會自我勉勵並常緊記「以兒童為中心」的教學理念，讓幼兒成為學習的主人。

參考文獻Chard, S.C.著，林育瑋等譯（1997）：《進入方案教學的世界（１）》，台北，光佑文化出版社。Gordon,A.M & Browne,K.W著，段慧瑩等譯（2008）︰《幼兒教育概論》，台北，心理。Katz L.G., Chard S.C. 著，陶英琪、陳穎涵譯（1998）：《探索孩子心靈世界－方案教學的理論與實務》，台

北，心理出版社。李德高（2001）︰《幼兒教育史》，台北，師大書苑有限公司。黎玉貞、黃國茜（2007）︰香港幼兒教育發展及其專業培訓，《教育資料集刊—初等教育》33。課程發展議會（2006）︰《學前教育課程指引》，香港特別行政區政府，教育局。簡楚瑛（1994）：《方案課程之理論與實務－兼談義大利瑞吉歐學前教育系統》，台北巿，文景出版社。簡楚瑛（2006）︰《幼教課程模式－理論取向與實務經驗》，台北，心理出版社。李生蘭（2004）︰《幼兒園與家庭、社區合作共育的研究》、華東師範大學出版社。唐淑、何曉夏（2001）︰《學前教育史》，遼寧師範大學出版社。

The Hong Kong Institute of Education Library

For private study or research only. Not for publication or further reproduction.

16

Hong Kong Journal ofEarly Childhood香 港 幼 兒 學 報 Vol. 9 No. 2 December 2010

17

Hong Kong Journal ofEarly Childhood香 港 幼 兒 學 報 Vol. 9 No. 2 December 2010

年編制新的《學前教育課程指引》，提出「以兒童為本」的核心價值，方案教學模式正能配合幼教課程改革的要求。可是，幼師學歷水平一向偏低，部份幼師尚未完成幼教證書培訓課程，對方案教學的理論和實踐未必能充份掌握。學者黎玉貞、黃國茜（2007）指出，1995年香港政府才推出「幼稚園資助計劃」，鼓勵幼師進修，提升專業能力；踏入二十一世紀，特區政府才為「提高幼兒教育工作者專業水平」設下時間表，要求於2003-04年新入職的準幼教老師須修畢一年職前合格幼稚園教師課程，但該證書課程的內容並不包括方案教學理論與實踐，以致形成幼師對方案教學理解不足。幼師每當對方案教學產生疑問時，只是靠參考有關書籍以獲取知識，卻不知如何實踐出來。簡楚瑛（2006）指出，「在方案教學的理論中，有部份的理念是抽象難理解的。」老師往往處於探索和揣摩的階段，未能真正實踐方案教學的精髓。

2. 從社會文化和家長因素來看 西方社會文化重視「以兒童為中心」的教育理念，有利方案的推行。自十九世紀，對於福祿貝爾的「遊戲中學習」和杜威的「以兒童為中心」的教育理念，已深入歐美社會文化當中，幼教工作者十分重視，家長亦能認同，故學校在實施方案教學時能得到教師和家長的配合和支持，在有利「以兒童為中心」的文化基礎上，西方幼教機構較能順利實踐方案教學的理念。

香港社會文化重視以直接教學模式進行「讀、寫、算」的教學，不利幼稚園實施「以兒童為中心」的方案教學。現今的香港家長是在老師主導的學習模式下成長的，習慣被動地接受知識和「讀、寫、算」技巧訓練，認為多操練是重要的。家長重視學習成果多於學習過程的

看法，也影響著強調學習過程的方案的教學安排。幼稚園為要滿足家長的需要，在推行方案教學時，往往要求幼兒進行技巧操練，直接減少有限的方案活動時間，以致幼兒的方案學習往往流於表面。

啟示及總結 透過是次對方案教學理論與實踐的探究，讓我了解我在曾任教幼稚園推行方案教學上的不足，從反思中得到以下的結論：

李生蘭（2003）指出，「幼兒園與家長、社區合作共育是有效發揮學前教育的整體功能、促進兒童全面發展需要的重要因素」。成功推行方案教學實有賴幼教機構、老師、家長認同「以兒童為中心」的教育理念，香港社會文化如能改變傳統「以老師為中心」、「重結果輕過程」的觀念，才有利方案教學推行。

此外，黎玉貞、黃國茜（2007）亦指出，「幼兒教育的素質與幼師的素質息息相關，而幼師的訓練有助提升幼師的素質，在嘗試改善師資的訓練時，應將重點放在服務幼兒的教師上。」學校應鼓勵教師持續進修和接受培訓，以提升其對方案教學的理解和運用所學於教學工作上。

由於社會文化因素，香港在實施方案教學時，與西方的方案教學理念有所差異是在所難免的；因此，香港的幼教機構應因地制宜，因材施教，汲取方案教學理論的精神，再配合香港社會文化，以建立具本土文化特色的方案教學模式。最後，作為幼師的我，會自我勉勵並常緊記「以兒童為中心」的教學理念，讓幼兒成為學習的主人。

參考文獻Chard, S.C.著，林育瑋等譯（1997）：《進入方案教學的世界（１）》，台北，光佑文化出版社。Gordon,A.M & Browne,K.W著，段慧瑩等譯（2008）︰《幼兒教育概論》，台北，心理。Katz L.G., Chard S.C. 著，陶英琪、陳穎涵譯（1998）：《探索孩子心靈世界－方案教學的理論與實務》，台

北，心理出版社。李德高（2001）︰《幼兒教育史》，台北，師大書苑有限公司。黎玉貞、黃國茜（2007）︰香港幼兒教育發展及其專業培訓，《教育資料集刊—初等教育》33。課程發展議會（2006）︰《學前教育課程指引》，香港特別行政區政府，教育局。簡楚瑛（1994）：《方案課程之理論與實務－兼談義大利瑞吉歐學前教育系統》，台北巿，文景出版社。簡楚瑛（2006）︰《幼教課程模式－理論取向與實務經驗》，台北，心理出版社。李生蘭（2004）︰《幼兒園與家庭、社區合作共育的研究》、華東師範大學出版社。唐淑、何曉夏（2001）︰《學前教育史》，遼寧師範大學出版社。

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Hong Kong Journal ofEarly Childhood香 港 幼 兒 學 報 Vol. 9 No. 2 December 2010

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Hong Kong Journal ofEarly Childhood香 港 幼 兒 學 報 Vol. 9 No. 2 December 2010

探索如何從十兄弟故事去重建幼兒的心靈Re-constructing Young Children's Spirituality

Through the Story of "The Ten Brothers"

黃樹誠香港教育學院幼兒教育學系

摘要「十兄弟」是六十年代非常賣座的粵語長片。故事發生在清末民初，帶有神話式的編排，戲中主角形象鮮明，十兄弟各具異能，為人正義，心地善良；團結合作，孝順父母。而且他們不怕逆境，齊心協力，各施本能，解決困難！本文作者首先嘗試探討兒童文學的類型和價值。然後分析「十兄弟」的絕技和特性。然後引用聖經金句來配合他們的特異功能作為心靈教育的核心價值。最後，作者分享如何從「十兄弟」中啟迪幼兒之十項心靈教育的核心價值，和心靈的重建。

Abstract“The Ten Brothers” is a traditionally famous Cantonese film produced in the 50’s in Hong Kong. It is a type of creative fairy tale. The story background is in the end of Chin Dynasty in Canton Providence. Each of the 10 Brothers was born with a special gifted ability / power. Living in the most difficulty time of the days and under the adversity of civil war, poverty, injustice, corruption and inhumanity, they were of honest, responsible, helpful, loyal, kind and obedient. Sometimes, they even used their “gifted abilities” to help the poor, the sick and the helpless in order to protect the justice and the peace of the society. The purposes of this paper are three-folded: first, examining the types and values of children literature; secondly, examining the 10 Brothers’ gifted abilities and characteristics with the match of the golden words from the Bible, and fourthly discussing how to re-constructed young children’s cored spiritual values based on the story of “The Ten Brothers”.

引言 心、身、靈康泰是現代人想擁有的豐盛生命之素質。早自一九四六年，世界衛生組織

（WHO） 已提出，健康（Health） 的標準不單止是沒有疾病，而是需要在身體上、智能上和社交上都達到一個良好的狀態。近年這個健康的概

念更被延伸至包括情緒、心靈、事業康盛之範疇，合稱身心康泰（Wellness） ，乃是達至優質人生之完整模式（圖一）。該模式建基於全人康泰的六大支柱，彼此緊扣互動，發揮影響，可說是唇齒相依，缺一不可。

心靈康盛Spiritual Wellness

身體康盛Physical Wellness

智能康盛Intellectual Wellness

事業康盛Vocational Wellness

情緒康盛Emotional Wellness

社交康盛Social Wellness

圖一：優質全人康盛模式

在 2000 年，香港教育統籌委員會發表《終身學習．全人發展：香港教育制度改革建議》提倡終身學習和全人發展的教育發展方向，確立香港在二十一世紀的整體教育目標是：

讓每個人在德、智、體、群、美各方面都有全面而具個性的發展，能夠一生不斷自學、思考、探索、創新和應變，具充分的自信和合群的精神，願意為社會的繁榮、進步、自由和民主不斷努力，為國家和世界的前途作出貢獻。（教育統籌委員會，2000，頁 4） 改革文件強調「全人性教育」和「個別性教育」的重要性，讓學生的潛能得以全面發揮。這目標的四個主要策略方案就是：樂、善、勇、敢（樂於學習、善於溝通、勇於承擔和敢於創新）。整本教育目標己涵蓋全人身心靈的發展。

一年後，課程發展議會（2001） 亦公佈《學會學習－課程發展路向》文件，更進一步申明教育課程要以學生為本，發展學生的全人教育。文件建議了由小學到中學的五大發展範疇：德育及公民教育、智能發展、社會服務、

體藝發展和與工作有關的經驗；八個關鍵學習領域：中國語文教育、英文語文教育、數學教育、科學教育、個人社會及人文教育、藝術教育和體育；九個共通能力（溝通、批判性思考、創造力、協作、運用資訊科技、運算、解決問題、自我管理、研習）和五個重點價值觀和態度：國民身分認同、責任感、堅毅、尊重他人、承擔精神。其實，「價值和態度」就是心靈教育的重要核心元素。因此，課程的改革便透過顯性和隱性的學習領域課程塑造兒童的心靈教育。這兩份劃時代的重要教育文件也直接地奠定了學前教育的發展路向。

根據教育統籌委員會（2000） 和課程發展議會（2001） 的教育和課程改革文件，香港課程發展議會在 2006 年釐定《學前教育課程指引》。指引中亦確認「幼兒的學習與成長是主要受家庭、學校和社會三方面影響的。在認識和尊重幼兒的大前提下，各方面需要作出適當的配合，才能使幼兒發揮潛能、健康成長和養成良好的學習習慣、喜愛學習，為終身學習作好準備」。（香港課程發展議會，2006，頁 7）無可

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Hong Kong Journal ofEarly Childhood香 港 幼 兒 學 報 Vol. 9 No. 2 December 2010

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Hong Kong Journal ofEarly Childhood香 港 幼 兒 學 報 Vol. 9 No. 2 December 2010

探索如何從十兄弟故事去重建幼兒的心靈Re-constructing Young Children's Spirituality

Through the Story of "The Ten Brothers"

黃樹誠香港教育學院幼兒教育學系

摘要「十兄弟」是六十年代非常賣座的粵語長片。故事發生在清末民初，帶有神話式的編排，戲中主角形象鮮明，十兄弟各具異能，為人正義，心地善良；團結合作，孝順父母。而且他們不怕逆境，齊心協力，各施本能，解決困難！本文作者首先嘗試探討兒童文學的類型和價值。然後分析「十兄弟」的絕技和特性。然後引用聖經金句來配合他們的特異功能作為心靈教育的核心價值。最後，作者分享如何從「十兄弟」中啟迪幼兒之十項心靈教育的核心價值，和心靈的重建。

Abstract“The Ten Brothers” is a traditionally famous Cantonese film produced in the 50’s in Hong Kong. It is a type of creative fairy tale. The story background is in the end of Chin Dynasty in Canton Providence. Each of the 10 Brothers was born with a special gifted ability / power. Living in the most difficulty time of the days and under the adversity of civil war, poverty, injustice, corruption and inhumanity, they were of honest, responsible, helpful, loyal, kind and obedient. Sometimes, they even used their “gifted abilities” to help the poor, the sick and the helpless in order to protect the justice and the peace of the society. The purposes of this paper are three-folded: first, examining the types and values of children literature; secondly, examining the 10 Brothers’ gifted abilities and characteristics with the match of the golden words from the Bible, and fourthly discussing how to re-constructed young children’s cored spiritual values based on the story of “The Ten Brothers”.

引言 心、身、靈康泰是現代人想擁有的豐盛生命之素質。早自一九四六年，世界衛生組織

（WHO） 已提出，健康（Health） 的標準不單止是沒有疾病，而是需要在身體上、智能上和社交上都達到一個良好的狀態。近年這個健康的概

念更被延伸至包括情緒、心靈、事業康盛之範疇，合稱身心康泰（Wellness） ，乃是達至優質人生之完整模式（圖一）。該模式建基於全人康泰的六大支柱，彼此緊扣互動，發揮影響，可說是唇齒相依，缺一不可。

心靈康盛Spiritual Wellness

身體康盛Physical Wellness

智能康盛Intellectual Wellness

事業康盛Vocational Wellness

情緒康盛Emotional Wellness

社交康盛Social Wellness

圖一：優質全人康盛模式

在 2000 年，香港教育統籌委員會發表《終身學習．全人發展：香港教育制度改革建議》提倡終身學習和全人發展的教育發展方向，確立香港在二十一世紀的整體教育目標是：

讓每個人在德、智、體、群、美各方面都有全面而具個性的發展，能夠一生不斷自學、思考、探索、創新和應變，具充分的自信和合群的精神，願意為社會的繁榮、進步、自由和民主不斷努力，為國家和世界的前途作出貢獻。（教育統籌委員會，2000，頁 4） 改革文件強調「全人性教育」和「個別性教育」的重要性，讓學生的潛能得以全面發揮。這目標的四個主要策略方案就是：樂、善、勇、敢（樂於學習、善於溝通、勇於承擔和敢於創新）。整本教育目標己涵蓋全人身心靈的發展。

一年後，課程發展議會（2001） 亦公佈《學會學習－課程發展路向》文件，更進一步申明教育課程要以學生為本，發展學生的全人教育。文件建議了由小學到中學的五大發展範疇：德育及公民教育、智能發展、社會服務、

體藝發展和與工作有關的經驗；八個關鍵學習領域：中國語文教育、英文語文教育、數學教育、科學教育、個人社會及人文教育、藝術教育和體育；九個共通能力（溝通、批判性思考、創造力、協作、運用資訊科技、運算、解決問題、自我管理、研習）和五個重點價值觀和態度：國民身分認同、責任感、堅毅、尊重他人、承擔精神。其實，「價值和態度」就是心靈教育的重要核心元素。因此，課程的改革便透過顯性和隱性的學習領域課程塑造兒童的心靈教育。這兩份劃時代的重要教育文件也直接地奠定了學前教育的發展路向。

根據教育統籌委員會（2000） 和課程發展議會（2001） 的教育和課程改革文件，香港課程發展議會在 2006 年釐定《學前教育課程指引》。指引中亦確認「幼兒的學習與成長是主要受家庭、學校和社會三方面影響的。在認識和尊重幼兒的大前提下，各方面需要作出適當的配合，才能使幼兒發揮潛能、健康成長和養成良好的學習習慣、喜愛學習，為終身學習作好準備」。（香港課程發展議會，2006，頁 7）無可

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Hong Kong Journal ofEarly Childhood香 港 幼 兒 學 報 Vol. 9 No. 2 December 2010

置疑，該指引也與前述的改革文件一脈相連，發展幼兒的均衡教育：德、智、體、群、美、靈。（彭敬慈等，2002），這也是 Miller（1991）主張的「情全教育」（Holistic Education），著重全人、全環境和全心靈的結合教育。

香港課程發展議會在 2006 年訂定的《學前教育課程指引》確定幼兒的學習與成長主要受著家庭、學校和社會三方面的影響，這與英國兒童心靈教育學者 Hay（2000） 的發現也相同。而且，Hay & Nye（1998） 的研究更歸納出四個兒童心靈成長關係的認知（Relational Consciousness ）：個人與他人的關係、個人與神的關係、個人與世界的關係、個人與自我的關係。由此可見，兒童在學習與人、事、物、情與境建立相互關係和產生探索和好奇心時，也要培養自己心靈教育的成長。

在《全人學習與心靈教育》一書中，Miller, Karsten, Denton, Orr, & Kates（2005） 指出人們多只着重於五育（德、智、體、群、美） 的發展，而忽略了心靈向度（Spiritual Dimension） 的發展。他們認為兒童的心靈是擁有獨特的及有質量的。幼兒在成長中不單止對環境充滿好奇心，而且更存有敬畏心（Sense of Wonder and Awe）；兒童的心靈活動更會令他們喜愛探索自己與其他人的關係、甚至聯繫永恆的事物。 因此，兒童的心靈需要持續的培育。事實上，心靈教育在幼兒教育中尤為重要，如它能融入五育之中，更能配合香港課程發展議會所提倡課程目標；使幼兒發揮潛能、健康成長，為終身學習作好準備。然而至今，在香港中、小、幼階段較為正規的兒童心靈教育課程也缺乏，（除了宗教課） 正統而全面的職前和在職教師心靈教育培訓課程亦鮮見。更甚的是，學前教師在教師教育課程中於這方面的培訓「完全沒有」！他 / 她們無論在知識、技能和態度上未有基礎的裝備和接觸，試問怎能期望他 / 她們提供適切的心靈教育於幼兒呢？

心靈教育（Spir i tua l i ty Educat ion） 是什 麼 ？ 心 靈 教 育 就 是 關 顧 學 生 心 靈 的 教 育

（NCC,1993;SCAA,1996），也促進學生內在情

感的成長（余瑞宏，2005）。心靈教育之目的是要透過觸動學生的心靈而達至師生間心靈的溝通（吳梓明，2008）。教師必須致力引導及啟發學生善良的本性，發揮他們自我教育的潛能、幫助他們心靈的成長（吳梓明，2008）。要成功推行心靈教育更需建立美好的人際關係及讓學生增進個人的自我了解和自我實現，並讓個人發展自我概念、自我價值及自尊等內涵層面

（吳庶深，2008） 得以彰顯。並且也要讓學生探討生命的終極意義（林智中，2008）。有學者指出，心靈的架構可以包括四個範疇，就是：自我認知、自我反省、欣賞生命和貢獻世界（彭敬慈，2006）。由此可見，心靈教育是教育中一件艱巨工程。有研究指出兒童的心靈特質不比成人少（Ratclift, 2004） ，它對兒童的成長和學習之重要性是不容忽視的。由於幼兒教育是終身學習的基礎，在三歲定八十的中國教養哲學影響下，與幼兒分享心靈教育更是迫切。

英國教育心理學家 Hay 和 Nye 在第一期的《國際兒童心靈學刊》中強調了兒童心靈發展的重要性，他們認為心靈是人類覺識上自然而有的特性（Hay & Nye,1996） ，這種特性是與生俱來的（吳梓明，2008）。然而，以學術為基，考試為本的香港教育制度，嚴重影響了心靈教育的發展，家長和教師也容易輕視其重要性。

其實，幼兒喜歡聽故事、看故事、講故事和演故事，他們從故事中自然地學習「心靈教育」。讓幼兒將從故事中學到的心靈價值，應用於生活中「活出來」，是最好的方法。因此，本文作者嘗試以六十年代著名的粵語長片「十兄弟」故事來作為重建幼兒心靈的工具。本文將會探索四個主要思考範疇： 1. 兒童文學的類型和教育價值； 2. 十兄弟的絕技與特性；和聖經金句的配

合； 3. 重建幼兒心靈教育的核心價值； 4. 心靈教育的反思。

1. 兒童文學的類型和教育價值 兒童故事屬於文學（Literature） 的一種。

「幼兒文學泛指一切思想、想像及感情的表現，

是知識性或情意性的，表現的方式是文字和圖畫，作者是大人或是幼兒自己，表現的形式主要是圖書，或是期刊、報紙，即包括一般通稱的兒童讀物」（黃瑞琴，2005，頁125）。

幼兒文學是透過文字和圖畫表現，參照兒童文學研究學者吳鼎（1980） 的分類，兒童文學的分類方式如下： 1. 散文的形式： 童話、故事、寓言、小說、神話、傳

記、遊記、日記和笑話。 2. 韻文的形式： 韻語、兒歌、詩歌、彈詞和謎語。 3. 戲劇的形式： 話劇和歌劇。 4. 圖畫的形式： 連環圖畫和故事畫。

散文形式的兒童文學包括： 1. 童話：意指「嬰兒的故事」，以其含有

啟發嬰兒的作用；意指神仙、幻想的故事。童話的內容或是從原始人類遺傳下來，或是後世文人的創作。例如： 格林童話、迪士尼故事等。

2. 故事：含有「過去的事跡」的意思，泛指一切有人物、有情節的演述材料。例如：廿四孝。

3. 寓言：是假借動植物言語行為編造而成，常是用擬人化的方式表現，將各種鳥獸、爬蟲、花草、樹木等事物賦予人的生命，能說人的話，表現人的動作。例如：伊索寓言、成語故事等。

4. 小說：為故事之擴充，根據事實加以點綴，有首有尾，情節曲折生動。例如：三國演義、老賓遜飄遊記等。

5. 神話：是史前時代一種超自然的民間故事，初民生活樸實、思想簡純，對宇宙間一切事物的看法，認為有神為之主宰，因而產生各種傳說。例如：西遊記、封神榜等。

6. 傳記：描寫個人的事蹟，將其日常生活、聲音笑貌、學術事功等具體地描述出來。例如：孫中山傳、南丁格爾傳等。

7. 遊記：是描寫各地自然景物與社會生活的記敘文，使兒童獲得豐富的地理知識。

8. 日記：是個人真實生活的記錄，是個人心靈的反應、人格的實錄。

9. 笑話：是引人發笑的材料，或籍事物以寓意，或假託故事性質，令人興奮情緒。

從以上解說可知，「十兄弟」則屬於兒童文學中的「神話」。

不少專門研究兒童文學價值之學者皆明確地證實兒童故事，或兒童文學的教育價值。總括來說兒童學的教育價值可以扼要包括： 1. 情緒的發展和成長 Elias, et al.,（1997） 指出文學帶給兒童不

同情緒的分享和學習，有助兒童情緒的發展。同時也帶給他們快樂和舒服。兒童體驗如何面對喜、怒、哀、樂，學習去愛和被愛。兒童在文學情境中，學習體驗情緒的轉變和淨化。

2. 創造力的提升 兒童在聆聽和閱讀故事時需留心和專

注，而且不停運用想像力把故事意境建立，同時亦可以創作故事的興趣能力（Hendy, 1992） 。因此，他們的觀察力、想像力和創造力也能同步提升

（Dwyer, 1988; Wason-Ellam, 1992; Baker & Greene, 1977; Al-Jafar & Buzzeli, 2004） 。而且，透過思考、想像和成人的鷹架，當兒童參與角色扮演，個人或小組「說故事」活動，甚至「故事劇」時，他們的表演及表達能力便獲得啟發（Graigrer & Kendall-Seatter, 2003; Dwyer, 1988; Wason-Ellam, 1992） 。

3. 認知能力的成長 文字提供簡單和複雜的組織原則，將有

關人類狀況的知識表現成可思考的形式，藉此滿足知識和生活的需要。兒童的知識、概念、定理可以從故事內容中建立和發展（Mishler, 1986; Dwyer, 1988） 。

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Hong Kong Journal ofEarly Childhood香 港 幼 兒 學 報 Vol. 9 No. 2 December 2010

置疑，該指引也與前述的改革文件一脈相連，發展幼兒的均衡教育：德、智、體、群、美、靈。（彭敬慈等，2002），這也是 Miller（1991）主張的「情全教育」（Holistic Education），著重全人、全環境和全心靈的結合教育。

香港課程發展議會在 2006 年訂定的《學前教育課程指引》確定幼兒的學習與成長主要受著家庭、學校和社會三方面的影響，這與英國兒童心靈教育學者 Hay（2000） 的發現也相同。而且，Hay & Nye（1998） 的研究更歸納出四個兒童心靈成長關係的認知（Relational Consciousness ）：個人與他人的關係、個人與神的關係、個人與世界的關係、個人與自我的關係。由此可見，兒童在學習與人、事、物、情與境建立相互關係和產生探索和好奇心時，也要培養自己心靈教育的成長。

在《全人學習與心靈教育》一書中，Miller, Karsten, Denton, Orr, & Kates（2005） 指出人們多只着重於五育（德、智、體、群、美） 的發展，而忽略了心靈向度（Spiritual Dimension） 的發展。他們認為兒童的心靈是擁有獨特的及有質量的。幼兒在成長中不單止對環境充滿好奇心，而且更存有敬畏心（Sense of Wonder and Awe）；兒童的心靈活動更會令他們喜愛探索自己與其他人的關係、甚至聯繫永恆的事物。 因此，兒童的心靈需要持續的培育。事實上，心靈教育在幼兒教育中尤為重要，如它能融入五育之中，更能配合香港課程發展議會所提倡課程目標；使幼兒發揮潛能、健康成長，為終身學習作好準備。然而至今，在香港中、小、幼階段較為正規的兒童心靈教育課程也缺乏，（除了宗教課） 正統而全面的職前和在職教師心靈教育培訓課程亦鮮見。更甚的是，學前教師在教師教育課程中於這方面的培訓「完全沒有」！他 / 她們無論在知識、技能和態度上未有基礎的裝備和接觸，試問怎能期望他 / 她們提供適切的心靈教育於幼兒呢？

心靈教育（Spir i tua l i ty Educat ion） 是什 麼 ？ 心 靈 教 育 就 是 關 顧 學 生 心 靈 的 教 育

（NCC,1993;SCAA,1996），也促進學生內在情

感的成長（余瑞宏，2005）。心靈教育之目的是要透過觸動學生的心靈而達至師生間心靈的溝通（吳梓明，2008）。教師必須致力引導及啟發學生善良的本性，發揮他們自我教育的潛能、幫助他們心靈的成長（吳梓明，2008）。要成功推行心靈教育更需建立美好的人際關係及讓學生增進個人的自我了解和自我實現，並讓個人發展自我概念、自我價值及自尊等內涵層面

（吳庶深，2008） 得以彰顯。並且也要讓學生探討生命的終極意義（林智中，2008）。有學者指出，心靈的架構可以包括四個範疇，就是：自我認知、自我反省、欣賞生命和貢獻世界（彭敬慈，2006）。由此可見，心靈教育是教育中一件艱巨工程。有研究指出兒童的心靈特質不比成人少（Ratclift, 2004） ，它對兒童的成長和學習之重要性是不容忽視的。由於幼兒教育是終身學習的基礎，在三歲定八十的中國教養哲學影響下，與幼兒分享心靈教育更是迫切。

英國教育心理學家 Hay 和 Nye 在第一期的《國際兒童心靈學刊》中強調了兒童心靈發展的重要性，他們認為心靈是人類覺識上自然而有的特性（Hay & Nye,1996） ，這種特性是與生俱來的（吳梓明，2008）。然而，以學術為基，考試為本的香港教育制度，嚴重影響了心靈教育的發展，家長和教師也容易輕視其重要性。

其實，幼兒喜歡聽故事、看故事、講故事和演故事，他們從故事中自然地學習「心靈教育」。讓幼兒將從故事中學到的心靈價值，應用於生活中「活出來」，是最好的方法。因此，本文作者嘗試以六十年代著名的粵語長片「十兄弟」故事來作為重建幼兒心靈的工具。本文將會探索四個主要思考範疇： 1. 兒童文學的類型和教育價值； 2. 十兄弟的絕技與特性；和聖經金句的配

合； 3. 重建幼兒心靈教育的核心價值； 4. 心靈教育的反思。

1. 兒童文學的類型和教育價值 兒童故事屬於文學（Literature） 的一種。

「幼兒文學泛指一切思想、想像及感情的表現，

是知識性或情意性的，表現的方式是文字和圖畫，作者是大人或是幼兒自己，表現的形式主要是圖書，或是期刊、報紙，即包括一般通稱的兒童讀物」（黃瑞琴，2005，頁125）。

幼兒文學是透過文字和圖畫表現，參照兒童文學研究學者吳鼎（1980） 的分類，兒童文學的分類方式如下： 1. 散文的形式： 童話、故事、寓言、小說、神話、傳

記、遊記、日記和笑話。 2. 韻文的形式： 韻語、兒歌、詩歌、彈詞和謎語。 3. 戲劇的形式： 話劇和歌劇。 4. 圖畫的形式： 連環圖畫和故事畫。

散文形式的兒童文學包括： 1. 童話：意指「嬰兒的故事」，以其含有

啟發嬰兒的作用；意指神仙、幻想的故事。童話的內容或是從原始人類遺傳下來，或是後世文人的創作。例如： 格林童話、迪士尼故事等。

2. 故事：含有「過去的事跡」的意思，泛指一切有人物、有情節的演述材料。例如：廿四孝。

3. 寓言：是假借動植物言語行為編造而成，常是用擬人化的方式表現，將各種鳥獸、爬蟲、花草、樹木等事物賦予人的生命，能說人的話，表現人的動作。例如：伊索寓言、成語故事等。

4. 小說：為故事之擴充，根據事實加以點綴，有首有尾，情節曲折生動。例如：三國演義、老賓遜飄遊記等。

5. 神話：是史前時代一種超自然的民間故事，初民生活樸實、思想簡純，對宇宙間一切事物的看法，認為有神為之主宰，因而產生各種傳說。例如：西遊記、封神榜等。

6. 傳記：描寫個人的事蹟，將其日常生活、聲音笑貌、學術事功等具體地描述出來。例如：孫中山傳、南丁格爾傳等。

7. 遊記：是描寫各地自然景物與社會生活的記敘文，使兒童獲得豐富的地理知識。

8. 日記：是個人真實生活的記錄，是個人心靈的反應、人格的實錄。

9. 笑話：是引人發笑的材料，或籍事物以寓意，或假託故事性質，令人興奮情緒。

從以上解說可知，「十兄弟」則屬於兒童文學中的「神話」。

不少專門研究兒童文學價值之學者皆明確地證實兒童故事，或兒童文學的教育價值。總括來說兒童學的教育價值可以扼要包括： 1. 情緒的發展和成長 Elias, et al.,（1997） 指出文學帶給兒童不

同情緒的分享和學習，有助兒童情緒的發展。同時也帶給他們快樂和舒服。兒童體驗如何面對喜、怒、哀、樂，學習去愛和被愛。兒童在文學情境中，學習體驗情緒的轉變和淨化。

2. 創造力的提升 兒童在聆聽和閱讀故事時需留心和專

注，而且不停運用想像力把故事意境建立，同時亦可以創作故事的興趣能力（Hendy, 1992） 。因此，他們的觀察力、想像力和創造力也能同步提升

（Dwyer, 1988; Wason-Ellam, 1992; Baker & Greene, 1977; Al-Jafar & Buzzeli, 2004） 。而且，透過思考、想像和成人的鷹架，當兒童參與角色扮演，個人或小組「說故事」活動，甚至「故事劇」時，他們的表演及表達能力便獲得啟發（Graigrer & Kendall-Seatter, 2003; Dwyer, 1988; Wason-Ellam, 1992） 。

3. 認知能力的成長 文字提供簡單和複雜的組織原則，將有

關人類狀況的知識表現成可思考的形式，藉此滿足知識和生活的需要。兒童的知識、概念、定理可以從故事內容中建立和發展（Mishler, 1986; Dwyer, 1988） 。

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For private study or research only. Not for publication or further reproduction.

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Hong Kong Journal ofEarly Childhood香 港 幼 兒 學 報 Vol. 9 No. 2 December 2010

4. 語言能力的發展 文學讓兒童接觸語言的美麗，以各種

語言的形式組織知覺、情感和思想。研 究 發 現 兒 童 的 語 言 發 展 的 階 段 愈高，接觸文學的經驗亦愈多（Chomsky, 1972） ，這樣能幫助兒童的語言發展

（Hendy, 1992; Honeyhan, 2000; Kinghorn & Pelton, 1991; Strickland & Morrow, 1989） 。此外，兒童文學能建立兒童對文學的興趣（Teale,1981） ，幫助兒童聯結文本的世界（World of Context） 與個人的知識和經歷（Prior Knowledge and Experience）（Craig, Hull, Haggart, & Crowder, 2001） ；同時，亦能培養兒童對文學的欣賞力（Dwyer, 1988） 。從閱讀文學中，兒童嘗試如何運用文字和語言與別人分享，因此他們的社交和溝通能力也能促進（Lake, 2003; Bakhtin, 1981; Holquist, 1990; Wason-Ellam, 1992） 。

5. 自我概念的發展 文學激發兒童的想像，使他們發展對

自己和周遭世界的信心，以更廣泛的觀點看真實的世界（Burke, 1986） 。漸漸地他們的人生觀各人生意義也被建立（Rowling, 2008） 。而自我概念的發展，也能正面地影響兒童的性格和行為

（Zobairi & Gulley, 1989） ，和發展兒童的道德觀念（Qualification and Curriculum Authority, 1999; Pike, 2000） 。

6. 閱讀相關能力的發展 兒童的閱讀習慣需要慢慢地培養，在

成 人 的 協 助 和 鼓 勵 下 ， 他 們 的 閱 讀行為、技能和態度獲得建立（Kerr & Mason, 1994） 。這樣有助建立兒童的

「故事感」（Greene, 1996; Peck, 1989; Trousdale, 1990） 。

7. 美感的發展 讓兒童享受閱讀，感受文字的韻律、節

奏和意象，感受故事的情境和轉變，是美感的體驗（Robison & Schwartz, 1982） 。兒童亦學會對故事中圖畫和文字的欣慰；如果文學作品又能配合同步「聽故

事」和「聽音樂」，兒童在音樂和美感能力必能提升。

8. 文化的傳遞 文學表現文化的理想和價值，教下一

代如何屬於其文化（Burke, 1986） 。而且，更重要的是文學能豐富兒童的知識和文化的認識（Al-Jafar & Buzzeli, 2004 ; Healy, 1991） ，兒童學習探索、欣賞、接受、分享、喜愛和傳揚自己的文化。

總括來說，兒童文學經驗的意義和價值確實豐富和重要，無論是聽、講、讀、寫的文學經驗，均能綜合地培養兒童對文學的學習和欣賞；同時，促進兒童的全面發展：認知、語言、情緒、社交、品格、美藝和創造力。

2. 十兄弟的絕技與特性；和聖經金句的配合 「十兄弟」是一個充滿中國文化和兒童的神話故事，內容生動活潑，橋段豐富，兒童十分喜歡。故事背景發生在清末民初的動亂時期。

「十兄弟」是作者童年時最愛觀賞的粵語長片之一，他們各人天生一副好本領，能力超凡，神乎其技。他們兄弟同心，憑着正義、仁愛、勇敢和機智，鋤強扶弱、儆惡懲奸，在社會伸張正義、除暴安良，使天下太平。在兒童對神 /神靈之概念的研究中，Fowler（1981） 提出兒童對神的概念是他們的認知和道德的發展有關。Beit-Hallahni 和 Argyle（1997） 指出家庭的宗教社會化（Religious Socialization），是形成兒童對神和其他宗教概念的主要因素，而且不少文獻發現兒童對神的概念和道德發展，是受著家庭和學校的影響（De Roos, Iedema & Miedema, 2001; Okin & Reich, 1999） 。由於心靈教育可包括對宗教信仰的追尋和敬仰（Hay,1988），作者是基督徒，自幼接受學校與教會在信仰上的教導，十分認同和相信基督教的信仰核心價值可成為心靈教育之核心價值的基礎。因此，便引用基督教的聖經金句來演繹十兄弟的絕技與特性，具體地啟迪幼兒的心靈教育。除了讓基督教學前機構，幼稚園 / 幼兒園 / 幼兒學校，可作參考外，也開拓其他無信仰的學前單位對心靈教育的探索機會，意義可說重大。

十兄弟 絕技與特性 聖經金句

千里眼• 高瞻遠觸、目光遠大• 明察秋毫、瞭事如神

耶和華的眼目遍察全地，要顯大能幫助向衪心存誠實的人。（歷代至下 16 章 9 節）

順風耳• 耳聽八方、細心聆聽• 多聽多聞、接納意見

主每早晨提醒我的耳朵，使我能聽，像受教者一樣。（以賽亞書 50 章 4 節）

大力三• 心強體壯、活力充沛• 親力親為、行動敏捷

萬軍之耶和華說：不是倚靠勢力，不是倚靠才能，乃是倚靠我的靈，方能成事。

（撒迦利亞書 4 章 6 節）

銅皮四• 身體強壯、健美有型• 堅毅奮進、屹立不倒

我有這寶貝放在瓦器裏、要顯明這莫大的能力，是出於神，不是出於我們，身上常帶着耶穌的死，使耶穌的生，也顯明在我們身上。

（哥林多後書 4 章 10 節）

飛天五• 胸襟廣闊、自由飛翔• 鳥瞰全貌、天馬行空

但那等候耶和華的，必從新得力，他們必如鷹展翅上騰，他們奔跑卻不困倦，行走卻不疲乏。

（以賽亞書 40 章 31 節）

鐵頭六• 學識淵博、智慧滿溢• 精明能幹、頭頭是道

敬畏耶和華是智慧的開端，凡遵行祂命令的，是聰明人。（詩篇 111 篇 10 節）

高腳七• 視野高遠、一枝獨秀• 健步如飛、捷足先登

報福音傳喜信的人，他們的腳蹤何等佳美。 （羅馬書 10 章 15 節）

遁地八• 神出鬼沒、進退有序• 遠離罪惡、拒絕試探

你腳所踏之地，定要歸你和你的子孫，永遠為業，因為你專心跟從耶和華我的神。

（約書亞記 14 章 9 節）

大口九• 謹言慎行、樂於讚賞• 口齒伶俐、善於溝通

我是耶和華你的神，你要大大張口，我就給你充滿。（詩篇 81 篇 10 節）

大喊十• 感情豐富、流露真情• 釋放壓力、悲喜相共

流淚撒種的，必歡呼收割。 （詩篇 126 篇 5 節）

表二：「十兄弟」的絕技 /特性與聖經金句的配合

作者對十兄弟的絕技與特性，並選擇聖經金句的安排有以下處理手法： 1. 首先識別十兄弟的身體特異功能之部

份； 2. 接著描述十兄弟的絕技 /特異功能；

3. 最後選取適切的聖經金句作為宗教性之心靈教育之分享和提醒。

「十兄弟」的絕技 / 特性與聖經金句的心靈教育演繹如下：

3. 重建幼兒心靈教育的核心價值 當今的幼兒在身、心、靈方面均受到不同程度的破壞和傷害。綜合來說，他們的身體素質和體適能較弱，情緒問題也較多和複雜，在交友上常出現困難，而且認知能力薄弱和狹窄，缺乏創意和反思能力。然而，最大的問題更是對心靈教育的認識偏低，他們普遍未能

建立正確的核心性心靈價值，公民品德水平偏低。近年，香港教育學院校長張柄良教授提出

「Education Plus」的教育概念，詮釋的意思可以是「教育高瞻」、「以人為本．超越教育」。正因為它的意思是：教育最應關注的是人、是生命，是學生品格及心靈的成長，所以說：「教育是以人為本」。從這樣的角度來看，「心靈教

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4. 語言能力的發展 文學讓兒童接觸語言的美麗，以各種

語言的形式組織知覺、情感和思想。研 究 發 現 兒 童 的 語 言 發 展 的 階 段 愈高，接觸文學的經驗亦愈多（Chomsky, 1972） ，這樣能幫助兒童的語言發展

（Hendy, 1992; Honeyhan, 2000; Kinghorn & Pelton, 1991; Strickland & Morrow, 1989） 。此外，兒童文學能建立兒童對文學的興趣（Teale,1981） ，幫助兒童聯結文本的世界（World of Context） 與個人的知識和經歷（Prior Knowledge and Experience）（Craig, Hull, Haggart, & Crowder, 2001） ；同時，亦能培養兒童對文學的欣賞力（Dwyer, 1988） 。從閱讀文學中，兒童嘗試如何運用文字和語言與別人分享，因此他們的社交和溝通能力也能促進（Lake, 2003; Bakhtin, 1981; Holquist, 1990; Wason-Ellam, 1992） 。

5. 自我概念的發展 文學激發兒童的想像，使他們發展對

自己和周遭世界的信心，以更廣泛的觀點看真實的世界（Burke, 1986） 。漸漸地他們的人生觀各人生意義也被建立（Rowling, 2008） 。而自我概念的發展，也能正面地影響兒童的性格和行為

（Zobairi & Gulley, 1989） ，和發展兒童的道德觀念（Qualification and Curriculum Authority, 1999; Pike, 2000） 。

6. 閱讀相關能力的發展 兒童的閱讀習慣需要慢慢地培養，在

成 人 的 協 助 和 鼓 勵 下 ， 他 們 的 閱 讀行為、技能和態度獲得建立（Kerr & Mason, 1994） 。這樣有助建立兒童的

「故事感」（Greene, 1996; Peck, 1989; Trousdale, 1990） 。

7. 美感的發展 讓兒童享受閱讀，感受文字的韻律、節

奏和意象，感受故事的情境和轉變，是美感的體驗（Robison & Schwartz, 1982） 。兒童亦學會對故事中圖畫和文字的欣慰；如果文學作品又能配合同步「聽故

事」和「聽音樂」，兒童在音樂和美感能力必能提升。

8. 文化的傳遞 文學表現文化的理想和價值，教下一

代如何屬於其文化（Burke, 1986） 。而且，更重要的是文學能豐富兒童的知識和文化的認識（Al-Jafar & Buzzeli, 2004 ; Healy, 1991） ，兒童學習探索、欣賞、接受、分享、喜愛和傳揚自己的文化。

總括來說，兒童文學經驗的意義和價值確實豐富和重要，無論是聽、講、讀、寫的文學經驗，均能綜合地培養兒童對文學的學習和欣賞；同時，促進兒童的全面發展：認知、語言、情緒、社交、品格、美藝和創造力。

2. 十兄弟的絕技與特性；和聖經金句的配合 「十兄弟」是一個充滿中國文化和兒童的神話故事，內容生動活潑，橋段豐富，兒童十分喜歡。故事背景發生在清末民初的動亂時期。

「十兄弟」是作者童年時最愛觀賞的粵語長片之一，他們各人天生一副好本領，能力超凡，神乎其技。他們兄弟同心，憑着正義、仁愛、勇敢和機智，鋤強扶弱、儆惡懲奸，在社會伸張正義、除暴安良，使天下太平。在兒童對神 /神靈之概念的研究中，Fowler（1981） 提出兒童對神的概念是他們的認知和道德的發展有關。Beit-Hallahni 和 Argyle（1997） 指出家庭的宗教社會化（Religious Socialization），是形成兒童對神和其他宗教概念的主要因素，而且不少文獻發現兒童對神的概念和道德發展，是受著家庭和學校的影響（De Roos, Iedema & Miedema, 2001; Okin & Reich, 1999） 。由於心靈教育可包括對宗教信仰的追尋和敬仰（Hay,1988），作者是基督徒，自幼接受學校與教會在信仰上的教導，十分認同和相信基督教的信仰核心價值可成為心靈教育之核心價值的基礎。因此，便引用基督教的聖經金句來演繹十兄弟的絕技與特性，具體地啟迪幼兒的心靈教育。除了讓基督教學前機構，幼稚園 / 幼兒園 / 幼兒學校，可作參考外，也開拓其他無信仰的學前單位對心靈教育的探索機會，意義可說重大。

十兄弟 絕技與特性 聖經金句

千里眼• 高瞻遠觸、目光遠大• 明察秋毫、瞭事如神

耶和華的眼目遍察全地，要顯大能幫助向衪心存誠實的人。（歷代至下 16 章 9 節）

順風耳• 耳聽八方、細心聆聽• 多聽多聞、接納意見

主每早晨提醒我的耳朵，使我能聽，像受教者一樣。（以賽亞書 50 章 4 節）

大力三• 心強體壯、活力充沛• 親力親為、行動敏捷

萬軍之耶和華說：不是倚靠勢力，不是倚靠才能，乃是倚靠我的靈，方能成事。

（撒迦利亞書 4 章 6 節）

銅皮四• 身體強壯、健美有型• 堅毅奮進、屹立不倒

我有這寶貝放在瓦器裏、要顯明這莫大的能力，是出於神，不是出於我們，身上常帶着耶穌的死，使耶穌的生，也顯明在我們身上。

（哥林多後書 4 章 10 節）

飛天五• 胸襟廣闊、自由飛翔• 鳥瞰全貌、天馬行空

但那等候耶和華的，必從新得力，他們必如鷹展翅上騰，他們奔跑卻不困倦，行走卻不疲乏。

（以賽亞書 40 章 31 節）

鐵頭六• 學識淵博、智慧滿溢• 精明能幹、頭頭是道

敬畏耶和華是智慧的開端，凡遵行祂命令的，是聰明人。（詩篇 111 篇 10 節）

高腳七• 視野高遠、一枝獨秀• 健步如飛、捷足先登

報福音傳喜信的人，他們的腳蹤何等佳美。 （羅馬書 10 章 15 節）

遁地八• 神出鬼沒、進退有序• 遠離罪惡、拒絕試探

你腳所踏之地，定要歸你和你的子孫，永遠為業，因為你專心跟從耶和華我的神。

（約書亞記 14 章 9 節）

大口九• 謹言慎行、樂於讚賞• 口齒伶俐、善於溝通

我是耶和華你的神，你要大大張口，我就給你充滿。（詩篇 81 篇 10 節）

大喊十• 感情豐富、流露真情• 釋放壓力、悲喜相共

流淚撒種的，必歡呼收割。 （詩篇 126 篇 5 節）

表二：「十兄弟」的絕技 /特性與聖經金句的配合

作者對十兄弟的絕技與特性，並選擇聖經金句的安排有以下處理手法： 1. 首先識別十兄弟的身體特異功能之部

份； 2. 接著描述十兄弟的絕技 /特異功能；

3. 最後選取適切的聖經金句作為宗教性之心靈教育之分享和提醒。

「十兄弟」的絕技 / 特性與聖經金句的心靈教育演繹如下：

3. 重建幼兒心靈教育的核心價值 當今的幼兒在身、心、靈方面均受到不同程度的破壞和傷害。綜合來說，他們的身體素質和體適能較弱，情緒問題也較多和複雜，在交友上常出現困難，而且認知能力薄弱和狹窄，缺乏創意和反思能力。然而，最大的問題更是對心靈教育的認識偏低，他們普遍未能

建立正確的核心性心靈價值，公民品德水平偏低。近年，香港教育學院校長張柄良教授提出

「Education Plus」的教育概念，詮釋的意思可以是「教育高瞻」、「以人為本．超越教育」。正因為它的意思是：教育最應關注的是人、是生命，是學生品格及心靈的成長，所以說：「教育是以人為本」。從這樣的角度來看，「心靈教

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育」就是「Education Plus」。心靈教育正是提醒我們：教師以心命影響心命，「啟發學生的善良本性、達至師生間心靈的溝通、發揮他們自我教育的潛能，幫助他們在生命、心靈和品格的成長」（吳梓明，2010，頁137）。

「十兄弟」的特異功能非常凌厲，發揮卓越，影響深遠，與「十兄弟」相關的心靈教育核心價值可以詮釋為：

十兄弟 心靈教育之核心價值

千里眼 細心觀察他人的需要（敏感與正直）

順風耳 細心聆聽（專重與有禮）

大力三強健體魄，建立強健心靈（勤奮與自律）

銅皮四 耐力與彈性（修身與靈巧）

飛天五 樂觀與自由（自強與積極）

鐵頭六 意志堅毅（堅毅與獨立）

高腳七 勇往向前、有衝勁（勇氣與承擔）

遁地八 避重就輕、擴闊視野（謙遜與簡樸）

大口九 善於表達與溝通（善良與真誠）

大喊十 真情流露、共喜共悲（關愛與憐憫）

表三：「十兄弟」的心靈教育之核心價值

心 靈 重 建 之 路 由 學 習 愛 開 始 ， 經 歷 建立 品 格 之 路 ， 最 終 達 至 蒙 福 之 果 。 心 靈 康盛（Spiritual Wellness）是心靈智商（Spiritual Quotient）高成效之境界。商界傑出人士李嘉誠曾在 2001 年 12 月 4 日以「成功 3Q」為題，發表對身處逆境的香港人說出語重心長的講話。他輕描淡寫地說出成功之道在於三個 Q，用智力商數（IQ）去解決問題，用情緒商數（EQ）去面對問題，用心靈商數（SQ）去超越問題。由此可以看到 SQ（Spiritual Quotient）的重要性。 Marshall 和 Zohar（2000），在 Connecting with Our Spiritual Intelligence 一書中提出了 SQ 是智力商數及情緒商數不可或缺的基礎，是人類智慧的最高境界。他們強調，有了 SQ，人類的智慧才能形成完整的圖像。

「藉由 SQ，人們才有提出和解決意義與價值問題的智能。那是將行動及生命置於更廣闊、更豐富、更有意義架構中的智能，是評估人類行為或生命之路是否具有意義的智能。SQ是使 IQ和EQ更有效運作的基礎，是我們的「終極」智能。」（明報，2001年，12月5日）

我們藉着「十兄弟」故事讓兒童學習十種「心靈教育核心價值」，無懼大未來平，心地面對前路的各種大小挑戰！

4. 心靈教育的反思 兒童的心靈本是清潔和美麗的！但是，污染的文化、教育、環境、傳媒、品德、言行和情感把清潔和美麗的心靈弄污和弄壞！由於兒童天性好動、好玩、喜歡聽故事、講故事、讀故事和演出故事，因此不同類型和適切的教育性兒童文學，均能刺激兒童進行心靈性的思考。在成人的引導下，兒童能夠對與心靈核心價值有關的故事內容作出思考和分析，並且明白箇中的真諦。所以故事可以成為最有效的

「心靈教育工具」，故事對兒童的全人發展扮演重要角色（Dwyer, 1988; Healy, 1991; Mikkelsen, 1990; Wason-Ellam, 1992） 。心靈教育的重建是一個主動和感性的過程，包括感受（Feeling）、反思（Reflection）、創造（Creating）和看見

（Seeing）（Zobairi & Gulley, 1989）。兒童文學能扮演該等重要角色：聆聽、閱讀、朗讀和扮演能分享和表達「感受」；講解、提問、分析和評賞能促進「反思」；思考和改編能提昇「創造」；扮演和探索能獲得「看見」或「觀賞」。因此，兒童在參與故事活動中的「聽、講、讀、寫、想、問、做、評」，他們的心靈便能啟迪和重建。「十兄弟」故事啟迪我們重建兒童心靈教育的方向，也能提醒我們心靈教育的重要。

然而，由於西方文化的衝擊，香港社會過份重視英文，而忽視中文的語文地位，我們似乎已漸漸遺忘本國和本地的優秀兒童文學作品，在此起彼落的情況下，我們還記得多少如

「十兄弟」的兒童文學作品呢？當今的教育實應回歸本位（Back to the Basic）在重視「全人教育」的基礎上，更應發展學生的「心靈教育」。

並且，同時培育教師的「心靈教育」呢！人生有幾多個十年呢？「心靈教育」是任重道遠的神性事工，不能用年份來計算，乃是一生的任務

參考資料《聖經》《明報》，2001年，12月5日。沈劍威、阮伯仁著（2006）：《康盛人生系列：體適能基礎理論》第二版，香港，中國香港體適能總會。吳庶深（2008）：《心靈教育：生命教育的核心概念》，香港教育學院：宗教教育與心靈教育中心。吳梓明（2008）：兒童心靈教育與發展，《香港幼兒學報》7（2），頁32-37，香港，香港教育學院。吳梓明（2008）：教育的再思—關顧心靈教育的芻議，《教育曙光》，第56卷（2期），92-99。吳梓明（2010）：小班教學與心靈教育:機遇與反思，《教育曙光》，第58卷（1期），134-140。吳鼎（1980）：《兒童文學研究》，台北：遠流。林智中（2008）：通識教育與心靈教育：兩個風馬不相及的概念？香港教育學院：宗教教育與心靈教育中心。香港教育統籌委員會（2000） ：《香港教育制度改革建議》，中華人民共和國香港特別行政區（9月）。香港課程發展議會（2001）：《學會學習：終身學習‧全人發展》，香港：政府印務局。香港課程發展議會（2006） ：《學前教育課程指引 2006》。香港：香港課程發展議會。教育統籌委員會（2000） ：《終身學習‧全人發展：香港教育制度改革建議》，香港：香港教育統籌局。陳城禮、郭康健 編（2006）：《和諧教育的理論與實踐》，香港：香港教師會和香港教師會李興貴中學。黃瑞琴（2004）：《幼兒的語文經驗》，台北，五南圖書出版公司。黃樹誠（2006）：心靈和諧的重建，輯於陳城禮、郭康健編《和諧教育的理論與實踐》，（頁75-82），香港，香

港教育學院、香港教師會李興貴中學。黃樹誠（2009，二月）：探索如何從十兄弟故事去重建幼兒的心靈，論文表於「亞太區幼兒靈性國際會議」，香

港。黃樹誠編（2010）：《創意綜合式幼兒肢體音樂課程》，香港，香港教育學院。彭敬慈（2006）：《均衡和諧的學校教育》，香港：香港教師會和香港教師會李興貴中學。彭敬慈、黃美玲、梁芳婷（2002）：《活出彩虹：邁向均衡教育》，香港：香港教育學院。湯才偉（2004）：《「講故事」對提升小學生寫作及教師專業能力的影響》。香港：香港中文大學、香港教育學

院、香港教育研究所。Al-Jafar, A. & Buzzelli, C. A. (2004). The Art of Storytelling for Cross Cultural Understanding. International Journal

of Early Childhood, 36(1), 35 – 48.Baker, A., & Greene, E. (1977). Storytelling: Art and technique. New York & London: R. R. Bowker.Bakhtin, M. M. (1981). The dialogic imagination. (M. Holquist, Ed.). Austin: University of Texas Press.Beit-Hallahmi, B. & Argyle, M. (1997). The psychology of religious behaviour, belief and experience. London and

New York: Routledge.Burke, E. M. (1986). Early childhood literature: For love of child and book. Newton, MA: Allyn and Bacon.Chomsky, C . (1972). Stages in language development and reading exposure. Harvard Educational Review, 42, 1-33.De Roos, S. A., Iedema, J., Miedema, S. (2001). Young children's descriptions of God: influences of parents' and

teachers' God concepts and religious denomination of schools. Journal of Beliefs and Values, 22(1), 19-30.Dewey. J. (1916). Democracy and Education. New York: The MacMillan Company. Dwyer, E. M. (1988). A pleasant journey into classroom storytelling. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the

Tennessee Reading Association of the International Reading Association.(Chattanooga, TN, November, 1988)

（Task）！只有以生命影響生命，以生命建造生命才是真正的「心靈教育」。

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For private study or research only. Not for publication or further reproduction.

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Hong Kong Journal ofEarly Childhood香 港 幼 兒 學 報 Vol. 9 No. 2 December 2010

25

Hong Kong Journal ofEarly Childhood香 港 幼 兒 學 報 Vol. 9 No. 2 December 2010

育」就是「Education Plus」。心靈教育正是提醒我們：教師以心命影響心命，「啟發學生的善良本性、達至師生間心靈的溝通、發揮他們自我教育的潛能，幫助他們在生命、心靈和品格的成長」（吳梓明，2010，頁137）。

「十兄弟」的特異功能非常凌厲，發揮卓越，影響深遠，與「十兄弟」相關的心靈教育核心價值可以詮釋為：

十兄弟 心靈教育之核心價值

千里眼 細心觀察他人的需要（敏感與正直）

順風耳 細心聆聽（專重與有禮）

大力三強健體魄，建立強健心靈（勤奮與自律）

銅皮四 耐力與彈性（修身與靈巧）

飛天五 樂觀與自由（自強與積極）

鐵頭六 意志堅毅（堅毅與獨立）

高腳七 勇往向前、有衝勁（勇氣與承擔）

遁地八 避重就輕、擴闊視野（謙遜與簡樸）

大口九 善於表達與溝通（善良與真誠）

大喊十 真情流露、共喜共悲（關愛與憐憫）

表三：「十兄弟」的心靈教育之核心價值

心 靈 重 建 之 路 由 學 習 愛 開 始 ， 經 歷 建立 品 格 之 路 ， 最 終 達 至 蒙 福 之 果 。 心 靈 康盛（Spiritual Wellness）是心靈智商（Spiritual Quotient）高成效之境界。商界傑出人士李嘉誠曾在 2001 年 12 月 4 日以「成功 3Q」為題，發表對身處逆境的香港人說出語重心長的講話。他輕描淡寫地說出成功之道在於三個 Q，用智力商數（IQ）去解決問題，用情緒商數（EQ）去面對問題，用心靈商數（SQ）去超越問題。由此可以看到 SQ（Spiritual Quotient）的重要性。 Marshall 和 Zohar（2000），在 Connecting with Our Spiritual Intelligence 一書中提出了 SQ 是智力商數及情緒商數不可或缺的基礎，是人類智慧的最高境界。他們強調，有了 SQ，人類的智慧才能形成完整的圖像。

「藉由 SQ，人們才有提出和解決意義與價值問題的智能。那是將行動及生命置於更廣闊、更豐富、更有意義架構中的智能，是評估人類行為或生命之路是否具有意義的智能。SQ是使 IQ和EQ更有效運作的基礎，是我們的「終極」智能。」（明報，2001年，12月5日）

我們藉着「十兄弟」故事讓兒童學習十種「心靈教育核心價值」，無懼大未來平，心地面對前路的各種大小挑戰！

4. 心靈教育的反思 兒童的心靈本是清潔和美麗的！但是，污染的文化、教育、環境、傳媒、品德、言行和情感把清潔和美麗的心靈弄污和弄壞！由於兒童天性好動、好玩、喜歡聽故事、講故事、讀故事和演出故事，因此不同類型和適切的教育性兒童文學，均能刺激兒童進行心靈性的思考。在成人的引導下，兒童能夠對與心靈核心價值有關的故事內容作出思考和分析，並且明白箇中的真諦。所以故事可以成為最有效的

「心靈教育工具」，故事對兒童的全人發展扮演重要角色（Dwyer, 1988; Healy, 1991; Mikkelsen, 1990; Wason-Ellam, 1992） 。心靈教育的重建是一個主動和感性的過程，包括感受（Feeling）、反思（Reflection）、創造（Creating）和看見

（Seeing）（Zobairi & Gulley, 1989）。兒童文學能扮演該等重要角色：聆聽、閱讀、朗讀和扮演能分享和表達「感受」；講解、提問、分析和評賞能促進「反思」；思考和改編能提昇「創造」；扮演和探索能獲得「看見」或「觀賞」。因此，兒童在參與故事活動中的「聽、講、讀、寫、想、問、做、評」，他們的心靈便能啟迪和重建。「十兄弟」故事啟迪我們重建兒童心靈教育的方向，也能提醒我們心靈教育的重要。

然而，由於西方文化的衝擊，香港社會過份重視英文，而忽視中文的語文地位，我們似乎已漸漸遺忘本國和本地的優秀兒童文學作品，在此起彼落的情況下，我們還記得多少如

「十兄弟」的兒童文學作品呢？當今的教育實應回歸本位（Back to the Basic）在重視「全人教育」的基礎上，更應發展學生的「心靈教育」。

並且，同時培育教師的「心靈教育」呢！人生有幾多個十年呢？「心靈教育」是任重道遠的神性事工，不能用年份來計算，乃是一生的任務

參考資料《聖經》《明報》，2001年，12月5日。沈劍威、阮伯仁著（2006）：《康盛人生系列：體適能基礎理論》第二版，香港，中國香港體適能總會。吳庶深（2008）：《心靈教育：生命教育的核心概念》，香港教育學院：宗教教育與心靈教育中心。吳梓明（2008）：兒童心靈教育與發展，《香港幼兒學報》7（2），頁32-37，香港，香港教育學院。吳梓明（2008）：教育的再思—關顧心靈教育的芻議，《教育曙光》，第56卷（2期），92-99。吳梓明（2010）：小班教學與心靈教育:機遇與反思，《教育曙光》，第58卷（1期），134-140。吳鼎（1980）：《兒童文學研究》，台北：遠流。林智中（2008）：通識教育與心靈教育：兩個風馬不相及的概念？香港教育學院：宗教教育與心靈教育中心。香港教育統籌委員會（2000） ：《香港教育制度改革建議》，中華人民共和國香港特別行政區（9月）。香港課程發展議會（2001）：《學會學習：終身學習‧全人發展》，香港：政府印務局。香港課程發展議會（2006） ：《學前教育課程指引 2006》。香港：香港課程發展議會。教育統籌委員會（2000） ：《終身學習‧全人發展：香港教育制度改革建議》，香港：香港教育統籌局。陳城禮、郭康健 編（2006）：《和諧教育的理論與實踐》，香港：香港教師會和香港教師會李興貴中學。黃瑞琴（2004）：《幼兒的語文經驗》，台北，五南圖書出版公司。黃樹誠（2006）：心靈和諧的重建，輯於陳城禮、郭康健編《和諧教育的理論與實踐》，（頁75-82），香港，香

港教育學院、香港教師會李興貴中學。黃樹誠（2009，二月）：探索如何從十兄弟故事去重建幼兒的心靈，論文表於「亞太區幼兒靈性國際會議」，香

港。黃樹誠編（2010）：《創意綜合式幼兒肢體音樂課程》，香港，香港教育學院。彭敬慈（2006）：《均衡和諧的學校教育》，香港：香港教師會和香港教師會李興貴中學。彭敬慈、黃美玲、梁芳婷（2002）：《活出彩虹：邁向均衡教育》，香港：香港教育學院。湯才偉（2004）：《「講故事」對提升小學生寫作及教師專業能力的影響》。香港：香港中文大學、香港教育學

院、香港教育研究所。Al-Jafar, A. & Buzzelli, C. A. (2004). The Art of Storytelling for Cross Cultural Understanding. International Journal

of Early Childhood, 36(1), 35 – 48.Baker, A., & Greene, E. (1977). Storytelling: Art and technique. New York & London: R. R. Bowker.Bakhtin, M. M. (1981). The dialogic imagination. (M. Holquist, Ed.). Austin: University of Texas Press.Beit-Hallahmi, B. & Argyle, M. (1997). The psychology of religious behaviour, belief and experience. London and

New York: Routledge.Burke, E. M. (1986). Early childhood literature: For love of child and book. Newton, MA: Allyn and Bacon.Chomsky, C . (1972). Stages in language development and reading exposure. Harvard Educational Review, 42, 1-33.De Roos, S. A., Iedema, J., Miedema, S. (2001). Young children's descriptions of God: influences of parents' and

teachers' God concepts and religious denomination of schools. Journal of Beliefs and Values, 22(1), 19-30.Dewey. J. (1916). Democracy and Education. New York: The MacMillan Company. Dwyer, E. M. (1988). A pleasant journey into classroom storytelling. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the

Tennessee Reading Association of the International Reading Association.(Chattanooga, TN, November, 1988)

（Task）！只有以生命影響生命，以生命建造生命才是真正的「心靈教育」。

The Hong Kong Institute of Education Library

For private study or research only. Not for publication or further reproduction.

26

Hong Kong Journal ofEarly Childhood香 港 幼 兒 學 報 Vol. 9 No. 2 December 2010

27

Hong Kong Journal ofEarly Childhood香 港 幼 兒 學 報 Vol. 9 No. 2 December 2010

Fowler, J. W. (1981). Stages of faith: The psychology of human development and the quest for meaning. (1993 reprint). North Blackburn: Collins Dove.

Greer, C. & Kohl, H. (Eds.) (1995). A call to character. New York: Harper Collins Publishers.Hay, D. (2000). Spirituality versus individualism: why we should nurture relational Consciousness? International

Journal of Children's Spirituality, 5(1), 37-48.Hay, D. & Nye, R. (1998). The spirit of the child. London: Fount.Healy, J. M. (1991). Endangered minds: Why children don't think and what we can do about it. New York: Touchstone.Hendy, L. (1992). The pearl princess and whale’s stomach: Active storytelling with children. In M.S., E.B., and V.

Watson(Eds). After Alice: Exploring children’s literature. London & New York: Cassell.Holquist, M. (199). Dialogism: Bakhtin and his world. London: Routledge.Honeyghan, G. (2000). Rhythm of the Caribbean: Connecting oral history and literacy, Language Arts, 5 (77), 406-413.Kerr, B. M., & Mason, J. A. (1994). Awakening literacy through interactive story reading. In F. Lehr, & J.

Osborn(Eds.). Reading, language and literacy: Instruction for the twenty-first century (pp. 133-148). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Kinghorn, H. R., & Pelton, M .H. (1991). Every child a storyteller: A handbook of ideas. Portsmouth, NH: Teacher Ideas Press.

Mikkelsen, N. (1990). Toward greater equity in literacy, education: Storymaking and Non-Mainstreamed Students. Language Arts, 67(6), 556-566.

Miller, J . (1988). The holistic curriculum. Toronto: OISE Press.Miller, J., Karsten, S. , Denton, D., Orr, D., & Kates, I. C. (2005) Holistic Learning and Spirituality in Education. New

York: State University of New York Press.National Curriculum Council (NCC) (1993). Spiritual and moral development: A discussion paper. York: NCC.Okin, S. M., Reich, R. (1999). Families and schools as compensating agents in moral development for a multicultural

society. Journal of Moral Education, 28(3), 283-289.Ratcliff, D. (2004). Children' s spirituality: Christian perspectives, research, and applications. Eugene, OR: Cascade

Books.School Curriculum and Assessment Authority(SCAA) (1996). Education for adult life: The spiritual and moral

development of young people. London: SCAA.Strickland, D .S., & Morrow, L.M. (1989). Oral language development: Children as storytellers. Reading Teacher,

43(3), 260-261.Vickie E. L. (2003). Children's stories of hope: Moving toward an expanded understanding of the world children live

in. Early Child Development and Care, 173(5), 509-518.Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development if higher psychologypProcesses. Cambridge, MA: Harvard

University Press.Warwick, B. E.(Ed.). (1994). The IEA study of reading literacy: Achievement and instruction in thirty-two school

systems. Oxford, England; Tarrytown, NY: Pergamon Press.Wason-Ellam, L. (1992). Inviting children's life stories into the elementary classroom: The storied life of a second-

language Learner. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the National Council of Teachers of English (82nd, Louisville, KY, November, 1992).

Zobairi, N., & Gulley, B. (1989). The told tale: Oral storytelling and the young child. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the National Association for the Education of Young Children, Atlanta, GA, November, 1989.

Zohar, D. & Marshall, I. (2000). Connecting with our spiritual intelligence. NY: Bloomsbury Publishing.

Learning through Play in the early childhood classroom: Myth or Reality?

於幼教課室上推行從遊戲中學習：是空談還是實際可行？

LAU Grace

Department of Early Childhood Education

The Hong Kong Institute of Education

CHENG Pui Wah Doris

Department of Early Childhood Education

The Hong Kong Institute of Education

AbstractSince the Llewellyn Panel Report in 1982, the Hong Kong government’s official guidelines on Early Childhood Education have emphasized the importance of ‘leaning through play”. Yet Quality Assurance Inspection Reports from 2001 to 2007 repeatedly document the prevalence of teacher-centred approaches. This paper reports the findings of a study to ascertain whether learning through play is a myth in Hong Kong, a question which has long puzzled practitioners and academics. It centres on the issue of whether ‘real’ play exists in Hong Kong kindergarten classrooms. A questionnaire was administered to a principal, a teacher, parents and young children to find out why learning through play is a myth in Hong Kong. A case study of a kindergarten with episodes of play and work was used to illustrate the findings. It concludes with a discussion that education is a complex and complicated endeavour involving a plethora of judgements and ideologies affecting diverse people and the “meanings” of their experiences, lives and institutions.

摘要隨着一九八二年由呂偉倫等組成的教育顧問團為香港的教育提出意見以來，香港政府於幼教指引上始重視幼兒從遊戲中學習；惜歷份外評報告卻指出幼教模式仍以老師為中心。本文透過一項個案研究結果分析香港推行從遊戲中學習的迷思。

研究員以半開放式問卷作訪談導引以搜集數據。按數據分析所得，顯示出運作及推行這種新的教育模式是複雜的；影响因素包括不同持份者依據其工作環境需要、其自身的生活經驗、所持守的意識形態/理念等驅使。

Introduction The climate for change It is well documented that during the colonial era when Hong Kong was governed by Great Britain, there was little government intervention in preschool provision in Hong Kong (Lau, 2005).

In the colonial era, curriculum in Hong Kong was described as being based on the ‘academic model’, where teachers expected young children to learn through early academic instruction. Since 1982, following the recommendation of the Llewellyn Panel Report, the curriculum

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For private study or research only. Not for publication or further reproduction.

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Hong Kong Journal ofEarly Childhood香 港 幼 兒 學 報 Vol. 9 No. 2 December 2010

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Hong Kong Journal ofEarly Childhood香 港 幼 兒 學 報 Vol. 9 No. 2 December 2010

Fowler, J. W. (1981). Stages of faith: The psychology of human development and the quest for meaning. (1993 reprint). North Blackburn: Collins Dove.

Greer, C. & Kohl, H. (Eds.) (1995). A call to character. New York: Harper Collins Publishers.Hay, D. (2000). Spirituality versus individualism: why we should nurture relational Consciousness? International

Journal of Children's Spirituality, 5(1), 37-48.Hay, D. & Nye, R. (1998). The spirit of the child. London: Fount.Healy, J. M. (1991). Endangered minds: Why children don't think and what we can do about it. New York: Touchstone.Hendy, L. (1992). The pearl princess and whale’s stomach: Active storytelling with children. In M.S., E.B., and V.

Watson(Eds). After Alice: Exploring children’s literature. London & New York: Cassell.Holquist, M. (199). Dialogism: Bakhtin and his world. London: Routledge.Honeyghan, G. (2000). Rhythm of the Caribbean: Connecting oral history and literacy, Language Arts, 5 (77), 406-413.Kerr, B. M., & Mason, J. A. (1994). Awakening literacy through interactive story reading. In F. Lehr, & J.

Osborn(Eds.). Reading, language and literacy: Instruction for the twenty-first century (pp. 133-148). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Kinghorn, H. R., & Pelton, M .H. (1991). Every child a storyteller: A handbook of ideas. Portsmouth, NH: Teacher Ideas Press.

Mikkelsen, N. (1990). Toward greater equity in literacy, education: Storymaking and Non-Mainstreamed Students. Language Arts, 67(6), 556-566.

Miller, J . (1988). The holistic curriculum. Toronto: OISE Press.Miller, J., Karsten, S. , Denton, D., Orr, D., & Kates, I. C. (2005) Holistic Learning and Spirituality in Education. New

York: State University of New York Press.National Curriculum Council (NCC) (1993). Spiritual and moral development: A discussion paper. York: NCC.Okin, S. M., Reich, R. (1999). Families and schools as compensating agents in moral development for a multicultural

society. Journal of Moral Education, 28(3), 283-289.Ratcliff, D. (2004). Children' s spirituality: Christian perspectives, research, and applications. Eugene, OR: Cascade

Books.School Curriculum and Assessment Authority(SCAA) (1996). Education for adult life: The spiritual and moral

development of young people. London: SCAA.Strickland, D .S., & Morrow, L.M. (1989). Oral language development: Children as storytellers. Reading Teacher,

43(3), 260-261.Vickie E. L. (2003). Children's stories of hope: Moving toward an expanded understanding of the world children live

in. Early Child Development and Care, 173(5), 509-518.Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind in society: The development if higher psychologypProcesses. Cambridge, MA: Harvard

University Press.Warwick, B. E.(Ed.). (1994). The IEA study of reading literacy: Achievement and instruction in thirty-two school

systems. Oxford, England; Tarrytown, NY: Pergamon Press.Wason-Ellam, L. (1992). Inviting children's life stories into the elementary classroom: The storied life of a second-

language Learner. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the National Council of Teachers of English (82nd, Louisville, KY, November, 1992).

Zobairi, N., & Gulley, B. (1989). The told tale: Oral storytelling and the young child. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the National Association for the Education of Young Children, Atlanta, GA, November, 1989.

Zohar, D. & Marshall, I. (2000). Connecting with our spiritual intelligence. NY: Bloomsbury Publishing.

Learning through Play in the early childhood classroom: Myth or Reality?

於幼教課室上推行從遊戲中學習：是空談還是實際可行？

LAU Grace

Department of Early Childhood Education

The Hong Kong Institute of Education

CHENG Pui Wah Doris

Department of Early Childhood Education

The Hong Kong Institute of Education

AbstractSince the Llewellyn Panel Report in 1982, the Hong Kong government’s official guidelines on Early Childhood Education have emphasized the importance of ‘leaning through play”. Yet Quality Assurance Inspection Reports from 2001 to 2007 repeatedly document the prevalence of teacher-centred approaches. This paper reports the findings of a study to ascertain whether learning through play is a myth in Hong Kong, a question which has long puzzled practitioners and academics. It centres on the issue of whether ‘real’ play exists in Hong Kong kindergarten classrooms. A questionnaire was administered to a principal, a teacher, parents and young children to find out why learning through play is a myth in Hong Kong. A case study of a kindergarten with episodes of play and work was used to illustrate the findings. It concludes with a discussion that education is a complex and complicated endeavour involving a plethora of judgements and ideologies affecting diverse people and the “meanings” of their experiences, lives and institutions.

摘要隨着一九八二年由呂偉倫等組成的教育顧問團為香港的教育提出意見以來，香港政府於幼教指引上始重視幼兒從遊戲中學習；惜歷份外評報告卻指出幼教模式仍以老師為中心。本文透過一項個案研究結果分析香港推行從遊戲中學習的迷思。

研究員以半開放式問卷作訪談導引以搜集數據。按數據分析所得，顯示出運作及推行這種新的教育模式是複雜的；影响因素包括不同持份者依據其工作環境需要、其自身的生活經驗、所持守的意識形態/理念等驅使。

Introduction The climate for change It is well documented that during the colonial era when Hong Kong was governed by Great Britain, there was little government intervention in preschool provision in Hong Kong (Lau, 2005).

In the colonial era, curriculum in Hong Kong was described as being based on the ‘academic model’, where teachers expected young children to learn through early academic instruction. Since 1982, following the recommendation of the Llewellyn Panel Report, the curriculum

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guidelines have then placed child-centred, play-based pedagogy at the heart of Early Childhood Education quality. However, quality assurance reports indicate that a gap exists between policy and practice, with many pre-primary schools persisting in teacher-directed approaches and academically oriented practices (Cheng, Ho, Lau & Benson, 2009, p.1)

In the year 1996, the government has again provided guidelines concerning new approaches to curriculum by using a less formal type of approach in teaching and learning. The Guide to the Pre-primary Curriculum issued in 2006 was to reiterate and to reconfirm the captioned Early Childhood Education curriculum reform proposal started years ago by adopting play for facilitating the “child-centred” concept of children’s learning. In this latest Guide, play is recommended as a learning strategy to be incorporated into different learning areas in an integrated holistic manner (2006, Hong Kong Government, p.41).

The old paradigm of a teacher-centred curriculum has since the launch of the educational reform been considered out-dated and should give way to holistic development underpinned by a child-centred ideology for Quality education. It is a fact that the Chief Executive of Hong Kong committed HK$2 billion since 2006 to enhance the quality of ECE and play-based learning has been advocated as the key approach to achieve this goal (Cheng, Fung, Lau & Benson, 2008, p.1 and Cheng, Lau, Fung & Benson, 2009, p.1).

Literature Review The development of the whole child is facilitated through play in an integrated curriculum According to Gordon and Williams-Browne (1995, p.540-541), an integrated curriculum means a set of courses designed to form a whole; coordination of the various areas of study, making

for continuous and harmonious learning.

The concept of the whole child strongly suggests the uniqueness of the person. Interestingly, the whole-child approach is seen from a medical point of view as well. Although they are often discussed separately, the areas of development (social, emotional, physical, and intellectual) cannot be isolated from one another. They each make a valuable contribution to the total well-being of the child. Since play is a chain of integrated and interrelated activities and is not subject-based, it fits well with the enhancement of the holistic development of the whole child (Derman-Sparks in Gordon & Browne, 1995, p.84-85).

The term ‘holistic’ carries a viewpoint that takes into account several conceptions of a child or situation to form a wider, more rounded description; in early childhood terms, this view includes a child’s history, present status, relationships with others, and the interrelationships of development to arrive at a picture of a child; in medicine, this view includes dealing with a person’s mental and emotional state, relationships, etc., as well as body signs. In short, the notion of holistic development which originated from the whole child concept and is best facilitated through play.

Pioneers in Early Childhood Education such as Froebel, Dewey, Piaget, Patty Smith and their approach to learning has reflected that educating the whole child through play is very much in evidence in their work, as is their basic connection to child development theory and research(Gordon & Browne, 1995, p.60).

Learning through play is still a myth in Hong Kong

As play is related to the holistic child-centred approaches, which is dynamic and creative by nature, it is promoted to meet the dynamic environment of society. Despite the calling for a

child-centred curriculum over the fourteen years since the publication of the 1996 Curriculum Guide for early childhood education, the degree to which these principles and approaches have been embraced by teachers and implemented in Hong Kong Chinese Kindergarten classroom practice, varies to a great extent.

Kindergarten programmes range from relatively traditional classes to highly structured, academically oriented classes. The push to teach separate skills, such as reading, writing and mathematics, has created more and more academically-focused kindergartens where worksheets and teacher-directed lessons are the norm. This movement has caused deep concern in the early childhood field since most of these programmes seem inconsistent with the developmental and learning styles of five-and-six-year olds and are viewed as preparation for advancement to Primary One level rather than as high quality programmes aimed at the development of the whole child. Curriculum trends in kindergarten, where play is not respected as a vehicle for learning, where reading is taught as a separate skill, and where attempts are made to accelerate children’s learning are at odds with the developmental theoretical practice. When educators speak about play, it is mostly in this instrumental sense of play: “play as a means to reach a further goal or learning result, not the inherent value of play is central in this vision” (de Jonghe,, 2001, p.7, cited in Samuelsson & Johansson, 2006, p.49).

Without a genuine understanding of the holistic development of young children through the integrated play-based curriculum and pedagogy, it is understandable why learning through play is still a myth in the classrooms for young children in Hong Kong. It is no wonder that David Elkind in his book” The Hurried Child: Growing Up Too Fast, Too Soon” (Elkind, 1989) to disregard for activities and curriculum conducted in the early childhood

classroom being too teacher-directed and have not geared to a child’s appropriate developmental level. It is not an exaggeration to say that the ‘hurried child” is indeed a product of the lack of understanding on the part of the practitioners of the need for the child’s holistic development. What was seen instead was that children are forced to sit and pay attention for longer than their bodies or minds can tolerate; attempts are made to teach reading and writing before children are developmentally prepared; and curriculum for fours, fives, and sixes include content best suited for later years (Gordon & Browne 1995, p.75).

To provide a basis for the study, it was necessary to have an understanding of the meaning of play to young children and its role and function in a child’s development. The understanding of the concept of ‘play’ by the practitioners is crucial since the application of it has direct impact on children’s learning.

While we are all familiar with the activity of play, a review of the literature on children’s play suggests a lack of consensus among scholars and researchers on a definition of play (Lau, 2008).

Cheng et al. (2008) also mentions the difficulty of defining ‘play’ in Early Childhood Education in Hong Kong in that, “The implementation of child-centred, play-based pedagogies in classrooms is a recognized field of theory and practice in ECE. Yet, with the current popularity of social constructivist theory, international and local scholars find it difficult to tell where the boundary lies between teacher-centred and child-centred play –based approaches”. Similar findings are reported in the previous research conducted by the author of this paper (Lau, 2009).

One might perhaps borrow the chart illustrated by Miller and Almon (2009, p.22) to give an idea of how might the kindergarten curriculum

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Hong Kong Journal ofEarly Childhood香 港 幼 兒 學 報 Vol. 9 No. 2 December 2010

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Hong Kong Journal ofEarly Childhood香 港 幼 兒 學 報 Vol. 9 No. 2 December 2010

guidelines have then placed child-centred, play-based pedagogy at the heart of Early Childhood Education quality. However, quality assurance reports indicate that a gap exists between policy and practice, with many pre-primary schools persisting in teacher-directed approaches and academically oriented practices (Cheng, Ho, Lau & Benson, 2009, p.1)

In the year 1996, the government has again provided guidelines concerning new approaches to curriculum by using a less formal type of approach in teaching and learning. The Guide to the Pre-primary Curriculum issued in 2006 was to reiterate and to reconfirm the captioned Early Childhood Education curriculum reform proposal started years ago by adopting play for facilitating the “child-centred” concept of children’s learning. In this latest Guide, play is recommended as a learning strategy to be incorporated into different learning areas in an integrated holistic manner (2006, Hong Kong Government, p.41).

The old paradigm of a teacher-centred curriculum has since the launch of the educational reform been considered out-dated and should give way to holistic development underpinned by a child-centred ideology for Quality education. It is a fact that the Chief Executive of Hong Kong committed HK$2 billion since 2006 to enhance the quality of ECE and play-based learning has been advocated as the key approach to achieve this goal (Cheng, Fung, Lau & Benson, 2008, p.1 and Cheng, Lau, Fung & Benson, 2009, p.1).

Literature Review The development of the whole child is facilitated through play in an integrated curriculum According to Gordon and Williams-Browne (1995, p.540-541), an integrated curriculum means a set of courses designed to form a whole; coordination of the various areas of study, making

for continuous and harmonious learning.

The concept of the whole child strongly suggests the uniqueness of the person. Interestingly, the whole-child approach is seen from a medical point of view as well. Although they are often discussed separately, the areas of development (social, emotional, physical, and intellectual) cannot be isolated from one another. They each make a valuable contribution to the total well-being of the child. Since play is a chain of integrated and interrelated activities and is not subject-based, it fits well with the enhancement of the holistic development of the whole child (Derman-Sparks in Gordon & Browne, 1995, p.84-85).

The term ‘holistic’ carries a viewpoint that takes into account several conceptions of a child or situation to form a wider, more rounded description; in early childhood terms, this view includes a child’s history, present status, relationships with others, and the interrelationships of development to arrive at a picture of a child; in medicine, this view includes dealing with a person’s mental and emotional state, relationships, etc., as well as body signs. In short, the notion of holistic development which originated from the whole child concept and is best facilitated through play.

Pioneers in Early Childhood Education such as Froebel, Dewey, Piaget, Patty Smith and their approach to learning has reflected that educating the whole child through play is very much in evidence in their work, as is their basic connection to child development theory and research(Gordon & Browne, 1995, p.60).

Learning through play is still a myth in Hong Kong

As play is related to the holistic child-centred approaches, which is dynamic and creative by nature, it is promoted to meet the dynamic environment of society. Despite the calling for a

child-centred curriculum over the fourteen years since the publication of the 1996 Curriculum Guide for early childhood education, the degree to which these principles and approaches have been embraced by teachers and implemented in Hong Kong Chinese Kindergarten classroom practice, varies to a great extent.

Kindergarten programmes range from relatively traditional classes to highly structured, academically oriented classes. The push to teach separate skills, such as reading, writing and mathematics, has created more and more academically-focused kindergartens where worksheets and teacher-directed lessons are the norm. This movement has caused deep concern in the early childhood field since most of these programmes seem inconsistent with the developmental and learning styles of five-and-six-year olds and are viewed as preparation for advancement to Primary One level rather than as high quality programmes aimed at the development of the whole child. Curriculum trends in kindergarten, where play is not respected as a vehicle for learning, where reading is taught as a separate skill, and where attempts are made to accelerate children’s learning are at odds with the developmental theoretical practice. When educators speak about play, it is mostly in this instrumental sense of play: “play as a means to reach a further goal or learning result, not the inherent value of play is central in this vision” (de Jonghe,, 2001, p.7, cited in Samuelsson & Johansson, 2006, p.49).

Without a genuine understanding of the holistic development of young children through the integrated play-based curriculum and pedagogy, it is understandable why learning through play is still a myth in the classrooms for young children in Hong Kong. It is no wonder that David Elkind in his book” The Hurried Child: Growing Up Too Fast, Too Soon” (Elkind, 1989) to disregard for activities and curriculum conducted in the early childhood

classroom being too teacher-directed and have not geared to a child’s appropriate developmental level. It is not an exaggeration to say that the ‘hurried child” is indeed a product of the lack of understanding on the part of the practitioners of the need for the child’s holistic development. What was seen instead was that children are forced to sit and pay attention for longer than their bodies or minds can tolerate; attempts are made to teach reading and writing before children are developmentally prepared; and curriculum for fours, fives, and sixes include content best suited for later years (Gordon & Browne 1995, p.75).

To provide a basis for the study, it was necessary to have an understanding of the meaning of play to young children and its role and function in a child’s development. The understanding of the concept of ‘play’ by the practitioners is crucial since the application of it has direct impact on children’s learning.

While we are all familiar with the activity of play, a review of the literature on children’s play suggests a lack of consensus among scholars and researchers on a definition of play (Lau, 2008).

Cheng et al. (2008) also mentions the difficulty of defining ‘play’ in Early Childhood Education in Hong Kong in that, “The implementation of child-centred, play-based pedagogies in classrooms is a recognized field of theory and practice in ECE. Yet, with the current popularity of social constructivist theory, international and local scholars find it difficult to tell where the boundary lies between teacher-centred and child-centred play –based approaches”. Similar findings are reported in the previous research conducted by the author of this paper (Lau, 2009).

One might perhaps borrow the chart illustrated by Miller and Almon (2009, p.22) to give an idea of how might the kindergarten curriculum

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Hong Kong Journal ofEarly Childhood香 港 幼 兒 學 報 Vol. 9 No. 2 December 2010

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Hong Kong Journal ofEarly Childhood香 港 幼 兒 學 報 Vol. 9 No. 2 December 2010

and pedagogical practises lie along a continuum between the child-initiated play and focused,

experiential learning in the situation of Hong Kong as in the United States.

The range of k indergar ten educa t ion illustrated in the continuum above marked the two central methods in the continuum: namely the child-initiated play and focused, experiential learning. The illustrator of this diagram has cited the description by researchers Elena Bodrova and Deborah of the dangers of the extremes in that, we have found that both extremely chaotic classrooms and extremely teacher-directed classrooms are counterproductive to developing self-regulation and other underlying skills in children. Classrooms where children flit from activity to activity support reactive behaviour. But when all the instruction is whole-group, students become too teacher-regulated” (Bodrova, E. & Leong, D. J. 2005, cited in Miller & Almon, 2009, p.22).

Definition of “Play” and “Play-based pedagogy” adopted for use in the present study As there is basically no universal consensus on the definition of play, the following working definitions on “play” and “play-based pedagogy” are devised for investigation purposes as the present study is concerned. (Cheng, Fung, Lau & Benson, 2008,p. 20).

Definition of “Play” by(a) Rubin, Fein and Vendenberg(1983): Play is

intrinsically motivated, and that the players are more concerned with activities than with goals. ‘Play’ requires the active engagement of the participants and is free from rules imposed from outside. Thus, active engagement, as seen from the above features, is one of the key factors of play.

(b) Gadamer, H .G. (1960) : P lay has the connotation of not being serious, as people have a feeling of ‘mere play’. Yet, embedded in the surface connotation, the behaviour of the player has to be serious as ‘seriousness in playing is necessary to make the play wholly play’ (p.2) Thus, ‘play’ seems to have split and contrasting meanings, as it can refer to both the superficial meaning of unserious play as well as to the serious engagement of the player, which is the condition that makes the activity ‘play’. The complexity of play is such that it has to be disguised from even the players themselves, as they have to think that what they are doing is merely ‘play’. Their seriousness in approaching the activity must be outside their conscious awareness so that

they are free of external pressure (Cheng, Fung, Lau & Benson, 2008, p. 20).

(c) King, N.R. (1979): A lack of adult involvement seems to be a necessary ingredient in the play experience.

(d) Dewey, J. cited in Parker-Rees (1999). The concept of ‘playfulness’ when the players are intrinsically motivated should be used to apply for real play.

(e) Csikszentmihalyi (1991). The idea of ‘playfulness’ also adocated under another terminology of ‘optimal experience’. It is a condition of deep enjoyment, which is the focus of the Experiential Education in Flemish preschools. Csikszentmihalyi terms the experience ‘flow’, when concentration is so intense that there is no spare attention of anything irrelevant, or for worry about other problems. Self-consciousness disappears and the sense of time becomes distorted. Six qualities have been highlighted by Csikszentmihalyi when someone is in this state, which are also indicators that a child is in a state of playfulness. They are having clear goals (which are imposed by the player himself; concerned attention; loss of self-consciousness; an altered sense of time; intrinsic motivation and belief that an experience is worthwhile for its own sake.

In short, in the data collection process, playful scenarios identified in the present study were defined by the following qualities (Cheng, Benson, Lau & Fung, 2010, p. 6).(a) having clear goals (which are imposed by the

player himself)(b) having concerned attention(c) loss of self-consciousness(d) an altered sense of time(e) intrinsic motivation(f) a belief that an experience is worthwhile for

its own sake.

Definition of “Play-based pedagogy” Play-based pedagogy is perceived here as the teacher’s intended act in mobilizing contextual resources(the school and classroom environments and the available human resources from the children’s macro surroundings) to capture, sustain and extend the children’s unintended enjoyable experience through a continuous process that helps them construct and reconstruct new meanings of the world. It is the repertoires that a teacher adopts to interweave the children’s optimal experience with teaching and learning objectives (Cheng, Fung, Lau & Benson, 2008;).

Rationale for investigation in the Hong Kong situation

The lack of genuine understanding of the holistic development of young children through the integrated play-based curriculum and pedagogy has made learning through play still a myth in the classrooms for young children in Hong Kong. This is one of the additional insights gained by the author of this paper while analyzing the data collected from the five kindergartens that she has visited.

In a publicly funded research project conducted by four researchers, including the author of this paper, to investigate the ‘implementation of play-based pedagogy’ in Hong Kong, the researchers found that practitioners had different interpretations of the notion of learning through play. In essence, of the twenty kindergartens in this research study, four of which had been identified as good kindergartens in the QAI reports (Cheng, Lau, Fung & Benson, 2009), it is surprising to note that only piece-meal incidences of play episodes were recorded as ‘genuine play’ in these kindergartens. Thus, it is not an exaggeration to state that basically no genuine play-based pedagogy is being observed in Hong Kong. What has accounted for this phenomenon could be a good topic to share with stakeholders in the Early Childhood Education field.

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Hong Kong Journal ofEarly Childhood香 港 幼 兒 學 報 Vol. 9 No. 2 December 2010

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Hong Kong Journal ofEarly Childhood香 港 幼 兒 學 報 Vol. 9 No. 2 December 2010

and pedagogical practises lie along a continuum between the child-initiated play and focused,

experiential learning in the situation of Hong Kong as in the United States.

The range of k indergar ten educa t ion illustrated in the continuum above marked the two central methods in the continuum: namely the child-initiated play and focused, experiential learning. The illustrator of this diagram has cited the description by researchers Elena Bodrova and Deborah of the dangers of the extremes in that, we have found that both extremely chaotic classrooms and extremely teacher-directed classrooms are counterproductive to developing self-regulation and other underlying skills in children. Classrooms where children flit from activity to activity support reactive behaviour. But when all the instruction is whole-group, students become too teacher-regulated” (Bodrova, E. & Leong, D. J. 2005, cited in Miller & Almon, 2009, p.22).

Definition of “Play” and “Play-based pedagogy” adopted for use in the present study As there is basically no universal consensus on the definition of play, the following working definitions on “play” and “play-based pedagogy” are devised for investigation purposes as the present study is concerned. (Cheng, Fung, Lau & Benson, 2008,p. 20).

Definition of “Play” by(a) Rubin, Fein and Vendenberg(1983): Play is

intrinsically motivated, and that the players are more concerned with activities than with goals. ‘Play’ requires the active engagement of the participants and is free from rules imposed from outside. Thus, active engagement, as seen from the above features, is one of the key factors of play.

(b) Gadamer, H .G. (1960) : P lay has the connotation of not being serious, as people have a feeling of ‘mere play’. Yet, embedded in the surface connotation, the behaviour of the player has to be serious as ‘seriousness in playing is necessary to make the play wholly play’ (p.2) Thus, ‘play’ seems to have split and contrasting meanings, as it can refer to both the superficial meaning of unserious play as well as to the serious engagement of the player, which is the condition that makes the activity ‘play’. The complexity of play is such that it has to be disguised from even the players themselves, as they have to think that what they are doing is merely ‘play’. Their seriousness in approaching the activity must be outside their conscious awareness so that

they are free of external pressure (Cheng, Fung, Lau & Benson, 2008, p. 20).

(c) King, N.R. (1979): A lack of adult involvement seems to be a necessary ingredient in the play experience.

(d) Dewey, J. cited in Parker-Rees (1999). The concept of ‘playfulness’ when the players are intrinsically motivated should be used to apply for real play.

(e) Csikszentmihalyi (1991). The idea of ‘playfulness’ also adocated under another terminology of ‘optimal experience’. It is a condition of deep enjoyment, which is the focus of the Experiential Education in Flemish preschools. Csikszentmihalyi terms the experience ‘flow’, when concentration is so intense that there is no spare attention of anything irrelevant, or for worry about other problems. Self-consciousness disappears and the sense of time becomes distorted. Six qualities have been highlighted by Csikszentmihalyi when someone is in this state, which are also indicators that a child is in a state of playfulness. They are having clear goals (which are imposed by the player himself; concerned attention; loss of self-consciousness; an altered sense of time; intrinsic motivation and belief that an experience is worthwhile for its own sake.

In short, in the data collection process, playful scenarios identified in the present study were defined by the following qualities (Cheng, Benson, Lau & Fung, 2010, p. 6).(a) having clear goals (which are imposed by the

player himself)(b) having concerned attention(c) loss of self-consciousness(d) an altered sense of time(e) intrinsic motivation(f) a belief that an experience is worthwhile for

its own sake.

Definition of “Play-based pedagogy” Play-based pedagogy is perceived here as the teacher’s intended act in mobilizing contextual resources(the school and classroom environments and the available human resources from the children’s macro surroundings) to capture, sustain and extend the children’s unintended enjoyable experience through a continuous process that helps them construct and reconstruct new meanings of the world. It is the repertoires that a teacher adopts to interweave the children’s optimal experience with teaching and learning objectives (Cheng, Fung, Lau & Benson, 2008;).

Rationale for investigation in the Hong Kong situation

The lack of genuine understanding of the holistic development of young children through the integrated play-based curriculum and pedagogy has made learning through play still a myth in the classrooms for young children in Hong Kong. This is one of the additional insights gained by the author of this paper while analyzing the data collected from the five kindergartens that she has visited.

In a publicly funded research project conducted by four researchers, including the author of this paper, to investigate the ‘implementation of play-based pedagogy’ in Hong Kong, the researchers found that practitioners had different interpretations of the notion of learning through play. In essence, of the twenty kindergartens in this research study, four of which had been identified as good kindergartens in the QAI reports (Cheng, Lau, Fung & Benson, 2009), it is surprising to note that only piece-meal incidences of play episodes were recorded as ‘genuine play’ in these kindergartens. Thus, it is not an exaggeration to state that basically no genuine play-based pedagogy is being observed in Hong Kong. What has accounted for this phenomenon could be a good topic to share with stakeholders in the Early Childhood Education field.

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Hong Kong Journal ofEarly Childhood香 港 幼 兒 學 報 Vol. 9 No. 2 December 2010

Design of the study Methods of data collection As case study is the ideal method to look into teacher’s practical knowledge and to understand its link with practice. It is adapted for this study to allow links between decisions and actions to be identified. Qualitative method in the form of case study is used in this investigation. Means of data collection employed in this project involves kindergarten visits, classroom observations and conducting interviews with all key stakeholders.

Data Collection Selection of sample schools The 20 kindergartens taking part in this project were drawn from a wide catchment area which covered Hong Kong Island, Kowloon, and the New Territories. The sample included 2 nurseries and 18 kindergartens, of which 2 were on Hong Kong Island, 7 in Kowloon, and 11 in the New Territories. K1 classes were sampled in five kindergartens, K2 in seven, and K3 in eight. All the kindergartens had joined the Preprimary Education Voucher Scheme (PEVS). Four had been identified as good kindergartens in the QAI reports (Cheng, Lau, Fung & Benson, 2009, p. 6 ).

Data collection process The data collection was conducted by four researchers and one research assistant from September 2008 to March 2009. After a thorough documentary analysis, the 20 sample kindergartens were selected. Consent was sought from the kindergartens and a date to visit each was negotiated (either a half or whole day, depending on the mode of the kindergartens). Before the class started, the researcher interviewed the teacher while the assistant set up the audio and video equipment. While taking field notes of the teaching and learning activities, the researcher also had to identify playful scenarios and ask the assistant to videotape those episodes. After a day’s programme, the principal, teacher and parents’

interviews took place. A set of semi-structured questions were used to guide the stakeholders for answers on the play research (see appendix A). Other documents such as the teaching plan, kindergarten leaflets, and floor plans were collected from the kindergarten during the visit (ibid., p. 7). All the interviews and audio recordings were then transcribed. The video clips were reviewed and the duration of each session was noted down. Together with the video clips, a comprehensive dataset for each kindergarten was collated into a package ready for the researchers to conduct an initial analysis. Each of the investigators then anlayzed their own data according to an agreed template. With the help of Nvivo, discourse analysis, as well as discussions within the team, the data was then coded according to the emerging features and the results were analyzed (ibid., p. 7).

Background of the Kindergarten in the present study Space does not permit the author to present each of the various texts of the 20 kindergartens involved in this project. Those outlined below reflect the practices and interpretation of a play-based curriculum and pedagogy displayed by a typical case of the project kindergartens.

The kindergarten under study is a non-profit making kindergarten which has a long established history. It was established by the former supervisor who was a Protestant though the kindergarten has claimed that it has no religious affiliation. The medium of instruction is Cantonese. The facilities include 8 classrooms (separated by partitions), a computer room, an art room, a science room and an indoor playground. In 2007, 3 teachers are mainly responsible for the nursery section. 2 of them are Qualified Kindergarten Teacher (QKT) teachers and one has a Certificate in Education(CE) qualifications or above.

The Findings An overview of the findings Two episodes were reported as findings to reveal the practice of play-based pedagogy in this case study, namely the play episode (A) and the play episode (B). Both play episodes are regarded as game episode by the researcher/s since the activities are teacher-led. Interestingly, it is the parents of this kindergarten regarded play episode (B) as play since they have found that their children enjoyed the music lesson very much.

Play episode(A) Traffic lights whole class teaching activities

in a K2 (four-year-old) class Class schedule: Small group activities using a

thematic teaching approach (from 9:17a.m. to around 9:45a.m.).

Description: A boy is holding two signs of traffic lights in his hand – one is a ‘green man’ and the other is ‘a red man’. The rest of the children stand up and wait for his signal. He first puts up a ‘green man’ sign, so the children pretend to cross the road by walking around. And then he puts up the ‘red man’ sign, and the children stop. He does that several times, and the children all follow his signals accordingly. The children as well as the boy holding the signs are very happy and excited, although some of the children don’t move even when the ‘green man’ is on. After that, the teacher thanks the boy, and the rest of the children naturally go back to their seats. Then the teacher asks the children to clap their hands three times and get ready to do other small group activities.

This episode is regarded as a game episode since the activity is teacher-led and occurs after a brief introduction by the teacher about the topic.

Although it is a game and is “programmed’ by the teacher who provides instructions on

how to ‘play’, the activities are welcome by the children. Children seem to enjoy doing the activities. In the pre-lesson interview with the teacher, she expressed that she expects that the children will like the activities as it involves a lot of movement and action while “playing”. The concept of play to the children is “children-in-action”.

Play episode(B) Music activities in a K2 (four-year-old)

classroom. Class schedule: Music activities Description: The girl sitting in a corner at

the back of the room (girl X) keeps touching the empty seats next to her when the teacher is teaching the children a new song. Most of the children listen quietly in their seats, but girl X keeps rubbing the surface of the empty seat and even leans against the seat. The teacher notices this and thus brings her seat a little bit closer to herself, in order to prevent her from touching the seats again. But still, girl X seems not to be involved in the class. When the teacher asks the children to pretend to share the fruits with their neighbors, she stands up and walks around. Teacher instructs her back to return to her seat and reminds her to follow the instructions. She appears excited, sometimes jumps up and swings her head up and down without listening carefully to the teacher’s instruction during the lesson. The other children in class show their excitement during the music activities as well.

Music activity(game) for each class is a highlight of the day’s programme In Play episode B, the researchers noticed the teacher tends to find ways to keep girl X under control so that she could follow what the rest of the class is doing. There is an expectation of conformity in practice from every student in the music lessen. Conformity is expected of

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Design of the study Methods of data collection As case study is the ideal method to look into teacher’s practical knowledge and to understand its link with practice. It is adapted for this study to allow links between decisions and actions to be identified. Qualitative method in the form of case study is used in this investigation. Means of data collection employed in this project involves kindergarten visits, classroom observations and conducting interviews with all key stakeholders.

Data Collection Selection of sample schools The 20 kindergartens taking part in this project were drawn from a wide catchment area which covered Hong Kong Island, Kowloon, and the New Territories. The sample included 2 nurseries and 18 kindergartens, of which 2 were on Hong Kong Island, 7 in Kowloon, and 11 in the New Territories. K1 classes were sampled in five kindergartens, K2 in seven, and K3 in eight. All the kindergartens had joined the Preprimary Education Voucher Scheme (PEVS). Four had been identified as good kindergartens in the QAI reports (Cheng, Lau, Fung & Benson, 2009, p. 6 ).

Data collection process The data collection was conducted by four researchers and one research assistant from September 2008 to March 2009. After a thorough documentary analysis, the 20 sample kindergartens were selected. Consent was sought from the kindergartens and a date to visit each was negotiated (either a half or whole day, depending on the mode of the kindergartens). Before the class started, the researcher interviewed the teacher while the assistant set up the audio and video equipment. While taking field notes of the teaching and learning activities, the researcher also had to identify playful scenarios and ask the assistant to videotape those episodes. After a day’s programme, the principal, teacher and parents’

interviews took place. A set of semi-structured questions were used to guide the stakeholders for answers on the play research (see appendix A). Other documents such as the teaching plan, kindergarten leaflets, and floor plans were collected from the kindergarten during the visit (ibid., p. 7). All the interviews and audio recordings were then transcribed. The video clips were reviewed and the duration of each session was noted down. Together with the video clips, a comprehensive dataset for each kindergarten was collated into a package ready for the researchers to conduct an initial analysis. Each of the investigators then anlayzed their own data according to an agreed template. With the help of Nvivo, discourse analysis, as well as discussions within the team, the data was then coded according to the emerging features and the results were analyzed (ibid., p. 7).

Background of the Kindergarten in the present study Space does not permit the author to present each of the various texts of the 20 kindergartens involved in this project. Those outlined below reflect the practices and interpretation of a play-based curriculum and pedagogy displayed by a typical case of the project kindergartens.

The kindergarten under study is a non-profit making kindergarten which has a long established history. It was established by the former supervisor who was a Protestant though the kindergarten has claimed that it has no religious affiliation. The medium of instruction is Cantonese. The facilities include 8 classrooms (separated by partitions), a computer room, an art room, a science room and an indoor playground. In 2007, 3 teachers are mainly responsible for the nursery section. 2 of them are Qualified Kindergarten Teacher (QKT) teachers and one has a Certificate in Education(CE) qualifications or above.

The Findings An overview of the findings Two episodes were reported as findings to reveal the practice of play-based pedagogy in this case study, namely the play episode (A) and the play episode (B). Both play episodes are regarded as game episode by the researcher/s since the activities are teacher-led. Interestingly, it is the parents of this kindergarten regarded play episode (B) as play since they have found that their children enjoyed the music lesson very much.

Play episode(A) Traffic lights whole class teaching activities

in a K2 (four-year-old) class Class schedule: Small group activities using a

thematic teaching approach (from 9:17a.m. to around 9:45a.m.).

Description: A boy is holding two signs of traffic lights in his hand – one is a ‘green man’ and the other is ‘a red man’. The rest of the children stand up and wait for his signal. He first puts up a ‘green man’ sign, so the children pretend to cross the road by walking around. And then he puts up the ‘red man’ sign, and the children stop. He does that several times, and the children all follow his signals accordingly. The children as well as the boy holding the signs are very happy and excited, although some of the children don’t move even when the ‘green man’ is on. After that, the teacher thanks the boy, and the rest of the children naturally go back to their seats. Then the teacher asks the children to clap their hands three times and get ready to do other small group activities.

This episode is regarded as a game episode since the activity is teacher-led and occurs after a brief introduction by the teacher about the topic.

Although it is a game and is “programmed’ by the teacher who provides instructions on

how to ‘play’, the activities are welcome by the children. Children seem to enjoy doing the activities. In the pre-lesson interview with the teacher, she expressed that she expects that the children will like the activities as it involves a lot of movement and action while “playing”. The concept of play to the children is “children-in-action”.

Play episode(B) Music activities in a K2 (four-year-old)

classroom. Class schedule: Music activities Description: The girl sitting in a corner at

the back of the room (girl X) keeps touching the empty seats next to her when the teacher is teaching the children a new song. Most of the children listen quietly in their seats, but girl X keeps rubbing the surface of the empty seat and even leans against the seat. The teacher notices this and thus brings her seat a little bit closer to herself, in order to prevent her from touching the seats again. But still, girl X seems not to be involved in the class. When the teacher asks the children to pretend to share the fruits with their neighbors, she stands up and walks around. Teacher instructs her back to return to her seat and reminds her to follow the instructions. She appears excited, sometimes jumps up and swings her head up and down without listening carefully to the teacher’s instruction during the lesson. The other children in class show their excitement during the music activities as well.

Music activity(game) for each class is a highlight of the day’s programme In Play episode B, the researchers noticed the teacher tends to find ways to keep girl X under control so that she could follow what the rest of the class is doing. There is an expectation of conformity in practice from every student in the music lessen. Conformity is expected of

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Hong Kong Journal ofEarly Childhood香 港 幼 兒 學 報 Vol. 9 No. 2 December 2010

every student even in this music lesson, which is supposed to be the most favourite play activity of the children in the half day kindergarten programme(according to the parents). This came as a surprise to the researchers. Parents want their children to be happy and they think that one of the ways to make their children happy is by getting them to participate in a music activity.

To the researcher, a music activity is also teacher-directed though some moments are allowed for children to walk around, to dance around and to make expressions according to their ‘creativity”. It was observed that children sat in semi-circles in the music room when the teacher gave a specific signal/melody on the piano. Teachers tended to pause or stop, if they needed to get children’s attention or encourage participation.

Summary of findings of the case study As the present research study was conducted in a kindergarten underpinned by the Protestant belief system and infused with the traditional Confucius thinking as the ideology of the school, what is regarded as play in the diagram below is basically seen as opposite to work. The ideology of the school could be traced to the five thousand years of Chinese history, play is not regarded as conducive to learning. There is a long established belief that play is even harmful to learning. Play is thus seen as opposite to work – an activity done for its own sake, without external constraint. As such, children are taught to draw a clear distinction between ‘play’ and ‘work’. All Chinese children have learnt by heart the old saying that ‘play when it is time to play, and work when it is time to work’ (Lau, 2005).

It is well documented that in its early teachings the Christian Church very much reflected the dictum of Saint Chrysostom (347-407) in that “It is not God who gives us the chance to play, but the devil” (PG 57, 70D). Together with Saint Augustine of Hippo’s teaching on self-denial, Saint Chrysostom has amounted to the de-valuation of play in the pedagogy of teaching children for many years to come and could apply to the reformed Churches in Christianity history (Lau, 2005).

The findings reported below on “work” is basically opposite to the characteristics of what is defined as “play” and “play-based pedagogy” in this paper.

Work is being emphasized than play in this case study (1) The majority of time at kindergarten

i s devo ted to work ac t iv i t i e s (105 minutes), leaving 57 minutes for play activities(including the teacher-led game activities). Within the 57 minutes, 10 minutes were indeed not scheduled in the three hour school time. Children who are willing to play before the start of the ‘normal scheduled school hour’ have to arrive at school 15 minutes earlier. What is shocking perhaps is the time allotted for activity which is regarded as genuine play activity that could facilitate the holistic development of the children has accounted for less than 30 minutes in a three-hour school programme. The distribution of time in play and work is recorded in the following table.

Play Work

Free play before the starts of the formal day’s programme.

（42minutes）

Thematic teachingReadingPlaying clips（learning task）

（55mins.）

Musical activities（35mins.）

Group activities（Allotted time: 15mins）Playing blocksToy kitchenLearning aids（教具）

Physical exercises （Allotted time: 15mins）

（Jump and leap on the ground）

Sub-total 57minutes Sub-total 105minutes

Routine work and toileting:Toilet break 8 minutesSnack time 15 minutesDelivering homework 5 minutes--------------------------------------------- Sub-total 28minutes

(2) The teaching style of the teacher is generally considered as didactic though the teacher has tried very hard to enable children to express themselves.

(3) Children were instructed and programmed by the teacher about what to do. After the initial training behind the scene, children were found to be automatically geared to the demands of the teacher. It was observed that during the Free Play, they have to follow what the teacher has instructed them to do or else they would be scolded.

(4) Teacher will write lesson plans and carry out her plans accordingly. The scheduled activities would not be changed so as to respond to the needs of the children.

(5) There are consistent views about teaching and learning amongst teachers, parents

and the Head of kindergarten. All the three parties agree that play is good for the children as long as children could play safely and constructively though their ideas of play is a kind of mechanic game and is far from the genuine notion of play (holistic play).

(6) All the three parties agree with the idea of teaching children Chinese hand-writing even at the very young age (K1 children). Both the Head and the parents try to find excuses to justify their practices.

(7) Although the idea of play is welcomed by the parents, teachers and School Head, play should not infringe on the ‘learning’ of children in an academic way. Given the limited school hours in a half-day programme, ‘learning’ through direct and pre-planned teaching has the first priority. The periphery time, such as time before

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every student even in this music lesson, which is supposed to be the most favourite play activity of the children in the half day kindergarten programme(according to the parents). This came as a surprise to the researchers. Parents want their children to be happy and they think that one of the ways to make their children happy is by getting them to participate in a music activity.

To the researcher, a music activity is also teacher-directed though some moments are allowed for children to walk around, to dance around and to make expressions according to their ‘creativity”. It was observed that children sat in semi-circles in the music room when the teacher gave a specific signal/melody on the piano. Teachers tended to pause or stop, if they needed to get children’s attention or encourage participation.

Summary of findings of the case study As the present research study was conducted in a kindergarten underpinned by the Protestant belief system and infused with the traditional Confucius thinking as the ideology of the school, what is regarded as play in the diagram below is basically seen as opposite to work. The ideology of the school could be traced to the five thousand years of Chinese history, play is not regarded as conducive to learning. There is a long established belief that play is even harmful to learning. Play is thus seen as opposite to work – an activity done for its own sake, without external constraint. As such, children are taught to draw a clear distinction between ‘play’ and ‘work’. All Chinese children have learnt by heart the old saying that ‘play when it is time to play, and work when it is time to work’ (Lau, 2005).

It is well documented that in its early teachings the Christian Church very much reflected the dictum of Saint Chrysostom (347-407) in that “It is not God who gives us the chance to play, but the devil” (PG 57, 70D). Together with Saint Augustine of Hippo’s teaching on self-denial, Saint Chrysostom has amounted to the de-valuation of play in the pedagogy of teaching children for many years to come and could apply to the reformed Churches in Christianity history (Lau, 2005).

The findings reported below on “work” is basically opposite to the characteristics of what is defined as “play” and “play-based pedagogy” in this paper.

Work is being emphasized than play in this case study (1) The majority of time at kindergarten

i s devo ted to work ac t iv i t i e s (105 minutes), leaving 57 minutes for play activities(including the teacher-led game activities). Within the 57 minutes, 10 minutes were indeed not scheduled in the three hour school time. Children who are willing to play before the start of the ‘normal scheduled school hour’ have to arrive at school 15 minutes earlier. What is shocking perhaps is the time allotted for activity which is regarded as genuine play activity that could facilitate the holistic development of the children has accounted for less than 30 minutes in a three-hour school programme. The distribution of time in play and work is recorded in the following table.

Play Work

Free play before the starts of the formal day’s programme.

（42minutes）

Thematic teachingReadingPlaying clips（learning task）

（55mins.）

Musical activities（35mins.）

Group activities（Allotted time: 15mins）Playing blocksToy kitchenLearning aids（教具）

Physical exercises （Allotted time: 15mins）

（Jump and leap on the ground）

Sub-total 57minutes Sub-total 105minutes

Routine work and toileting:Toilet break 8 minutesSnack time 15 minutesDelivering homework 5 minutes--------------------------------------------- Sub-total 28minutes

(2) The teaching style of the teacher is generally considered as didactic though the teacher has tried very hard to enable children to express themselves.

(3) Children were instructed and programmed by the teacher about what to do. After the initial training behind the scene, children were found to be automatically geared to the demands of the teacher. It was observed that during the Free Play, they have to follow what the teacher has instructed them to do or else they would be scolded.

(4) Teacher will write lesson plans and carry out her plans accordingly. The scheduled activities would not be changed so as to respond to the needs of the children.

(5) There are consistent views about teaching and learning amongst teachers, parents

and the Head of kindergarten. All the three parties agree that play is good for the children as long as children could play safely and constructively though their ideas of play is a kind of mechanic game and is far from the genuine notion of play (holistic play).

(6) All the three parties agree with the idea of teaching children Chinese hand-writing even at the very young age (K1 children). Both the Head and the parents try to find excuses to justify their practices.

(7) Although the idea of play is welcomed by the parents, teachers and School Head, play should not infringe on the ‘learning’ of children in an academic way. Given the limited school hours in a half-day programme, ‘learning’ through direct and pre-planned teaching has the first priority. The periphery time, such as time before

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Hong Kong Journal ofEarly Childhood香 港 幼 兒 學 報 Vol. 9 No. 2 December 2010

the start of the formal teaching and time after the thematic teaching is set aside for children to engage in genuine play activities.

(8) As all the three parties hold the same concept on teaching and learning, there is harmony in the school when implementing the curriculum.

Discussion and Recommendations The main points identified in this section are presented either in the question form or in relevant headings below for reflection

(1) Is there a misconception of a play-based pedagogy and learning through play by the stakeholders?

Play-based pedagogy is perceived as the teacher’s intended act in mobilizing contextual resources (the school and classroom environments and the available human resources from the children’s macro surroundings) to capture, sustain and extend the children’s unintended enjoyable experience through a continuous process that helps them construct and reconstruct new meanings of the world. It is the repertoires that a teacher adopts to interweave the children’s optimal experience with teaching and learning objectives. In other words, a play-based pedagogy would honour the inherent value of play, as expressed by Samuelsson and Johansson (2006).

Reference to the definition of what is considered as a play-based pedagogy in the project shows that the kindergarten under study appears to deviate from this practice.

In short, what was found in this case study reveals that of all the roadblocks that hinder the genuine practice of play-based pedagogy, the (a) ideological issue is highlighted more than the others, as could be seen in point 5 to point 8 in the

previous paragraph while (b) the misconception of the stakeholders on holistic development of young children through the integrated play activities, as evidenced by point 1 to point 4 in the previous paragraph has accounted for the second important roadblock for a genuine play-based pedagogy in the kindergarten under-study.

(2) What are the roadblocks for realizing the play-based pedagogy in Hong Kong?

Roadblock (a) : Ideologies of the stakeholders Ideologies are deeply held beliefs that fill the vacuum created by the unavailability of hard data, writes Lilian Katz, who directed the ERIC Clearinghouse on Elementary and Early Childhood Education for 30 years (Miller & Almon, 2009, p.13). Katz expressed her resentment of an ideological approach to teaching young children, on the ground that such an approach would undermine the evidence of decades of research and experience. Johansson and Pramling Samuelsson (2001) have also mentioned the different theoretical perspective of the teachers that would affect their decision on whether to relate learning mainly to specific organised situations, to affirm the child to the idea of ‘becoming’ a person with little or no knowledge and therefore thinking that children must be taught and moulded by the teacher or vice versa.

Evidence of teacher’s ideological preference for a work-based pedagogy In contrast to a play-based pedagogy is the work-based pedagogy. In a work-based pedagogy, the teacher in this case study would expect children to behave themselves and be disciplined while playing. The teacher thinks that it is her responsibility to ‘instruct’ and ‘intervene’ with children in their grouping, and thereby their learning. The teacher thinks that it is her duty to ensure that children could learn something from her planned activities.

The teacher is keen to reflect on those activities which she has planned and to assess whether children could acquire learning in through these activities. In other words, activities that are those that emerge freely from children during the Free Play. Group activities time are not regarded as moments for children to acquire learning themselves.

Since the mechanical writing of Chinese characters is not encouraged in contemporary teaching and learning theory from a holistic ideological stance, the teachers would skilfully hide her real intention of asking children to write by carefully re-phasing her words in order to reach her goals.

Evidence of school head’s ideological preference for a work-based pedagogy From what the Head has understood of the concept of play and her understanding of ‘learning through play’, learning is not necessarily related to numeracy and literacy, but to human relationships, connectiveness with society and self-regulation. A form of play encouraged by the School Head is picture drawing. She thinks that it is through picture drawing that children could write Chinese characters.

Other than the picture drawing activity, the Head has a clear demarcation of the concept of play and the concept of work.

In the opinion of the school head, work too could enable children to learn and could be enhanced through the direct teaching of teachers, the pre-set content of teaching, the mechanical drilling of Chinese hand-writing, (though at times word making through the medium of picture drawing are encouraged), the teaching of text books, the teaching of poetry (唐詩 ) and the teaching of musical elements through the music lesson.

The Head is confident that the parents would support her learning and teaching idea since parents are being made aware of the approaches long before they have enrolled their children in the school. According to the Head, as long as the parents would understand the end product of the teaching, the parents would not query the pedagogy used by the school.

The Head would require teachers to write lesson plans though she admits that she would not spend much time in reading them.

Evidence of parent’s ideological preference for a work-based pedagogy Parents are concerned about whether children are happy and that they have learned how to behave themselves properly at school. They are also concerned about whether children could learn how to discern right from wrong. This request of parents on the acquisition of moral standards is in contrast to the stance lamented by the educators who have adopted the views of moral relativism.

Parents explain that they do not mind so much as before whether their children could gain entry to ‘famous’ primary schools ever since the abolition of the ‘interview system for prospective new students’ to these primary schools. Following on that, what parents are concerned most is whether their children could behave properly as well whether they could learn their language well. Parents welcome the idea of learning through play to achieve these ends as long as children could play safely (without lurking danger underpinned by the genuine free play activities).

Parents are very pleased by the fact that their children are given chances to practise Chinese writing even at the K1 level. They tried to find a good reason to justify the writing practice fostered by the kindergarten. According to the Head, parents as well as teachers would require children to

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Hong Kong Journal ofEarly Childhood香 港 幼 兒 學 報 Vol. 9 No. 2 December 2010

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Hong Kong Journal ofEarly Childhood香 港 幼 兒 學 報 Vol. 9 No. 2 December 2010

the start of the formal teaching and time after the thematic teaching is set aside for children to engage in genuine play activities.

(8) As all the three parties hold the same concept on teaching and learning, there is harmony in the school when implementing the curriculum.

Discussion and Recommendations The main points identified in this section are presented either in the question form or in relevant headings below for reflection

(1) Is there a misconception of a play-based pedagogy and learning through play by the stakeholders?

Play-based pedagogy is perceived as the teacher’s intended act in mobilizing contextual resources (the school and classroom environments and the available human resources from the children’s macro surroundings) to capture, sustain and extend the children’s unintended enjoyable experience through a continuous process that helps them construct and reconstruct new meanings of the world. It is the repertoires that a teacher adopts to interweave the children’s optimal experience with teaching and learning objectives. In other words, a play-based pedagogy would honour the inherent value of play, as expressed by Samuelsson and Johansson (2006).

Reference to the definition of what is considered as a play-based pedagogy in the project shows that the kindergarten under study appears to deviate from this practice.

In short, what was found in this case study reveals that of all the roadblocks that hinder the genuine practice of play-based pedagogy, the (a) ideological issue is highlighted more than the others, as could be seen in point 5 to point 8 in the

previous paragraph while (b) the misconception of the stakeholders on holistic development of young children through the integrated play activities, as evidenced by point 1 to point 4 in the previous paragraph has accounted for the second important roadblock for a genuine play-based pedagogy in the kindergarten under-study.

(2) What are the roadblocks for realizing the play-based pedagogy in Hong Kong?

Roadblock (a) : Ideologies of the stakeholders Ideologies are deeply held beliefs that fill the vacuum created by the unavailability of hard data, writes Lilian Katz, who directed the ERIC Clearinghouse on Elementary and Early Childhood Education for 30 years (Miller & Almon, 2009, p.13). Katz expressed her resentment of an ideological approach to teaching young children, on the ground that such an approach would undermine the evidence of decades of research and experience. Johansson and Pramling Samuelsson (2001) have also mentioned the different theoretical perspective of the teachers that would affect their decision on whether to relate learning mainly to specific organised situations, to affirm the child to the idea of ‘becoming’ a person with little or no knowledge and therefore thinking that children must be taught and moulded by the teacher or vice versa.

Evidence of teacher’s ideological preference for a work-based pedagogy In contrast to a play-based pedagogy is the work-based pedagogy. In a work-based pedagogy, the teacher in this case study would expect children to behave themselves and be disciplined while playing. The teacher thinks that it is her responsibility to ‘instruct’ and ‘intervene’ with children in their grouping, and thereby their learning. The teacher thinks that it is her duty to ensure that children could learn something from her planned activities.

The teacher is keen to reflect on those activities which she has planned and to assess whether children could acquire learning in through these activities. In other words, activities that are those that emerge freely from children during the Free Play. Group activities time are not regarded as moments for children to acquire learning themselves.

Since the mechanical writing of Chinese characters is not encouraged in contemporary teaching and learning theory from a holistic ideological stance, the teachers would skilfully hide her real intention of asking children to write by carefully re-phasing her words in order to reach her goals.

Evidence of school head’s ideological preference for a work-based pedagogy From what the Head has understood of the concept of play and her understanding of ‘learning through play’, learning is not necessarily related to numeracy and literacy, but to human relationships, connectiveness with society and self-regulation. A form of play encouraged by the School Head is picture drawing. She thinks that it is through picture drawing that children could write Chinese characters.

Other than the picture drawing activity, the Head has a clear demarcation of the concept of play and the concept of work.

In the opinion of the school head, work too could enable children to learn and could be enhanced through the direct teaching of teachers, the pre-set content of teaching, the mechanical drilling of Chinese hand-writing, (though at times word making through the medium of picture drawing are encouraged), the teaching of text books, the teaching of poetry (唐詩 ) and the teaching of musical elements through the music lesson.

The Head is confident that the parents would support her learning and teaching idea since parents are being made aware of the approaches long before they have enrolled their children in the school. According to the Head, as long as the parents would understand the end product of the teaching, the parents would not query the pedagogy used by the school.

The Head would require teachers to write lesson plans though she admits that she would not spend much time in reading them.

Evidence of parent’s ideological preference for a work-based pedagogy Parents are concerned about whether children are happy and that they have learned how to behave themselves properly at school. They are also concerned about whether children could learn how to discern right from wrong. This request of parents on the acquisition of moral standards is in contrast to the stance lamented by the educators who have adopted the views of moral relativism.

Parents explain that they do not mind so much as before whether their children could gain entry to ‘famous’ primary schools ever since the abolition of the ‘interview system for prospective new students’ to these primary schools. Following on that, what parents are concerned most is whether their children could behave properly as well whether they could learn their language well. Parents welcome the idea of learning through play to achieve these ends as long as children could play safely (without lurking danger underpinned by the genuine free play activities).

Parents are very pleased by the fact that their children are given chances to practise Chinese writing even at the K1 level. They tried to find a good reason to justify the writing practice fostered by the kindergarten. According to the Head, parents as well as teachers would require children to

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erase those characters which are not well written. Children at K3 level would automatically erase the characters which they think are not beautifully written. In this way, children are trained to be responsible persons.

The only autonomy granted to the children on the issue of Chinese writing is that children are allowed to write at their own pace. Usually, it will take two days for children to complete a page of writing. The parents did agree with this practice, as confirmed by the School Head.

Roadblock (b) : Misunderstanding on the concept of learning through play in an instrumental sense or in an inherent value of play which would foster the holistic development of young children by the stakeholders.

Evidence of teacher’s conceptions of play in relation to teaching (i.e. what does she think about play?) The teacher thinks that play occurs when children are engaging concept of play in activities through action. Following this line of thought, when children are engaging in music activities or in the activities which involve movement, the activity could be regarded as play. Teacher thinks in this way since she tells the researcher that, “this new generation of young children cannot sit down and learn for hours in the ways we did before. Children really need to be challenged by the activities set by the teacher. In this way, children could acquire knowledge.”

The teacher tries to integrate different learning domains for the children in separate episodes rather in a continuous manner throughout the day’s programme.

When asked what are the hindrances for play to be conducted in kindergarten, the teacher expresses that it is the time factor that matters. This is due to the fact that she has difficulties in allocating time for

children to play in face of a tight curriculum.

It seems that the teacher does not understand that if children are to learn through play, then what she perceives as difficulties should not be difficulties at all. It is because real play only needs the teacher to provide the environment and ensure autonomy for the young children while playing. Teacher has confused the concept of real play with learning through play. It is through the ‘learning through play’ activities that the teacher needs to spend more time by scaffolding or by ‘intervening’ so as to ensure that learning takes place for children.

(3) Were there no discrepancies between teachers’ beliefs and their practice in class?

The fact that there were not many discrepancies to be found between the teacher’s beliefs and her practice revealed the firm ideological stance of the teacher. There was consistency between what the teacher in this case study planned and did. She was able to carry out the teaching activities. What she anticipated as ‘difficulties’ and ‘fruitful results’ came out as she expected. For example, in an interview before the lesson, the teacher anticipated that the activity she had designed would be favoured by the children though the children might be a bit ‘active’ while ‘playing’.

The evidence showed that she has a conception of learning through play as instrumental, through using a work-based pedagogy.

Evidence of Head’s conceptions of play in relation to teaching (i.e. what does she think about play?) Regarding play, the Head could understand the main concept of play like, ‘Play is something which the children prefer to do, there is no coercion on the part of the children. For example, actions like building up of block, followed by pulling

down of the blocks just built could be a form of play to children as long as they have the intention to do so. The Head explains that mere exploration without aiming at a definite outcome could also be regarded as Play.’ One might realize that the Head of kindergarten does understand the concept of genuine play though her ideological stance on play does not allow her to accept this practice. In short, form of genuine play is not recommended by the School Head since it would ‘train’ children to be irresponsible persons. Play could be dangerous to children if attention has not been paid to safety rules while playing.

The Head has developed her own concept of play, one could say that this is the form of play (in an instrumental sense) which is allowed to be practised on the school campus.

(1) Play must be productive. The outcome of play should contribute to the society at large. In this case, learning should benefit not only the child but the whole class.

(2) Safety measures must be observed while playing.

Play should be enjoyable to self as long as the action/consequences of play would not hurt others.

As could be seen from the Head’s perception of the holistic development of children through play, like her teacher, she has a conception of learning through play in an instrumental sense.

Evidence of parents’ conceptions of play in relation to teaching (i.e. what do they think about play?) Parents appreciate that the school has designed activities so that their children could learn happily through play. Nevertheless, parents expect the school to take good care of their children while playing by ensuring that their children could play safely.

Parents think that their children could memorize better when they learn through play. Parents think that children could learn how to behave and learn the details of life through play.

Parents are of the opinion that in order for ‘good’ play to take place, certain things have to be observed, (1) to pay attention to safety; (2) to teach children again after play.

In case that children have accidentally hurt themselves during play, parents think that it could be an opportunity for children to learn through this experience. But this experience is to be learnt only when unforeseeable accidents occur and that teacher has the responsibility to teach children safety rules to safeguard the children from accidents.

Parents have devoted most of the interviewing time in talking about the writing of the children, the self-regulatory behaviour of children, the self-discipline of children…etc. These are the good learning outcomes that this group of parents would expect from schooling. In this way, parents in this case study also have a conception of learning through play in an instrumental sense.

In implementing the ‘academic curriculum’, the Head of Kindergarten has successfully gained the support from the teachers and the parents. Hence, not much difficulties or conflicts are found among the three parties, namely parents, teachers and the School Head when enforcing the school-based curriculum.

Recommendation Strategies for implementing the play-based curriculum calls for a change of ideological stance on the part of the stakeholders (a) The need for standardized teacher

training programmes Differences in teacher training have led to

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Hong Kong Journal ofEarly Childhood香 港 幼 兒 學 報 Vol. 9 No. 2 December 2010

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Hong Kong Journal ofEarly Childhood香 港 幼 兒 學 報 Vol. 9 No. 2 December 2010

erase those characters which are not well written. Children at K3 level would automatically erase the characters which they think are not beautifully written. In this way, children are trained to be responsible persons.

The only autonomy granted to the children on the issue of Chinese writing is that children are allowed to write at their own pace. Usually, it will take two days for children to complete a page of writing. The parents did agree with this practice, as confirmed by the School Head.

Roadblock (b) : Misunderstanding on the concept of learning through play in an instrumental sense or in an inherent value of play which would foster the holistic development of young children by the stakeholders.

Evidence of teacher’s conceptions of play in relation to teaching (i.e. what does she think about play?) The teacher thinks that play occurs when children are engaging concept of play in activities through action. Following this line of thought, when children are engaging in music activities or in the activities which involve movement, the activity could be regarded as play. Teacher thinks in this way since she tells the researcher that, “this new generation of young children cannot sit down and learn for hours in the ways we did before. Children really need to be challenged by the activities set by the teacher. In this way, children could acquire knowledge.”

The teacher tries to integrate different learning domains for the children in separate episodes rather in a continuous manner throughout the day’s programme.

When asked what are the hindrances for play to be conducted in kindergarten, the teacher expresses that it is the time factor that matters. This is due to the fact that she has difficulties in allocating time for

children to play in face of a tight curriculum.

It seems that the teacher does not understand that if children are to learn through play, then what she perceives as difficulties should not be difficulties at all. It is because real play only needs the teacher to provide the environment and ensure autonomy for the young children while playing. Teacher has confused the concept of real play with learning through play. It is through the ‘learning through play’ activities that the teacher needs to spend more time by scaffolding or by ‘intervening’ so as to ensure that learning takes place for children.

(3) Were there no discrepancies between teachers’ beliefs and their practice in class?

The fact that there were not many discrepancies to be found between the teacher’s beliefs and her practice revealed the firm ideological stance of the teacher. There was consistency between what the teacher in this case study planned and did. She was able to carry out the teaching activities. What she anticipated as ‘difficulties’ and ‘fruitful results’ came out as she expected. For example, in an interview before the lesson, the teacher anticipated that the activity she had designed would be favoured by the children though the children might be a bit ‘active’ while ‘playing’.

The evidence showed that she has a conception of learning through play as instrumental, through using a work-based pedagogy.

Evidence of Head’s conceptions of play in relation to teaching (i.e. what does she think about play?) Regarding play, the Head could understand the main concept of play like, ‘Play is something which the children prefer to do, there is no coercion on the part of the children. For example, actions like building up of block, followed by pulling

down of the blocks just built could be a form of play to children as long as they have the intention to do so. The Head explains that mere exploration without aiming at a definite outcome could also be regarded as Play.’ One might realize that the Head of kindergarten does understand the concept of genuine play though her ideological stance on play does not allow her to accept this practice. In short, form of genuine play is not recommended by the School Head since it would ‘train’ children to be irresponsible persons. Play could be dangerous to children if attention has not been paid to safety rules while playing.

The Head has developed her own concept of play, one could say that this is the form of play (in an instrumental sense) which is allowed to be practised on the school campus.

(1) Play must be productive. The outcome of play should contribute to the society at large. In this case, learning should benefit not only the child but the whole class.

(2) Safety measures must be observed while playing.

Play should be enjoyable to self as long as the action/consequences of play would not hurt others.

As could be seen from the Head’s perception of the holistic development of children through play, like her teacher, she has a conception of learning through play in an instrumental sense.

Evidence of parents’ conceptions of play in relation to teaching (i.e. what do they think about play?) Parents appreciate that the school has designed activities so that their children could learn happily through play. Nevertheless, parents expect the school to take good care of their children while playing by ensuring that their children could play safely.

Parents think that their children could memorize better when they learn through play. Parents think that children could learn how to behave and learn the details of life through play.

Parents are of the opinion that in order for ‘good’ play to take place, certain things have to be observed, (1) to pay attention to safety; (2) to teach children again after play.

In case that children have accidentally hurt themselves during play, parents think that it could be an opportunity for children to learn through this experience. But this experience is to be learnt only when unforeseeable accidents occur and that teacher has the responsibility to teach children safety rules to safeguard the children from accidents.

Parents have devoted most of the interviewing time in talking about the writing of the children, the self-regulatory behaviour of children, the self-discipline of children…etc. These are the good learning outcomes that this group of parents would expect from schooling. In this way, parents in this case study also have a conception of learning through play in an instrumental sense.

In implementing the ‘academic curriculum’, the Head of Kindergarten has successfully gained the support from the teachers and the parents. Hence, not much difficulties or conflicts are found among the three parties, namely parents, teachers and the School Head when enforcing the school-based curriculum.

Recommendation Strategies for implementing the play-based curriculum calls for a change of ideological stance on the part of the stakeholders (a) The need for standardized teacher

training programmes Differences in teacher training have led to

The Hong Kong Institute of Education Library

For private study or research only. Not for publication or further reproduction.

40

Hong Kong Journal ofEarly Childhood香 港 幼 兒 學 報 Vol. 9 No. 2 December 2010

41

Hong Kong Journal ofEarly Childhood香 港 幼 兒 學 報 Vol. 9 No. 2 December 2010

some of the problems associated with kindergartens. A standardized teacher training programme would perhaps provide opportunities for the practitioners (including the Head and the teachers) to change their long-held ideological stance on teaching and learning. It is a fact that kindergarten teachers in Hong Kong are trained in different programmes organized by different Institutions that have different approaches. Differences in approaches and variations in interpretation of theory in learning and teaching originating from different ideological stances would in turn jeopardize the consistency of practice among preschools in Hong Kong.

(b) Implementing the play-based curriculum by adopting a Hong Kong version as an interim measure

Allowances should be made for practitioners either to practise what is considered in the definition of this research as the ‘play-based pedagogy” or a

“work-based pedagogy” or along a continuum so as to provide room for the stakeholders to comprehend learning through play, recognising the inherent value of play over time OR to practise a mode that the stakeholders would prefer to according to their school mission or the ideological stance of the school. According to Miller and Almon (2009, p.12 and 13), a healthy kindergarten, play does not mean “anything goes”. It does not deteriorate into chaos. Nor is play so tightly structured by adults that children are denied the opportunity to learn through their own initiative and exploration. Kindergartens are therefore advised by Miller and Almond (2009) to maintain a balance of child-initiated play and more focused experiential learning guided by teachers. In this connection, policymakers and professional organizations, stakeholders should develop the two central methods in the continuum of approaches to kindergarten education: please refer to the following diagram again.

Conclusion In the face of the requirement of the educational reform and the introduction of the school voucher scheme, the long-established school (the school under study) has to find ways to survive and to cope with the challenges.

On one hand, the school under study needs to preserve the ‘reputation’ of the school which

excels in academic studies, but on the other hand, she needs to update her school curriculum by introducing the trendy mode of art teaching.

Although the tension exists between the two modes of curriculum and pedagogy with its alternative underpinning philosophy, the teacher-centred curriculum and pedagogy still gain an upper hand. The introduction of the teaching of

poetry in its originality and the requirement of the mechanical practice of Chinese hand-writing are good examples. In order to meet with the requirement of the Quality Assurance (QA) inspection, the school has tried to provide more opportunities for children to play, but not to the extent of ‘sacrificing’ precious teaching time within the three hours of formal teaching. As a result, 10 minutes’ extra time has been allotted apart from the normal three hours of schooling in a half day kindergarten

Echoing what Lilian Katz (Miller & Almon, 2009, p.13) has suggested, the ideological stance of stakeholders is difficult to change in spite of research evidence collected over time. It is more feasible for the practitioners to work within the

ReferencesAlexander, R. J. (1999). Culture in pedagogy, pedagogy across cultures. In R. Alexander, P. Broadfoot & D. Phillips

(Eds.), Learning from comparing: New directions in comparative educational research, Vol. 1. Contexts,

classrooms and outcomes (pp. 149-180). Oxford: Symposium Books. Bodrova, E. & Leong, D. J. (2005). Uniquely Preschool. Educational Leadership, September, pp.46-47. Available

online at http://www.mscd.edu/extended campus/toolsofthemind/assets/pdf/Educational_leadership_sep05.pdf. Cheng, D. P.W. (2001). Difficulties of Hong Kong teachers’ understanding and implementation of‘play’in the

curriculum. Teaching and Teacher Education, 17, 857-869.Cheng, D., Fung, K.H.; Lau, G., Benson, P. (2008). The Implementation of Play-Based Padagogy: Hong Kong and

International Perspectives”, First Research report submitted to Research Grants Council in August 2008. Cheng, D., Lau, G.,Benson, P. Fung, K.H. (2009). Play-based pedagogy in early childhood classrooms in Hong

Kong and its impact on quality education.” Second Research report submitted to Research Grants Council in November 2009.

Cheng, D. , Benson, P., Lau, G. Fung, K.H. (2010). Exemplars of best practice and guidelines for child-centred, play-based pedagogy in Hong Kong: making a difference to quality early childhood education”. Third Research report submitted to Research Grants Council in March 2010.

Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1991). Flow: The psychology of optimal experience. New York: Harper Perennial.Curriculum Development Council (2006). Guide to the Pre-primary Curriculum. Hong Kong Special Administrative

Region of the People’s Republic of China.de Jonghe, L. (2001). International state of the art on children’s playing, Leen Schillemans Research Centre Child &

Society. Available online at http://www.ndo.be Elkind, D. (1989) The Hurried Child: Growing Up Too Fast, Too Soon. (Rev.) Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley.Gadamer, H.G. (1960). Truth and method. New York: Continuum.

practices recommended by Miller and Almon (2009) and to make allowances for practitioners to practise in a mode that would match with their ideological stance as an interim measure. It is anticipated that only when the practitioners are given autonomy to launch changes out of willingness and without coercion from any source, could the chance for ‘real’ changes be realized. Along with this allowance, policy makers should seriously rethink the issue of teacher training programmes that would illuminate the misconceptions of practises in fostering the holistic development of children by means of learning through play. It is hoped that stakeholders will practise learning through play with a deepened understanding of learning through play in as advocated in this research.

The Hong Kong Institute of Education Library

For private study or research only. Not for publication or further reproduction.

40

Hong Kong Journal ofEarly Childhood香 港 幼 兒 學 報 Vol. 9 No. 2 December 2010

41

Hong Kong Journal ofEarly Childhood香 港 幼 兒 學 報 Vol. 9 No. 2 December 2010

some of the problems associated with kindergartens. A standardized teacher training programme would perhaps provide opportunities for the practitioners (including the Head and the teachers) to change their long-held ideological stance on teaching and learning. It is a fact that kindergarten teachers in Hong Kong are trained in different programmes organized by different Institutions that have different approaches. Differences in approaches and variations in interpretation of theory in learning and teaching originating from different ideological stances would in turn jeopardize the consistency of practice among preschools in Hong Kong.

(b) Implementing the play-based curriculum by adopting a Hong Kong version as an interim measure

Allowances should be made for practitioners either to practise what is considered in the definition of this research as the ‘play-based pedagogy” or a

“work-based pedagogy” or along a continuum so as to provide room for the stakeholders to comprehend learning through play, recognising the inherent value of play over time OR to practise a mode that the stakeholders would prefer to according to their school mission or the ideological stance of the school. According to Miller and Almon (2009, p.12 and 13), a healthy kindergarten, play does not mean “anything goes”. It does not deteriorate into chaos. Nor is play so tightly structured by adults that children are denied the opportunity to learn through their own initiative and exploration. Kindergartens are therefore advised by Miller and Almond (2009) to maintain a balance of child-initiated play and more focused experiential learning guided by teachers. In this connection, policymakers and professional organizations, stakeholders should develop the two central methods in the continuum of approaches to kindergarten education: please refer to the following diagram again.

Conclusion In the face of the requirement of the educational reform and the introduction of the school voucher scheme, the long-established school (the school under study) has to find ways to survive and to cope with the challenges.

On one hand, the school under study needs to preserve the ‘reputation’ of the school which

excels in academic studies, but on the other hand, she needs to update her school curriculum by introducing the trendy mode of art teaching.

Although the tension exists between the two modes of curriculum and pedagogy with its alternative underpinning philosophy, the teacher-centred curriculum and pedagogy still gain an upper hand. The introduction of the teaching of

poetry in its originality and the requirement of the mechanical practice of Chinese hand-writing are good examples. In order to meet with the requirement of the Quality Assurance (QA) inspection, the school has tried to provide more opportunities for children to play, but not to the extent of ‘sacrificing’ precious teaching time within the three hours of formal teaching. As a result, 10 minutes’ extra time has been allotted apart from the normal three hours of schooling in a half day kindergarten

Echoing what Lilian Katz (Miller & Almon, 2009, p.13) has suggested, the ideological stance of stakeholders is difficult to change in spite of research evidence collected over time. It is more feasible for the practitioners to work within the

ReferencesAlexander, R. J. (1999). Culture in pedagogy, pedagogy across cultures. In R. Alexander, P. Broadfoot & D. Phillips

(Eds.), Learning from comparing: New directions in comparative educational research, Vol. 1. Contexts,

classrooms and outcomes (pp. 149-180). Oxford: Symposium Books. Bodrova, E. & Leong, D. J. (2005). Uniquely Preschool. Educational Leadership, September, pp.46-47. Available

online at http://www.mscd.edu/extended campus/toolsofthemind/assets/pdf/Educational_leadership_sep05.pdf. Cheng, D. P.W. (2001). Difficulties of Hong Kong teachers’ understanding and implementation of‘play’in the

curriculum. Teaching and Teacher Education, 17, 857-869.Cheng, D., Fung, K.H.; Lau, G., Benson, P. (2008). The Implementation of Play-Based Padagogy: Hong Kong and

International Perspectives”, First Research report submitted to Research Grants Council in August 2008. Cheng, D., Lau, G.,Benson, P. Fung, K.H. (2009). Play-based pedagogy in early childhood classrooms in Hong

Kong and its impact on quality education.” Second Research report submitted to Research Grants Council in November 2009.

Cheng, D. , Benson, P., Lau, G. Fung, K.H. (2010). Exemplars of best practice and guidelines for child-centred, play-based pedagogy in Hong Kong: making a difference to quality early childhood education”. Third Research report submitted to Research Grants Council in March 2010.

Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1991). Flow: The psychology of optimal experience. New York: Harper Perennial.Curriculum Development Council (2006). Guide to the Pre-primary Curriculum. Hong Kong Special Administrative

Region of the People’s Republic of China.de Jonghe, L. (2001). International state of the art on children’s playing, Leen Schillemans Research Centre Child &

Society. Available online at http://www.ndo.be Elkind, D. (1989) The Hurried Child: Growing Up Too Fast, Too Soon. (Rev.) Reading, Mass.: Addison-Wesley.Gadamer, H.G. (1960). Truth and method. New York: Continuum.

practices recommended by Miller and Almon (2009) and to make allowances for practitioners to practise in a mode that would match with their ideological stance as an interim measure. It is anticipated that only when the practitioners are given autonomy to launch changes out of willingness and without coercion from any source, could the chance for ‘real’ changes be realized. Along with this allowance, policy makers should seriously rethink the issue of teacher training programmes that would illuminate the misconceptions of practises in fostering the holistic development of children by means of learning through play. It is hoped that stakeholders will practise learning through play with a deepened understanding of learning through play in as advocated in this research.

The Hong Kong Institute of Education Library

For private study or research only. Not for publication or further reproduction.

42

Hong Kong Journal ofEarly Childhood香 港 幼 兒 學 報 Vol. 9 No. 2 December 2010

43

Hong Kong Journal ofEarly Childhood香 港 幼 兒 學 報 Vol. 9 No. 2 December 2010

Gordon, Q. A. M. & Williams-Browne, K. (1995) Beginnings and Beyond, Albany: Delmar. Fourth Edition.Johansson, E. & Pramling Samuelsson, I. (2001). Omsorg-en central aspect av [Care- a central aspect of early

childhood education], Pedagogisk forskining I Sverige, 6 (2), 81-101. King, N.R. (1979). Play. The kindergarten’s perspective. The Elementary School Journal, 80, 81-87.Lau, G. (2005) Teachers’ Understanding of Children’s Play in the Early Childhood Curriculum. Unpublished Doctoral

thesis : University of East Anglia.Lau, G. (2008) ‘Rethinking the role of play and work in Early Childhood Curriculum and Pedagogy.’ Hong Kong

Journal of Early Childhood, Vol. 7, No.1.Lau, G. (2009).‘The Promises and Challenges of Implementing Humanistic Pedagogy in the Curriculum of Hong

Kong Kindergartens”. International Journal of Educational Reform, Vol. 18, Number 3, Summer 2009, p.250-267.

Miller, E. & Almon, J. (2009). Crisis in the Kindergarten: Why Children Need to Play in School. MD: Alliance for Childhood.

Parker-Rees, R. (1999). Protecting playfulness. In L. Abott & H. Moylett (Eds), Early education transformed. London: Falmer Press.

Pramling Samuelsson L. & Johansson, E. (2006). Play and learning—inseparable dimensions in preschool practice. Early Child Development and Care, vol. 176, No.1, January 2006, pp.47-65.

Rubin, K.H. Fein, G.G. & Vendenberg, B. (1983): Play. In P.H. Mussen IEd), Handbook of child psychology(Vol 4). New York: Wiley.

Siraj-Blatchford, I. (1999). Early childhood pedagogy: Practice, principles and research. In P. Mortimore (Ed.), Understanding pedagogy and its impact on learning (pp. 20-45). London: Paul Chapman.

Spodek, B., & Saracho, O.N. (Eds) (1991). Issues in early childhood curriculum. New York: Teaching College Press. Wood. E., & Bennett, N. (1997). The rhetoric and reality of play: Teachers’ thinking and classroom practice. Early

Years, 13 (2), 22-27. Zhu, J.X. (1998). A debate on play and teaching. Preschool Education, 3 (4-6), 15-17.

Appendix AInterview questions(semi-structured)

Interview of the School Heads

1. Mission of the school 2. What kind of curriculum and pedagogy does the school adopt? Why? 3. Briefly ask about the teachers’ professional biography 4. Get some information on parents’ background.5. What do you see as the needs and threats of the school? 6. What do you feel about the curriculum? Excellent/ Good / Acceptable / Unsatisfactory7. In what way do you want to improve?8. What’s the main obstacle for the improvement of curriculum? 9. What are the things you feel proud of? 10. How would you describe the learning of the children, and the teaching plan in your school?11. Do they learn through play? Why yes? Why not? 12. How do you define play?

Interview of teachers

Before the lessons

1. How do you see your mission? 2. What are the main educational aims of the day? 3. How could you achieve that? 4. Do you anticipate any difficulties? 5. How can you overcome that? (briefly)

After the lessons

1. What do you feel about the day’s work? Are you satisfied? Why yes? Why not? 2. If yes, what are the factors which make you satisfied? / If not, what are the obstacles? 3. How can you improve the situation? 4. What is your view in learning through play? 5. In what way do your teaching relate to the concept of play? 6. Do you think that learning through play is feasible in Hong Kong? Why and Why not? 7. What are the obstacles? 8. Is there any way to improve it?

Interview of Parents

1. Is your son/daughter happy in the school? Why yes? Why not? 2. Why do you choose this school? 3. Do you know the mission of the school?4. Do you agree with the teaching and learning mode of the school? In what way you agree? In what way you don’t? 5. What’s your expectation on the school? 6. In what way do you think that they can match your son’s learning style?7. How does the school prepare for your son’s future study (e.g. Primary school study)? 8. Do you think children should ‘learn through play’? Why yes? Why not? 9. What is your concern if the school adopts ‘play’ or does not adopt ‘play’ in the curriculum?

The Hong Kong Institute of Education Library

For private study or research only. Not for publication or further reproduction.

42

Hong Kong Journal ofEarly Childhood香 港 幼 兒 學 報 Vol. 9 No. 2 December 2010

43

Hong Kong Journal ofEarly Childhood香 港 幼 兒 學 報 Vol. 9 No. 2 December 2010

Gordon, Q. A. M. & Williams-Browne, K. (1995) Beginnings and Beyond, Albany: Delmar. Fourth Edition.Johansson, E. & Pramling Samuelsson, I. (2001). Omsorg-en central aspect av [Care- a central aspect of early

childhood education], Pedagogisk forskining I Sverige, 6 (2), 81-101. King, N.R. (1979). Play. The kindergarten’s perspective. The Elementary School Journal, 80, 81-87.Lau, G. (2005) Teachers’ Understanding of Children’s Play in the Early Childhood Curriculum. Unpublished Doctoral

thesis : University of East Anglia.Lau, G. (2008) ‘Rethinking the role of play and work in Early Childhood Curriculum and Pedagogy.’ Hong Kong

Journal of Early Childhood, Vol. 7, No.1.Lau, G. (2009).‘The Promises and Challenges of Implementing Humanistic Pedagogy in the Curriculum of Hong

Kong Kindergartens”. International Journal of Educational Reform, Vol. 18, Number 3, Summer 2009, p.250-267.

Miller, E. & Almon, J. (2009). Crisis in the Kindergarten: Why Children Need to Play in School. MD: Alliance for Childhood.

Parker-Rees, R. (1999). Protecting playfulness. In L. Abott & H. Moylett (Eds), Early education transformed. London: Falmer Press.

Pramling Samuelsson L. & Johansson, E. (2006). Play and learning—inseparable dimensions in preschool practice. Early Child Development and Care, vol. 176, No.1, January 2006, pp.47-65.

Rubin, K.H. Fein, G.G. & Vendenberg, B. (1983): Play. In P.H. Mussen IEd), Handbook of child psychology(Vol 4). New York: Wiley.

Siraj-Blatchford, I. (1999). Early childhood pedagogy: Practice, principles and research. In P. Mortimore (Ed.), Understanding pedagogy and its impact on learning (pp. 20-45). London: Paul Chapman.

Spodek, B., & Saracho, O.N. (Eds) (1991). Issues in early childhood curriculum. New York: Teaching College Press. Wood. E., & Bennett, N. (1997). The rhetoric and reality of play: Teachers’ thinking and classroom practice. Early

Years, 13 (2), 22-27. Zhu, J.X. (1998). A debate on play and teaching. Preschool Education, 3 (4-6), 15-17.

Appendix AInterview questions(semi-structured)

Interview of the School Heads

1. Mission of the school 2. What kind of curriculum and pedagogy does the school adopt? Why? 3. Briefly ask about the teachers’ professional biography 4. Get some information on parents’ background.5. What do you see as the needs and threats of the school? 6. What do you feel about the curriculum? Excellent/ Good / Acceptable / Unsatisfactory7. In what way do you want to improve?8. What’s the main obstacle for the improvement of curriculum? 9. What are the things you feel proud of? 10. How would you describe the learning of the children, and the teaching plan in your school?11. Do they learn through play? Why yes? Why not? 12. How do you define play?

Interview of teachers

Before the lessons

1. How do you see your mission? 2. What are the main educational aims of the day? 3. How could you achieve that? 4. Do you anticipate any difficulties? 5. How can you overcome that? (briefly)

After the lessons

1. What do you feel about the day’s work? Are you satisfied? Why yes? Why not? 2. If yes, what are the factors which make you satisfied? / If not, what are the obstacles? 3. How can you improve the situation? 4. What is your view in learning through play? 5. In what way do your teaching relate to the concept of play? 6. Do you think that learning through play is feasible in Hong Kong? Why and Why not? 7. What are the obstacles? 8. Is there any way to improve it?

Interview of Parents

1. Is your son/daughter happy in the school? Why yes? Why not? 2. Why do you choose this school? 3. Do you know the mission of the school?4. Do you agree with the teaching and learning mode of the school? In what way you agree? In what way you don’t? 5. What’s your expectation on the school? 6. In what way do you think that they can match your son’s learning style?7. How does the school prepare for your son’s future study (e.g. Primary school study)? 8. Do you think children should ‘learn through play’? Why yes? Why not? 9. What is your concern if the school adopts ‘play’ or does not adopt ‘play’ in the curriculum?

The Hong Kong Institute of Education Library

For private study or research only. Not for publication or further reproduction.

44

Hong Kong Journal ofEarly Childhood香 港 幼 兒 學 報 Vol. 9 No. 2 December 2010

45

Hong Kong Journal ofEarly Childhood香 港 幼 兒 學 報 Vol. 9 No. 2 December 2010

兒童繪本與心智理論的發展：從麥兜到三隻小豬的真實故事Children’s picture book and theory of mind development:

From McDull to the True Story of Three Little Pigs

王貞琳香港教育學院心理研究學系

摘要本文通過介紹兒童心智理論的發展和分析兒童繪本的心智意義，指出成人與兒童共讀繪本是促進兒童心智解讀發展的重要途徑。兒童繪本有豐富的心智內容，難度適當的繪本為兒童提供了心智解讀的最近發展區。成人可以利用繪本通過畫面線索來表達看不到摸不著的心智過程的特點，通過與兒童的分享閱讀，為兒童心智發展提供鷹架作用。文中對繪本共讀中的對話和提問技巧做了總結，並有選擇性地對坊間的兒童繪本作了心智理論的文本分析。

AbstractBased on the introduction of theory of mind development and the analysis of the children’s picture books’ mental meaning, the present paper argues that joint reading of children’s picture book between adults and children has great implications in facilitating children’s theory of mind development. Children’s picture book is rich in mental discourse. Appropriately chosen picture books provide a zone of proximal development for children’s mental understanding. Through joint reading, adults could utilize the visual clues of the invisible mental processes presented in picture books to scaffold children’s theory of mind development. The paper also discusses the conversation and questioning skills in picture book joint reading, as well as selectively analyzes mental discourse in children’s picture books available in the market.

從麥兜說起 在香港一間幼稚園 4 歲低班的教室裡，老師在給小朋友們講故事：《樹的主人》（謝立文文、麥家碧圖 , 2002）。 麥嘜說他種有一棵很美麗很美麗的

樹。每天他都會給樹施肥，坐在樹下，看搖搖樹葉間搖搖的的陽光。

得巴說他種有一棵很美麗很美麗的樹，每天他都會給樹清理落葉，爬到樹上，看樹上剛探出頭的果子。

阿 May 說她種有一棵最美麗最美麗的樹，每天她都會給樹灑水，在月光下，跟靜默卻體貼的樹說話。

「你的樹最美麗最美麗嗎？我的樹才最美麗！」

於是在一個晴朗的星期天，麥嘜、得巴、May 約同一起，到各人的樹去，看誰的樹最美麗最美麗。

「這便是你的樹嗎？這是我的樹啊！」原來三個小朋友所說的樹，都是同一棵樹！

……

在故事的結尾，老師問小朋友們，“到底誰是樹的主人呢？” 坐在老師右手的一直在認真聽故事的男孩子想了想，回答說：“是麥兜”。

《麥兜麥嘜系列》是香港作者謝立文、麥家碧的作品。故事最早的主角是一隻小豬麥嘜。後來又出現了麥兜。由於麥兜的鮮明個性與社會意義，讀者更廣泛地接受了麥兜（江汛，2003）。在上面的故事中，麥兜根本就沒有出現。故事講的是三個小朋友，麥嘜、得巴、和阿 May，在不同的時間見到同一棵樹，進而認定自己是這顆樹的主人。從兒童認知發展的角度，兒童需要具有觀點採擇能力（perspective taking），才能理解故事的意義。在上面的教學情景中，老師希望通過《樹的主人》這個故事給小朋友介紹分享的道理。但是男孩子的回答卻表明，故事中戲劇性的矛盾衝突超出了4歲兒童的認知發展水準。

兒童的心智理論（Theoryofmind）的發展

觀點採擇的能力指兒童是否理解從不同的角度，在不同的時間，不同的人對同一物件會有不同的觀點和看法。探討兒童如何理解自己和他人的心理活動的研究被籠統地稱為心智理論（theory of mind）的研究（Wimmer & Perner, 1983）。所謂心智理論，就是指對自己以及他人的心理狀態和過程的理解，這些心理活動包括，感知覺（perception），願望（desire），假裝

（pretense）, 意願（intention），思考（thinking），信念（belief），以及情感（emotion）等（Flavell, 1999）。

學齡前階段是兒童理解心智活動的重要發展時期。在這個階段內，具有里程碑意義的發展標誌是兒童對錯誤信念的理解（Wellman, 1990; Wellman, Cross, & Watson, 2001）。錯誤信念是當人們的感知覺資訊輸入受到限制，或是沒有及時更新，而導致的對事物的錯誤的信念。比如Sally和Anne兩個人一起把一個球放在一個籃子裡。在Sally離開後，Anne把球移到旁邊的一個盒子裡。當 Sally 回來時，她會去哪裡找球呢（Baren-Cohen, Leslie，& Frith, 1985）？在這個故事裡，由於 Sally 沒有看到球轉移的過程，她會有一個錯誤信念，認為球仍然在籃子裡。這樣錯誤信念的結果就是 Sally 回來後會去籃子裡找球，並失望地發現球已經不翼而飛。

但在 4 歲之前，兒童很難理解心智活動的內隱性，他們傾向於認為別人都分享自己知道的事。聽過 Sally 和 Anne 的故事，年幼的兒童會說：Sally會去盒子裡找球。

兒童心智理論的發展受什麼因素的影響？一個綜合了 104 個研究，涉及到 8891 名受測試兒童的元分析（Milligan, Astington, & Dack, 2007） 表明，兒童對心智過程的理解與語言能力的發展有密切的關係。語言與錯誤信念理解之間在控制了年齡因素之後有很強的相關，早期的語言能力能夠預測以後的錯誤信念的理解，但反之並不成立。也就是說，語言能力能夠促進兒童的心智理論的理解。具體來講，表示心理狀態的動詞，比如「認為，希望，想」等，以及語法上的從句結構，如「麥嘜以為（主句）他自己是樹的主人（從句）」都影響錯誤信念的理解（de Villers & de Villers, 2000; Lohmann & Tomasello, 2003）。

如何通過語言促進兒童的心智理論的發展呢？總結認知發展心理學的研究結果，對早期教育中利用語言促進兒童心智理解的發展有以下的啟示：

1. 成人要把兒童當作具有心智活動的談話對象。 對心智概念較敏感（mind-mindedness）的父母傾向於把兒童當作有心智的談話對象，他們的孩子因而表現出較高水準的心智解讀

（Meins et al., 2003; Ruffman, Slade, Devitt, & Crowe, 2006）. 兒童有願望，有想法。成人應該尊重兒童的想法，而儘量少用權力主張（power assertion）的談話方式。比如，「你想吃雪糕是嗎？等午飯後再吃，你可以接受嗎？」就好過

「你現在不可以吃雪糕，要等到午飯後」。利用父母的無限權力，簡單直接地告訴兒童應該怎麼做，與兒童的信念理解有負相關（Pears & Moses, 2003）。

2. 和兒童談話時使用解釋性的語言，強調認知的因果關係和對比。Slaughter, Peterson, 和 Mackintosh（2007）請母親給兒童讀一本沒有文字的繪本，他們發現，母親如果只是單純地提

The Hong Kong Institute of Education Library

For private study or research only. Not for publication or further reproduction.

44

Hong Kong Journal ofEarly Childhood香 港 幼 兒 學 報 Vol. 9 No. 2 December 2010

45

Hong Kong Journal ofEarly Childhood香 港 幼 兒 學 報 Vol. 9 No. 2 December 2010

兒童繪本與心智理論的發展：從麥兜到三隻小豬的真實故事Children’s picture book and theory of mind development:

From McDull to the True Story of Three Little Pigs

王貞琳香港教育學院心理研究學系

摘要本文通過介紹兒童心智理論的發展和分析兒童繪本的心智意義，指出成人與兒童共讀繪本是促進兒童心智解讀發展的重要途徑。兒童繪本有豐富的心智內容，難度適當的繪本為兒童提供了心智解讀的最近發展區。成人可以利用繪本通過畫面線索來表達看不到摸不著的心智過程的特點，通過與兒童的分享閱讀，為兒童心智發展提供鷹架作用。文中對繪本共讀中的對話和提問技巧做了總結，並有選擇性地對坊間的兒童繪本作了心智理論的文本分析。

AbstractBased on the introduction of theory of mind development and the analysis of the children’s picture books’ mental meaning, the present paper argues that joint reading of children’s picture book between adults and children has great implications in facilitating children’s theory of mind development. Children’s picture book is rich in mental discourse. Appropriately chosen picture books provide a zone of proximal development for children’s mental understanding. Through joint reading, adults could utilize the visual clues of the invisible mental processes presented in picture books to scaffold children’s theory of mind development. The paper also discusses the conversation and questioning skills in picture book joint reading, as well as selectively analyzes mental discourse in children’s picture books available in the market.

從麥兜說起 在香港一間幼稚園 4 歲低班的教室裡，老師在給小朋友們講故事：《樹的主人》（謝立文文、麥家碧圖 , 2002）。 麥嘜說他種有一棵很美麗很美麗的

樹。每天他都會給樹施肥，坐在樹下，看搖搖樹葉間搖搖的的陽光。

得巴說他種有一棵很美麗很美麗的樹，每天他都會給樹清理落葉，爬到樹上，看樹上剛探出頭的果子。

阿 May 說她種有一棵最美麗最美麗的樹，每天她都會給樹灑水，在月光下，跟靜默卻體貼的樹說話。

「你的樹最美麗最美麗嗎？我的樹才最美麗！」

於是在一個晴朗的星期天，麥嘜、得巴、May 約同一起，到各人的樹去，看誰的樹最美麗最美麗。

「這便是你的樹嗎？這是我的樹啊！」原來三個小朋友所說的樹，都是同一棵樹！

……

在故事的結尾，老師問小朋友們，“到底誰是樹的主人呢？” 坐在老師右手的一直在認真聽故事的男孩子想了想，回答說：“是麥兜”。

《麥兜麥嘜系列》是香港作者謝立文、麥家碧的作品。故事最早的主角是一隻小豬麥嘜。後來又出現了麥兜。由於麥兜的鮮明個性與社會意義，讀者更廣泛地接受了麥兜（江汛，2003）。在上面的故事中，麥兜根本就沒有出現。故事講的是三個小朋友，麥嘜、得巴、和阿 May，在不同的時間見到同一棵樹，進而認定自己是這顆樹的主人。從兒童認知發展的角度，兒童需要具有觀點採擇能力（perspective taking），才能理解故事的意義。在上面的教學情景中，老師希望通過《樹的主人》這個故事給小朋友介紹分享的道理。但是男孩子的回答卻表明，故事中戲劇性的矛盾衝突超出了4歲兒童的認知發展水準。

兒童的心智理論（Theoryofmind）的發展

觀點採擇的能力指兒童是否理解從不同的角度，在不同的時間，不同的人對同一物件會有不同的觀點和看法。探討兒童如何理解自己和他人的心理活動的研究被籠統地稱為心智理論（theory of mind）的研究（Wimmer & Perner, 1983）。所謂心智理論，就是指對自己以及他人的心理狀態和過程的理解，這些心理活動包括，感知覺（perception），願望（desire），假裝

（pretense）, 意願（intention），思考（thinking），信念（belief），以及情感（emotion）等（Flavell, 1999）。

學齡前階段是兒童理解心智活動的重要發展時期。在這個階段內，具有里程碑意義的發展標誌是兒童對錯誤信念的理解（Wellman, 1990; Wellman, Cross, & Watson, 2001）。錯誤信念是當人們的感知覺資訊輸入受到限制，或是沒有及時更新，而導致的對事物的錯誤的信念。比如Sally和Anne兩個人一起把一個球放在一個籃子裡。在Sally離開後，Anne把球移到旁邊的一個盒子裡。當 Sally 回來時，她會去哪裡找球呢（Baren-Cohen, Leslie，& Frith, 1985）？在這個故事裡，由於 Sally 沒有看到球轉移的過程，她會有一個錯誤信念，認為球仍然在籃子裡。這樣錯誤信念的結果就是 Sally 回來後會去籃子裡找球，並失望地發現球已經不翼而飛。

但在 4 歲之前，兒童很難理解心智活動的內隱性，他們傾向於認為別人都分享自己知道的事。聽過 Sally 和 Anne 的故事，年幼的兒童會說：Sally會去盒子裡找球。

兒童心智理論的發展受什麼因素的影響？一個綜合了 104 個研究，涉及到 8891 名受測試兒童的元分析（Milligan, Astington, & Dack, 2007） 表明，兒童對心智過程的理解與語言能力的發展有密切的關係。語言與錯誤信念理解之間在控制了年齡因素之後有很強的相關，早期的語言能力能夠預測以後的錯誤信念的理解，但反之並不成立。也就是說，語言能力能夠促進兒童的心智理論的理解。具體來講，表示心理狀態的動詞，比如「認為，希望，想」等，以及語法上的從句結構，如「麥嘜以為（主句）他自己是樹的主人（從句）」都影響錯誤信念的理解（de Villers & de Villers, 2000; Lohmann & Tomasello, 2003）。

如何通過語言促進兒童的心智理論的發展呢？總結認知發展心理學的研究結果，對早期教育中利用語言促進兒童心智理解的發展有以下的啟示：

1. 成人要把兒童當作具有心智活動的談話對象。 對心智概念較敏感（mind-mindedness）的父母傾向於把兒童當作有心智的談話對象，他們的孩子因而表現出較高水準的心智解讀

（Meins et al., 2003; Ruffman, Slade, Devitt, & Crowe, 2006）. 兒童有願望，有想法。成人應該尊重兒童的想法，而儘量少用權力主張（power assertion）的談話方式。比如，「你想吃雪糕是嗎？等午飯後再吃，你可以接受嗎？」就好過

「你現在不可以吃雪糕，要等到午飯後」。利用父母的無限權力，簡單直接地告訴兒童應該怎麼做，與兒童的信念理解有負相關（Pears & Moses, 2003）。

2. 和兒童談話時使用解釋性的語言，強調認知的因果關係和對比。Slaughter, Peterson, 和 Mackintosh（2007）請母親給兒童讀一本沒有文字的繪本，他們發現，母親如果只是單純地提

The Hong Kong Institute of Education Library

For private study or research only. Not for publication or further reproduction.

46

Hong Kong Journal ofEarly Childhood香 港 幼 兒 學 報 Vol. 9 No. 2 December 2010

47

Hong Kong Journal ofEarly Childhood香 港 幼 兒 學 報 Vol. 9 No. 2 December 2010

到認知過程與兒童在心智理論任務上的表現無關。而是母親如何解釋認知過程與兒童的心智理解有關。比如，除了指出麥嘜不知道得巴、May看到的是同一棵樹之外，還要解釋給兒童：這是因為他們三個是在不同時間，不同的情景下看到的這棵樹。

3. 在談話中比較來自不同立場的觀點，尤其是對立的觀點（Shatz,Wellman, & Silber, 1983），有助於促進兒童理解願望、信念與現實的關係以及不同的人有不同的願望和信念。

4. 在談話中對比內在心理過程與客觀世界的區別。Peterson和Slaughter（2006）發現談論與想像有關的認知過程，比如假裝（pretense），與兒童理解錯誤信念有關。

5. 在談話中使用涉及心理狀態的動詞。 Adrian, Clemente, 和Villanueve（2007） 發現母親在給兒童讀繪本時使用認知動詞，比如「想，認為，希望」等，能夠預測兒童日後對心理狀態的理解。

6. 多與兒童進行心智對話。研究發現不僅是心智對話的品質，兒童接觸到的心智對話的數量也影響兒童對心智活動的理解。家庭裡有哥哥和姐姐的兒童有更多的機會與比自己認知發展程度高的人進行心智對話，他們因而表現出更高水準的心智理解。但是這種影響並不適用只有弟弟妹妹的兒童。（Cassidy, Fineberg, Brown, & Perkins, 2005; Dunn, 1999; Ruffman, Perner, Naito, Parkin, & Clements, 1998）

綜上所述，兒童心智理論的研究支持維果斯基（Vygotsky, 1978）的認知發展機制理論。兒童心智理論的發展受兒童的經驗與環境的影響。成人或更高水準的同伴能夠給兒童提供發展的鷹架作用（scaffolding），支持並促進兒童在心智理解上達到更高的水準。而兒童繪本就提供了一個鷹架兒童的心智解讀的絕好工具。 兒童繪本對心智理解發展的作用

Bruner（1986）在分析兒童故事時指出，

兒童故事涉及兩個領域的線索：行為與心智。故事主人公的想法和願望與其行為是緊密聯繫的。比如在《Harry the dirty dog 髒狗哈利》

（Zion, 1992）中這樣講到：哈利是一隻有黑點的白狗，但是因為太髒，所以看上去像是一隻有白點的黑狗。哈利回家後它的主人認不出哈利，以為它是另外一隻不同的狗。哈利耍了各種各樣的把戲向主人顯示自己是哈利，但是主人還是不相信這是它。最後哈利跳到浴缸裡讓主人給它洗澡。洗著洗著哈利就變回了一隻有黑點的白狗。只有這時候主人才認出這隻狗到底是誰。故事中主人對有白點的黑狗的身份有一個錯誤信念，以為這是一條不同於他們的哈利的狗。如果兒童不能理解錯誤信念，可能會以為真的有兩隻狗，而故事中的行為因此就會沒有邏輯和莫名其妙。

閱讀兒童故事，尤其是繪本的閱讀，往往是一個社會性的交流行為。兒童從很早開始就經常與更有經驗的成人或同伴分享閱讀繪本的過程。這就給利用繪本為兒童提 供發展的鷹架作用提供了好的機會。如何利用繪本為兒童的心智解讀的發展提供鷹架作用呢？

首先，成人需要有正確的講故事的方法。Guajardo 和 Watson（2002）的訓練研究發現，在為時５個星期的訓練中，老師在給兒童講故事和討論故事的時候強調故事的心智層面，並發展相應的延展活動來加強兒童對故事的理解，能夠顯著提高兒童在錯誤信念任務上的表現。

其次，指導兒童從心智層面解釋故事。Bartsch, Campbell 和 Troseth（2007）的研究發現，3歲兒童就能夠用心理過程，包括願望，情感，甚至是錯誤信念，來解釋故事主人公的行為。解釋故事比起預期性的心智理解（比如，Sally 會去什麼地方找她的球？），是回溯性的心智理解（比如，為什麼主人沒有認出這只狗就是哈利？），所以即使 3 歲和 4 歲兒童不能作出預期，有相當一部分的這個年齡的兒童能夠利用錯誤信念來回溯性地解釋故事（Szarkowicz, 2000）。老師可以引導兒童在聽故事的過程中或之後解釋主人公的行為，找出其心理原因。

另外，讓兒童自己講故事。Nicolopoulou 和Richner（2007）的研究發現，不管是複述聽過的故事，還是創作自己的故事，兒童自己講的故事中心智概念的出現要晚于兒童在社會認知任務中表現出的心智解讀能力。兒童的故事往往是從行為開始，逐漸出現心理過程。比起男孩子，女孩子講的故事經常表現出更精緻複雜的心智概念。但是到5歲時，兒童自己講的故事中的主人公都已經體現為有心智的個體。通過自己講故事，兒童有機會練習在社會交往中的常用到的心智對話。

兒童繪本中存在大量涉及有關心智活動的情節。這一方面是對年幼兒童的挑戰，另一方面也給兒童提供了熟悉心智概念的機會。更加上繪本的獨特形式給故事輔助以視覺上的線索，兒童繪本有潛力成為幫助兒童發展心智解讀的絕好教材。現在坊間有很多兒童繪本可供選擇， 本文以下會通過幾個例子解釋繪本中表達的不同的心理活動。

兒童繪本分析願望與情感（Desire and Emotion）

兒童對願望的理解在發展上要早于對信念的理解（Wellman，1990）。 3 歲兒童就已經明白別人的願望有可能和自己的不同。尤其是飲食習慣上的喜好，蘿蔔青菜，各有所愛。比如

《把豆子吃掉 Eat your peas》（凱斯 . 葛瑞文，尼克 . 夏瑞特圖，劉清彥翻譯，2000）中講兒童挑食的問題：

又到了晚餐時間，媽媽還沒有開口，黛西就知道她要說什麼了。

「把豆子吃掉！」媽媽說。 黛西低頭看著盤子裡那些成群結隊的

小綠球。 「我不喜歡豆子。」黛西說。 媽媽象平時一樣歎了口氣。 「 如 果 你 把 豆 子 吃 掉 ， 就 可 以 吃 布

丁。」媽媽說。 「我不喜歡豆子。」黛西說。 …… 「如果你把豆子吃掉，我就會把全世界

的超市、糖果店、玩具店和腳踏車店都買給你，還有十七座游泳池，你永遠不必睡覺、上學、洗澡、梳頭、擦鞋子、刷牙、清理倉鼠的籠子、整理你的房間、自己收錄影帶、穿衣服，我還會把非洲買下來給你，再給你九十二間巧克力工廠，然後我們會搬到遊樂場住，你想要多少火箭都沒問題，我會把地球、月亮、星星和太陽通通買給你，還有…還有…

…還有一個毛茸茸的新鉛筆盒！」 「你真的要我把豆子吃掉，是不是？」

黛西說。 「沒錯！」媽媽說。 「如果你把包心菜芽吃掉，我就吃豆

子。」黛西說。 媽媽低頭看著自己的盤子，她的嘴唇

開始顫抖。 「可是我不喜歡包心菜芽。」媽媽說。 「那就對啦！」黛西說。 「 你 不 喜 歡 包 心 菜 芽 ， 我 不 喜 歡 豆

子！」 「不過，我們都喜歡布丁！」

媽媽為了勸說黛西吃豆子，使出了看家的談判本事，一路追加各種現實或不現實的許諾。畫面也配合著給出十七座游泳池，九十二間巧克力工廠，以及非洲等等媽媽的各種許諾。結果這並不是一場談判，黛西不要任何這些東西。她只是指出，媽媽也有不喜歡吃的東西，強迫別人吃不喜歡的東西只是徒勞而已。跟兒童讀這本繪本的時候，可以利用畫面中體現出的黛西的其他種種願望（至少媽媽以為這些是黛西的願望）與幾粒小小的綠色豆子之間的強烈對比幫助兒童明白食物傾向性的頑固。討論亦可圍繞這些看似有吸引力的許諾與願望之間的關係進行。

心智理論除了幫助兒童理解不同的人有不同的願望喜好，還能幫助兒童站在他人願望的立場考慮問題。別人會有什麼樣的願望，如果這個願望不能得到滿足會怎樣？仍然是麥兜和麥嘜的故事，《一粒士多啤梨》（謝立文文、麥家碧圖 , 2002）講的是理解他人的願望：

The Hong Kong Institute of Education Library

For private study or research only. Not for publication or further reproduction.

46

Hong Kong Journal ofEarly Childhood香 港 幼 兒 學 報 Vol. 9 No. 2 December 2010

47

Hong Kong Journal ofEarly Childhood香 港 幼 兒 學 報 Vol. 9 No. 2 December 2010

到認知過程與兒童在心智理論任務上的表現無關。而是母親如何解釋認知過程與兒童的心智理解有關。比如，除了指出麥嘜不知道得巴、May看到的是同一棵樹之外，還要解釋給兒童：這是因為他們三個是在不同時間，不同的情景下看到的這棵樹。

3. 在談話中比較來自不同立場的觀點，尤其是對立的觀點（Shatz,Wellman, & Silber, 1983），有助於促進兒童理解願望、信念與現實的關係以及不同的人有不同的願望和信念。

4. 在談話中對比內在心理過程與客觀世界的區別。Peterson和Slaughter（2006）發現談論與想像有關的認知過程，比如假裝（pretense），與兒童理解錯誤信念有關。

5. 在談話中使用涉及心理狀態的動詞。 Adrian, Clemente, 和Villanueve（2007） 發現母親在給兒童讀繪本時使用認知動詞，比如「想，認為，希望」等，能夠預測兒童日後對心理狀態的理解。

6. 多與兒童進行心智對話。研究發現不僅是心智對話的品質，兒童接觸到的心智對話的數量也影響兒童對心智活動的理解。家庭裡有哥哥和姐姐的兒童有更多的機會與比自己認知發展程度高的人進行心智對話，他們因而表現出更高水準的心智理解。但是這種影響並不適用只有弟弟妹妹的兒童。（Cassidy, Fineberg, Brown, & Perkins, 2005; Dunn, 1999; Ruffman, Perner, Naito, Parkin, & Clements, 1998）

綜上所述，兒童心智理論的研究支持維果斯基（Vygotsky, 1978）的認知發展機制理論。兒童心智理論的發展受兒童的經驗與環境的影響。成人或更高水準的同伴能夠給兒童提供發展的鷹架作用（scaffolding），支持並促進兒童在心智理解上達到更高的水準。而兒童繪本就提供了一個鷹架兒童的心智解讀的絕好工具。 兒童繪本對心智理解發展的作用

Bruner（1986）在分析兒童故事時指出，

兒童故事涉及兩個領域的線索：行為與心智。故事主人公的想法和願望與其行為是緊密聯繫的。比如在《Harry the dirty dog 髒狗哈利》

（Zion, 1992）中這樣講到：哈利是一隻有黑點的白狗，但是因為太髒，所以看上去像是一隻有白點的黑狗。哈利回家後它的主人認不出哈利，以為它是另外一隻不同的狗。哈利耍了各種各樣的把戲向主人顯示自己是哈利，但是主人還是不相信這是它。最後哈利跳到浴缸裡讓主人給它洗澡。洗著洗著哈利就變回了一隻有黑點的白狗。只有這時候主人才認出這隻狗到底是誰。故事中主人對有白點的黑狗的身份有一個錯誤信念，以為這是一條不同於他們的哈利的狗。如果兒童不能理解錯誤信念，可能會以為真的有兩隻狗，而故事中的行為因此就會沒有邏輯和莫名其妙。

閱讀兒童故事，尤其是繪本的閱讀，往往是一個社會性的交流行為。兒童從很早開始就經常與更有經驗的成人或同伴分享閱讀繪本的過程。這就給利用繪本為兒童提 供發展的鷹架作用提供了好的機會。如何利用繪本為兒童的心智解讀的發展提供鷹架作用呢？

首先，成人需要有正確的講故事的方法。Guajardo 和 Watson（2002）的訓練研究發現，在為時５個星期的訓練中，老師在給兒童講故事和討論故事的時候強調故事的心智層面，並發展相應的延展活動來加強兒童對故事的理解，能夠顯著提高兒童在錯誤信念任務上的表現。

其次，指導兒童從心智層面解釋故事。Bartsch, Campbell 和 Troseth（2007）的研究發現，3歲兒童就能夠用心理過程，包括願望，情感，甚至是錯誤信念，來解釋故事主人公的行為。解釋故事比起預期性的心智理解（比如，Sally 會去什麼地方找她的球？），是回溯性的心智理解（比如，為什麼主人沒有認出這只狗就是哈利？），所以即使 3 歲和 4 歲兒童不能作出預期，有相當一部分的這個年齡的兒童能夠利用錯誤信念來回溯性地解釋故事（Szarkowicz, 2000）。老師可以引導兒童在聽故事的過程中或之後解釋主人公的行為，找出其心理原因。

另外，讓兒童自己講故事。Nicolopoulou 和Richner（2007）的研究發現，不管是複述聽過的故事，還是創作自己的故事，兒童自己講的故事中心智概念的出現要晚于兒童在社會認知任務中表現出的心智解讀能力。兒童的故事往往是從行為開始，逐漸出現心理過程。比起男孩子，女孩子講的故事經常表現出更精緻複雜的心智概念。但是到5歲時，兒童自己講的故事中的主人公都已經體現為有心智的個體。通過自己講故事，兒童有機會練習在社會交往中的常用到的心智對話。

兒童繪本中存在大量涉及有關心智活動的情節。這一方面是對年幼兒童的挑戰，另一方面也給兒童提供了熟悉心智概念的機會。更加上繪本的獨特形式給故事輔助以視覺上的線索，兒童繪本有潛力成為幫助兒童發展心智解讀的絕好教材。現在坊間有很多兒童繪本可供選擇， 本文以下會通過幾個例子解釋繪本中表達的不同的心理活動。

兒童繪本分析願望與情感（Desire and Emotion）

兒童對願望的理解在發展上要早于對信念的理解（Wellman，1990）。 3 歲兒童就已經明白別人的願望有可能和自己的不同。尤其是飲食習慣上的喜好，蘿蔔青菜，各有所愛。比如

《把豆子吃掉 Eat your peas》（凱斯 . 葛瑞文，尼克 . 夏瑞特圖，劉清彥翻譯，2000）中講兒童挑食的問題：

又到了晚餐時間，媽媽還沒有開口，黛西就知道她要說什麼了。

「把豆子吃掉！」媽媽說。 黛西低頭看著盤子裡那些成群結隊的

小綠球。 「我不喜歡豆子。」黛西說。 媽媽象平時一樣歎了口氣。 「 如 果 你 把 豆 子 吃 掉 ， 就 可 以 吃 布

丁。」媽媽說。 「我不喜歡豆子。」黛西說。 …… 「如果你把豆子吃掉，我就會把全世界

的超市、糖果店、玩具店和腳踏車店都買給你，還有十七座游泳池，你永遠不必睡覺、上學、洗澡、梳頭、擦鞋子、刷牙、清理倉鼠的籠子、整理你的房間、自己收錄影帶、穿衣服，我還會把非洲買下來給你，再給你九十二間巧克力工廠，然後我們會搬到遊樂場住，你想要多少火箭都沒問題，我會把地球、月亮、星星和太陽通通買給你，還有…還有…

…還有一個毛茸茸的新鉛筆盒！」 「你真的要我把豆子吃掉，是不是？」

黛西說。 「沒錯！」媽媽說。 「如果你把包心菜芽吃掉，我就吃豆

子。」黛西說。 媽媽低頭看著自己的盤子，她的嘴唇

開始顫抖。 「可是我不喜歡包心菜芽。」媽媽說。 「那就對啦！」黛西說。 「 你 不 喜 歡 包 心 菜 芽 ， 我 不 喜 歡 豆

子！」 「不過，我們都喜歡布丁！」

媽媽為了勸說黛西吃豆子，使出了看家的談判本事，一路追加各種現實或不現實的許諾。畫面也配合著給出十七座游泳池，九十二間巧克力工廠，以及非洲等等媽媽的各種許諾。結果這並不是一場談判，黛西不要任何這些東西。她只是指出，媽媽也有不喜歡吃的東西，強迫別人吃不喜歡的東西只是徒勞而已。跟兒童讀這本繪本的時候，可以利用畫面中體現出的黛西的其他種種願望（至少媽媽以為這些是黛西的願望）與幾粒小小的綠色豆子之間的強烈對比幫助兒童明白食物傾向性的頑固。討論亦可圍繞這些看似有吸引力的許諾與願望之間的關係進行。

心智理論除了幫助兒童理解不同的人有不同的願望喜好，還能幫助兒童站在他人願望的立場考慮問題。別人會有什麼樣的願望，如果這個願望不能得到滿足會怎樣？仍然是麥兜和麥嘜的故事，《一粒士多啤梨》（謝立文文、麥家碧圖 , 2002）講的是理解他人的願望：

The Hong Kong Institute of Education Library

For private study or research only. Not for publication or further reproduction.

48

Hong Kong Journal ofEarly Childhood香 港 幼 兒 學 報 Vol. 9 No. 2 December 2010

49

Hong Kong Journal ofEarly Childhood香 港 幼 兒 學 報 Vol. 9 No. 2 December 2010

生日蛋糕分到最後兩件，一件有士多啤梨，一件沒有！

麥嘜看著兩件蛋糕，當然想取去有士多啤梨的一件——因為麥嘜最喜歡吃士多啤梨啊！

可是麥嘜眼珠一轉，轉到還未分到蛋糕的麥兜，想到麥兜同樣是喜歡吃士多啤梨的啊！

麥嘜想到麥兜吃不到士多啤梨，失望的回到家裏，沒心情溫習功課，給麥太罵了一頓！

果然，麥兜測驗零分！麥太再罵他一頓，麥兜心裏卻想著那吃不到的士多啤梨……

第二天，麥兜還病了，雙頰紅得倒像士多啤梨。

醫生說，是啊，麥小朋友吃蛋糕不吃士多啤梨，太過肥膩吃滯兼且缺乏維他命C，影響腦部發育！

自此，麥兜便變了個又肥又滯又缺乏維他命 C 因而影響腦部發育的大豬公，還娶了個比麥太還要惡的老婆，經常拍打他的頭部：「傻嘛你？！為甚麼小時候不多吃一粒士多啤梨！」

想到這裏，麥嘜哭了…… 同一時間，麥嘜身旁的麥兜，竟也一

樣的哭了！ ……

故事裡討論的是基於心智解讀的社會性情感的發展。麥兜和麥嘜雖然自己喜歡吃草莓（士多啤梨），但是知道自己的好朋友也喜歡草莓。他們想像如果對方吃不到草莓可能會有的種種後果，進而產生同理心（empathy）。這個故事還涉及到另外一個心智概念，即意識流（train of thoughts）。人是有願望，信念等心智活動的，而且這些活動是連續不斷的，像是用一條時間的鏈條連接起來的內心敘事。意識流使得人的心智活動沒有限制，我們可以在頭腦中想像發生在不同時間和地點的事情，就像進行跨越時空的心智旅行（Suddendorf & Busby, 2005）。自由聯想似乎合情合理，但又讓人忍俊不住。在溫馨幽默的字詞之間，讀者已經跟隨麥兜麥嘜

的心智旅行去到了虛擬的未來。這個故事裡複雜的二級心理狀態理解（second order mental state understanding）使得它更適合於心智解讀較成熟的小學兒童閱讀。

思想和信念（Thought and Belief） 如果可以把願望和情感稱為動機性心理過程的話，信念和思考可以稱為是認知性心理過程。和願望不同，認知性心理過程不是把自己的意願投射到現實中去（比如，我想改變現實，換一塊有草莓的蛋糕，以滿足我頭腦中的願望），而是把現實的東西投射到頭腦中去（比如，我頭腦中的思考活動，比如麥兜故事的心智意義，反應了現實”）（Searly, 1983）。認知性心理過程因而也就比動機性心理過程要求更高的心智解讀（Wellman,1990）。

思想（thought）有無限的延展性。沒有任何一本書比Dr. Seuss 的《想怎麼想就怎麼想Oh, the thinks you can think!》（蘇斯博士著，郝廣才譯， 1992）能更出神入化地反映思想的意義：

…… You can think about Night, 你可以想想晚

上， a night in Na-Nupp. 在樓上樓的晚上。 The birds are asleep 鳥兒都進入夢鄉， and the three moons are up. 天上有三個月

亮。 …… Think 騎馬滾球 a race 頭頂魚， on a horse 瘋狂賽馬 on a ball 真有趣！ with a fish! …… Oh, the THINKS you can think up if only

you try! 哦，愛怎麼想就怎麼想！

沒有邊界，不受限制，通過 Dr. Seuss 的同樣富想像力的畫面，思想可以在兒童面前形象化：天上可以有三個月亮；還有騎著馬，踩著球，頭頂著一缸魚的比賽。繪本的優勢是能夠

通過形象的圖畫幫助前運演期的兒童理解抽象的，看不到，摸不著的心智活動。和四、五歲的兒童讀這本書的時候，亦可以請兒童把自己的想法畫下來討論，並且鼓勵兒童有新奇的想法。越是奇異的想法，越能體現現實與思考之間的對立。

又比如在《老鼠妹妹和老鼠弟弟》（中江嘉男文，上野紀子圖，林真美譯，2001）中，作者巧妙地運用了思想泡泡（thought bubble）的形式傳達了老鼠弟弟的思想活動。研究發現，三、四歲的兒童經過簡單提示就能明白與真實的圖片或照片不同，思想泡泡裡的內容代表了內隱的心智活動；更重要的是，兒童也明白思想泡泡裡的內容有可能是對現實的錯誤理解，即錯誤信念（Wellman, Hollander, & Schult, 1996）。在

《老鼠妹妹和老鼠弟弟》中，老鼠弟弟看到老鼠妹妹在織一件背心，便想：她一定是在織我的背心。思想從這裡出發，老鼠弟弟站在原地未動，但是頭頂上的思想泡泡裡已經是另外一個世界：老鼠弟弟想像老鼠妹妹會把背心送給自己；並贊他穿上去很好看；接著二人手拖手吹著口哨一起去玩；蕩秋千；開車旅行；在教堂結婚；老鼠弟弟提上公事包與家門口的老鼠妹妹揮手道別去工作；晚上回家來享受老鼠妹妹煮的晚餐；二人生了一堆老鼠仔仔；一家老鼠相親相愛……；直到老鼠妹妹打斷了老鼠弟弟的白日夢，送上一件不合身之極的背心。思想泡泡的運用，在每一幅畫面上都建立了現實與想像世界之間的對比，使兒童明白地意識到心智活動與意識流的內隱性。

與 信 念 有 關 的 一 個 概 念 是 意 圖（intention）。意圖是人際交往中的目標指向性。說謊的意圖是騙過別人；而一個善意的謊言，意圖是避免傷害別人。意圖往往是和認知性的心理狀態結合在一起的複雜的心智過程（Schult, 2002）。比如《三隻小豬的故事》講的是大壞狼有吃小豬的意圖，並且用盡手段達到意圖的故事。而在後現代版本的《三隻小豬的真實故事 The true story of the three little pigs》（雍 .薛斯卡文，籃 . 史密斯圖，方素珍譯，1999）中，讀者必須理解狼的信念，才能體會狼的意圖。故事

以一隻叫亞力山大的狼在監獄裡接受《大野狼日報》的採訪時的自述，試圖向世人展示狼的眼睛裡三隻小豬的真實故事。在故事裡，狼相信關愛別人，相互幫助及禮貌待人，還有不應該剩下食物，就像小朋友不應該把漢堡留在冰箱外腐爛一樣。因為這些信念，狼有著“善良本性”，是友善的鄰居。故事中發生了一些看似惡意的事件，其實全是誤會。狼因為得了感冒，打噴嚏時不小心吹毀了小豬們的房子，吹死了小豬；又因為天生是食肉動物，無奈之下只好吃掉小豬。故事的要點是狼從來就沒有壞的意圖，所有發生的事，都是在無惡意的前提下的意外。而那些記者為了讓故事有刺激性，莫須有地編造出壞蛋大野狼的故事，生生把過失傷害說成了蓄意謀殺。信念和意圖加在一起，決定了對同一個事件的截然相反的詮釋。

《三隻小豬的真實故事》回應了在本文的開始提到的觀點採擇能力。觀點採擇意味著能夠理解不同的人對同一件事可能會有不同的看法，就像瞎子摸象，每個人都會有基於自己的經驗的觀點。這個故事就用詼諧的手法解構人們所熟知的故事，通過凸現信念和意圖上的衝突，從截然相反的立場，完全打破了 人們傳統上對狼的認識。同時也淋漓盡致地體現了故事完全是心智建構的道理。和年齡較大的學前兒童討論同一個故事的不同版本有助於兒童認識到同樣的行為可以從不同的立場觀點出發來做不同的解釋，培養兒童的觀點採擇能力。 總結

兒童繪本有豐富的心智內容，故事主人公的喜怒哀樂，思想，信念，和意圖決定了他們的行為。兒童只有理解了故事中心智的“因”，才能明白故事裡行為的“果”。這一方面要求成人在選擇繪本的時候考慮到兒童的認知發展水準，避免故事對心智解讀要求過高而超出兒童的理解程度；另一方面難度適當的繪本又為兒童提供了心智解讀的最近發展區。成人可以通過與兒童分享繪本閱讀的過程，利用繪本通過畫面線索來表達看不到摸不著的心智過程的特點，為兒童提供心智發展的鷹架作用。

The Hong Kong Institute of Education Library

For private study or research only. Not for publication or further reproduction.

48

Hong Kong Journal ofEarly Childhood香 港 幼 兒 學 報 Vol. 9 No. 2 December 2010

49

Hong Kong Journal ofEarly Childhood香 港 幼 兒 學 報 Vol. 9 No. 2 December 2010

生日蛋糕分到最後兩件，一件有士多啤梨，一件沒有！

麥嘜看著兩件蛋糕，當然想取去有士多啤梨的一件——因為麥嘜最喜歡吃士多啤梨啊！

可是麥嘜眼珠一轉，轉到還未分到蛋糕的麥兜，想到麥兜同樣是喜歡吃士多啤梨的啊！

麥嘜想到麥兜吃不到士多啤梨，失望的回到家裏，沒心情溫習功課，給麥太罵了一頓！

果然，麥兜測驗零分！麥太再罵他一頓，麥兜心裏卻想著那吃不到的士多啤梨……

第二天，麥兜還病了，雙頰紅得倒像士多啤梨。

醫生說，是啊，麥小朋友吃蛋糕不吃士多啤梨，太過肥膩吃滯兼且缺乏維他命C，影響腦部發育！

自此，麥兜便變了個又肥又滯又缺乏維他命 C 因而影響腦部發育的大豬公，還娶了個比麥太還要惡的老婆，經常拍打他的頭部：「傻嘛你？！為甚麼小時候不多吃一粒士多啤梨！」

想到這裏，麥嘜哭了…… 同一時間，麥嘜身旁的麥兜，竟也一

樣的哭了！ ……

故事裡討論的是基於心智解讀的社會性情感的發展。麥兜和麥嘜雖然自己喜歡吃草莓（士多啤梨），但是知道自己的好朋友也喜歡草莓。他們想像如果對方吃不到草莓可能會有的種種後果，進而產生同理心（empathy）。這個故事還涉及到另外一個心智概念，即意識流（train of thoughts）。人是有願望，信念等心智活動的，而且這些活動是連續不斷的，像是用一條時間的鏈條連接起來的內心敘事。意識流使得人的心智活動沒有限制，我們可以在頭腦中想像發生在不同時間和地點的事情，就像進行跨越時空的心智旅行（Suddendorf & Busby, 2005）。自由聯想似乎合情合理，但又讓人忍俊不住。在溫馨幽默的字詞之間，讀者已經跟隨麥兜麥嘜

的心智旅行去到了虛擬的未來。這個故事裡複雜的二級心理狀態理解（second order mental state understanding）使得它更適合於心智解讀較成熟的小學兒童閱讀。

思想和信念（Thought and Belief） 如果可以把願望和情感稱為動機性心理過程的話，信念和思考可以稱為是認知性心理過程。和願望不同，認知性心理過程不是把自己的意願投射到現實中去（比如，我想改變現實，換一塊有草莓的蛋糕，以滿足我頭腦中的願望），而是把現實的東西投射到頭腦中去（比如，我頭腦中的思考活動，比如麥兜故事的心智意義，反應了現實”）（Searly, 1983）。認知性心理過程因而也就比動機性心理過程要求更高的心智解讀（Wellman,1990）。

思想（thought）有無限的延展性。沒有任何一本書比Dr. Seuss 的《想怎麼想就怎麼想Oh, the thinks you can think!》（蘇斯博士著，郝廣才譯， 1992）能更出神入化地反映思想的意義：

…… You can think about Night, 你可以想想晚

上， a night in Na-Nupp. 在樓上樓的晚上。 The birds are asleep 鳥兒都進入夢鄉， and the three moons are up. 天上有三個月

亮。 …… Think 騎馬滾球 a race 頭頂魚， on a horse 瘋狂賽馬 on a ball 真有趣！ with a fish! …… Oh, the THINKS you can think up if only

you try! 哦，愛怎麼想就怎麼想！

沒有邊界，不受限制，通過 Dr. Seuss 的同樣富想像力的畫面，思想可以在兒童面前形象化：天上可以有三個月亮；還有騎著馬，踩著球，頭頂著一缸魚的比賽。繪本的優勢是能夠

通過形象的圖畫幫助前運演期的兒童理解抽象的，看不到，摸不著的心智活動。和四、五歲的兒童讀這本書的時候，亦可以請兒童把自己的想法畫下來討論，並且鼓勵兒童有新奇的想法。越是奇異的想法，越能體現現實與思考之間的對立。

又比如在《老鼠妹妹和老鼠弟弟》（中江嘉男文，上野紀子圖，林真美譯，2001）中，作者巧妙地運用了思想泡泡（thought bubble）的形式傳達了老鼠弟弟的思想活動。研究發現，三、四歲的兒童經過簡單提示就能明白與真實的圖片或照片不同，思想泡泡裡的內容代表了內隱的心智活動；更重要的是，兒童也明白思想泡泡裡的內容有可能是對現實的錯誤理解，即錯誤信念（Wellman, Hollander, & Schult, 1996）。在

《老鼠妹妹和老鼠弟弟》中，老鼠弟弟看到老鼠妹妹在織一件背心，便想：她一定是在織我的背心。思想從這裡出發，老鼠弟弟站在原地未動，但是頭頂上的思想泡泡裡已經是另外一個世界：老鼠弟弟想像老鼠妹妹會把背心送給自己；並贊他穿上去很好看；接著二人手拖手吹著口哨一起去玩；蕩秋千；開車旅行；在教堂結婚；老鼠弟弟提上公事包與家門口的老鼠妹妹揮手道別去工作；晚上回家來享受老鼠妹妹煮的晚餐；二人生了一堆老鼠仔仔；一家老鼠相親相愛……；直到老鼠妹妹打斷了老鼠弟弟的白日夢，送上一件不合身之極的背心。思想泡泡的運用，在每一幅畫面上都建立了現實與想像世界之間的對比，使兒童明白地意識到心智活動與意識流的內隱性。

與 信 念 有 關 的 一 個 概 念 是 意 圖（intention）。意圖是人際交往中的目標指向性。說謊的意圖是騙過別人；而一個善意的謊言，意圖是避免傷害別人。意圖往往是和認知性的心理狀態結合在一起的複雜的心智過程（Schult, 2002）。比如《三隻小豬的故事》講的是大壞狼有吃小豬的意圖，並且用盡手段達到意圖的故事。而在後現代版本的《三隻小豬的真實故事 The true story of the three little pigs》（雍 .薛斯卡文，籃 . 史密斯圖，方素珍譯，1999）中，讀者必須理解狼的信念，才能體會狼的意圖。故事

以一隻叫亞力山大的狼在監獄裡接受《大野狼日報》的採訪時的自述，試圖向世人展示狼的眼睛裡三隻小豬的真實故事。在故事裡，狼相信關愛別人，相互幫助及禮貌待人，還有不應該剩下食物，就像小朋友不應該把漢堡留在冰箱外腐爛一樣。因為這些信念，狼有著“善良本性”，是友善的鄰居。故事中發生了一些看似惡意的事件，其實全是誤會。狼因為得了感冒，打噴嚏時不小心吹毀了小豬們的房子，吹死了小豬；又因為天生是食肉動物，無奈之下只好吃掉小豬。故事的要點是狼從來就沒有壞的意圖，所有發生的事，都是在無惡意的前提下的意外。而那些記者為了讓故事有刺激性，莫須有地編造出壞蛋大野狼的故事，生生把過失傷害說成了蓄意謀殺。信念和意圖加在一起，決定了對同一個事件的截然相反的詮釋。

《三隻小豬的真實故事》回應了在本文的開始提到的觀點採擇能力。觀點採擇意味著能夠理解不同的人對同一件事可能會有不同的看法，就像瞎子摸象，每個人都會有基於自己的經驗的觀點。這個故事就用詼諧的手法解構人們所熟知的故事，通過凸現信念和意圖上的衝突，從截然相反的立場，完全打破了 人們傳統上對狼的認識。同時也淋漓盡致地體現了故事完全是心智建構的道理。和年齡較大的學前兒童討論同一個故事的不同版本有助於兒童認識到同樣的行為可以從不同的立場觀點出發來做不同的解釋，培養兒童的觀點採擇能力。 總結

兒童繪本有豐富的心智內容，故事主人公的喜怒哀樂，思想，信念，和意圖決定了他們的行為。兒童只有理解了故事中心智的“因”，才能明白故事裡行為的“果”。這一方面要求成人在選擇繪本的時候考慮到兒童的認知發展水準，避免故事對心智解讀要求過高而超出兒童的理解程度；另一方面難度適當的繪本又為兒童提供了心智解讀的最近發展區。成人可以通過與兒童分享繪本閱讀的過程，利用繪本通過畫面線索來表達看不到摸不著的心智過程的特點，為兒童提供心智發展的鷹架作用。

The Hong Kong Institute of Education Library

For private study or research only. Not for publication or further reproduction.

50

Hong Kong Journal ofEarly Childhood香 港 幼 兒 學 報 Vol. 9 No. 2 December 2010

51

Hong Kong Journal ofEarly Childhood香 港 幼 兒 學 報 Vol. 9 No. 2 December 2010

參考書目江汛（2003年7月6日）：童年的小豬成人的童話，《亞洲週刊》 17（27），頁38-39。 凱斯.葛瑞文，尼克.夏瑞特圖，劉清彥翻譯（2000）《把豆子吃掉 Eat your peas》，臺北， 維京國際股份有限

公司。蘇斯博士著，郝廣才譯（1992）：《想怎麼想就怎麼想Oh, the thinks you can think!》，臺北，遠流出版事業股

份有限公司。 雍 . 薛斯卡文，籃 . 史密斯圖，方素珍譯（1999）《三隻小豬的真實故事 The true story of the three little

pigs》，臺北 :三之三文化事業股份有限公司。謝立文文、麥家碧圖（2002）: 《一粒士多啤梨》，香港 : 黃巴士出版有限公司。謝立文文、麥家碧圖（2002）: 《樹的主人》，輯於《一粒士多啤梨》，香港 : 黃巴士出版有限公司。中江嘉男文，上野紀子圖，林真美譯（2001）《老鼠妹妹和老鼠弟弟》，臺北 : 台灣東販股份有限公司。Adrián, J., Clemente, R., & Villanueva, L. (2007). Mothers’ use of cognitive state verbs in picture-book reading

and the development of children’s understanding of nind: A longitudinal study. Child Development, 78 (4), 1052-1067.

Baron-Cohen , S., Leslie, A. M., Frith, U. (1985). Does the autistic child have a 'theory of mind? Cognition, 21 (1), 37–46.

Bartsch, K., Campbell, M., & Troseth, G. (2007). Why else does Jenny run? Young children’s extended psychological explanations. Journal of Cognition & Development, 8 (1), 33-61.

Brunner, J. (1986). Actual Minds, Possible Worlds. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Cassidy, K. W., Fineberg, D. S., Brown, K, & Perkins, A. (2005). Theory of mind may be contagious, but you don’t

catch it from your twin. Child Development, 76, 97-106. de Villiers, J. G., & de Villiers, P. A. (2000). Linguistic derterminism and the understanding of false beliefs. In P.

Mitchell & K. J. Riggs (Eds.). Children’s Reasoning and the Mind (pp. 191-228). Hove, England: Psychology Press.

Dunn, J. (1999). Mindreading and social relationships. In M. Bennett(Ed.). Developmental Psychology: Achievements

and Prospects. Philadelphia, PA: Psychology Press.Flavell, J. H. (1999). Cognitive development: Children’s knowledge about the mind. Annual Review of Psychology,

50, 21-45. Guajardo, N., & Watson, A. (2002). Narrative discourse and theory of mind development. Journal of Genetic

Psychology, 163 (3), 305. Lohmann, H., & Tomasello, M., (2003). The role of language in the development of false belief understanding: A

training study. Child Development, 74, 1130-1144.Meins, E., Fernyhough, C., Wainwright, R., Clark-Carter, D., Dupta, M. D., Fradly, E., & Tuchy, M. (2003). Pathways

to understanding the mind: construct validity and predictive validity of maternal mind-mindedness. Child

Development, 74, 1194-1211. Milligan, K., Astington, J., & Dack, L. (2007). Language and theory of mind: Meta-analysis of the relation between

language ability and false-belief understanding. Child Development, 78, 622-646.Nicolopoulou, A., & Richner, E. (2007). From actors to agents to persons: The development of character representation

in young children's narratives. Child Development, 78(2), 412-429. Pears, K. C., & Moses, L. J. (2003). Demographics, parenting, and theory of mind in preschool children. Social

Development, 12, 1 - 20.Peterson, C., & Slaughter, V. (2006). Telling the story of theory of mind: Deaf and hearing children's narratives and

mental state understanding. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 24(1), 151-179.

Ruffman, T., Perner, J., Naito, M., Parking, L., & Clements, W. A. (1998). Older(but not younger) siblings facilitate false belief understanding. Developmental Psychology, 34, 161-174.

Ruffman, T., Slade, L., Devitt, K., & Crowe, E. (2006). What mothers say and what they do: the relation between parenting, theory of mind, language and conflict/cooperation. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 24, 105-124.

Searle, J. R. (1983). Intentionality: An Essay in the Philosophy of Mind. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Schult, C. A. (2002). Children’s understanding of the distinction between intentions and desires. Child Development,

73, 1727-1747.Shatz, M., Wellman, H. M., & Silber, S. (1983). The acquisition of mental verbs: A systematic investigation of the first

reference to mental state. Cognition, 14, 301-321.Slaughter, V., Peterson, C., & Mackintosh, E. (2007). Mind what mother says: Narrative input and theory of mind in

typical Children and those on the Autism Spectrum. Child Development, 78(3), 839-858. Suddendorf, T., & Busby, J. (2005). Making decisions with the future in mind: Developmental and comparative

identification of mental time travel. Learning and Motivation. Special Issue: Cognitive Time Travel in People

and Animals, 36(2), 110-125.Szarkowicz, D. (2000). 'When they wash him they'll know he'll be Harry': Young children's thinking about thinking

within a story context. International Journal of Early Years Education, 8(1), 71-81. Vygotsky, L.S. (1978). Mind in Society. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Wellman, H. M. (1990). The Child's Theory of Mind. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press. Wellman, H. M., Cross, D., & Watson, J. (2001). Meta-analysis of theory of mind development: The truth about false-

belief. Child Development, 72, 655-684.Wellman, H. M., Hollander, M., & Schult, C. A. (1996). Young children’s understanding of thought bubbles and of

thoughts. Child Development, 67, 768-788.Wimmer, H., & Perner, J. (1983). Beliefs about beliefs: Representation and constraining function of wrong beliefs in

young children’s understanding of deception. Cognition, 13, 103-128. Zion, G. (1992). Harry the Dirty Dog. London: Random House.

Note: A draft of this paper was presented at 2009幼兒教育專業、品質與卓越國際學術研討會, Taipei, Taiwan.

The Hong Kong Institute of Education Library

For private study or research only. Not for publication or further reproduction.

50

Hong Kong Journal ofEarly Childhood香 港 幼 兒 學 報 Vol. 9 No. 2 December 2010

51

Hong Kong Journal ofEarly Childhood香 港 幼 兒 學 報 Vol. 9 No. 2 December 2010

參考書目江汛（2003年7月6日）：童年的小豬成人的童話，《亞洲週刊》 17（27），頁38-39。 凱斯.葛瑞文，尼克.夏瑞特圖，劉清彥翻譯（2000）《把豆子吃掉 Eat your peas》，臺北， 維京國際股份有限

公司。蘇斯博士著，郝廣才譯（1992）：《想怎麼想就怎麼想Oh, the thinks you can think!》，臺北，遠流出版事業股

份有限公司。 雍 . 薛斯卡文，籃 . 史密斯圖，方素珍譯（1999）《三隻小豬的真實故事 The true story of the three little

pigs》，臺北 :三之三文化事業股份有限公司。謝立文文、麥家碧圖（2002）: 《一粒士多啤梨》，香港 : 黃巴士出版有限公司。謝立文文、麥家碧圖（2002）: 《樹的主人》，輯於《一粒士多啤梨》，香港 : 黃巴士出版有限公司。中江嘉男文，上野紀子圖，林真美譯（2001）《老鼠妹妹和老鼠弟弟》，臺北 : 台灣東販股份有限公司。Adrián, J., Clemente, R., & Villanueva, L. (2007). Mothers’ use of cognitive state verbs in picture-book reading

and the development of children’s understanding of nind: A longitudinal study. Child Development, 78 (4), 1052-1067.

Baron-Cohen , S., Leslie, A. M., Frith, U. (1985). Does the autistic child have a 'theory of mind? Cognition, 21 (1), 37–46.

Bartsch, K., Campbell, M., & Troseth, G. (2007). Why else does Jenny run? Young children’s extended psychological explanations. Journal of Cognition & Development, 8 (1), 33-61.

Brunner, J. (1986). Actual Minds, Possible Worlds. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Cassidy, K. W., Fineberg, D. S., Brown, K, & Perkins, A. (2005). Theory of mind may be contagious, but you don’t

catch it from your twin. Child Development, 76, 97-106. de Villiers, J. G., & de Villiers, P. A. (2000). Linguistic derterminism and the understanding of false beliefs. In P.

Mitchell & K. J. Riggs (Eds.). Children’s Reasoning and the Mind (pp. 191-228). Hove, England: Psychology Press.

Dunn, J. (1999). Mindreading and social relationships. In M. Bennett(Ed.). Developmental Psychology: Achievements

and Prospects. Philadelphia, PA: Psychology Press.Flavell, J. H. (1999). Cognitive development: Children’s knowledge about the mind. Annual Review of Psychology,

50, 21-45. Guajardo, N., & Watson, A. (2002). Narrative discourse and theory of mind development. Journal of Genetic

Psychology, 163 (3), 305. Lohmann, H., & Tomasello, M., (2003). The role of language in the development of false belief understanding: A

training study. Child Development, 74, 1130-1144.Meins, E., Fernyhough, C., Wainwright, R., Clark-Carter, D., Dupta, M. D., Fradly, E., & Tuchy, M. (2003). Pathways

to understanding the mind: construct validity and predictive validity of maternal mind-mindedness. Child

Development, 74, 1194-1211. Milligan, K., Astington, J., & Dack, L. (2007). Language and theory of mind: Meta-analysis of the relation between

language ability and false-belief understanding. Child Development, 78, 622-646.Nicolopoulou, A., & Richner, E. (2007). From actors to agents to persons: The development of character representation

in young children's narratives. Child Development, 78(2), 412-429. Pears, K. C., & Moses, L. J. (2003). Demographics, parenting, and theory of mind in preschool children. Social

Development, 12, 1 - 20.Peterson, C., & Slaughter, V. (2006). Telling the story of theory of mind: Deaf and hearing children's narratives and

mental state understanding. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 24(1), 151-179.

Ruffman, T., Perner, J., Naito, M., Parking, L., & Clements, W. A. (1998). Older(but not younger) siblings facilitate false belief understanding. Developmental Psychology, 34, 161-174.

Ruffman, T., Slade, L., Devitt, K., & Crowe, E. (2006). What mothers say and what they do: the relation between parenting, theory of mind, language and conflict/cooperation. British Journal of Developmental Psychology, 24, 105-124.

Searle, J. R. (1983). Intentionality: An Essay in the Philosophy of Mind. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Schult, C. A. (2002). Children’s understanding of the distinction between intentions and desires. Child Development,

73, 1727-1747.Shatz, M., Wellman, H. M., & Silber, S. (1983). The acquisition of mental verbs: A systematic investigation of the first

reference to mental state. Cognition, 14, 301-321.Slaughter, V., Peterson, C., & Mackintosh, E. (2007). Mind what mother says: Narrative input and theory of mind in

typical Children and those on the Autism Spectrum. Child Development, 78(3), 839-858. Suddendorf, T., & Busby, J. (2005). Making decisions with the future in mind: Developmental and comparative

identification of mental time travel. Learning and Motivation. Special Issue: Cognitive Time Travel in People

and Animals, 36(2), 110-125.Szarkowicz, D. (2000). 'When they wash him they'll know he'll be Harry': Young children's thinking about thinking

within a story context. International Journal of Early Years Education, 8(1), 71-81. Vygotsky, L.S. (1978). Mind in Society. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Wellman, H. M. (1990). The Child's Theory of Mind. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press. Wellman, H. M., Cross, D., & Watson, J. (2001). Meta-analysis of theory of mind development: The truth about false-

belief. Child Development, 72, 655-684.Wellman, H. M., Hollander, M., & Schult, C. A. (1996). Young children’s understanding of thought bubbles and of

thoughts. Child Development, 67, 768-788.Wimmer, H., & Perner, J. (1983). Beliefs about beliefs: Representation and constraining function of wrong beliefs in

young children’s understanding of deception. Cognition, 13, 103-128. Zion, G. (1992). Harry the Dirty Dog. London: Random House.

Note: A draft of this paper was presented at 2009幼兒教育專業、品質與卓越國際學術研討會, Taipei, Taiwan.

The Hong Kong Institute of Education Library

For private study or research only. Not for publication or further reproduction.

52

Hong Kong Journal ofEarly Childhood香 港 幼 兒 學 報 Vol. 9 No. 2 December 2010

53

Hong Kong Journal ofEarly Childhood香 港 幼 兒 學 報 Vol. 9 No. 2 December 2010

Dissonant voices of kindergarteners in an English immersion experience

幼兒英語沉浸活動實驗計劃：一些負面聲音的啟示

NG Mei Lee

Department of Early Childhood Education

The Hong Kong Institute of Education

AbstractThis paper reports findings of an innovative project which provided partial immersion English experiences for three groups of five-year-old children from a local preschool through a partnering program with three international preschools. The project was consisted of two phases :(I) initial visits between partnering children to establish friendship (II) a week’s program of English informal activities like games, song singing, story book sharing to enhance young learner’s interests and motivation to speak English in an authentic interaction context. 39 project children were interviewed on their views of learning English before and after the project to see if the immersion experience has aroused their interest of speaking English. A few but strong provocative voices have illuminated important messages for both teachers and parents to take note of when planning immersion experiences for very young children.

摘要本文報告一所本地幼稚園與國際幼稚園英語交流的計劃結果。本地幼園的三組五歲班幼兒分別配對於三所國際幼稚園的五歲班幼兒成為學習伙伴。計劃共分兩部份 : 第一部份是透過互訪，本地幼兒及國際學校的幼兒互相認識及建立友誼。第二部份是學習伙伴一起參與一周的英語興趣活動，目的是利用真實互動情境，增進本地幼兒對學習英語的興趣及動機。研究員透過在計劃開始前及結束後訪問參與計劃的39位幼兒，初步探究此項計劃能否有效提升幼兒對學習英語的興趣。訪談結果中，數位幼兒對是次部份英語浸入經驗發出強烈負面的聲音，這些聲音向老師及家長揭示了一些重要訊息，值得日後計劃同類活動時作參考。

Introduction Young children in Hong Kong learn English which they do not often hear or use outside the classroom. Over 95% of the population of Hong Kong are ethnic Chinese, and most use Cantonese as their mother tongue(Tsui, 2004). Basically, the dominant language used at home by most families is their mother tongue except homes which employ live –in foreign domestic helpers. It is within this contextual background that a small-scale project was launched to create an authentic interaction context for children to be exposed to

English naturally. A total of four preschools, one local and three international, participated in the project. Three groups of five-year-olds from the local preschool which use Chinese as a medium of instruction were paired randomly with children from three international preschools which use English as a medium of instruction.

The theoretical basis of the project rests with the social constructive theories of second language learning and the motivational theories on language learning. The socio-cultural stance puts forward

that acquiring a second language entails more than simple mastery of the linguistic properties of the second language but rather managing the dialogic interaction that arises between individuals engaged in goal-directed activities(Lantolf, 2000). So, the project moved beyond the traditional practice of language structures inside the classroom and created opportunities for natural contact between Cantonese-speaking and English speaking children. The project took on the characteristics of the natural language learning as described by Norton(2000) : the target language is used for authentic communication , not for controlled classroom practice; the learner is surrounded by fluent speakers of English ; Outside world is open and stimulating with a multitude of contextual clues for understanding the language in use; Language is used in a free and normal fashion rather than carefully controlled and simplified; learners are exposed to English at a normal pace and in natural learning situation; and attention is focused on the meaning of the communication.

The Project The project was composed of two parts: several initial visits in Part I and a week long intensive exchange experience in Part 2. Initial visits between partnering schools were organized to help children get acquainted with their new friends through engaging in some outdoor free play which allowed spontaneous conversations and interactions to take place among the children. The second part of the program was a week-long intensive exchange experience which aimed at stimulating further interactions in accordance with the planned activities. Local children and their buddies from international schools spent the morning together to participate in a series of creative activities: story telling of a famous tale “The Gingerbread Man”; singing the Gingerbread songs with actions, baking the gingerbread cake, making the animals masks and simulating the chase by the animals in the open playground. The series then ended

with a mini drama performance on the whole story. These creative activities were planned in the project because they were believed to give ample imaginative spaces and enabled EFL(English as a foreign language) children to feel less intimidated to express themselves in simple English. The teachers’ roles were to facilitate natural interaction among the buddies and to encourage children to use English as much as possible while buddies from the international kindergartens were expected to provide the major English exposure to the local children.

Dissonant voices heard from children who disliked English all through

Pre and post program interviews with the children from the local preschool were conducted to collect views from children with regard to their immersion experiences. 39 children were interviewed in groups of three or four. Their voices were taped and later transcribed into prints and translated into English for publication. With regard to their preference for speaking English in particular, three broad categories of views emerged. Category One was children liked speaking English both before and after the program. Category Two was children indicated a change of preference for speaking English, either from like to dislike or from dislike to like. Category Three was children disliked speaking English both before and after the program. Within this group, dissonant views were voiced out by two groups of children.

1. English is too difficult , sounds like chicken and is a language for ‘babies’ Cala , Bry , Cas and Morco(all pseudonymes) were interviewed in a group. Cala, Morco and Cas all had Philippino helpers at home. Cala, Bry and Cas had weekly English tuition. Interviewer : How did you talk to your buddy ? Cala : ..My buddy didn’t speak to me at all,

did not respond to me. She did not understand what I was saying. Did not understand my

The Hong Kong Institute of Education Library

For private study or research only. Not for publication or further reproduction.

52

Hong Kong Journal ofEarly Childhood香 港 幼 兒 學 報 Vol. 9 No. 2 December 2010

53

Hong Kong Journal ofEarly Childhood香 港 幼 兒 學 報 Vol. 9 No. 2 December 2010

Dissonant voices of kindergarteners in an English immersion experience

幼兒英語沉浸活動實驗計劃：一些負面聲音的啟示

NG Mei Lee

Department of Early Childhood Education

The Hong Kong Institute of Education

AbstractThis paper reports findings of an innovative project which provided partial immersion English experiences for three groups of five-year-old children from a local preschool through a partnering program with three international preschools. The project was consisted of two phases :(I) initial visits between partnering children to establish friendship (II) a week’s program of English informal activities like games, song singing, story book sharing to enhance young learner’s interests and motivation to speak English in an authentic interaction context. 39 project children were interviewed on their views of learning English before and after the project to see if the immersion experience has aroused their interest of speaking English. A few but strong provocative voices have illuminated important messages for both teachers and parents to take note of when planning immersion experiences for very young children.

摘要本文報告一所本地幼稚園與國際幼稚園英語交流的計劃結果。本地幼園的三組五歲班幼兒分別配對於三所國際幼稚園的五歲班幼兒成為學習伙伴。計劃共分兩部份 : 第一部份是透過互訪，本地幼兒及國際學校的幼兒互相認識及建立友誼。第二部份是學習伙伴一起參與一周的英語興趣活動，目的是利用真實互動情境，增進本地幼兒對學習英語的興趣及動機。研究員透過在計劃開始前及結束後訪問參與計劃的39位幼兒，初步探究此項計劃能否有效提升幼兒對學習英語的興趣。訪談結果中，數位幼兒對是次部份英語浸入經驗發出強烈負面的聲音，這些聲音向老師及家長揭示了一些重要訊息，值得日後計劃同類活動時作參考。

Introduction Young children in Hong Kong learn English which they do not often hear or use outside the classroom. Over 95% of the population of Hong Kong are ethnic Chinese, and most use Cantonese as their mother tongue(Tsui, 2004). Basically, the dominant language used at home by most families is their mother tongue except homes which employ live –in foreign domestic helpers. It is within this contextual background that a small-scale project was launched to create an authentic interaction context for children to be exposed to

English naturally. A total of four preschools, one local and three international, participated in the project. Three groups of five-year-olds from the local preschool which use Chinese as a medium of instruction were paired randomly with children from three international preschools which use English as a medium of instruction.

The theoretical basis of the project rests with the social constructive theories of second language learning and the motivational theories on language learning. The socio-cultural stance puts forward

that acquiring a second language entails more than simple mastery of the linguistic properties of the second language but rather managing the dialogic interaction that arises between individuals engaged in goal-directed activities(Lantolf, 2000). So, the project moved beyond the traditional practice of language structures inside the classroom and created opportunities for natural contact between Cantonese-speaking and English speaking children. The project took on the characteristics of the natural language learning as described by Norton(2000) : the target language is used for authentic communication , not for controlled classroom practice; the learner is surrounded by fluent speakers of English ; Outside world is open and stimulating with a multitude of contextual clues for understanding the language in use; Language is used in a free and normal fashion rather than carefully controlled and simplified; learners are exposed to English at a normal pace and in natural learning situation; and attention is focused on the meaning of the communication.

The Project The project was composed of two parts: several initial visits in Part I and a week long intensive exchange experience in Part 2. Initial visits between partnering schools were organized to help children get acquainted with their new friends through engaging in some outdoor free play which allowed spontaneous conversations and interactions to take place among the children. The second part of the program was a week-long intensive exchange experience which aimed at stimulating further interactions in accordance with the planned activities. Local children and their buddies from international schools spent the morning together to participate in a series of creative activities: story telling of a famous tale “The Gingerbread Man”; singing the Gingerbread songs with actions, baking the gingerbread cake, making the animals masks and simulating the chase by the animals in the open playground. The series then ended

with a mini drama performance on the whole story. These creative activities were planned in the project because they were believed to give ample imaginative spaces and enabled EFL(English as a foreign language) children to feel less intimidated to express themselves in simple English. The teachers’ roles were to facilitate natural interaction among the buddies and to encourage children to use English as much as possible while buddies from the international kindergartens were expected to provide the major English exposure to the local children.

Dissonant voices heard from children who disliked English all through

Pre and post program interviews with the children from the local preschool were conducted to collect views from children with regard to their immersion experiences. 39 children were interviewed in groups of three or four. Their voices were taped and later transcribed into prints and translated into English for publication. With regard to their preference for speaking English in particular, three broad categories of views emerged. Category One was children liked speaking English both before and after the program. Category Two was children indicated a change of preference for speaking English, either from like to dislike or from dislike to like. Category Three was children disliked speaking English both before and after the program. Within this group, dissonant views were voiced out by two groups of children.

1. English is too difficult , sounds like chicken and is a language for ‘babies’ Cala , Bry , Cas and Morco(all pseudonymes) were interviewed in a group. Cala, Morco and Cas all had Philippino helpers at home. Cala, Bry and Cas had weekly English tuition. Interviewer : How did you talk to your buddy ? Cala : ..My buddy didn’t speak to me at all,

did not respond to me. She did not understand what I was saying. Did not understand my

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For private study or research only. Not for publication or further reproduction.

54

Hong Kong Journal ofEarly Childhood香 港 幼 兒 學 報 Vol. 9 No. 2 December 2010

55

Hong Kong Journal ofEarly Childhood香 港 幼 兒 學 報 Vol. 9 No. 2 December 2010

English. I didn’t understand her English either… I just followed the teachers’ example and instructions.

Bry : ..we spoke Chinese most of the time….

I don’t like speaking English. I find it very difficult.

Cas : ..Playing paper, scissor and stone all the time. I don’t like speaking English. It’s too difficult.

When no help came forth, Bry and Cas just developed a sense of incompetence by expressing that English was “too difficult”.

Interviewer : What would you do if you meet someone speaking English ?

Cala : “won’t talk to him” Cas : “call the police to catch him” Bry : “step on him, strike him.”

Taking the young age of the children, researcher would speculate that the above violent and hostile ‘intentions’ are all children’s fantasy. They did not really mean it. However, the emergence of the fantasy itself signals the anxiety that these children were having when encountering people who speak a different and unfamiliar language. This was also consistent with the incompetent feeling that has been expressed earlier. The experience of talking to foreigners could be very scary. So, it deemed fantasizing a scary method to drive these people away.

Parallel to this violent fantasy is Cas’s use of derogative adjectives to describe the target language to be learnt. Interviewer : What did you learn from your

buddy last week ? Cas : I learnt a lot of baby language. They

(English) sounds like words from the womb. When I speak English, I speak like a chicken. Speaking English is like crying like a baby…

I hate learning English ?.. When I speak English, I sound like a chicken.

Interviewer : Did you talk to your buddy next

to you? Cas : I am not interested in playing with a

‘chicken’.….It(English) sounds like a baby noise, crying like WEI WEI WEI(pretend to be like crying again.)

By referring to English as ‘baby language”, perhaps Cas appeared to be adopting a sense of superiority rather than inferiority as not being able to master the language. Cas’s use of derogatory adjectives might serve as his way of justifying why he was not learning ‘English’ well.

2. Not a fair deal Apart from this helpless feeling, the children queried the use of English as the common language of communication between people from different countries. They engaged in quite a lengthy discussion on that: Cas : Whichever country we go, we speak

language of that country. Bry : (feeling a bit annoyed) Hong Kong

always have to accommodate people from other countries.

Cala : (raising her hand high) I have a question, why do we Hong Kong people have to accommodate others and speak English?

Bry : When we visit them, I speak English to them. When they visit us, they have to speak Cantonese to us. They have to accommodate us, we don’t need to accommodate them.

Cas : If you have a shop, a foreigner comes in to buy things. He speaks English, you only speak Cantonese and nothing else. The result is “He will go away.”

Cas : So when we go to their school, they have to accommodate us back, right ?...They should speak Cantonese! Some of them are Chinese but they have an English voice!

Cola : I have a solution, we go to their school, we speak English to accommodate them. When they come to our school, they should speak Cantonese.

Interviewer : What about if your buddy doesn’t know Cantonese ?

Cala : (feeling unhappy, complained) I don’t know English either. Why do I have to speak then? It’s unfair why we need to speak English to accommodate them. Their service is too bad.

Cas : YES, I don’t like to speak English (Cas made this comment in English).

Bry : I don’t like to speak English. Bry : I DON’T LIKE ENGLISH (stress every

word in English.) Cala : Because English is too difficult.

Children used “they’ ‘them’ to refer to English speaking people and to their buddies interchangeably. Children expressed strongly their ambivalent feelings towards speaking English. On one hand, they realized the practical need of finding a common language to communicate with someone who does not speak their language, “a foreign customer will go away if he doesn’t understand you”. However, Cala protested against the ‘unfairness’ in always settling English as the common language. Bry echoed the protest by adding one more remark, “Hong Kong always have to accommodate people from other countries.” Knowing that some children from the international children are bilingual speakers, Cala found it ‘unfair’ “they speak Cantonese as well, so it’s unfair why we need to speak English to accommodate them?” These protest voices not only illustrated children’s awareness of the inequitable relations of power within the communication, it also hinted children’s conception of the link between cultural identity and language, ”each country speaks one language.’

To solve this perceived ‘injustice”, Cala applied the simple rule of reciprocity. This proposal of reciprocity fully reflects the self-centred perspective of five year old children. While not being able to comprehend why English is accorded

with such an important status, children felt happy about the rule and wished that their English counterparts could speak Cantonese and were made to learn Cantonese in a way that they were made to learn English.

3. An invisible voice to avoid contact and cope with frustration Ronny and Tigger and Billy were in another group. Both Ronny and Tigger had English tuition once every week after school. They both had a Filipino domestic helper at home. They experienced similar communication breakdown as that of Cala’s group.

Voices of protest were also made in this group. They were more directed to the absence of free- choice in attending the after-class English tuition: Interviewer : Do you like having another ten

days of interaction with your buddy ? Tigger : No thank you (In English)… I like,

I very like to play with “Chinese” people. I don’t know English(said in English)

Ronny : I’ll sneak away. I have tried to talk to them in English. But I don’t like. Don’t force me. I will speak when I feel like.

I speak Chinese to mom, English to the maid. I hate English because it is very annoying, troublesome, have to do this and learn that,

no time to play. No play, no free play. I need to learn long time before I can go home.

Tigger : I will speak English to no one. Even in class, I won’t speak English because it’s too, too difficult… I don’t feel like speaking

English. Because every time I have a nightmare, it’s because of my learning English. Now I don’t have nightmare because I don’t learn

English anymore. YEAH !(shouted in English). Interviewer : You have a nightmare of going

to learn English ? Tigger : NO. it’s after learning English that I

have nightmare.

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Hong Kong Journal ofEarly Childhood香 港 幼 兒 學 報 Vol. 9 No. 2 December 2010

English. I didn’t understand her English either… I just followed the teachers’ example and instructions.

Bry : ..we spoke Chinese most of the time….

I don’t like speaking English. I find it very difficult.

Cas : ..Playing paper, scissor and stone all the time. I don’t like speaking English. It’s too difficult.

When no help came forth, Bry and Cas just developed a sense of incompetence by expressing that English was “too difficult”.

Interviewer : What would you do if you meet someone speaking English ?

Cala : “won’t talk to him” Cas : “call the police to catch him” Bry : “step on him, strike him.”

Taking the young age of the children, researcher would speculate that the above violent and hostile ‘intentions’ are all children’s fantasy. They did not really mean it. However, the emergence of the fantasy itself signals the anxiety that these children were having when encountering people who speak a different and unfamiliar language. This was also consistent with the incompetent feeling that has been expressed earlier. The experience of talking to foreigners could be very scary. So, it deemed fantasizing a scary method to drive these people away.

Parallel to this violent fantasy is Cas’s use of derogative adjectives to describe the target language to be learnt. Interviewer : What did you learn from your

buddy last week ? Cas : I learnt a lot of baby language. They

(English) sounds like words from the womb. When I speak English, I speak like a chicken. Speaking English is like crying like a baby…

I hate learning English ?.. When I speak English, I sound like a chicken.

Interviewer : Did you talk to your buddy next

to you? Cas : I am not interested in playing with a

‘chicken’.….It(English) sounds like a baby noise, crying like WEI WEI WEI(pretend to be like crying again.)

By referring to English as ‘baby language”, perhaps Cas appeared to be adopting a sense of superiority rather than inferiority as not being able to master the language. Cas’s use of derogatory adjectives might serve as his way of justifying why he was not learning ‘English’ well.

2. Not a fair deal Apart from this helpless feeling, the children queried the use of English as the common language of communication between people from different countries. They engaged in quite a lengthy discussion on that: Cas : Whichever country we go, we speak

language of that country. Bry : (feeling a bit annoyed) Hong Kong

always have to accommodate people from other countries.

Cala : (raising her hand high) I have a question, why do we Hong Kong people have to accommodate others and speak English?

Bry : When we visit them, I speak English to them. When they visit us, they have to speak Cantonese to us. They have to accommodate us, we don’t need to accommodate them.

Cas : If you have a shop, a foreigner comes in to buy things. He speaks English, you only speak Cantonese and nothing else. The result is “He will go away.”

Cas : So when we go to their school, they have to accommodate us back, right ?...They should speak Cantonese! Some of them are Chinese but they have an English voice!

Cola : I have a solution, we go to their school, we speak English to accommodate them. When they come to our school, they should speak Cantonese.

Interviewer : What about if your buddy doesn’t know Cantonese ?

Cala : (feeling unhappy, complained) I don’t know English either. Why do I have to speak then? It’s unfair why we need to speak English to accommodate them. Their service is too bad.

Cas : YES, I don’t like to speak English (Cas made this comment in English).

Bry : I don’t like to speak English. Bry : I DON’T LIKE ENGLISH (stress every

word in English.) Cala : Because English is too difficult.

Children used “they’ ‘them’ to refer to English speaking people and to their buddies interchangeably. Children expressed strongly their ambivalent feelings towards speaking English. On one hand, they realized the practical need of finding a common language to communicate with someone who does not speak their language, “a foreign customer will go away if he doesn’t understand you”. However, Cala protested against the ‘unfairness’ in always settling English as the common language. Bry echoed the protest by adding one more remark, “Hong Kong always have to accommodate people from other countries.” Knowing that some children from the international children are bilingual speakers, Cala found it ‘unfair’ “they speak Cantonese as well, so it’s unfair why we need to speak English to accommodate them?” These protest voices not only illustrated children’s awareness of the inequitable relations of power within the communication, it also hinted children’s conception of the link between cultural identity and language, ”each country speaks one language.’

To solve this perceived ‘injustice”, Cala applied the simple rule of reciprocity. This proposal of reciprocity fully reflects the self-centred perspective of five year old children. While not being able to comprehend why English is accorded

with such an important status, children felt happy about the rule and wished that their English counterparts could speak Cantonese and were made to learn Cantonese in a way that they were made to learn English.

3. An invisible voice to avoid contact and cope with frustration Ronny and Tigger and Billy were in another group. Both Ronny and Tigger had English tuition once every week after school. They both had a Filipino domestic helper at home. They experienced similar communication breakdown as that of Cala’s group.

Voices of protest were also made in this group. They were more directed to the absence of free- choice in attending the after-class English tuition: Interviewer : Do you like having another ten

days of interaction with your buddy ? Tigger : No thank you (In English)… I like,

I very like to play with “Chinese” people. I don’t know English(said in English)

Ronny : I’ll sneak away. I have tried to talk to them in English. But I don’t like. Don’t force me. I will speak when I feel like.

I speak Chinese to mom, English to the maid. I hate English because it is very annoying, troublesome, have to do this and learn that,

no time to play. No play, no free play. I need to learn long time before I can go home.

Tigger : I will speak English to no one. Even in class, I won’t speak English because it’s too, too difficult… I don’t feel like speaking

English. Because every time I have a nightmare, it’s because of my learning English. Now I don’t have nightmare because I don’t learn

English anymore. YEAH !(shouted in English). Interviewer : You have a nightmare of going

to learn English ? Tigger : NO. it’s after learning English that I

have nightmare.

The Hong Kong Institute of Education Library

For private study or research only. Not for publication or further reproduction.

56

Hong Kong Journal ofEarly Childhood香 港 幼 兒 學 報 Vol. 9 No. 2 December 2010

57

Hong Kong Journal ofEarly Childhood香 港 幼 兒 學 報 Vol. 9 No. 2 December 2010

The frustration and negative feeling that Ronny and Tigger had about tuition was then carried over and associated with any learning that is related to English. Somehow Ronny developed a very unique coping strategy to handle the situation.

Ronny : I don’t like speaking but I have to speak. If you don’t know English, you don’t need to talk to others. I play with my heart. I use my invisible voice to play with myself.

Interviewer : Is your invisible voice in English or Chinese ?

Ronny : Of course, Chinese. Ronny : I think the best is to have NO English

speaking people in the world. I feel angry at people who speak English to me .

(When I meet foreigners), I’ll step on him and kick him.

Tigger : Yes, I think that is the best. Ronny : Speaking English is very difficult,

disgusting, uncomfortable. Tigger : Not used to speaking English.

Ronny’s creation of an invisible Chinese voice can be viewed as a ‘silent’ protest against forcing him to engage in any English speaking activities. His unpleasant tuition generated a kind of angry feeling across the board. His use of conditionals “If you don’t know English, you don’t need to talk to others” expressed clearly his wish of not having learnt any English at all. The kind of violent fantasy Ronny made up is very similar to that of the boys made in Case one. They can be interpreted as ways to relieve the anxiety inside.

Striking messages embedded in the dissonant voices

The fact that these dissonant voices came from two groups of children and the intensity of their feelings did reveal several important messages for teachers and parents to take note of when preparing early English experiences for very young children.

1. Opportuni t ies for an authent ic interaction in English were not as many as first planned Norton’s (2000) remarked that natural language learning does not necessarily offer language learners to learn a second language in an open and stimulating environment. The communication difficulties and breakdown as expressed by the project children illustrated the diversity and complexity in the interaction context. Firstly, the very young age of the learner is an issue. The five year old English speaking children from international schools could barely be the fluent speakers of the target language and could barely prepare to negotiate meaning with their buddies in a supportive manner. It was often the case that children fell back to their own language or kept silent when communication broke down. Secondly, more and more local children who speak Cantonese as their native language go to study in the international schools in order to improve their English. Only one third of the project children from the international kindergartens are monolingual speakers of English. When the local children found out that their buddy could speak Cantonese, it was all natural for the local children to fall back to Cantonese as there was not any authentic need or urge for the buddies to communicate in English. Opportunities for an authentic interaction in English were not as many as first planned. Consequently, the natural exposure to the target language was weakened.

2. A d u l t / p e e r s u p p o r t n e e d e d i n naturalistic language learning context Ronny and Tigger were examples of the less proficient children who were stressed by the authentic interactional context. Their experience alerted teachers that support and scaffolding from adult is indispensable for less proficient children to start with. Adults’ support could come in the form of pre-teaching the basic communication language in class. Children equipped with the necessary

language to interact with the buddies might suffer from less frustration and anxiety. In addition, peer support could be beneficial. As suggested by Murphey(1998a cited in Dornyei, 2001) , students near peer role models were peers who were close to the learners’ social, professional and /or age level and whom for some reason they may respect or admire. So, arranging peers form different age groups say from the primary level could be a way to improve the partnership scheme in the future.

3. Unsatisfactory early exposure might kill the desire to learn The uninteres t ing af ter-c lass Engl ish tuition was just too ‘long’(Ronny) and was a ‘nightmare’(Tigger). ‘Violent” voices from Ronny and Tigger alerted parents that imposed need from adults created this very negative attitude which then killed the children’s interest and confidence to learn. This helpless orientation resulted in a kind of passivity in the immersion experience. Runny used his “invisible voice ‘to avoid the contact. The ‘negatvitiy’ towards the language so developed also made them prejudiced against everything that was related to English. Tigger’s statement “Don’t force me. I will speak when I feel like” was a clear sign of rejecting the language and a rebellion against being forced to learn English.

Motivational theories also suggested that the

intrinsic value of learning L2 has to be associated with learners’ interest in and anticipated enjoyment of the language learning activity. Hence, the message here for anxious parents was that the quality of exposure matters most. Parents should closely examine if the extra tuition they arrange provides good models, includes persuasive communication opportunities and involves children in powerful learning experiences. The extreme cases showed clearly to parents that once children’s initial motivation is killed , it can be hard to move on any further in engaging children in active learning, resulting in more loss than gain in the end.

Conclusion The paper brought forward the children’s voices as an additional source of information on children’s learning experiences. Teachers were alerted on the need to offer more scaffolding and support for less proficient learners who could then benefit more from an authentic interaction language. The voices also alarmed parents that sheer quantity of exposure as well as unsatisfactory early exposure to English can do more harm than good. The contextual change in the international kindergartens in Hong Kong made access to a 100% contact with English-speaking children harder. It presents challenges to local language teachers in soliciting the immersion experience as a language resources.

ReferencesCensus & Statistics Department. (2001). Thematic household survey report No. 5(pp.52-70). Hong Kong Special

Administration Region: Census and Statistics Department.Dornyei, D. (2001). Motivational strategies in the language classroom. Cambridge : CUP.Ellis, R. (2008). The Study of Second Language Acquisition. Oxford: O.U.P. Lantolf, J.P. (Eds). (2000). Sociocultural theory and second language acquisition. Oxford; New York: Oxford

University Press.Norton, B. (2000). Identity and language learning : gender, ethnicity and educational change. Singapore : Pearson

Education Limited.Tsui A.B.M. (2004). Medium of instruction in Hong Kong : One country, two systems, whose Language ? In J.W.

Tollefson, & A.B.M.Tsui (2004), Medium of Instruction Policies Which Agenda? Whose Agenda? (pp.71-116). Mahaw, NJ: LEA.

The Hong Kong Institute of Education Library

For private study or research only. Not for publication or further reproduction.

56

Hong Kong Journal ofEarly Childhood香 港 幼 兒 學 報 Vol. 9 No. 2 December 2010

57

Hong Kong Journal ofEarly Childhood香 港 幼 兒 學 報 Vol. 9 No. 2 December 2010

The frustration and negative feeling that Ronny and Tigger had about tuition was then carried over and associated with any learning that is related to English. Somehow Ronny developed a very unique coping strategy to handle the situation.

Ronny : I don’t like speaking but I have to speak. If you don’t know English, you don’t need to talk to others. I play with my heart. I use my invisible voice to play with myself.

Interviewer : Is your invisible voice in English or Chinese ?

Ronny : Of course, Chinese. Ronny : I think the best is to have NO English

speaking people in the world. I feel angry at people who speak English to me .

(When I meet foreigners), I’ll step on him and kick him.

Tigger : Yes, I think that is the best. Ronny : Speaking English is very difficult,

disgusting, uncomfortable. Tigger : Not used to speaking English.

Ronny’s creation of an invisible Chinese voice can be viewed as a ‘silent’ protest against forcing him to engage in any English speaking activities. His unpleasant tuition generated a kind of angry feeling across the board. His use of conditionals “If you don’t know English, you don’t need to talk to others” expressed clearly his wish of not having learnt any English at all. The kind of violent fantasy Ronny made up is very similar to that of the boys made in Case one. They can be interpreted as ways to relieve the anxiety inside.

Striking messages embedded in the dissonant voices

The fact that these dissonant voices came from two groups of children and the intensity of their feelings did reveal several important messages for teachers and parents to take note of when preparing early English experiences for very young children.

1. Opportuni t ies for an authent ic interaction in English were not as many as first planned Norton’s (2000) remarked that natural language learning does not necessarily offer language learners to learn a second language in an open and stimulating environment. The communication difficulties and breakdown as expressed by the project children illustrated the diversity and complexity in the interaction context. Firstly, the very young age of the learner is an issue. The five year old English speaking children from international schools could barely be the fluent speakers of the target language and could barely prepare to negotiate meaning with their buddies in a supportive manner. It was often the case that children fell back to their own language or kept silent when communication broke down. Secondly, more and more local children who speak Cantonese as their native language go to study in the international schools in order to improve their English. Only one third of the project children from the international kindergartens are monolingual speakers of English. When the local children found out that their buddy could speak Cantonese, it was all natural for the local children to fall back to Cantonese as there was not any authentic need or urge for the buddies to communicate in English. Opportunities for an authentic interaction in English were not as many as first planned. Consequently, the natural exposure to the target language was weakened.

2. A d u l t / p e e r s u p p o r t n e e d e d i n naturalistic language learning context Ronny and Tigger were examples of the less proficient children who were stressed by the authentic interactional context. Their experience alerted teachers that support and scaffolding from adult is indispensable for less proficient children to start with. Adults’ support could come in the form of pre-teaching the basic communication language in class. Children equipped with the necessary

language to interact with the buddies might suffer from less frustration and anxiety. In addition, peer support could be beneficial. As suggested by Murphey(1998a cited in Dornyei, 2001) , students near peer role models were peers who were close to the learners’ social, professional and /or age level and whom for some reason they may respect or admire. So, arranging peers form different age groups say from the primary level could be a way to improve the partnership scheme in the future.

3. Unsatisfactory early exposure might kill the desire to learn The uninteres t ing af ter-c lass Engl ish tuition was just too ‘long’(Ronny) and was a ‘nightmare’(Tigger). ‘Violent” voices from Ronny and Tigger alerted parents that imposed need from adults created this very negative attitude which then killed the children’s interest and confidence to learn. This helpless orientation resulted in a kind of passivity in the immersion experience. Runny used his “invisible voice ‘to avoid the contact. The ‘negatvitiy’ towards the language so developed also made them prejudiced against everything that was related to English. Tigger’s statement “Don’t force me. I will speak when I feel like” was a clear sign of rejecting the language and a rebellion against being forced to learn English.

Motivational theories also suggested that the

intrinsic value of learning L2 has to be associated with learners’ interest in and anticipated enjoyment of the language learning activity. Hence, the message here for anxious parents was that the quality of exposure matters most. Parents should closely examine if the extra tuition they arrange provides good models, includes persuasive communication opportunities and involves children in powerful learning experiences. The extreme cases showed clearly to parents that once children’s initial motivation is killed , it can be hard to move on any further in engaging children in active learning, resulting in more loss than gain in the end.

Conclusion The paper brought forward the children’s voices as an additional source of information on children’s learning experiences. Teachers were alerted on the need to offer more scaffolding and support for less proficient learners who could then benefit more from an authentic interaction language. The voices also alarmed parents that sheer quantity of exposure as well as unsatisfactory early exposure to English can do more harm than good. The contextual change in the international kindergartens in Hong Kong made access to a 100% contact with English-speaking children harder. It presents challenges to local language teachers in soliciting the immersion experience as a language resources.

ReferencesCensus & Statistics Department. (2001). Thematic household survey report No. 5(pp.52-70). Hong Kong Special

Administration Region: Census and Statistics Department.Dornyei, D. (2001). Motivational strategies in the language classroom. Cambridge : CUP.Ellis, R. (2008). The Study of Second Language Acquisition. Oxford: O.U.P. Lantolf, J.P. (Eds). (2000). Sociocultural theory and second language acquisition. Oxford; New York: Oxford

University Press.Norton, B. (2000). Identity and language learning : gender, ethnicity and educational change. Singapore : Pearson

Education Limited.Tsui A.B.M. (2004). Medium of instruction in Hong Kong : One country, two systems, whose Language ? In J.W.

Tollefson, & A.B.M.Tsui (2004), Medium of Instruction Policies Which Agenda? Whose Agenda? (pp.71-116). Mahaw, NJ: LEA.

The Hong Kong Institute of Education Library

For private study or research only. Not for publication or further reproduction.

58

Hong Kong Journal ofEarly Childhood香 港 幼 兒 學 報 Vol. 9 No. 2 December 2010

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Hong Kong Journal ofEarly Childhood香 港 幼 兒 學 報 Vol. 9 No. 2 December 2010

廣州市省一級幼兒園幼師運用信息技術的現狀研究Research on preschool teachers' ICT adoption in the first-

level kindergartens in Guangzhou

黃美賢廣州軍區空軍直屬機關幼稚園

胡馨允香港教育學院幼兒教育學系

摘要本研究對廣州中心城區13間一級幼兒園的251名幼師進行問卷調查及跟蹤訪談。研究目的在於了解幼師運用信息技術的技能和策略，及分析所面臨的挑戰。研究結果如下：1）信息技術產品已成為受調查幼兒園的常見設備，電腦和互聯網已普及；2） 幼師是信息技術使用的主導者，多為文件處理和播放多媒體，缺乏成功整合信息技術的策略；3）幼師具有基本電腦操作的技能，能完成日常文書、材料搜集、製作簡易簡報等需求，但在使用時卻仍感到信心不足；4）大部分幼師認同信息技術對教學、幼兒發展有正面的促進作用。

AbstractThis research conducted a questionnaire survey and follow-up interviews with 251 preschool teachers in 13 Category 1 kindergartens in the central district of Guangzhou. The objective of the research is to understand the ability and strategy of the use of ICT by preschool teachers and analyse the challenges that they face. The findings of the research are as follows: 1) ICT products have become common facilities in preschool, and computers and Internet are widely available; 2) preschool teachers play a key role in using ICT, mainly for document handling and multimedia applications; but there is a general lack of an ICT integration approach; 3) while preschool teachers possess the basic computer skills to handle word processing, collate teaching materials, prepare basic PowerPoint presentation, they still lack confidence in using these applications. 4) most preschool teachers recognise the positive value of ICT in promoting children development.

信息技術在幼兒園中的運用 信息技術（Information Communication Technology）在不同地區的文獻中也稱為資訊及通訊科技。其狹義定義多指電腦，而廣義定義則包括各種科技產品，例如網絡資源，多媒體素材，電腦相關產品，數碼產品等。隨著信息技術的普及，近十年的許多國家和地區的教育政策也開始關注信息技術與幼兒教育的結合。例如早在 1996 年全美幼兒教育協會（NAEYC）

發表「技術與 3-8 歲兒童」的立場報告，提出恰當的運用信息技術能促進幼兒的認知和社會性發展。新西蘭教育部於2005年通過「Foundations for Discovery」項目，來推動幼兒的信息技術能力與學習、提升幼兒幼師（以下簡稱幼師）運用信息技術於教學的能力和社區溝通合作

（Hantherly, Ham, & Evans, 2009）。

在中國內地，教育部從 2000 年起陸續提出

多項政策在中小學教育領域大力推動教育信息化。雖然幼兒園不是教育信息化發展的重點領域，但一些地方教育部門在評估幼兒園辦園條件時將信息技術配備列入考察，在一定程度上也促進和鼓勵信息技術在幼兒園的普及。如廣東省幼兒園等級評估方案（2000）中，按省一級標准配備「教玩具設備」的評估指標中提到「每班配置鋼琴、照相機、電腦」。在評級標準的指導下，信息技術設備已成為省一級幼兒園的必要配置。信息技術在幼兒園使用在城市尤為明顯。例如郭力平（2007）對上海市 120 間幼兒園應用信息技術的基本狀況進行調查中顯示，接近 98% 幼兒園已經配備電腦，打印機、數碼相機等也相當普及；90.9%已連通互聯網。

國外早在 20 年前便開始探討關於信息技術於學前教育的研究。大部分集中在討論「該不該」在學前階段使用信息技術，而這一爭辯逐漸被「如何適切性的使用信息技術」所代替

（Bolstad, 2004）。近年來，各種研究用於證明信息技術 能有效促進幼兒的學習動機和自主學習能力、在同伴學習中促進社會性發展等

（Haugland & Wright, 1997；Clements & Sarama, 2003; O'Hara, 2004; O'Rourke & Harrison, 2004; Yelland, 2007）。這些研究提供了正面的經驗，鼓勵幼師在教學中適切的運用信息技術。由於教育背景的差別，不同國家和地區的應用情況存在差異，筆者結合文獻總結三類使用信息技術的情形：

1. 信息技術作為教學工具：幼師利用信息技術作為傳遞信息的工具，用於獲取、呈示、傳播各種信息，例如使用微軟辦公室軟體來制作 PowerPoint 教學材料，播放教學內容（邱淑慧、莊孟珊，2004；Chen & Chang, 2006a ）。

2. 信息技術作為教學內容的一部分：幼師把認識信息技術作為教學內容的一部分。幼師引入電腦的基礎知識，讓幼兒在電腦室或者是班級活動室學習如何操作鼠標。如在電腦活動區，一對一地指導幼兒使用學習軟體或邀請幼兒合作使用學習軟體（Cuban, 2001；Chen &

Chang, 2006a）。 3. 信息技術與幼兒園課程的整合：在課程

中融入信息技術的元素，配合主題需要而運用不同類型的信息技術來幫助教學，也給予幼兒更多機會，通過多元化的信息技術來探索和自主學習（Siraj-Blatchford & Siraj-Blatchford, 2006；Hantherly, Ham, & Evans, 2009）。

眾多調查發現，幼師經常在處理日常文件、溝通交流時使用信息技術，即幼師沒有在教學過程中充分發揮信息技術應有的作用，並將之有效融入課程（Cuban, 2001; Chen & Chang, 2006a; Siraj-Blatchford & Siraj-Blatchford, 2006）。如 Yelland（2007）指出，信息技術應有潛力為教與學帶來新的內容，課程和方式，但是在許多個案中信息技術的使用僅僅是傳統教學方式的補充，例如用信息產品替代傳統「呈示」，「傳遞」教學內容的方法，並未充分顯示技術給「教與學」帶來明顯的變革。雖然硬件環境不斷優化，但幼師並未為信息技術有效融入課程做好充分准備。如 Wang & Hoot（2003）曾提到幼師感到信息技術對其權威地位，以及教師為中心的傳統教學方式造成威脅。另外幼師對信息技術整合於課程的內涵和意義缺少了解，也缺乏時間和途徑來學習如何在活動中有效利用信息技術（Han, 2003）。為幫助幼師將信息技術融入課程，需要綜合提升信息技術的知識和技能、更新教學法和教學內容等（Cuban, 2001; Powlman, Stepen, & McPake, 2010; 張晶、俞芳，2010）。

研究目的 國內大多數研究關注中小學階段運用信息技術的情況，而缺乏對幼師使用信息技術的調查研究。為更清晰了解目前幼師運用信息技術的具體情形，本研究調查將集中在廣州市的省一級幼兒園的教師。研究目的在於了解幼師在幼兒園環境中運用信息技術的情形，包括探究運用信息技術的技能和策略，以及在實際使用過程中面臨的機遇與挑戰，為今後的研究和師資培訓提供參考。

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Hong Kong Journal ofEarly Childhood香 港 幼 兒 學 報 Vol. 9 No. 2 December 2010

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Hong Kong Journal ofEarly Childhood香 港 幼 兒 學 報 Vol. 9 No. 2 December 2010

廣州市省一級幼兒園幼師運用信息技術的現狀研究Research on preschool teachers' ICT adoption in the first-

level kindergartens in Guangzhou

黃美賢廣州軍區空軍直屬機關幼稚園

胡馨允香港教育學院幼兒教育學系

摘要本研究對廣州中心城區13間一級幼兒園的251名幼師進行問卷調查及跟蹤訪談。研究目的在於了解幼師運用信息技術的技能和策略，及分析所面臨的挑戰。研究結果如下：1）信息技術產品已成為受調查幼兒園的常見設備，電腦和互聯網已普及；2） 幼師是信息技術使用的主導者，多為文件處理和播放多媒體，缺乏成功整合信息技術的策略；3）幼師具有基本電腦操作的技能，能完成日常文書、材料搜集、製作簡易簡報等需求，但在使用時卻仍感到信心不足；4）大部分幼師認同信息技術對教學、幼兒發展有正面的促進作用。

AbstractThis research conducted a questionnaire survey and follow-up interviews with 251 preschool teachers in 13 Category 1 kindergartens in the central district of Guangzhou. The objective of the research is to understand the ability and strategy of the use of ICT by preschool teachers and analyse the challenges that they face. The findings of the research are as follows: 1) ICT products have become common facilities in preschool, and computers and Internet are widely available; 2) preschool teachers play a key role in using ICT, mainly for document handling and multimedia applications; but there is a general lack of an ICT integration approach; 3) while preschool teachers possess the basic computer skills to handle word processing, collate teaching materials, prepare basic PowerPoint presentation, they still lack confidence in using these applications. 4) most preschool teachers recognise the positive value of ICT in promoting children development.

信息技術在幼兒園中的運用 信息技術（Information Communication Technology）在不同地區的文獻中也稱為資訊及通訊科技。其狹義定義多指電腦，而廣義定義則包括各種科技產品，例如網絡資源，多媒體素材，電腦相關產品，數碼產品等。隨著信息技術的普及，近十年的許多國家和地區的教育政策也開始關注信息技術與幼兒教育的結合。例如早在 1996 年全美幼兒教育協會（NAEYC）

發表「技術與 3-8 歲兒童」的立場報告，提出恰當的運用信息技術能促進幼兒的認知和社會性發展。新西蘭教育部於2005年通過「Foundations for Discovery」項目，來推動幼兒的信息技術能力與學習、提升幼兒幼師（以下簡稱幼師）運用信息技術於教學的能力和社區溝通合作

（Hantherly, Ham, & Evans, 2009）。

在中國內地，教育部從 2000 年起陸續提出

多項政策在中小學教育領域大力推動教育信息化。雖然幼兒園不是教育信息化發展的重點領域，但一些地方教育部門在評估幼兒園辦園條件時將信息技術配備列入考察，在一定程度上也促進和鼓勵信息技術在幼兒園的普及。如廣東省幼兒園等級評估方案（2000）中，按省一級標准配備「教玩具設備」的評估指標中提到「每班配置鋼琴、照相機、電腦」。在評級標準的指導下，信息技術設備已成為省一級幼兒園的必要配置。信息技術在幼兒園使用在城市尤為明顯。例如郭力平（2007）對上海市 120 間幼兒園應用信息技術的基本狀況進行調查中顯示，接近 98% 幼兒園已經配備電腦，打印機、數碼相機等也相當普及；90.9%已連通互聯網。

國外早在 20 年前便開始探討關於信息技術於學前教育的研究。大部分集中在討論「該不該」在學前階段使用信息技術，而這一爭辯逐漸被「如何適切性的使用信息技術」所代替

（Bolstad, 2004）。近年來，各種研究用於證明信息技術 能有效促進幼兒的學習動機和自主學習能力、在同伴學習中促進社會性發展等

（Haugland & Wright, 1997；Clements & Sarama, 2003; O'Hara, 2004; O'Rourke & Harrison, 2004; Yelland, 2007）。這些研究提供了正面的經驗，鼓勵幼師在教學中適切的運用信息技術。由於教育背景的差別，不同國家和地區的應用情況存在差異，筆者結合文獻總結三類使用信息技術的情形：

1. 信息技術作為教學工具：幼師利用信息技術作為傳遞信息的工具，用於獲取、呈示、傳播各種信息，例如使用微軟辦公室軟體來制作 PowerPoint 教學材料，播放教學內容（邱淑慧、莊孟珊，2004；Chen & Chang, 2006a ）。

2. 信息技術作為教學內容的一部分：幼師把認識信息技術作為教學內容的一部分。幼師引入電腦的基礎知識，讓幼兒在電腦室或者是班級活動室學習如何操作鼠標。如在電腦活動區，一對一地指導幼兒使用學習軟體或邀請幼兒合作使用學習軟體（Cuban, 2001；Chen &

Chang, 2006a）。 3. 信息技術與幼兒園課程的整合：在課程

中融入信息技術的元素，配合主題需要而運用不同類型的信息技術來幫助教學，也給予幼兒更多機會，通過多元化的信息技術來探索和自主學習（Siraj-Blatchford & Siraj-Blatchford, 2006；Hantherly, Ham, & Evans, 2009）。

眾多調查發現，幼師經常在處理日常文件、溝通交流時使用信息技術，即幼師沒有在教學過程中充分發揮信息技術應有的作用，並將之有效融入課程（Cuban, 2001; Chen & Chang, 2006a; Siraj-Blatchford & Siraj-Blatchford, 2006）。如 Yelland（2007）指出，信息技術應有潛力為教與學帶來新的內容，課程和方式，但是在許多個案中信息技術的使用僅僅是傳統教學方式的補充，例如用信息產品替代傳統「呈示」，「傳遞」教學內容的方法，並未充分顯示技術給「教與學」帶來明顯的變革。雖然硬件環境不斷優化，但幼師並未為信息技術有效融入課程做好充分准備。如 Wang & Hoot（2003）曾提到幼師感到信息技術對其權威地位，以及教師為中心的傳統教學方式造成威脅。另外幼師對信息技術整合於課程的內涵和意義缺少了解，也缺乏時間和途徑來學習如何在活動中有效利用信息技術（Han, 2003）。為幫助幼師將信息技術融入課程，需要綜合提升信息技術的知識和技能、更新教學法和教學內容等（Cuban, 2001; Powlman, Stepen, & McPake, 2010; 張晶、俞芳，2010）。

研究目的 國內大多數研究關注中小學階段運用信息技術的情況，而缺乏對幼師使用信息技術的調查研究。為更清晰了解目前幼師運用信息技術的具體情形，本研究調查將集中在廣州市的省一級幼兒園的教師。研究目的在於了解幼師在幼兒園環境中運用信息技術的情形，包括探究運用信息技術的技能和策略，以及在實際使用過程中面臨的機遇與挑戰，為今後的研究和師資培訓提供參考。

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Hong Kong Journal ofEarly Childhood香 港 幼 兒 學 報 Vol. 9 No. 2 December 2010

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Hong Kong Journal ofEarly Childhood香 港 幼 兒 學 報 Vol. 9 No. 2 December 2010

研究方法（一）研究方法

本研究採用問卷調查法，以跟踪訪談作為輔助。問卷設計以封閉式問題為主，由三部分68道題目組成。問卷設計參考「Survey of Factors Influencing Teachers Use of Computers」（Piper, 2000）、「Computer Technology Survey」（Chen & Chang, 2006b）和 「幼教人員之電腦整合教學信念問卷」（邱淑惠、莊孟珊，2004）。首先征詢其他研究者及部分幼師對問卷形式和內容的意見後，結合國內幼兒教育具體情形對問卷進行修訂而成。然後進行先導測試，根據填答情況對問卷的用詞方面作修改。問卷包括三部分內容：1. 幼兒園活動室信息技術資源情況；2. 幼師的電腦操作技能及其運用信息技術的策略；3.幼師對運用信息技術的看法。隨後，與三位幼師進行半結構式的跟蹤訪談，主要針對三個方面內容：幼師在日常教學中運用信息技術的具體技能和策略；幼師對在教學中運用信息技術的看法；幼師對幼兒運用信息技術的看法。

（二）研究對象 研究者首先對廣州市區各層級幼兒園的信息技術環境情況進行電話訪問。結果初步發現廣州市不同層級的幼兒園配備信息技術設備差別較大。在活動室內配備各種信息技術產品（主要是電腦和電視機等）絕大部分為廣東省省一級標准的幼兒園（注：根據《廣東省幼兒園等級評估管理辦法（試行）》（粵教督，2000），接受評

估的幼稚園劃分為三級，省一級為評級中的最高級別。又參考「廣東省幼兒園評估方案」的評估指標，省一級幼兒園的每間活動室都必須配備電腦。）因此本研究採用目的抽樣法，抽取廣州市四個中心城區（包括天河區、越秀區、荔灣區、海珠區）的廣東省一級幼兒園的幼師為主要調查對象，希望能夠更集中關注此部份幼兒園教師運用信息技術的情形。所抽取的樣本來自四個區13所省一級幼兒園的251位幼師。

（三）研究過程 2007 年 11 月至 2008 年 3 月間進行問卷調查，研究者向 13 所省一級幼兒園派發問卷 349份，回收 288 份，最終有效問卷為 251 份，有效率為 87.1%。運用社會學習統計套裝軟體

（SPSS）對問卷進行數據處理和統計分析。2008年4月，研究者對一間幼兒園的三位女教師在觀課後各進行一次大約 45 分鐘的訪談，經同意，訪談資料經錄音後進行整理分析。

研究結果與分析（一）幼兒園活動室信息技術資源

此部分問卷主要了解活動室的信息技術設備。結果顯示，電腦、電視幾、錄音機、數碼相機和影碟機為五種最主要的硬件設備（詳見圖1），其中，電腦的佔有率高達 98.4%，而打印機、投影儀、實物投影儀等佔有率僅在 23% 或以下。

圖1：五種最主要的硬件設備（n=251）

表2：幼師電腦軟體操作情況（n=251）

100% 98.4%95.6% 90%

71.1% 70.5%80%

60%

40%

20%

0%

錄音機

電視機

影碟機

電腦

數碼相機

（二）幼師的電腦操作技能 幼師在教學中運用信息技術時，電腦操作技能是必須考慮的因素之一。問卷調查中幼師對軟體操作技能進行自評。結果顯示（詳見表2），幼師除了在編寫文書、發送郵件和瀏覽網頁上得分較高，表示操作熟練；在簡報制作、視頻播放、圖片編輯和表格處理上得分居中，只懂基本操作；其他軟體操作得分都較低，表示不能獨立操作。從整體分析，幼師對電腦有基本的操作能力，能完成日常文書、材料搜集

和編輯、製作簡易簡報等教學工作需求。但在解決操作系統問題，製作教學材料製作方面仍有困難。在跟蹤訪談中，受訪幼師 A 表示：「經常需要使用電腦編寫教案、從互聯網搜集現成的教學素材，如動畫、互動課件等」，所以對文書軟體和網頁瀏覽軟體的操作更為熟悉。「偶爾能從網絡上找到符合教學需求的圖片和動畫，也會用這些素材製作簡單的簡報來輔助教學」，因此幼師懂得基本的簡報製作、圖片編輯和視頻播放。

題項 平均分 標準差使用文字處理軟體 4.21 0.788使用電子郵件軟體 4.11 0.926使用網頁瀏覽軟體 4.12 0.965使用簡報製作軟體 3.70 0.996使用多媒體播放軟體 3.69 1.146使用表格處理軟體 3.40 0.860使用圖片編輯軟體 3.01 1.109使用網頁製作軟體 2.60 1.013使用教學材料製作軟體 2.58 1.124解決操作系統軟體問題 2.36 1.153處理硬件故障 1.85 0.987

注：評分範圍：1至5分（「不懂操作」評為1分，「只懂一點，經常需要幫助」評為2分，「懂得基本操作，偶爾需要幫助」評為3分，「操作熟練，基本不需要幫助」評為4分，「運用自如」評為5分）

（三）幼師運用信息技術的策略 從問卷結果中看到幼師使用信息技術的策略有所不同，以下從三方面進行分析（見圖 2）：

除硬件以外，軟體環境的配備也值得關注。統計結果顯示 79.3% 幼師所在的幼兒園設有電子資源庫，可共享圖片、影片以及其他教

學素材。互聯網普及率也相當高，96.8% 可使用互聯網。

圖2：幼師運用信息技術的策略

在教學準備的文書工作及材料蒐集（以下簡稱「文書及材料蒐集」），信息技術運用於教學過程以及評價與反饋。

文書及材料蒐集文件處理

搜集教學材料編制教學材料

運用信息技術的策略教學過程幼師呈現教學材料

幼師運用教學輔助軟體幼兒自主操作

評價與反饋記錄教學活動

整理、編輯和存儲資料使用網絡進行溝通

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Hong Kong Journal ofEarly Childhood香 港 幼 兒 學 報 Vol. 9 No. 2 December 2010

研究方法（一）研究方法

本研究採用問卷調查法，以跟踪訪談作為輔助。問卷設計以封閉式問題為主，由三部分68道題目組成。問卷設計參考「Survey of Factors Influencing Teachers Use of Computers」（Piper, 2000）、「Computer Technology Survey」（Chen & Chang, 2006b）和 「幼教人員之電腦整合教學信念問卷」（邱淑惠、莊孟珊，2004）。首先征詢其他研究者及部分幼師對問卷形式和內容的意見後，結合國內幼兒教育具體情形對問卷進行修訂而成。然後進行先導測試，根據填答情況對問卷的用詞方面作修改。問卷包括三部分內容：1. 幼兒園活動室信息技術資源情況；2. 幼師的電腦操作技能及其運用信息技術的策略；3.幼師對運用信息技術的看法。隨後，與三位幼師進行半結構式的跟蹤訪談，主要針對三個方面內容：幼師在日常教學中運用信息技術的具體技能和策略；幼師對在教學中運用信息技術的看法；幼師對幼兒運用信息技術的看法。

（二）研究對象 研究者首先對廣州市區各層級幼兒園的信息技術環境情況進行電話訪問。結果初步發現廣州市不同層級的幼兒園配備信息技術設備差別較大。在活動室內配備各種信息技術產品（主要是電腦和電視機等）絕大部分為廣東省省一級標准的幼兒園（注：根據《廣東省幼兒園等級評估管理辦法（試行）》（粵教督，2000），接受評

估的幼稚園劃分為三級，省一級為評級中的最高級別。又參考「廣東省幼兒園評估方案」的評估指標，省一級幼兒園的每間活動室都必須配備電腦。）因此本研究採用目的抽樣法，抽取廣州市四個中心城區（包括天河區、越秀區、荔灣區、海珠區）的廣東省一級幼兒園的幼師為主要調查對象，希望能夠更集中關注此部份幼兒園教師運用信息技術的情形。所抽取的樣本來自四個區13所省一級幼兒園的251位幼師。

（三）研究過程 2007 年 11 月至 2008 年 3 月間進行問卷調查，研究者向 13 所省一級幼兒園派發問卷 349份，回收 288 份，最終有效問卷為 251 份，有效率為 87.1%。運用社會學習統計套裝軟體

（SPSS）對問卷進行數據處理和統計分析。2008年4月，研究者對一間幼兒園的三位女教師在觀課後各進行一次大約 45 分鐘的訪談，經同意，訪談資料經錄音後進行整理分析。

研究結果與分析（一）幼兒園活動室信息技術資源

此部分問卷主要了解活動室的信息技術設備。結果顯示，電腦、電視幾、錄音機、數碼相機和影碟機為五種最主要的硬件設備（詳見圖1），其中，電腦的佔有率高達 98.4%，而打印機、投影儀、實物投影儀等佔有率僅在 23% 或以下。

圖1：五種最主要的硬件設備（n=251）

表2：幼師電腦軟體操作情況（n=251）

100% 98.4%95.6% 90%

71.1% 70.5%80%

60%

40%

20%

0%

錄音機

電視機

影碟機

電腦

數碼相機

（二）幼師的電腦操作技能 幼師在教學中運用信息技術時，電腦操作技能是必須考慮的因素之一。問卷調查中幼師對軟體操作技能進行自評。結果顯示（詳見表2），幼師除了在編寫文書、發送郵件和瀏覽網頁上得分較高，表示操作熟練；在簡報制作、視頻播放、圖片編輯和表格處理上得分居中，只懂基本操作；其他軟體操作得分都較低，表示不能獨立操作。從整體分析，幼師對電腦有基本的操作能力，能完成日常文書、材料搜集

和編輯、製作簡易簡報等教學工作需求。但在解決操作系統問題，製作教學材料製作方面仍有困難。在跟蹤訪談中，受訪幼師 A 表示：「經常需要使用電腦編寫教案、從互聯網搜集現成的教學素材，如動畫、互動課件等」，所以對文書軟體和網頁瀏覽軟體的操作更為熟悉。「偶爾能從網絡上找到符合教學需求的圖片和動畫，也會用這些素材製作簡單的簡報來輔助教學」，因此幼師懂得基本的簡報製作、圖片編輯和視頻播放。

題項 平均分 標準差使用文字處理軟體 4.21 0.788使用電子郵件軟體 4.11 0.926使用網頁瀏覽軟體 4.12 0.965使用簡報製作軟體 3.70 0.996使用多媒體播放軟體 3.69 1.146使用表格處理軟體 3.40 0.860使用圖片編輯軟體 3.01 1.109使用網頁製作軟體 2.60 1.013使用教學材料製作軟體 2.58 1.124解決操作系統軟體問題 2.36 1.153處理硬件故障 1.85 0.987

注：評分範圍：1至5分（「不懂操作」評為1分，「只懂一點，經常需要幫助」評為2分，「懂得基本操作，偶爾需要幫助」評為3分，「操作熟練，基本不需要幫助」評為4分，「運用自如」評為5分）

（三）幼師運用信息技術的策略 從問卷結果中看到幼師使用信息技術的策略有所不同，以下從三方面進行分析（見圖 2）：

除硬件以外，軟體環境的配備也值得關注。統計結果顯示 79.3% 幼師所在的幼兒園設有電子資源庫，可共享圖片、影片以及其他教

學素材。互聯網普及率也相當高，96.8% 可使用互聯網。

圖2：幼師運用信息技術的策略

在教學準備的文書工作及材料蒐集（以下簡稱「文書及材料蒐集」），信息技術運用於教學過程以及評價與反饋。

文書及材料蒐集文件處理

搜集教學材料編制教學材料

運用信息技術的策略教學過程幼師呈現教學材料

幼師運用教學輔助軟體幼兒自主操作

評價與反饋記錄教學活動

整理、編輯和存儲資料使用網絡進行溝通

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Hong Kong Journal ofEarly Childhood香 港 幼 兒 學 報 Vol. 9 No. 2 December 2010

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Hong Kong Journal ofEarly Childhood香 港 幼 兒 學 報 Vol. 9 No. 2 December 2010

在「文書及材料蒐集」方面，96.8% 幼師經常用電腦完成各種文書工作，75% 幼師經常從網絡或資源庫上搜集教學材料；分別有 47.7%和 52.2% 幼師經常使用微軟辦公軟體製作教學材料和製作環境佈置材料；只有 23.5% 幼師經常運用繪圖軟體；僅有 10.8% 經常利用編程軟體開發交互式教學材料的幼師。由此可見，電腦文書處理和材料搜集是幼師使用電腦的主要用途。

在「教學過程」中，約 50% 幼師經常把電腦作為教學工具，如呈現教學材料、運用教學輔助軟體進行教學等。超過 30% 幼師經常開展以幼兒操作為主的電腦活動，協助幼兒利用電腦軟體進行學習。同時，將電腦作為教學內容或主題的幼師也佔 35.1%。雖然電腦既可作為教師教學的工具，又可作為幼兒學習的工具或學習對象，但從使用頻率看，經常在教學互動中使用電腦的幼師所佔的比例不高，電腦作為教學工具仍是主要的使用方式。

在「評價與反饋」中，87.6% 幼師經常運用數碼相機、攝像機記錄下幼兒的學習和發展情況，78% 幼師利用電腦整理、編輯和存儲學習記錄，製成電子檔案，作為評估幼兒發展的材料。超過 60% 幼師經常利用幼兒園的網頁或各種網絡通訊工具向家長反饋幼兒在園情況，增進彼此溝通。廣州幼師在評價與反饋中運用信息技術的頻率明顯高於受 的臺灣和美國幼師。在臺灣，僅 21% 和 14% 幼師利用電腦與家長溝通、以數位方式收藏幼兒作品（邱淑惠、莊孟珊，2004）；美國的調查顯示，僅 23% 幼師利用電腦制作幼兒學習報告（Chen & Chang, 2006b）。

問卷調查清晰看到，電腦在幼兒園課室的普及率較高，但許多幼師都把信息技術作為辦公工具和教學工具，但僅有小部分幼師嘗試把信息技術與課程相整合，如在教學活動中運用軟體。 與美國、臺灣相關研究的結果相似，幼師運用電腦的最主要用途是教學准備。儘管信息技術提高了幼師的文件處理效率，豐富了教學工具和教學內容，同時也提升了呈示教學內容方法，而且幼 有時在電腦活動角和電腦活動

室指 幼儿操作一些知識性的軟體遊戲，但是，以幼師為中心的傳統教學模式依然清晰可見，幼師是使用信息技術的主導者。幼兒較為被動地接受幼師提供的多媒體內容，也較少運用信息技術進行與課程相關的探索和延展已有知識，多為操作操練性的教學軟體。

（四）幼師對運用信息技術的看法 幼師對運用信息技術的看法直接影響她們的使用意願。統計結果顯示，九成以上幼師認為電腦對教學有積極作用，表現為：方便教學

（佔 95.6%）、豐富教學手段和教學內容（分別佔94.4% 和 93.2%）。同時，六成以上幼師認為電腦對幼兒的學習和發展有促進作用，如電腦給幼兒的學習帶來樂趣（佔 91.8%）和吸引幼兒注意力和興趣（佔 89.2%）；電腦對幼兒的智力發展（佔 73.7%）、合作能力與溝通能力的培養（佔60.5%）、創造力發展（佔 71.7%）有積極意義。大部分幼師認同信息技術對教學和幼兒發展的促進作用。另外，73.1% 幼師表示對在教學中運用電腦有信心。但分別有41.2%和59.2%幼師表示，教授幼兒和其他教師使用電腦時，感到信心不足。該結果與Chen and Chang（2006a）的研究結果相近，大約五成美國幼師認為自己能教授幼兒使用電腦，僅三成半的幼師認為自己能自如地教同事或家長使用電腦。

另一方面，在跟蹤訪談中，受訪幼師 B 認為「喜歡運用信息技術，信息技術對教學最大的幫助是幼兒對電腦播放的內容非常感興趣，很容易能吸引幼兒的注意力和學習興趣」。然而，除了幼兒的興趣外，實際教學工作的諸多因素，如幼師的電腦操作技能、時間、課程安排等都會影響她們運用的信心。一位剛入職的幼師 C 認同信息技術對教學的促進作用，但她

「只會文檔處理和製作簡單的簡報，常常借用其他老師製作的教學材料。想自己做，但又擔心學不會」。另外，一位受訪幼師坦言：「雖然自己的電腦操作技能比較熟練，但製作一個符合教學需要的資源需花費較多時間，通常在公開活動（幼兒園內部教師或來訪者觀摩教學）時才製作，不會經常使用。」。還有，幼師最擔心是設備突然發生故障，「曾經在一次公開活動中，

電腦突然罷工了，完全打亂了我原先的教學計畫，把我急死了」。幼師在運用信息技術時面臨著技能、時間、信息技術環境等多方面的挑戰。這些挑戰在一定程度上讓幼師對運用信息技術產生疑慮，影響運用的信心。

研究啟示 幼師決定幼兒能否使用信息技術，以及如何使用信息技術的方法。因此，提升幼師在教學中融入信息技術的綜合能力尤為重要。從問卷和訪談結果看到，目前大多數參與調查的幼師對信息技術的認識僅停留在吸引幼兒注意力和傳統教學工具的延伸。這一現狀反映幼師對信息技術的理解比較單一，缺乏有關信息技術與課程整合的系統知識。從另一方面也顯示，當前，雖然硬件和軟體有所提升，但是

仍然未有足夠的培訓和支援來支持信息技術融入教學。很多幼師感到未有充分準備（Wang & Hoot，2006），除使用技能方面，尤其欠缺在教學法方面的整合。結合Mishra & Koehler（2006）提出的知識框架而得到啟示，幼師運用信息技術於教學需具備的「技術─教學法─內容」知識的整合（Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge，簡稱 TPACK）（見圖 3）。這一架構引導幼師培訓的重點不僅僅需要關注幼師的技術知識（TK），而且還需進一步支持信息技術與教學的結合（TPK），即教學策略的提升，以及提升對技術內容知識（TCK）方面的擴充，最終可培養幼師綜合使用信息技術的知識，即TPACK，為信息技術在課程中的整合提供必要的準備和支持。

圖3：技術─教學法─內容知識的整合（Mishra & Koehler, 2006）

本研究能作為一個初探，希望能夠為今後的師資培訓以及幼兒園整合信息技術提供更多的參考。隨著技術的不斷普及，今後的研究也

將擴大受調查的範圍，不僅限於廣東省一級幼兒園，將更全面關注不同類型和地區的幼兒園運用信息技術的情形。

技術─教育─內容知識（TPACK）

技術教學知識（TPK）

技術內容知識（TCK）

技術內容知識（PCK）

技術知識（TK）

教學知識（PK）

內容知識（CK）

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Hong Kong Journal ofEarly Childhood香 港 幼 兒 學 報 Vol. 9 No. 2 December 2010

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Hong Kong Journal ofEarly Childhood香 港 幼 兒 學 報 Vol. 9 No. 2 December 2010

在「文書及材料蒐集」方面，96.8% 幼師經常用電腦完成各種文書工作，75% 幼師經常從網絡或資源庫上搜集教學材料；分別有 47.7%和 52.2% 幼師經常使用微軟辦公軟體製作教學材料和製作環境佈置材料；只有 23.5% 幼師經常運用繪圖軟體；僅有 10.8% 經常利用編程軟體開發交互式教學材料的幼師。由此可見，電腦文書處理和材料搜集是幼師使用電腦的主要用途。

在「教學過程」中，約 50% 幼師經常把電腦作為教學工具，如呈現教學材料、運用教學輔助軟體進行教學等。超過 30% 幼師經常開展以幼兒操作為主的電腦活動，協助幼兒利用電腦軟體進行學習。同時，將電腦作為教學內容或主題的幼師也佔 35.1%。雖然電腦既可作為教師教學的工具，又可作為幼兒學習的工具或學習對象，但從使用頻率看，經常在教學互動中使用電腦的幼師所佔的比例不高，電腦作為教學工具仍是主要的使用方式。

在「評價與反饋」中，87.6% 幼師經常運用數碼相機、攝像機記錄下幼兒的學習和發展情況，78% 幼師利用電腦整理、編輯和存儲學習記錄，製成電子檔案，作為評估幼兒發展的材料。超過 60% 幼師經常利用幼兒園的網頁或各種網絡通訊工具向家長反饋幼兒在園情況，增進彼此溝通。廣州幼師在評價與反饋中運用信息技術的頻率明顯高於受 的臺灣和美國幼師。在臺灣，僅 21% 和 14% 幼師利用電腦與家長溝通、以數位方式收藏幼兒作品（邱淑惠、莊孟珊，2004）；美國的調查顯示，僅 23% 幼師利用電腦制作幼兒學習報告（Chen & Chang, 2006b）。

問卷調查清晰看到，電腦在幼兒園課室的普及率較高，但許多幼師都把信息技術作為辦公工具和教學工具，但僅有小部分幼師嘗試把信息技術與課程相整合，如在教學活動中運用軟體。 與美國、臺灣相關研究的結果相似，幼師運用電腦的最主要用途是教學准備。儘管信息技術提高了幼師的文件處理效率，豐富了教學工具和教學內容，同時也提升了呈示教學內容方法，而且幼 有時在電腦活動角和電腦活動

室指 幼儿操作一些知識性的軟體遊戲，但是，以幼師為中心的傳統教學模式依然清晰可見，幼師是使用信息技術的主導者。幼兒較為被動地接受幼師提供的多媒體內容，也較少運用信息技術進行與課程相關的探索和延展已有知識，多為操作操練性的教學軟體。

（四）幼師對運用信息技術的看法 幼師對運用信息技術的看法直接影響她們的使用意願。統計結果顯示，九成以上幼師認為電腦對教學有積極作用，表現為：方便教學

（佔 95.6%）、豐富教學手段和教學內容（分別佔94.4% 和 93.2%）。同時，六成以上幼師認為電腦對幼兒的學習和發展有促進作用，如電腦給幼兒的學習帶來樂趣（佔 91.8%）和吸引幼兒注意力和興趣（佔 89.2%）；電腦對幼兒的智力發展（佔 73.7%）、合作能力與溝通能力的培養（佔60.5%）、創造力發展（佔 71.7%）有積極意義。大部分幼師認同信息技術對教學和幼兒發展的促進作用。另外，73.1% 幼師表示對在教學中運用電腦有信心。但分別有41.2%和59.2%幼師表示，教授幼兒和其他教師使用電腦時，感到信心不足。該結果與Chen and Chang（2006a）的研究結果相近，大約五成美國幼師認為自己能教授幼兒使用電腦，僅三成半的幼師認為自己能自如地教同事或家長使用電腦。

另一方面，在跟蹤訪談中，受訪幼師 B 認為「喜歡運用信息技術，信息技術對教學最大的幫助是幼兒對電腦播放的內容非常感興趣，很容易能吸引幼兒的注意力和學習興趣」。然而，除了幼兒的興趣外，實際教學工作的諸多因素，如幼師的電腦操作技能、時間、課程安排等都會影響她們運用的信心。一位剛入職的幼師 C 認同信息技術對教學的促進作用，但她

「只會文檔處理和製作簡單的簡報，常常借用其他老師製作的教學材料。想自己做，但又擔心學不會」。另外，一位受訪幼師坦言：「雖然自己的電腦操作技能比較熟練，但製作一個符合教學需要的資源需花費較多時間，通常在公開活動（幼兒園內部教師或來訪者觀摩教學）時才製作，不會經常使用。」。還有，幼師最擔心是設備突然發生故障，「曾經在一次公開活動中，

電腦突然罷工了，完全打亂了我原先的教學計畫，把我急死了」。幼師在運用信息技術時面臨著技能、時間、信息技術環境等多方面的挑戰。這些挑戰在一定程度上讓幼師對運用信息技術產生疑慮，影響運用的信心。

研究啟示 幼師決定幼兒能否使用信息技術，以及如何使用信息技術的方法。因此，提升幼師在教學中融入信息技術的綜合能力尤為重要。從問卷和訪談結果看到，目前大多數參與調查的幼師對信息技術的認識僅停留在吸引幼兒注意力和傳統教學工具的延伸。這一現狀反映幼師對信息技術的理解比較單一，缺乏有關信息技術與課程整合的系統知識。從另一方面也顯示，當前，雖然硬件和軟體有所提升，但是

仍然未有足夠的培訓和支援來支持信息技術融入教學。很多幼師感到未有充分準備（Wang & Hoot，2006），除使用技能方面，尤其欠缺在教學法方面的整合。結合Mishra & Koehler（2006）提出的知識框架而得到啟示，幼師運用信息技術於教學需具備的「技術─教學法─內容」知識的整合（Technological Pedagogical Content Knowledge，簡稱 TPACK）（見圖 3）。這一架構引導幼師培訓的重點不僅僅需要關注幼師的技術知識（TK），而且還需進一步支持信息技術與教學的結合（TPK），即教學策略的提升，以及提升對技術內容知識（TCK）方面的擴充，最終可培養幼師綜合使用信息技術的知識，即TPACK，為信息技術在課程中的整合提供必要的準備和支持。

圖3：技術─教學法─內容知識的整合（Mishra & Koehler, 2006）

本研究能作為一個初探，希望能夠為今後的師資培訓以及幼兒園整合信息技術提供更多的參考。隨著技術的不斷普及，今後的研究也

將擴大受調查的範圍，不僅限於廣東省一級幼兒園，將更全面關注不同類型和地區的幼兒園運用信息技術的情形。

技術─教育─內容知識（TPACK）

技術教學知識（TPK）

技術內容知識（TCK）

技術內容知識（PCK）

技術知識（TK）

教學知識（PK）

內容知識（CK）

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Hong Kong Journal ofEarly Childhood香 港 幼 兒 學 報 Vol. 9 No. 2 December 2010

參考資料郭力平（2007）。信息技術與早期教育。上海：華東師範大學。廣東省人民政府教育督導室（2000）。廣東省幼稚園等級評估管理辦法（試行） 。2010 年 8 月 19 日，http://

www.hzjy.edu.cn/publish/main/template.jsp?c_id=10634焦建利、鐘洪蕊（2008）。技術-教學法-內容知識（TPACK）研究議題及其進展，遠程教育雜誌28（1），頁39-

45。邱淑惠、莊孟珊（2004）。臺中地區幼教人員電腦整合教學信念與應用現狀之調查研究，國立臺中師範學院學

報，49（2），頁25。張晶、俞芳（2010）。幼兒園信息技術應用的研究綜述，教學儀器與實驗，26（1），頁57-60。中華人民共和國教育部（2001）。幼兒園教育指導綱要（試行）。北京：教育部。Bolstad, R. (2004). The role and potential of ICT in early childhood education: A review of New Zealand and

international literature. Wellington: NZCER.Cuban, L. (2001). Oversold and underused: Computers in the classroom. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Chen, J. Q.,& Chang, C. (2006a). A comprehensive approach to technology training for early childhood teachers.

Early Education and Development, 17(3), 443-465.Chen, J. Q.,& Chang, C. (2006b). Using computers in early childhood classrooms teachers’ attitudes, skills and

practices. Journal of Early Childhood Research, 4(2), 169-188.Clements, H.D.,& Sarama J. (2003). Young children and technology what does the research Say? Young Children,

58(6), 34-40. Han, C. C. W. (2003, July). Challenges of using ICT in Hong Kong early childhood settings. Paper presented at the

IFIP Working Group 3.5 Conference: Young Children and Learning Technologies, UWS Parramatta.Hantherly, A., Ham,V., & Evans, L. (2009). Effective learning in early childhood education? The impact of the ECE

ICT PL programme: A Synthesis report. Education Counts. Retrieved August 10, 2010, from http://www.educationcounts.govt.nz/publications/ece/79138/10

Haugland, S. W., & Wright, J. L. (1997). Young Children and Technology a world of discovery. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.

Mishra, P., & Koehler, M. (2006). Technological pedagogical content knowledge: A framework for teacher knowledge. The Teachers College Record, 108(6), 1017-1054.

National Association for the Education of Young Children. (1996). Technology and young children—Ages 3 through 8. Young Children, 51(6), 11.

O'Hara, M.(2004). ICT in the early years. London: Continuum.O'Rourke, M., & Harrison, C. (2004). The introduction of new technologies: New possibilities for early childhood

pedagogy. Australian Journal of Early Childhood, 29(2), 11-18.Piper, D. M. (2000). Facilitating change: Factors influencing teachers' practices of using computers in the classroom.

(Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation). Indiana University of Pennsylvania, Pennsylvania, Indiana. Plowman, L., Stephen, C., & McPake, J. (2010). Growing up with technology: young children learning in a digital

world. New York, NY: Routledge.Qualifications and Curriculum Authority. (2000). Curriculum guidance for the foundation stage. London: QCA.Siraj-Blatchford, I., & Siraj-Blatchford, J. (2006). A guide to developing the ICT curriculum for early childhood

education. England: Trentham Books.Wang, X. C., & Hoot, L. J. (2006). Information and communication technology in early childhood education. Early

Education & Development, 17(3), 317-322.

Yelland, N. J. (2007). Shift to the future: Rethinking learning with new technologies in education. New York, NY: Routledge.

作者注記：此研究受到中國學前教育研究會“十一五”研究課題：“影響教師運用信息技術融入幼兒園教學的因素研究”支

持 （2006—2010），項目參與者為：楊寧、胡馨允、黃美賢等。

The Hong Kong Institute of Education Library

For private study or research only. Not for publication or further reproduction.

64

Hong Kong Journal ofEarly Childhood香 港 幼 兒 學 報 Vol. 9 No. 2 December 2010

65

Hong Kong Journal ofEarly Childhood香 港 幼 兒 學 報 Vol. 9 No. 2 December 2010

參考資料郭力平（2007）。信息技術與早期教育。上海：華東師範大學。廣東省人民政府教育督導室（2000）。廣東省幼稚園等級評估管理辦法（試行） 。2010 年 8 月 19 日，http://

www.hzjy.edu.cn/publish/main/template.jsp?c_id=10634焦建利、鐘洪蕊（2008）。技術-教學法-內容知識（TPACK）研究議題及其進展，遠程教育雜誌28（1），頁39-

45。邱淑惠、莊孟珊（2004）。臺中地區幼教人員電腦整合教學信念與應用現狀之調查研究，國立臺中師範學院學

報，49（2），頁25。張晶、俞芳（2010）。幼兒園信息技術應用的研究綜述，教學儀器與實驗，26（1），頁57-60。中華人民共和國教育部（2001）。幼兒園教育指導綱要（試行）。北京：教育部。Bolstad, R. (2004). The role and potential of ICT in early childhood education: A review of New Zealand and

international literature. Wellington: NZCER.Cuban, L. (2001). Oversold and underused: Computers in the classroom. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.Chen, J. Q.,& Chang, C. (2006a). A comprehensive approach to technology training for early childhood teachers.

Early Education and Development, 17(3), 443-465.Chen, J. Q.,& Chang, C. (2006b). Using computers in early childhood classrooms teachers’ attitudes, skills and

practices. Journal of Early Childhood Research, 4(2), 169-188.Clements, H.D.,& Sarama J. (2003). Young children and technology what does the research Say? Young Children,

58(6), 34-40. Han, C. C. W. (2003, July). Challenges of using ICT in Hong Kong early childhood settings. Paper presented at the

IFIP Working Group 3.5 Conference: Young Children and Learning Technologies, UWS Parramatta.Hantherly, A., Ham,V., & Evans, L. (2009). Effective learning in early childhood education? The impact of the ECE

ICT PL programme: A Synthesis report. Education Counts. Retrieved August 10, 2010, from http://www.educationcounts.govt.nz/publications/ece/79138/10

Haugland, S. W., & Wright, J. L. (1997). Young Children and Technology a world of discovery. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.

Mishra, P., & Koehler, M. (2006). Technological pedagogical content knowledge: A framework for teacher knowledge. The Teachers College Record, 108(6), 1017-1054.

National Association for the Education of Young Children. (1996). Technology and young children—Ages 3 through 8. Young Children, 51(6), 11.

O'Hara, M.(2004). ICT in the early years. London: Continuum.O'Rourke, M., & Harrison, C. (2004). The introduction of new technologies: New possibilities for early childhood

pedagogy. Australian Journal of Early Childhood, 29(2), 11-18.Piper, D. M. (2000). Facilitating change: Factors influencing teachers' practices of using computers in the classroom.

(Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation). Indiana University of Pennsylvania, Pennsylvania, Indiana. Plowman, L., Stephen, C., & McPake, J. (2010). Growing up with technology: young children learning in a digital

world. New York, NY: Routledge.Qualifications and Curriculum Authority. (2000). Curriculum guidance for the foundation stage. London: QCA.Siraj-Blatchford, I., & Siraj-Blatchford, J. (2006). A guide to developing the ICT curriculum for early childhood

education. England: Trentham Books.Wang, X. C., & Hoot, L. J. (2006). Information and communication technology in early childhood education. Early

Education & Development, 17(3), 317-322.

Yelland, N. J. (2007). Shift to the future: Rethinking learning with new technologies in education. New York, NY: Routledge.

作者注記：此研究受到中國學前教育研究會“十一五”研究課題：“影響教師運用信息技術融入幼兒園教學的因素研究”支

持 （2006—2010），項目參與者為：楊寧、胡馨允、黃美賢等。

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For private study or research only. Not for publication or further reproduction.

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Hong Kong Journal ofEarly Childhood香 港 幼 兒 學 報 Vol. 9 No. 2 December 2010

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Hong Kong Journal ofEarly Childhood香 港 幼 兒 學 報 Vol. 9 No. 2 December 2010

附件：廣州市省一級幼兒園教師運用信息技術情形調查

（完整的問卷共68道題目，現就本文研究範圍節選其中52道題目）

（一）幼兒園活動室信息技術資源 答題說明：本部分共有5條問題。請根據您的情況，在對應的方格內打“✓”。1. 您所在班級擁有以下哪些設備（這些設備必須是放在您的班上供教師或幼兒使用）（可多選）： □電腦 □電視機 □麥克風 □錄音機 □投影機 □幻燈機 □數碼相機 □影碟機 □掃描儀 □打印機 □複印機 □實物投影儀 □其他2. 您班上是否有使用教學軟體： □有 □沒有 □不清楚3. 您班上使用的教學軟體主要來源： □幼兒園購買 □自己制作 □網上下載 □以上幾種均有4. 您在幼兒園上互聯網的途徑是： □只有通過辦公室的電腦 □只有通過班上的電腦 □辦公室和班上的都可以5. 您的幼兒園是否有自己的電子資源庫： □有 □沒有 □不清楚

（二）電腦操作技能 答題說明：本部分共有11條題目。請根據您的實際情況，從每道題目後面的5個數字中選擇一個數字並打上“✓”，表示您在日常生活中電腦操作的熟練程度，數字越大，表示熟練程度越高。這5個數字代表：

（1）不懂 （2）只懂一點， （3）懂得基本操作， （4）操作熟練， （5）運用自如 經常需要幫助 偶爾需要幫助 基本不需要幫助1. 使用文字處理軟體（如Word） （1）（2）（3）（4）（5）2. 使用電子郵件 （1）（2）（3）（4）（5）3. 使用表格處理軟體（如Excel） （1）（2）（3）（4）（5）4. 使用網頁瀏覽軟體（如IE） （1）（2）（3）（4）（5）5. 使用幻燈片軟體（如ppt） （1）（2）（3）（4）（5）6. 使用網頁制作軟體（如Flash,Dreamware） （1）（2）（3）（4）（5）7. 使用課件制作軟體（如Authorware） （1）（2）（3）（4）（5）8. 使用圖片編輯軟體（如Phototshop） （1）（2）（3）（4）（5）9. 使用多媒體播放軟體（如Windowsmediaplayer） （1）（2）（3）（4）（5）10. 解決操作系統軟體問題（如修複或重裝系統） （1）（2）（3）（4）（5）11. 處理電腦的硬件故障（如檢查電腦各部件是否出現故障） （1）（2）（3）（4）（5）

（三）在教學中運用信息技術的策略 答題說明：本部分共有個 18 條題目。這些題目是了解您在教學工作中運用信息技術（主要是電腦）的策略。請您根據您的實際情況，從每道題目後面的 5 個數字中選擇一個數字並打上“✓”，表示您在平常教學中使用電腦完成以下工作的頻率，數字越大，表示使用頻率越高。這5個數字代表：（1）沒有 （2）很少 （3）偶爾 （4）經常 （5）總是1. 利用文字處理軟體編寫教案、工作計劃 （1）（2）（3）（4）（5）2. 利用Powerpoint軟體制作課件 （1）（2）（3）（4）（5）

3. 利用繪圖軟體編輯教學材料中的圖片 （1）（2）（3）（4）（5）4. 利用文字或繪圖軟體制作環境布置材料 （1）（2）（3）（4）（5）5. 利用編程軟體開發互動式課件 （1）（2）（3）（4）（5）6. 在網絡搜集與教學相關的材料 （1）（2）（3）（4）（5）7. 利用幼兒園提供的資源庫搜集與教學相關的材料 （1）（2）（3）（4）（5）8. 運用電腦呈現教學材料 （1）（2）（3）（4）（5）9. 在電腦活動室指導幼兒開展電腦活動 （1）（2）（3）（4）（5）10. 在班上的電腦活動角指導幼兒開展電腦活動 （1）（2）（3）（4）（5）11. 協助幼兒利用電腦學習軟體進行學習 （1）（2）（3）（4）（5）12. 運用教學輔助軟體進行教學 （1）（2）（3）（4）（5）13. 將電腦作為教學的內容或主題 （1）（2）（3）（4）（5）14. 制作幼兒成長檔案 （1）（2）（3）（4）（5）15. 利用數碼相機或攝像機記錄幼兒發展情況 （1）（2）（3）（4）（5）16. 利用電腦收藏幼兒的作品 （1）（2）（3）（4）（5）17. 利用網絡展示幼兒在園的情況 （1）（2）（3）（4）（5）18. 利用網絡與家長進行溝通交流 （1）（2）（3）（4）（5）

（四）運用信息技術的看法 答題說明：本部分共有18條題目，主要是了解您對在運用信息技術的看法。請根據您的真實想法，從每道題目後面的 5 個數字中選擇一個數字並打上“✓”，表示您對以下陳述內容的同意程度，數字越大，表示同意程度越高。這5個數字代表：（1）非常不同意 （2）不同意 （3）不能確定 （4）同意 （5）非常同意 1. 我喜歡學習電腦在日常生活中的應用 （1）（2）（3）（4）（5）2. 我訪問互聯網時感覺自如 （1）（2）（3）（4）（5）3. 我操作電腦時很有信心 （1）（2）（3）（4）（5）4. 學習使用電腦是枯燥的 （1）（2）（3）（4）（5）5. 電腦方便了我的教學工作 （1）（2）（3）（4）（5）6. 電腦使我的教學手段更多樣化 （1）（2）（3）（4）（5）7. 電腦使我的教學內容更豐富 （1）（2）（3）（4）（5）8. 在教學中運用電腦能給幼兒帶來更多樂趣 （1）（2）（3）（4）（5）9. 在教學中運用電腦更能吸引幼兒的興趣和注意力 （1）（2）（3）（4）（5）10. 在教學中運用電腦對我的教學沒有幫助 （1）（2）（3）（4）（5）11. 在教學中運用電腦能促進兒童的智力發展 （1）（2）（3）（4）（5）12. 在教學中運用電腦能促進兒童的合作能力與溝通能力 （1）（2）（3）（4）（5）13. 在教學中運用電腦能促進兒童的創造力發展 （1）（2）（3）（4）（5）14. 在教學中運用電腦，我感到愉快和興奮 （1）（2）（3）（4）（5）15. 在教學中運用電腦，我感到很有信心 （1）（2）（3）（4）（5）16. 我教幼兒使用電腦時感覺自如 （1）（2）（3）（4）（5）17. 我教其他老師使用電腦時感覺自如 （1）（2）（3）（4）（5）18. 在教學中運用電腦時，我感到很緊張 （1）（2）（3）（4）（5）

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66

Hong Kong Journal ofEarly Childhood香 港 幼 兒 學 報 Vol. 9 No. 2 December 2010

67

Hong Kong Journal ofEarly Childhood香 港 幼 兒 學 報 Vol. 9 No. 2 December 2010

附件：廣州市省一級幼兒園教師運用信息技術情形調查

（完整的問卷共68道題目，現就本文研究範圍節選其中52道題目）

（一）幼兒園活動室信息技術資源 答題說明：本部分共有5條問題。請根據您的情況，在對應的方格內打“✓”。1. 您所在班級擁有以下哪些設備（這些設備必須是放在您的班上供教師或幼兒使用）（可多選）： □電腦 □電視機 □麥克風 □錄音機 □投影機 □幻燈機 □數碼相機 □影碟機 □掃描儀 □打印機 □複印機 □實物投影儀 □其他2. 您班上是否有使用教學軟體： □有 □沒有 □不清楚3. 您班上使用的教學軟體主要來源： □幼兒園購買 □自己制作 □網上下載 □以上幾種均有4. 您在幼兒園上互聯網的途徑是： □只有通過辦公室的電腦 □只有通過班上的電腦 □辦公室和班上的都可以5. 您的幼兒園是否有自己的電子資源庫： □有 □沒有 □不清楚

（二）電腦操作技能 答題說明：本部分共有11條題目。請根據您的實際情況，從每道題目後面的5個數字中選擇一個數字並打上“✓”，表示您在日常生活中電腦操作的熟練程度，數字越大，表示熟練程度越高。這5個數字代表：

（1）不懂 （2）只懂一點， （3）懂得基本操作， （4）操作熟練， （5）運用自如 經常需要幫助 偶爾需要幫助 基本不需要幫助1. 使用文字處理軟體（如Word） （1）（2）（3）（4）（5）2. 使用電子郵件 （1）（2）（3）（4）（5）3. 使用表格處理軟體（如Excel） （1）（2）（3）（4）（5）4. 使用網頁瀏覽軟體（如IE） （1）（2）（3）（4）（5）5. 使用幻燈片軟體（如ppt） （1）（2）（3）（4）（5）6. 使用網頁制作軟體（如Flash,Dreamware） （1）（2）（3）（4）（5）7. 使用課件制作軟體（如Authorware） （1）（2）（3）（4）（5）8. 使用圖片編輯軟體（如Phototshop） （1）（2）（3）（4）（5）9. 使用多媒體播放軟體（如Windowsmediaplayer） （1）（2）（3）（4）（5）10. 解決操作系統軟體問題（如修複或重裝系統） （1）（2）（3）（4）（5）11. 處理電腦的硬件故障（如檢查電腦各部件是否出現故障） （1）（2）（3）（4）（5）

（三）在教學中運用信息技術的策略 答題說明：本部分共有個 18 條題目。這些題目是了解您在教學工作中運用信息技術（主要是電腦）的策略。請您根據您的實際情況，從每道題目後面的 5 個數字中選擇一個數字並打上“✓”，表示您在平常教學中使用電腦完成以下工作的頻率，數字越大，表示使用頻率越高。這5個數字代表：（1）沒有 （2）很少 （3）偶爾 （4）經常 （5）總是1. 利用文字處理軟體編寫教案、工作計劃 （1）（2）（3）（4）（5）2. 利用Powerpoint軟體制作課件 （1）（2）（3）（4）（5）

3. 利用繪圖軟體編輯教學材料中的圖片 （1）（2）（3）（4）（5）4. 利用文字或繪圖軟體制作環境布置材料 （1）（2）（3）（4）（5）5. 利用編程軟體開發互動式課件 （1）（2）（3）（4）（5）6. 在網絡搜集與教學相關的材料 （1）（2）（3）（4）（5）7. 利用幼兒園提供的資源庫搜集與教學相關的材料 （1）（2）（3）（4）（5）8. 運用電腦呈現教學材料 （1）（2）（3）（4）（5）9. 在電腦活動室指導幼兒開展電腦活動 （1）（2）（3）（4）（5）10. 在班上的電腦活動角指導幼兒開展電腦活動 （1）（2）（3）（4）（5）11. 協助幼兒利用電腦學習軟體進行學習 （1）（2）（3）（4）（5）12. 運用教學輔助軟體進行教學 （1）（2）（3）（4）（5）13. 將電腦作為教學的內容或主題 （1）（2）（3）（4）（5）14. 制作幼兒成長檔案 （1）（2）（3）（4）（5）15. 利用數碼相機或攝像機記錄幼兒發展情況 （1）（2）（3）（4）（5）16. 利用電腦收藏幼兒的作品 （1）（2）（3）（4）（5）17. 利用網絡展示幼兒在園的情況 （1）（2）（3）（4）（5）18. 利用網絡與家長進行溝通交流 （1）（2）（3）（4）（5）

（四）運用信息技術的看法 答題說明：本部分共有18條題目，主要是了解您對在運用信息技術的看法。請根據您的真實想法，從每道題目後面的 5 個數字中選擇一個數字並打上“✓”，表示您對以下陳述內容的同意程度，數字越大，表示同意程度越高。這5個數字代表：（1）非常不同意 （2）不同意 （3）不能確定 （4）同意 （5）非常同意 1. 我喜歡學習電腦在日常生活中的應用 （1）（2）（3）（4）（5）2. 我訪問互聯網時感覺自如 （1）（2）（3）（4）（5）3. 我操作電腦時很有信心 （1）（2）（3）（4）（5）4. 學習使用電腦是枯燥的 （1）（2）（3）（4）（5）5. 電腦方便了我的教學工作 （1）（2）（3）（4）（5）6. 電腦使我的教學手段更多樣化 （1）（2）（3）（4）（5）7. 電腦使我的教學內容更豐富 （1）（2）（3）（4）（5）8. 在教學中運用電腦能給幼兒帶來更多樂趣 （1）（2）（3）（4）（5）9. 在教學中運用電腦更能吸引幼兒的興趣和注意力 （1）（2）（3）（4）（5）10. 在教學中運用電腦對我的教學沒有幫助 （1）（2）（3）（4）（5）11. 在教學中運用電腦能促進兒童的智力發展 （1）（2）（3）（4）（5）12. 在教學中運用電腦能促進兒童的合作能力與溝通能力 （1）（2）（3）（4）（5）13. 在教學中運用電腦能促進兒童的創造力發展 （1）（2）（3）（4）（5）14. 在教學中運用電腦，我感到愉快和興奮 （1）（2）（3）（4）（5）15. 在教學中運用電腦，我感到很有信心 （1）（2）（3）（4）（5）16. 我教幼兒使用電腦時感覺自如 （1）（2）（3）（4）（5）17. 我教其他老師使用電腦時感覺自如 （1）（2）（3）（4）（5）18. 在教學中運用電腦時，我感到很緊張 （1）（2）（3）（4）（5）

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68

Hong Kong Journal ofEarly Childhood香 港 幼 兒 學 報 Vol. 9 No. 2 December 2010

69

Hong Kong Journal ofEarly Childhood香 港 幼 兒 學 報 Vol. 9 No. 2 December 2010

Narration of a Change Agent一位學校發展推動者的省思

CHAN Po Lin Pauline

Department of Early Childhood Education

The Hong Kong Institute of Education

AbstractThis study aims to describe the journey of a change agent at a kindergarten. Through continuing reflections on the change agent’s interaction with the kindergarten, the complexity and issues of promoting school change were raised. To effectively implement school change, setting mutual targets for change and working in a collaborative manner among the school, the organization and the change agent are significant factors that lead to success.

摘要本文通過一位大學教師在一所幼稚園內推動發展所述的故事，揭示了在學校推行改革的複雜性與困難。透過這位教師的心聲，對在香港幼稚園進行改革的發展具有一定的啟示作用。

Introduction Ful lan (2001) s ta ted that ‘ in teres t in educational reform has reached new heights as we enter the 21st century.” Since the education reform of 2000 in Hong Kong, individual schools and educational organizations have implemented innovation schemes to adapt to the new trend. Schools operating under conditions of educational reform, teachers and school leaders understand they have to respond to the challenging circumstances and understand that ‘change’ is critical for survival. Under the atmosphere of school change, local schools have strong initiatives to meet new challenges. Due to the general beliefs that the quality of learning at the early stage would affect a child’s academic and financial success in the future, improving the quality at kindergarten is the society’s concern. In fact, a kindergarten with the initiation to make changes can be a change agent itself. However, many kindergartens will invite external change agents to evaluate the classroom realities from an external perspective and to

implement new classroom practices. In this study, I was recording the journey of an external change agent of a kindergarten in Hong Kong.

The Role of a Change Agent According to O’Connell Rust and Freidus (2001), a change agent takes different roles: (1) as Negotiator, to make the collaborative process work (House, 1997); (2) As Nurturer, to interact and support teachers to enhance their willingness to explore new ideas and new ways of being; (3) As teacher and learner, to guide new practice, a change agent needs to input new knowledge to the school and to construct new knowledge in the process of reflections;(4) As curriculum developer. In order to ensure ‘the longevity of the innovation’, a change agent needs to develop strategies and skills that enable teachers and administrators to have the habits of mind for promoting innovation. Each of these roles has expectations and responsibilities. Each role drives the changing agent to act in certain ways. The defining and description of the various

roles are decided not only by the changing agent himself/herself but also by the school context which allows the changing agent to take up certain roles. Moreover, some roles are emerging during the process of change.

Research Aims In this study, I would like to describe the journey of a change agent at a kindergarten. Through continuing reflections on the change agent’s interaction with the kindergarten, the problems encountered and the accomplishments, I would like to raise questions about the role of a change agent and to consider the critical factors for being a successful change agent.

Research Methodology A narrative was used in the present study. Narrative means story telling. Life is full of narratives (Polkinghorne, 1988). Telling stories is a natural action to most people. Therefore, narrative research is a natural way of recounting experiences. In narrative research, consultants (researchers) describe the lives or experiences of individuals through a collection of stories, reporting individual experiences, and discussing the meaning of those experiences for the individual. In this study, as a change agent in a kindergarten, she has continuous experiences and dialogic interactions both with the school and with herself. These experiences are woven together into a complex web. A narrative is a way to structure these experiences as stories. Both the researcher and the narrator are co-constructing the stories and organizing them into meaningful units (Zellermayer, 1997). Conversations with the change agent, the researcher constructed and reconstructed the stories by means of describing the experiences, understanding of the experience and reflecting of the experience.

The Changing Agent The change agent was working in an education institution in Hong Kong. This was the

first time she was involved as a school change agent. The school (the kindergarten) is under the supervision of an organization which is keen on improving the quality of education. The organization paid consultation fee for the change agent on project-basis. This project aims to enhance children’s language ability by various teaching and learning strategies such as enriching the classroom environment, employing specific learning activities, organizing school-based activities, etc. It was a one-year project. It was hoped that after intensive consultations and school visits, the kindergarten was able to stand on itself to implement various language enhancing measures in the future.

The Complex of Making School Change Through the narration of her story, the change agent had a desire at the beginning, ‘I hope through my efforts as a school change agent it would catch the attention of others’. She wanted to have impact on the school. She planned to start with classroom observations and teachers’ discussions to explore the ways of improvements. After the first meeting she experienced the complexity of the school context. ‘When I engaged with teachers and the principal, I heard their hidden voices which were the constraints to improve practice. To go forward, I need to revise my conceptions of and strategies for the change’. Her experience was similar as what Clandinin and Connelly (2002) described about the complexity of the changing context which composes of ‘relations’ among people in the school and people from the organization.

In the present case, the ‘hidden voices’ represented the complex relationships between the school and the social contexts (including the organization supervising the school, the government and the wider society). They exist as an open system(Hanna, 1988). It means that the school cannot ignore the government policies, the organization perspectives and wider social expectations. The school is seeking to balance the

The Hong Kong Institute of Education Library

For private study or research only. Not for publication or further reproduction.

68

Hong Kong Journal ofEarly Childhood香 港 幼 兒 學 報 Vol. 9 No. 2 December 2010

69

Hong Kong Journal ofEarly Childhood香 港 幼 兒 學 報 Vol. 9 No. 2 December 2010

Narration of a Change Agent一位學校發展推動者的省思

CHAN Po Lin Pauline

Department of Early Childhood Education

The Hong Kong Institute of Education

AbstractThis study aims to describe the journey of a change agent at a kindergarten. Through continuing reflections on the change agent’s interaction with the kindergarten, the complexity and issues of promoting school change were raised. To effectively implement school change, setting mutual targets for change and working in a collaborative manner among the school, the organization and the change agent are significant factors that lead to success.

摘要本文通過一位大學教師在一所幼稚園內推動發展所述的故事，揭示了在學校推行改革的複雜性與困難。透過這位教師的心聲，對在香港幼稚園進行改革的發展具有一定的啟示作用。

Introduction Ful lan (2001) s ta ted that ‘ in teres t in educational reform has reached new heights as we enter the 21st century.” Since the education reform of 2000 in Hong Kong, individual schools and educational organizations have implemented innovation schemes to adapt to the new trend. Schools operating under conditions of educational reform, teachers and school leaders understand they have to respond to the challenging circumstances and understand that ‘change’ is critical for survival. Under the atmosphere of school change, local schools have strong initiatives to meet new challenges. Due to the general beliefs that the quality of learning at the early stage would affect a child’s academic and financial success in the future, improving the quality at kindergarten is the society’s concern. In fact, a kindergarten with the initiation to make changes can be a change agent itself. However, many kindergartens will invite external change agents to evaluate the classroom realities from an external perspective and to

implement new classroom practices. In this study, I was recording the journey of an external change agent of a kindergarten in Hong Kong.

The Role of a Change Agent According to O’Connell Rust and Freidus (2001), a change agent takes different roles: (1) as Negotiator, to make the collaborative process work (House, 1997); (2) As Nurturer, to interact and support teachers to enhance their willingness to explore new ideas and new ways of being; (3) As teacher and learner, to guide new practice, a change agent needs to input new knowledge to the school and to construct new knowledge in the process of reflections;(4) As curriculum developer. In order to ensure ‘the longevity of the innovation’, a change agent needs to develop strategies and skills that enable teachers and administrators to have the habits of mind for promoting innovation. Each of these roles has expectations and responsibilities. Each role drives the changing agent to act in certain ways. The defining and description of the various

roles are decided not only by the changing agent himself/herself but also by the school context which allows the changing agent to take up certain roles. Moreover, some roles are emerging during the process of change.

Research Aims In this study, I would like to describe the journey of a change agent at a kindergarten. Through continuing reflections on the change agent’s interaction with the kindergarten, the problems encountered and the accomplishments, I would like to raise questions about the role of a change agent and to consider the critical factors for being a successful change agent.

Research Methodology A narrative was used in the present study. Narrative means story telling. Life is full of narratives (Polkinghorne, 1988). Telling stories is a natural action to most people. Therefore, narrative research is a natural way of recounting experiences. In narrative research, consultants (researchers) describe the lives or experiences of individuals through a collection of stories, reporting individual experiences, and discussing the meaning of those experiences for the individual. In this study, as a change agent in a kindergarten, she has continuous experiences and dialogic interactions both with the school and with herself. These experiences are woven together into a complex web. A narrative is a way to structure these experiences as stories. Both the researcher and the narrator are co-constructing the stories and organizing them into meaningful units (Zellermayer, 1997). Conversations with the change agent, the researcher constructed and reconstructed the stories by means of describing the experiences, understanding of the experience and reflecting of the experience.

The Changing Agent The change agent was working in an education institution in Hong Kong. This was the

first time she was involved as a school change agent. The school (the kindergarten) is under the supervision of an organization which is keen on improving the quality of education. The organization paid consultation fee for the change agent on project-basis. This project aims to enhance children’s language ability by various teaching and learning strategies such as enriching the classroom environment, employing specific learning activities, organizing school-based activities, etc. It was a one-year project. It was hoped that after intensive consultations and school visits, the kindergarten was able to stand on itself to implement various language enhancing measures in the future.

The Complex of Making School Change Through the narration of her story, the change agent had a desire at the beginning, ‘I hope through my efforts as a school change agent it would catch the attention of others’. She wanted to have impact on the school. She planned to start with classroom observations and teachers’ discussions to explore the ways of improvements. After the first meeting she experienced the complexity of the school context. ‘When I engaged with teachers and the principal, I heard their hidden voices which were the constraints to improve practice. To go forward, I need to revise my conceptions of and strategies for the change’. Her experience was similar as what Clandinin and Connelly (2002) described about the complexity of the changing context which composes of ‘relations’ among people in the school and people from the organization.

In the present case, the ‘hidden voices’ represented the complex relationships between the school and the social contexts (including the organization supervising the school, the government and the wider society). They exist as an open system(Hanna, 1988). It means that the school cannot ignore the government policies, the organization perspectives and wider social expectations. The school is seeking to balance the

The Hong Kong Institute of Education Library

For private study or research only. Not for publication or further reproduction.

70

Hong Kong Journal ofEarly Childhood香 港 幼 兒 學 報 Vol. 9 No. 2 December 2010

71

Hong Kong Journal ofEarly Childhood香 港 幼 兒 學 報 Vol. 9 No. 2 December 2010

needs between itself and the external context. In response to the critical external requirement the school needs to (1) change its own operations and, (2) extend its influences on the external context. Treating the school as a dynamic institute, the change becomes complex and uncertain. Although the school depends on the supply from the organization, one cannot assume that the goals of making change from the organization are the goals of the school and all the individuals in the school may have different goals. Besides, one should not ignore the external environment when planning change in a school. While testing the boundaries of the school, resistance to change cannot be ignored.

The Narration 1. Different Aims for Change Since the theme of the school change project was imposed by the organization, the school had very limited choices in the area of improvement. ‘When I receive the invitation, I think this is a good project matching the trend of the educational change. I believe the school is ready for implementing the change. After the first school meeting, I change my mind…’ Even though the targets of the project matched with the government’s educational change and the organization’s target, the project might not be adaptable to the school’s internal purposes. The change agent needed to adjust the discrepancy. ‘I need to refine the target within the boundary of the agreed theme with the purpose of filling the developmental gap of the school and supporting the existing development plans’. She described the difficulties were not on the technical level but on the deeper level of believe and attitudes. In the process of adjusting the target of changes, the change agent found the following discrepancies between the school and herself.

Process vs. Outcome At the initial stage, the change agent wanted to apply the concept of action research in the school

support project. ‘My purpose was to help teachers reflect on and analyze student data on a consistent and collaborative basis to improve the teaching and learning’. It was a process that emphasized collaborative inquiry, reflection, and dialogue. Nevertheless, the school preferred a shortcut to the outcome. They asked for practical suggestions after the first meeting.

‘After the first meeting, I had a general picture of the school. They were overwhelmed by different kinds of projects which were self-funded or funded by other universities. They asked me to suggest some school-based activities……the teachers emphasized practical, effective and large-scale activities’.

‘It was too quick! I thought we should think about the needs, resources, strengths and weaknesses of the school before jumping to solutions. They wanted to schedule the activities into their calendar as soon as possible’.

Rather than being activi ty driven and outcome based, the project was no longer seen as a problem solving “process”. This led to intellectual conflicts and failure in meeting the change agent’s expectations. As Dolan (1994) commented, building a collective vision for a school was significant for school change to occur. The change agent thought that since the project was planned by the organization, the school was ‘forced’ to ‘accept’ the project and thus it targeted at finishing the project with promising outcomes to ‘please’ the organization. ‘Since the project was not the school’s priority concern, they would treat it as an extra support or resource to run extra activities rather than implementing a long term developing plan’. Actually emphasizing outcome was not incorrect, but promoting school development was equally significant. The change agent felt that she was an activity designer rather than a school supporter.

Changing Beliefs vs. Changing Practice To encourage teachers to work together through continual participation in the school change decision, the change agent suggested ongoing professional development. However, she received negative feedback again. ‘I believe efforts that are put into professional development are important. It is because it will reward students through the change of teachers’ practices by means of changing their beliefs’. When she discussed with the principal about creating opportunity for staff development, the reply was quite disappointing. ‘The principal said she didn’t want to overburden the teachers as they had to attend evening classes and they were leading two school projects at least’. It was true that daily teaching and different aspects of school development programmes had absorbed teachers ‘energy, thought, and attention’ (McDiarmid, 1995). Teachers could not find the time for extra staff development in their already busy schedules. Besides, as the project was not the school improvement target, they were not very keen on spending more time and putting more effort in changing. Moreover, ‘the principal and teachers ignored the importance of assessing their beliefs behind their practices. It seems that they were just applying the process rules’. As O’Connell Rust and Freidus (2001) commented, tensions emerged when one party looked for immediate results and the other aimed at long-term process of changing beliefs and attitudes. The change agent tried to o review the language issues by examining children’s class work. The principal and the teachers agreed with the change agent’s comments. However, they believed that the issue could be tackled simply by soliciting practical suggestions from the change agent. ‘It is over simplified and linear the process of change’. The change agent believed that practical ideas and strategies were for survival purpose. To turn teachers to be great teachers, the change agent wanted to drive the school to look for a deeper understanding of the issues. Staff development, as she believed, could enhance teachers’ sensitivity

towards the issues. This sense of mind could energize the school to growth.

Basic Knowledge vs. New Knowledge The change agent believed ‘teachers play a significant role in school change and thus needed to be equipped with a rich body of knowledge’. After turning down the suggestion of staff development, she suggested a workshop to help reinforce the basic knowledge including theories and tactical knowledge about the topic after reviewing some students’ work. ‘The principal said that the teachers had already possessed a great deal of craft knowledge which could be self-improved. She wanted something more advanced and new’. The change agent experienced difficulty in adopting a design showing implementation of new knowledge. She found teachers were get used to the ‘technical jargons’. However, she wondered if teachers could master the meanings of these jargons. ‘I don’t want to embarrass the teachers by asking them challenging questions. They are not my students. I do respect their experience on working with children’. In fact, not all new knowledge and technology applied into a school will result in immediate improvement and concerns are apparent as the teachers could not fully understand the philosophy behind the implementation. ‘To improve a school, success does not happen overnight. However, it is essential that we understand the basic ideas that are significant in cultivating growth and steady change’. As Wasley and her colleagues (1997) asserts, the school staff’s willingness to receive and act on feedback from external sources is critical. To share a common image of change with the school, the change agent had to cautiously deal with these controversial issues.

Although the organization had offered opportunities for school improvement, the school felt that they were forced to adopt the design which did not complement the school plan. The motivation of implementation was low. It is

The Hong Kong Institute of Education Library

For private study or research only. Not for publication or further reproduction.

70

Hong Kong Journal ofEarly Childhood香 港 幼 兒 學 報 Vol. 9 No. 2 December 2010

71

Hong Kong Journal ofEarly Childhood香 港 幼 兒 學 報 Vol. 9 No. 2 December 2010

needs between itself and the external context. In response to the critical external requirement the school needs to (1) change its own operations and, (2) extend its influences on the external context. Treating the school as a dynamic institute, the change becomes complex and uncertain. Although the school depends on the supply from the organization, one cannot assume that the goals of making change from the organization are the goals of the school and all the individuals in the school may have different goals. Besides, one should not ignore the external environment when planning change in a school. While testing the boundaries of the school, resistance to change cannot be ignored.

The Narration 1. Different Aims for Change Since the theme of the school change project was imposed by the organization, the school had very limited choices in the area of improvement. ‘When I receive the invitation, I think this is a good project matching the trend of the educational change. I believe the school is ready for implementing the change. After the first school meeting, I change my mind…’ Even though the targets of the project matched with the government’s educational change and the organization’s target, the project might not be adaptable to the school’s internal purposes. The change agent needed to adjust the discrepancy. ‘I need to refine the target within the boundary of the agreed theme with the purpose of filling the developmental gap of the school and supporting the existing development plans’. She described the difficulties were not on the technical level but on the deeper level of believe and attitudes. In the process of adjusting the target of changes, the change agent found the following discrepancies between the school and herself.

Process vs. Outcome At the initial stage, the change agent wanted to apply the concept of action research in the school

support project. ‘My purpose was to help teachers reflect on and analyze student data on a consistent and collaborative basis to improve the teaching and learning’. It was a process that emphasized collaborative inquiry, reflection, and dialogue. Nevertheless, the school preferred a shortcut to the outcome. They asked for practical suggestions after the first meeting.

‘After the first meeting, I had a general picture of the school. They were overwhelmed by different kinds of projects which were self-funded or funded by other universities. They asked me to suggest some school-based activities……the teachers emphasized practical, effective and large-scale activities’.

‘It was too quick! I thought we should think about the needs, resources, strengths and weaknesses of the school before jumping to solutions. They wanted to schedule the activities into their calendar as soon as possible’.

Rather than being activi ty driven and outcome based, the project was no longer seen as a problem solving “process”. This led to intellectual conflicts and failure in meeting the change agent’s expectations. As Dolan (1994) commented, building a collective vision for a school was significant for school change to occur. The change agent thought that since the project was planned by the organization, the school was ‘forced’ to ‘accept’ the project and thus it targeted at finishing the project with promising outcomes to ‘please’ the organization. ‘Since the project was not the school’s priority concern, they would treat it as an extra support or resource to run extra activities rather than implementing a long term developing plan’. Actually emphasizing outcome was not incorrect, but promoting school development was equally significant. The change agent felt that she was an activity designer rather than a school supporter.

Changing Beliefs vs. Changing Practice To encourage teachers to work together through continual participation in the school change decision, the change agent suggested ongoing professional development. However, she received negative feedback again. ‘I believe efforts that are put into professional development are important. It is because it will reward students through the change of teachers’ practices by means of changing their beliefs’. When she discussed with the principal about creating opportunity for staff development, the reply was quite disappointing. ‘The principal said she didn’t want to overburden the teachers as they had to attend evening classes and they were leading two school projects at least’. It was true that daily teaching and different aspects of school development programmes had absorbed teachers ‘energy, thought, and attention’ (McDiarmid, 1995). Teachers could not find the time for extra staff development in their already busy schedules. Besides, as the project was not the school improvement target, they were not very keen on spending more time and putting more effort in changing. Moreover, ‘the principal and teachers ignored the importance of assessing their beliefs behind their practices. It seems that they were just applying the process rules’. As O’Connell Rust and Freidus (2001) commented, tensions emerged when one party looked for immediate results and the other aimed at long-term process of changing beliefs and attitudes. The change agent tried to o review the language issues by examining children’s class work. The principal and the teachers agreed with the change agent’s comments. However, they believed that the issue could be tackled simply by soliciting practical suggestions from the change agent. ‘It is over simplified and linear the process of change’. The change agent believed that practical ideas and strategies were for survival purpose. To turn teachers to be great teachers, the change agent wanted to drive the school to look for a deeper understanding of the issues. Staff development, as she believed, could enhance teachers’ sensitivity

towards the issues. This sense of mind could energize the school to growth.

Basic Knowledge vs. New Knowledge The change agent believed ‘teachers play a significant role in school change and thus needed to be equipped with a rich body of knowledge’. After turning down the suggestion of staff development, she suggested a workshop to help reinforce the basic knowledge including theories and tactical knowledge about the topic after reviewing some students’ work. ‘The principal said that the teachers had already possessed a great deal of craft knowledge which could be self-improved. She wanted something more advanced and new’. The change agent experienced difficulty in adopting a design showing implementation of new knowledge. She found teachers were get used to the ‘technical jargons’. However, she wondered if teachers could master the meanings of these jargons. ‘I don’t want to embarrass the teachers by asking them challenging questions. They are not my students. I do respect their experience on working with children’. In fact, not all new knowledge and technology applied into a school will result in immediate improvement and concerns are apparent as the teachers could not fully understand the philosophy behind the implementation. ‘To improve a school, success does not happen overnight. However, it is essential that we understand the basic ideas that are significant in cultivating growth and steady change’. As Wasley and her colleagues (1997) asserts, the school staff’s willingness to receive and act on feedback from external sources is critical. To share a common image of change with the school, the change agent had to cautiously deal with these controversial issues.

Although the organization had offered opportunities for school improvement, the school felt that they were forced to adopt the design which did not complement the school plan. The motivation of implementation was low. It is

The Hong Kong Institute of Education Library

For private study or research only. Not for publication or further reproduction.

72

Hong Kong Journal ofEarly Childhood香 港 幼 兒 學 報 Vol. 9 No. 2 December 2010

73

Hong Kong Journal ofEarly Childhood香 港 幼 兒 學 報 Vol. 9 No. 2 December 2010

believed that giving schools freedom of choice to use the resources provided is critical for success.

2. The Leader of the Change Though the intervention is on the school level, the stake was not in school, it was on the organization. The situation was similar to what Tyack & Cuban (1995) stated, schools have ‘the least potential for stick.’ However, as the proposers of the innovation have little knowledge about classrooms, the imposed changes were not the needs of the school. The school has to accept the resource provided even though the theme of the project was not consistent with the school plan. As a change agent from outside, having clear school change directions set out in the contract, her role was not seen as emerging from her existing professional role but working on behalf of the organization. The organization was in the middle of the communication between the kindergarten and the change agent.

A Matter of Trust ‘Trust’ is a factor affecting the collaboration among the school, the organization and the change agent (Bryk and Schneider, 2003). A trusting relationship can foster an understanding and expectation of each party’s role and obligations. Nevertheless, the school was confused with the ‘real motivation’ of the plan. ‘The school anticipated that the plan served other functions such as promoting the image of the new organization head, school accountability and to the worst extent, a way to ‘appraise’ the school’. With these anticipations in mind, the secretary of the organization attended school meetings stressing the atmosphere. ‘The school was very alert of the content of discussion during school meetings. When I tried to express my observations to the teachers, the principal stopped the conversation in fear that it would give the secretary a negative impression about the school’. Although the secretary didn’t make any suggestions or comments during the meetings, her presence

caused the school to feel insecure. The progress of the plan would be affected if the problem of trust was not resolved.

A Matter of Respect The mutual trust is built on respect. The school felt that the organization did not respect their expertise in teaching because they were not given many choices in improving the school. ‘The principal was proud of the improvements she had made in these years. She appreciated my help but felt that the project was not entirely suited to their present need. They preferred using the fund for other purposes’. The school felt that they did not have the opportunity to select the support services that they believed would best help their students succeed and the scheme could not match with their top choices. The school was not resisting change but they felt the resources were not utilized well enough. Since there were many schools under the organization, it was difficult to reach out broadly to ensure that all the needs of the schools were taken into account. Although the organization hosted a few meetings for some school heads to learn more and share their opinions, not all school principals participated and the consultation period was very short. On the other hand, the schools were not very active in expressing their feelings which was the culture of kindergarten leaders in Hong Kong. As an agent of change, she felt she was ‘caught in the middle’. She did not have the authority to make alternatives. For the operation of a top-down school change project, communication between the schools and organization was significant. Comments from schools should be respected. The change agent understood that she could not challenge the culture of communication within the organization and had to adjust her mode of communication.

3. A Change Agent as a Learner At the beginning, the change agent considered herself as a professional, extending her knowledge into classroom practice and enhancing the teaching

and learning of the kindergarten. Her ambitious to be a curriculum developer changing the teaching and learning practices of the school was a failure. Then, ‘I found that I was a negotiator standing in the middle between the school and the organization. It took a long time to develop trust with the school and improve collaboration with the teachers’. She said ‘showing passion of making change’ was essential to construct positive relationships with different parties. To change for the better, a change agent needs to be a learner rather than a teacher. Taking the role of a learner enabled her to understand the context from the teachers and principal’s perspectives. She was more flexible to accept new things and to strive for the better. Considering herself as a learner gave her the patience and energy to rewrite the plan over and over to meet the needs of the school and to satisfy the administrative procedure requested by the organization. ‘Though the work was tedious and I had the feeling that my professionalism was not respected, I considered myself as a learner to learn from these constraints and to search for better solutions in the process of implementing the plan’. In giving up the leading role, a change agent

has the psychological and intellectual space to open herself to learn from different contextual strengths in the process of implementing school change. As a learner, she had the patience to manage the project to grow gradually rather than achieving a recognizable improvement in a short period of time.

Conclusion This school support experience indicates that school change needs to be a “bottom-up” enterprise (Anna Ershler Richert, et.al. ,2001). It means that the initial effort should best begin with a local initiative. On the other hand, the “top-down” strategies are important at the initial stage to provide backup support. Thus, as Fullan (1993) commented, the two approaches can be blended in order to achieve the best results. Besides, school change can only be achieved when all parties work on a collaborative base and in a collective manner (Anna Ershler Richert, et.al. ,2001). McCann and Radford (1993) addressed the importance of collaboration among school staff and between staff and administrators. The passion and learning attitudes of a change agent are the key to success.

ReferencesAnna Ershler Richert, Pamela Stoddard and Michael Kass (2001) ‘The Promise of Partnership for Promoting

Reform’. In Guiding School Change: The Role and Work of Change Agents. New York and London: Teachers College Press.

Bryk, Anthony S. and Schneider Barbara (2003). Trust in Schools: A Core Resource for School Reform. Creating

Caring Schools. 60(6): 40-45. Dolan, W. P. (1994). Restructuring our schools: A primer on systemic change. Kansas City, MO: Systems and

Organization. Frances O’Connell Rust and Helen Freidus (2001) Guiding School Change. New York: Columbia University. New

York and London: Teachers College Press.Fullan, M. (1993) Change forces: Probing the depths of educational reform. London: Falmer Press. Fullan, M. (2001). The New Meeting of Educational Change (3 rd ed). New York and London: Teachers College.Hanna, D. (1988) ‘The organization as an open system’. In Harris, A., Bennett, N. and Preedy, M. (eds)

Organizational Effectiveness and Improvement in Education. Philadelphia: Open University Press, pp.13-21.House, E. A. (1997) ‘A framework for appraising educational reforms’. Educational Researcher 25 (7): 6-14.

The Hong Kong Institute of Education Library

For private study or research only. Not for publication or further reproduction.

72

Hong Kong Journal ofEarly Childhood香 港 幼 兒 學 報 Vol. 9 No. 2 December 2010

73

Hong Kong Journal ofEarly Childhood香 港 幼 兒 學 報 Vol. 9 No. 2 December 2010

believed that giving schools freedom of choice to use the resources provided is critical for success.

2. The Leader of the Change Though the intervention is on the school level, the stake was not in school, it was on the organization. The situation was similar to what Tyack & Cuban (1995) stated, schools have ‘the least potential for stick.’ However, as the proposers of the innovation have little knowledge about classrooms, the imposed changes were not the needs of the school. The school has to accept the resource provided even though the theme of the project was not consistent with the school plan. As a change agent from outside, having clear school change directions set out in the contract, her role was not seen as emerging from her existing professional role but working on behalf of the organization. The organization was in the middle of the communication between the kindergarten and the change agent.

A Matter of Trust ‘Trust’ is a factor affecting the collaboration among the school, the organization and the change agent (Bryk and Schneider, 2003). A trusting relationship can foster an understanding and expectation of each party’s role and obligations. Nevertheless, the school was confused with the ‘real motivation’ of the plan. ‘The school anticipated that the plan served other functions such as promoting the image of the new organization head, school accountability and to the worst extent, a way to ‘appraise’ the school’. With these anticipations in mind, the secretary of the organization attended school meetings stressing the atmosphere. ‘The school was very alert of the content of discussion during school meetings. When I tried to express my observations to the teachers, the principal stopped the conversation in fear that it would give the secretary a negative impression about the school’. Although the secretary didn’t make any suggestions or comments during the meetings, her presence

caused the school to feel insecure. The progress of the plan would be affected if the problem of trust was not resolved.

A Matter of Respect The mutual trust is built on respect. The school felt that the organization did not respect their expertise in teaching because they were not given many choices in improving the school. ‘The principal was proud of the improvements she had made in these years. She appreciated my help but felt that the project was not entirely suited to their present need. They preferred using the fund for other purposes’. The school felt that they did not have the opportunity to select the support services that they believed would best help their students succeed and the scheme could not match with their top choices. The school was not resisting change but they felt the resources were not utilized well enough. Since there were many schools under the organization, it was difficult to reach out broadly to ensure that all the needs of the schools were taken into account. Although the organization hosted a few meetings for some school heads to learn more and share their opinions, not all school principals participated and the consultation period was very short. On the other hand, the schools were not very active in expressing their feelings which was the culture of kindergarten leaders in Hong Kong. As an agent of change, she felt she was ‘caught in the middle’. She did not have the authority to make alternatives. For the operation of a top-down school change project, communication between the schools and organization was significant. Comments from schools should be respected. The change agent understood that she could not challenge the culture of communication within the organization and had to adjust her mode of communication.

3. A Change Agent as a Learner At the beginning, the change agent considered herself as a professional, extending her knowledge into classroom practice and enhancing the teaching

and learning of the kindergarten. Her ambitious to be a curriculum developer changing the teaching and learning practices of the school was a failure. Then, ‘I found that I was a negotiator standing in the middle between the school and the organization. It took a long time to develop trust with the school and improve collaboration with the teachers’. She said ‘showing passion of making change’ was essential to construct positive relationships with different parties. To change for the better, a change agent needs to be a learner rather than a teacher. Taking the role of a learner enabled her to understand the context from the teachers and principal’s perspectives. She was more flexible to accept new things and to strive for the better. Considering herself as a learner gave her the patience and energy to rewrite the plan over and over to meet the needs of the school and to satisfy the administrative procedure requested by the organization. ‘Though the work was tedious and I had the feeling that my professionalism was not respected, I considered myself as a learner to learn from these constraints and to search for better solutions in the process of implementing the plan’. In giving up the leading role, a change agent

has the psychological and intellectual space to open herself to learn from different contextual strengths in the process of implementing school change. As a learner, she had the patience to manage the project to grow gradually rather than achieving a recognizable improvement in a short period of time.

Conclusion This school support experience indicates that school change needs to be a “bottom-up” enterprise (Anna Ershler Richert, et.al. ,2001). It means that the initial effort should best begin with a local initiative. On the other hand, the “top-down” strategies are important at the initial stage to provide backup support. Thus, as Fullan (1993) commented, the two approaches can be blended in order to achieve the best results. Besides, school change can only be achieved when all parties work on a collaborative base and in a collective manner (Anna Ershler Richert, et.al. ,2001). McCann and Radford (1993) addressed the importance of collaboration among school staff and between staff and administrators. The passion and learning attitudes of a change agent are the key to success.

ReferencesAnna Ershler Richert, Pamela Stoddard and Michael Kass (2001) ‘The Promise of Partnership for Promoting

Reform’. In Guiding School Change: The Role and Work of Change Agents. New York and London: Teachers College Press.

Bryk, Anthony S. and Schneider Barbara (2003). Trust in Schools: A Core Resource for School Reform. Creating

Caring Schools. 60(6): 40-45. Dolan, W. P. (1994). Restructuring our schools: A primer on systemic change. Kansas City, MO: Systems and

Organization. Frances O’Connell Rust and Helen Freidus (2001) Guiding School Change. New York: Columbia University. New

York and London: Teachers College Press.Fullan, M. (1993) Change forces: Probing the depths of educational reform. London: Falmer Press. Fullan, M. (2001). The New Meeting of Educational Change (3 rd ed). New York and London: Teachers College.Hanna, D. (1988) ‘The organization as an open system’. In Harris, A., Bennett, N. and Preedy, M. (eds)

Organizational Effectiveness and Improvement in Education. Philadelphia: Open University Press, pp.13-21.House, E. A. (1997) ‘A framework for appraising educational reforms’. Educational Researcher 25 (7): 6-14.

The Hong Kong Institute of Education Library

For private study or research only. Not for publication or further reproduction.

74

Hong Kong Journal ofEarly Childhood香 港 幼 兒 學 報 Vol. 9 No. 2 December 2010

75

Hong Kong Journal ofEarly Childhood香 港 幼 兒 學 報 Vol. 9 No. 2 December 2010

Jean Clandinin, D., Michael Connelly F. (2002) ‘Stories to Live By: Narrative Understandings of School Reform’. Curriculum Inquiry 28 (2): 149-164.

McCann, I. & Radford, R. (1993). Mentoring for teachers: The collaborative approach. In B.J. Cadwell and E.M. Carter (Eds.), The return of the mentor: Strategies for workplace learning (pp. 25-41). Washington, DC: Falmer Press.

McDiarmid, G.W. (1995). Realizing new learning for all students: A framework for the professional development of

Kentucky teachers. East Lansing, MI: National Center for Research on Teacher Learning. Schlecty, P. (1990) Schools for the twenty-first century. San Francisco: Jossey Bass.Wasley, Patricia; Robert Hampel; and Richard Clark. (1997). The Puzzle of Whole School Change. Phi Delta Kappan.

「自擁式」校本教師發展模式A Self-owned Model of School-based Teacher Development

陳錦榮香港教育學院課程與教學學系

摘要本文首先分析一般的校本教師發展計畫的弱點。然後提出並描述了筆者在研究當中總結出來的一個名為「自擁式」校本教師發展模式。這個模式共有六個步驟：包括（一）確立目標、（二）參與工作坊、（三）共同備課、（四）同儕觀課、（五）評課、（六）反思。模式的優點是它為教師所擁有，教師可按大家所能適應的步伐進行，互相扶持邁向共同的目標，結果為大家所享，包括學生、家長、教師和校長。

AbstractThis paper begins with an analysis of the weakness of a general model of school-based teacher development. Then the author recommends a self-owned model of school-based teacher development which is developed from his study. This self-owned model consists of 6 phases: (1) setting objectives, (2) participation in workshops, (3) collaborative lesson preparation, (4) peer observation, (5) post-lesson conference and (6) reflection. The model is effective in that it gives ownership to teachers in working in collaboration with their peers as well as staff developers in planning and implementing an innovation. Stake-holders including students, parents, teachers and principals can benefit from this model.

引言 教師發展可讓教師得以賦權，成為領袖教師（陳錦榮，2005），同時也可促進學生的學習。教師發展有不同的途徑，例如透過參與講座或工作坊、本地分享會、本地進修課程、外地交流團、海外進修班等。此外，也可邀請校外專家到校進行校本培訓。雖然校本教師發展有不少支持者（Tubin & Chen, 2002），Luke & McArdle（2009）並不認為校本教師發展能有效提升學生的學習成果，關鍵在於教師是否能互相學習和支持（Anning & Edwards, 1999）及進行有關的行動研究（Engstrom & Danielson, 2006）。本地的校本培訓計畫的設計，一般包括有四個步驟：參與工作坊、共同備課、同儕觀課和評課。這種設計也和 Joyce & Showers（2002）所建議的有效校本培訓計畫所包含的四個元素相類似：理論，建模，實踐和同儕訓練。教師在這種培訓計畫當中，互相交流和支持，這對他們

的專業發展應該有所幫助（Tharp & Gallimore, 1988）。Baker（2001）也認同教師互相交流和支持是非常重要的，但要在一個講專業與充滿和諧及互信的環境下進行，效果才會顯注。此外，不少這種校本培訓計畫的內容，事前是沒有充分和教師討論，就由學校的管理層決定執行，而這些決定很可能是一窩蜂跟随其他學校的做法而作出的（陳錦榮，2003）。Chan（2008）指出，如果讓本地的校本教師發展計畫產生成效，學校宜滿全兩項條件：（1）校本培訓要符合教師及學校的需要，（2）在同儕觀課後，大家要真誠分享意見。

一般的校本教師發展計畫的弱點 欠缺適切的校本培訓

有些校本培訓雖然是學校發展的需要，但是這未必一定是教師的興趣。有時候，學校的管理層選擇了一個未能配合教師當時的興趣

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Hong Kong Journal ofEarly Childhood香 港 幼 兒 學 報 Vol. 9 No. 2 December 2010

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Hong Kong Journal ofEarly Childhood香 港 幼 兒 學 報 Vol. 9 No. 2 December 2010

Jean Clandinin, D., Michael Connelly F. (2002) ‘Stories to Live By: Narrative Understandings of School Reform’. Curriculum Inquiry 28 (2): 149-164.

McCann, I. & Radford, R. (1993). Mentoring for teachers: The collaborative approach. In B.J. Cadwell and E.M. Carter (Eds.), The return of the mentor: Strategies for workplace learning (pp. 25-41). Washington, DC: Falmer Press.

McDiarmid, G.W. (1995). Realizing new learning for all students: A framework for the professional development of

Kentucky teachers. East Lansing, MI: National Center for Research on Teacher Learning. Schlecty, P. (1990) Schools for the twenty-first century. San Francisco: Jossey Bass.Wasley, Patricia; Robert Hampel; and Richard Clark. (1997). The Puzzle of Whole School Change. Phi Delta Kappan.

「自擁式」校本教師發展模式A Self-owned Model of School-based Teacher Development

陳錦榮香港教育學院課程與教學學系

摘要本文首先分析一般的校本教師發展計畫的弱點。然後提出並描述了筆者在研究當中總結出來的一個名為「自擁式」校本教師發展模式。這個模式共有六個步驟：包括（一）確立目標、（二）參與工作坊、（三）共同備課、（四）同儕觀課、（五）評課、（六）反思。模式的優點是它為教師所擁有，教師可按大家所能適應的步伐進行，互相扶持邁向共同的目標，結果為大家所享，包括學生、家長、教師和校長。

AbstractThis paper begins with an analysis of the weakness of a general model of school-based teacher development. Then the author recommends a self-owned model of school-based teacher development which is developed from his study. This self-owned model consists of 6 phases: (1) setting objectives, (2) participation in workshops, (3) collaborative lesson preparation, (4) peer observation, (5) post-lesson conference and (6) reflection. The model is effective in that it gives ownership to teachers in working in collaboration with their peers as well as staff developers in planning and implementing an innovation. Stake-holders including students, parents, teachers and principals can benefit from this model.

引言 教師發展可讓教師得以賦權，成為領袖教師（陳錦榮，2005），同時也可促進學生的學習。教師發展有不同的途徑，例如透過參與講座或工作坊、本地分享會、本地進修課程、外地交流團、海外進修班等。此外，也可邀請校外專家到校進行校本培訓。雖然校本教師發展有不少支持者（Tubin & Chen, 2002），Luke & McArdle（2009）並不認為校本教師發展能有效提升學生的學習成果，關鍵在於教師是否能互相學習和支持（Anning & Edwards, 1999）及進行有關的行動研究（Engstrom & Danielson, 2006）。本地的校本培訓計畫的設計，一般包括有四個步驟：參與工作坊、共同備課、同儕觀課和評課。這種設計也和 Joyce & Showers（2002）所建議的有效校本培訓計畫所包含的四個元素相類似：理論，建模，實踐和同儕訓練。教師在這種培訓計畫當中，互相交流和支持，這對他們

的專業發展應該有所幫助（Tharp & Gallimore, 1988）。Baker（2001）也認同教師互相交流和支持是非常重要的，但要在一個講專業與充滿和諧及互信的環境下進行，效果才會顯注。此外，不少這種校本培訓計畫的內容，事前是沒有充分和教師討論，就由學校的管理層決定執行，而這些決定很可能是一窩蜂跟随其他學校的做法而作出的（陳錦榮，2003）。Chan（2008）指出，如果讓本地的校本教師發展計畫產生成效，學校宜滿全兩項條件：（1）校本培訓要符合教師及學校的需要，（2）在同儕觀課後，大家要真誠分享意見。

一般的校本教師發展計畫的弱點 欠缺適切的校本培訓

有些校本培訓雖然是學校發展的需要，但是這未必一定是教師的興趣。有時候，學校的管理層選擇了一個未能配合教師當時的興趣

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Hong Kong Journal ofEarly Childhood香 港 幼 兒 學 報 Vol. 9 No. 2 December 2010

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Hong Kong Journal ofEarly Childhood香 港 幼 兒 學 報 Vol. 9 No. 2 December 2010

和已有知識的培訓，這是不適宜的。對教師來說，這個由上而下的決定實是太具挑戰和勢不可擋（Brownell, Ross, Sindelar, & Vandiver, 1999）。一般教師不想在他的教學上作巨大的改變，例如在教學策略上，寧可選擇就他們沿用的教學方法去發展，而不願嘗試一些其他嶄新的教學方法（Chan，2005）。當被迫去做與他們的意願和興趣相違背的事情時，教師將不會全心全意地投入，這會影響新措施的實踐（Day, 1986; Fullan & Hargreaves, 1992）。有些教師還會向管理層反映對新措施的負面評價，以希望上級日後能對新措施的實施作重新的考慮。

欠缺真誠的課後分享 教師同儕在課後分享意見時，往往過於拘謹，不願告訴彼此心底的意見。這個現象與華人社會的文化有著緊密的關係。華人社會的溝通形式一向被認為是集體主義制的（Bond & Hwang, 1986; Earley 1989）。集體主義是指華人相信“在同一群體內，個人的將來是互為影響的；個人的幸福亦依賴集體努力的結果（Leung, 1996）。他們認為給面子予同一群體內的成員是非常重要的，因為這有助維持他們的關係（Bond & Hwang, 1986）。他們會盡量避免出現意見分歧，生怕會破壞了組內的和諧（Bond, 1991）。

建議一個「自擁式」校本教師發展計畫 筆者就上述的校本教師發展計畫的弱點曾作過一項研究（Chan, 2008），總結出一個名為

「自擁式」校本教師發展模式。這項研究為時兩年，參與的教師來自一間本地學校，共 25 人。開始時，研究員先和學校校長與教師一起做了一個需要分析，發現他們都一致希望發展以

「合作學習」作為主要的教學策略。當這個目標確立了之後，研究員便為教師度身訂造有關培訓工作坊。完成工作坊之後，教師便運用所學一起共同備課，然後進行教學、同儕觀課和評課。最後教師對整個過程作反思，這便完成一個循環。研究員在每個循環結束時，與教師訪談，藉以暸解他們對這個教師發展計畫的看法及所遇到的困難。另外，研究員還會在每個循環內的各個步驟完成之後，例如參與工作坊或評課，要求每個教師對「合作學習」教學策略的

掌握程度作自我評估。當研究員搜集了所需數據後，接着便為教師開展第二個循環。第二個循環跟第一個循環做法差不多，不同的就是教師要根據反思所得去確立新的目標，以及參與研究員按新的目標而設計的工作坊。在這兩年的研究期間，教師一共進行了 11 個循環，經歷了的共同備課、同儕觀課、評課和反思各有 22次。以下就「自擁式」校本教師發展模式各個步驟加以說明。

（一）確立目標 校本課程發展要得以成功，教師的支持是一個關鍵因素。在未決定是否需要推行任何改革時，校長、主任、教師甚至家長必須首先檢討學生在那方面需要發展或改善，然後才看看有甚麼解決方法，最後選出大家同意的方法。舉例來說，檢討結果顯示需要加强學生的合作能力的話，大家可能會找到不少的方法，好像：採用專題研習、合作學習或探究教學等方法。經過討論，最後大家才同意採用一個或多個方法，其中一個可能是「利用合作學習去提升學生的合作能力」。當校外專家知道學校的目標之後，他還要充分了解學校的情況，包括：教師對合作學習的認識、學生的學習能力和學習方式、班額大小、學校資源、以及預算採用合作學習的班級和科目。下一步便是根據這些資料去草擬一個「自擁式的校本教師發展模式」方案，經學校的主要人員，例如校長或課程發展小組同意作實。

（二）參與工作坊 一般來說，工作坊往往是培訓方案的第一個環節；不過有時候需要為個別學校先來一個講座，向全體教師介紹有關的培訓方案和合作學習的一些概念。假如培訓方案建議在某一個學年進行兩個循環的話，那麽第一個循環工作坊所介紹的合作學習在課堂實踐上最好要方便易用，讓教師及學生容易適應，並為他們帶來少許成功感和滿足感。視乎需要，每個循環內工作坊的次數可以有所不同，但最好不要少過兩次，每次三小時。教師可以透過參與這些工作坊，親身經歷合作學習的過程和了解有關方法在實踐上的可能困難與限制。

（三）共同備課 共同備課需要任教同一級別和科目的教師一起集思廣益，編寫教學設計。可能的話，學校的行政人員要為他們安排一些固定的時間，讓他們可以在學校進行。在共同備課之前，每位教師都應先温習在工作坊上學到的知識及翻閱科目的有關教材，這是盡好個人的責任。共同備課的時候，大家要有同一目標，並且明白目標的達成有賴每個成員的積極參與和貢獻，這是個人對小組要盡好的責任。此外最重要的是，教師必須明白沒有一種教學方法是最好的，選擇合適的方法視乎學習目標和學習內容，所以先要訂下學習目標和內容，然後才考慮採用甚麼教學方法。當共同備課小組取得各成員的共識，認為某個學習目標適合採用合作學習時，便要開始設計一些合作學習的活動。這種互動的學習方式要比聆聽教師的講解自然需要較多的時間，教師要為合作學習活動分配足夠的時間，讓學生進行充分的交流。可能的話，校外專家也會在教 師共同備課時出現，大家可以即時交換意見。

（四）同儕觀課 到了預定時間，教師便要把編寫好了的合作學習設計實踐。此時，學校的行政人員應鼓勵教師互相觀課，有需要時，可為每個學年互相觀課的次數作出建議。校長和科目主任也可以加入觀課隊伍，但必須要向教師指出觀課的目的是為了促進大家的專業發展，與考績性質的觀課不一樣。如果學校平時已經有觀課的習慣，他們一般都印備了一些觀課表，供教師觀課時使用。在合作學習的課堂內，這些觀課表需要作適當的修改才可用得上。教師在觀課時便要看看那些活動是否能夠促使學生進行有效的合作。此外，整個課堂的教學過程適宜拍攝下來，除了可作為授課教師的反思憑証之外，更可讓當時沒有機會觀課的教師和校外專家課後補看。可能的話，學校宜安排校外專家在授課當天觀課，好處是現場觀察比較全面和詳細，並且可有機會讓校外專家參與評課，與授課教師和觀課隊伍交換意見。

（五）評課 評課一般適宜於課堂實踐後，盡早由授課教師聯同觀課隊伍於校內進行，目的是趁大家的記憶猶新之際，評論教師運用合作學習的技巧及學生的學習成效，讓教師即時得到一些回饋。在處理一些與當時觀課重點關係不大的教學的問題上宜輕輕帶出，並作鼓勵。在觀課隊伍中，有曾經與授課教師一起共同備課的同事，也包括一些任教不同班級和科目的同事。前者給授課教師的意見，一般都是富鼓勵性的；後者由於沒有參與過為該課而作的共同備課，所給的意見一般是比較吹毛求疵。就算評課的目的是為了提升大家的專業發展，授課教師面對着這班異質成分的觀課隊伍，多少有些心理壓力，削弱了他對合作學習教學策略的自覺掌握能力。

（六）反思 一般來說，教師在評課之後不會認真去進行反思。在評課獲得正面評價的教師，他們可能覺得沒有需要去為進一步而反思；在評課獲得負面評價的教師，只要在不影響職位之下，他們可能不在乎去反思。事實上，評課與反思無論在時間、地點、人數、目的和心理狀態上都存在不少差異，所以兩者都不可以忽視。反思可分個人和集體，前者讓個別教師於任何時間和地點進行；後者由授課教師滙合共同備課的小組成員一起進行。集體反思最好像共同備課一樣，有固定的時間和地點。反思的主要目的是由教師主動對課堂實踐細心思考，找出做得好及不妥當的地方。對於做得不好的地方，教師須尋找原因，並且提出改善方法。教師在反思過程中，假如對課堂某些事件記憶模糊，便須先行翻看有關的錄影片段，然後繼續反思。一般來說，教師的心情要比在評課時來得輕鬆，教師在這種心理狀態下，翻閱評課隊伍的意見，不難想出改進的法子來。教師經過個人和集體反思之後，自信心大增，他對合作學習教學策略的自覺掌握能力便會有所回升。

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For private study or research only. Not for publication or further reproduction.

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Hong Kong Journal ofEarly Childhood香 港 幼 兒 學 報 Vol. 9 No. 2 December 2010

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Hong Kong Journal ofEarly Childhood香 港 幼 兒 學 報 Vol. 9 No. 2 December 2010

和已有知識的培訓，這是不適宜的。對教師來說，這個由上而下的決定實是太具挑戰和勢不可擋（Brownell, Ross, Sindelar, & Vandiver, 1999）。一般教師不想在他的教學上作巨大的改變，例如在教學策略上，寧可選擇就他們沿用的教學方法去發展，而不願嘗試一些其他嶄新的教學方法（Chan，2005）。當被迫去做與他們的意願和興趣相違背的事情時，教師將不會全心全意地投入，這會影響新措施的實踐（Day, 1986; Fullan & Hargreaves, 1992）。有些教師還會向管理層反映對新措施的負面評價，以希望上級日後能對新措施的實施作重新的考慮。

欠缺真誠的課後分享 教師同儕在課後分享意見時，往往過於拘謹，不願告訴彼此心底的意見。這個現象與華人社會的文化有著緊密的關係。華人社會的溝通形式一向被認為是集體主義制的（Bond & Hwang, 1986; Earley 1989）。集體主義是指華人相信“在同一群體內，個人的將來是互為影響的；個人的幸福亦依賴集體努力的結果（Leung, 1996）。他們認為給面子予同一群體內的成員是非常重要的，因為這有助維持他們的關係（Bond & Hwang, 1986）。他們會盡量避免出現意見分歧，生怕會破壞了組內的和諧（Bond, 1991）。

建議一個「自擁式」校本教師發展計畫 筆者就上述的校本教師發展計畫的弱點曾作過一項研究（Chan, 2008），總結出一個名為

「自擁式」校本教師發展模式。這項研究為時兩年，參與的教師來自一間本地學校，共 25 人。開始時，研究員先和學校校長與教師一起做了一個需要分析，發現他們都一致希望發展以

「合作學習」作為主要的教學策略。當這個目標確立了之後，研究員便為教師度身訂造有關培訓工作坊。完成工作坊之後，教師便運用所學一起共同備課，然後進行教學、同儕觀課和評課。最後教師對整個過程作反思，這便完成一個循環。研究員在每個循環結束時，與教師訪談，藉以暸解他們對這個教師發展計畫的看法及所遇到的困難。另外，研究員還會在每個循環內的各個步驟完成之後，例如參與工作坊或評課，要求每個教師對「合作學習」教學策略的

掌握程度作自我評估。當研究員搜集了所需數據後，接着便為教師開展第二個循環。第二個循環跟第一個循環做法差不多，不同的就是教師要根據反思所得去確立新的目標，以及參與研究員按新的目標而設計的工作坊。在這兩年的研究期間，教師一共進行了 11 個循環，經歷了的共同備課、同儕觀課、評課和反思各有 22次。以下就「自擁式」校本教師發展模式各個步驟加以說明。

（一）確立目標 校本課程發展要得以成功，教師的支持是一個關鍵因素。在未決定是否需要推行任何改革時，校長、主任、教師甚至家長必須首先檢討學生在那方面需要發展或改善，然後才看看有甚麼解決方法，最後選出大家同意的方法。舉例來說，檢討結果顯示需要加强學生的合作能力的話，大家可能會找到不少的方法，好像：採用專題研習、合作學習或探究教學等方法。經過討論，最後大家才同意採用一個或多個方法，其中一個可能是「利用合作學習去提升學生的合作能力」。當校外專家知道學校的目標之後，他還要充分了解學校的情況，包括：教師對合作學習的認識、學生的學習能力和學習方式、班額大小、學校資源、以及預算採用合作學習的班級和科目。下一步便是根據這些資料去草擬一個「自擁式的校本教師發展模式」方案，經學校的主要人員，例如校長或課程發展小組同意作實。

（二）參與工作坊 一般來說，工作坊往往是培訓方案的第一個環節；不過有時候需要為個別學校先來一個講座，向全體教師介紹有關的培訓方案和合作學習的一些概念。假如培訓方案建議在某一個學年進行兩個循環的話，那麽第一個循環工作坊所介紹的合作學習在課堂實踐上最好要方便易用，讓教師及學生容易適應，並為他們帶來少許成功感和滿足感。視乎需要，每個循環內工作坊的次數可以有所不同，但最好不要少過兩次，每次三小時。教師可以透過參與這些工作坊，親身經歷合作學習的過程和了解有關方法在實踐上的可能困難與限制。

（三）共同備課 共同備課需要任教同一級別和科目的教師一起集思廣益，編寫教學設計。可能的話，學校的行政人員要為他們安排一些固定的時間，讓他們可以在學校進行。在共同備課之前，每位教師都應先温習在工作坊上學到的知識及翻閱科目的有關教材，這是盡好個人的責任。共同備課的時候，大家要有同一目標，並且明白目標的達成有賴每個成員的積極參與和貢獻，這是個人對小組要盡好的責任。此外最重要的是，教師必須明白沒有一種教學方法是最好的，選擇合適的方法視乎學習目標和學習內容，所以先要訂下學習目標和內容，然後才考慮採用甚麼教學方法。當共同備課小組取得各成員的共識，認為某個學習目標適合採用合作學習時，便要開始設計一些合作學習的活動。這種互動的學習方式要比聆聽教師的講解自然需要較多的時間，教師要為合作學習活動分配足夠的時間，讓學生進行充分的交流。可能的話，校外專家也會在教 師共同備課時出現，大家可以即時交換意見。

（四）同儕觀課 到了預定時間，教師便要把編寫好了的合作學習設計實踐。此時，學校的行政人員應鼓勵教師互相觀課，有需要時，可為每個學年互相觀課的次數作出建議。校長和科目主任也可以加入觀課隊伍，但必須要向教師指出觀課的目的是為了促進大家的專業發展，與考績性質的觀課不一樣。如果學校平時已經有觀課的習慣，他們一般都印備了一些觀課表，供教師觀課時使用。在合作學習的課堂內，這些觀課表需要作適當的修改才可用得上。教師在觀課時便要看看那些活動是否能夠促使學生進行有效的合作。此外，整個課堂的教學過程適宜拍攝下來，除了可作為授課教師的反思憑証之外，更可讓當時沒有機會觀課的教師和校外專家課後補看。可能的話，學校宜安排校外專家在授課當天觀課，好處是現場觀察比較全面和詳細，並且可有機會讓校外專家參與評課，與授課教師和觀課隊伍交換意見。

（五）評課 評課一般適宜於課堂實踐後，盡早由授課教師聯同觀課隊伍於校內進行，目的是趁大家的記憶猶新之際，評論教師運用合作學習的技巧及學生的學習成效，讓教師即時得到一些回饋。在處理一些與當時觀課重點關係不大的教學的問題上宜輕輕帶出，並作鼓勵。在觀課隊伍中，有曾經與授課教師一起共同備課的同事，也包括一些任教不同班級和科目的同事。前者給授課教師的意見，一般都是富鼓勵性的；後者由於沒有參與過為該課而作的共同備課，所給的意見一般是比較吹毛求疵。就算評課的目的是為了提升大家的專業發展，授課教師面對着這班異質成分的觀課隊伍，多少有些心理壓力，削弱了他對合作學習教學策略的自覺掌握能力。

（六）反思 一般來說，教師在評課之後不會認真去進行反思。在評課獲得正面評價的教師，他們可能覺得沒有需要去為進一步而反思；在評課獲得負面評價的教師，只要在不影響職位之下，他們可能不在乎去反思。事實上，評課與反思無論在時間、地點、人數、目的和心理狀態上都存在不少差異，所以兩者都不可以忽視。反思可分個人和集體，前者讓個別教師於任何時間和地點進行；後者由授課教師滙合共同備課的小組成員一起進行。集體反思最好像共同備課一樣，有固定的時間和地點。反思的主要目的是由教師主動對課堂實踐細心思考，找出做得好及不妥當的地方。對於做得不好的地方，教師須尋找原因，並且提出改善方法。教師在反思過程中，假如對課堂某些事件記憶模糊，便須先行翻看有關的錄影片段，然後繼續反思。一般來說，教師的心情要比在評課時來得輕鬆，教師在這種心理狀態下，翻閱評課隊伍的意見，不難想出改進的法子來。教師經過個人和集體反思之後，自信心大增，他對合作學習教學策略的自覺掌握能力便會有所回升。

The Hong Kong Institute of Education Library

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78

Hong Kong Journal ofEarly Childhood香 港 幼 兒 學 報 Vol. 9 No. 2 December 2010

79

Hong Kong Journal ofEarly Childhood香 港 幼 兒 學 報 Vol. 9 No. 2 December 2010

結語 以上描述了筆者在以往的研究當中，總結出來的一個「自擁式」校本教師發展模式。與別的校本教師發展模式不同，這個模式重視按學校和教師的需要去確立要發展的目標，以及認真進行個人和集體反思。學校可按本身的資源及教師和學生的準備狀態與適應能力去調整

每個學年的循環次數。這個培訓模式的優點是它為教師所擁有，教師可按大家所能適應的步伐進行，互相扶持邁向共同的目標，結果為大家所享，包括學生、家長、教師和校長。校外專家在校本培訓模式初期階段的各個步驟起了摧化作用，隨着教師對有關教學的掌握日趨成熟，校外專家這個角色可由校內成員取代。

參考書目陳錦榮（2003）：探討專題研習的成敗：教師和學生的因素，《教育曙光》 48，頁51-55。陳錦榮（2005）：成為二十一世紀的好老師，輯於李偉成、許景輝編《領袖教師－理論與實踐》，（頁 175-

188），香港，匯智。Anning, A. & Edwards, A. (1999). Promoting children’s learning from birth to five: developing new early years

professionals. Buckingham: Open University Press.Baker, P. J. (2001). Michael Fullan’s compelling vision of educational change: cultivating meaningful relationships

for all. Planning and Changing, 32(3 & 4), 128-143.Bond, M. H. (1991). Beyond the Chinese face: Insights from psychology. Hong Kong: Oxford University Press.Bond, M. H., & Hwang, K. K. (1986). The social psychology of the Chinese people. In M. H. Bond (Ed.), The

psychology of the Chinese people (pp. 213-266). Hong Kong: Oxford University Press.Brownell, M., Ross, D., Sindelar, P., & Vandiver, F. (1999). Research from professional development schools: Can we

live up to the potential? Peabody Journal of Education, 74 (3/4), 209-224.Chan K. W. (2005). A case study of teacher professional development in Hong Kong. International Journal of

Learning, 11, 1355-1360.Chan, K.W. (2008). School-based staff development in cooperative learning. Paper presented in the IAIE/IASCE/

CESEDI conference “Cooperative Learning in Multicultural Societies: Critical Reflections”, Turin, Jan 19-22 2008.

Day, C. (1986). Staff development in the secondary school: Management perspectives. London: Croom Helm.Earley, P. C. (1989). Social loafing and collectivism: A comparison of the United States and the People's Republic of

China. Administrative Science Quarterly, 34, 556-581.Engstrom, M.E., & Danielson, L.M. (2006). Teachers’ perceptions of an on-site staff development model. The

Clearing House, 79(4), 170-173.Fullan, M. G., & Hargreaves, A. (1992). Teacher development and educational change. In M. G. Fullan & A.

Hargreaves (Eds.), Teacher development and educational change (pp. 1-9). London: Falmer Press.Joyce, B. & Showers, B. (2002). Student achievement through staff development. Alexandria, VA: ASCD.Leung, K. (1996). The role of beliefs in Chinese culture. In M. H. Bond (Ed.), The handbook of Chinese psychology

(pp. 247-262). Hong Kong: Oxford University Press.Luke, A., & McArdle, F. (2009). A model for research-based state professional development policy. Asia-Pacific

Journal of Teacher Education, 37(3), 231-251.Tharp, R. & Gallimore, R. (1988). Rousing minds to life: teaching, learning and schooling in social context.

Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Tubin, D., & Chen, D. (2002). School-based staff development for teaching within computerized learning

environments. Journal of Research on Technology in Education, 34(4), 517-529.

幼教研究方法重要概念學習清單A checklist for learning the important concepts in early

childhood research methods

林浩昌香港教育學院幼兒教育學系

摘要本文旨在提供一份幼教研究方法的學習清單，以供學員參考。筆者教授研究方法三年，從學員的提問及提交的研究計劃書及報告中，蒐集了很多常見的難題和誤解。這些問題，尤其是當中涉及基礎研究方法概念的例子，經過篩選、整理後，便成就了這份學習清單。筆者期望能以簡潔的說明方式，讓學員逐步掌握這些複雜、但又非常重要的研究概念。

AbstractThis paper sets out to provide a checklist for learning the importance concepts in early childhood research methods. After teaching courses on research methods to preschool teachers for three years, I have identified many conceptual problems where teachers often experience appalling difficulty. These problems were collected from the questions that the teachers raised in class and from the errors they made in their research proposals or reports. Based on this, the checklist was designed, which hopefully can help teachers little by little get hold of these complicated, but important, concepts in research.

引言 本文撰寫的目的，是為學習研究方法的幼教老師提供一份學習清單，以作為學員課後溫習的工具。筆者教授研究方法課時發現，由於教學與研究部分深層概念並不完全相符，熟悉教學活動的學員，往往會把教學觀念，錯誤地套用在研究之上。舉例說，部分學員採用的評量檢核表，本來只是讓老師在日常教學上使用的，但當這些檢核表用作前、後測時，就會出現教學與評量角色不同的問題。例如，有一評量幼兒社交能力的檢核表，當中包括表現項目：「當老師生病時，幼兒主動問候老師。」在日常使用時，這表現項目完全適用。但是當用作前、後測時，如果學員沒有在這表現項目中畫上 號，究竟這是指幼兒不懂得問候生病的老師？還是老師在前、後測時根本沒有生病？要評量這個項目，老師 是否必須在前、後測時生病？這些含混的地方，正是由於這些檢核表本

來只是為老師日常教學而設計，並不是作為在特定環境中進行測試的工具。學員學習研究方法時，往往遇到很多類似的複雜概念，一時難於完全掌握。因此，筆者把這些學員感到困難的地方，編撰成這份「幼教研究方法重要概念學習清單」（後稱：學習清單），讓學員清楚了解這些難點，逐步掌握這些抽象的研究概念。

換言之，這份學習清單的目的，乃是讓學員在上研究方法課後自己檢核不明白的地方，釐清當中重要的概念。這是一個學習的工具，而不是用來評核學員能力的指標。學習清單的內容，並不只是簡單地從幾本研究方法課本中摘錄出來的。理由是筆者相信：學生學習的內容，不應該完全取決於老師想教什麼，同樣重要的，是學生學習這些內容的經驗。學習清單的內容，是筆者這幾年來教授研究方法課時，學員在課堂上提出的問題、感到困惑的地方，

The Hong Kong Institute of Education Library

For private study or research only. Not for publication or further reproduction.

78

Hong Kong Journal ofEarly Childhood香 港 幼 兒 學 報 Vol. 9 No. 2 December 2010

79

Hong Kong Journal ofEarly Childhood香 港 幼 兒 學 報 Vol. 9 No. 2 December 2010

結語 以上描述了筆者在以往的研究當中，總結出來的一個「自擁式」校本教師發展模式。與別的校本教師發展模式不同，這個模式重視按學校和教師的需要去確立要發展的目標，以及認真進行個人和集體反思。學校可按本身的資源及教師和學生的準備狀態與適應能力去調整

每個學年的循環次數。這個培訓模式的優點是它為教師所擁有，教師可按大家所能適應的步伐進行，互相扶持邁向共同的目標，結果為大家所享，包括學生、家長、教師和校長。校外專家在校本培訓模式初期階段的各個步驟起了摧化作用，隨着教師對有關教學的掌握日趨成熟，校外專家這個角色可由校內成員取代。

參考書目陳錦榮（2003）：探討專題研習的成敗：教師和學生的因素，《教育曙光》 48，頁51-55。陳錦榮（2005）：成為二十一世紀的好老師，輯於李偉成、許景輝編《領袖教師－理論與實踐》，（頁 175-

188），香港，匯智。Anning, A. & Edwards, A. (1999). Promoting children’s learning from birth to five: developing new early years

professionals. Buckingham: Open University Press.Baker, P. J. (2001). Michael Fullan’s compelling vision of educational change: cultivating meaningful relationships

for all. Planning and Changing, 32(3 & 4), 128-143.Bond, M. H. (1991). Beyond the Chinese face: Insights from psychology. Hong Kong: Oxford University Press.Bond, M. H., & Hwang, K. K. (1986). The social psychology of the Chinese people. In M. H. Bond (Ed.), The

psychology of the Chinese people (pp. 213-266). Hong Kong: Oxford University Press.Brownell, M., Ross, D., Sindelar, P., & Vandiver, F. (1999). Research from professional development schools: Can we

live up to the potential? Peabody Journal of Education, 74 (3/4), 209-224.Chan K. W. (2005). A case study of teacher professional development in Hong Kong. International Journal of

Learning, 11, 1355-1360.Chan, K.W. (2008). School-based staff development in cooperative learning. Paper presented in the IAIE/IASCE/

CESEDI conference “Cooperative Learning in Multicultural Societies: Critical Reflections”, Turin, Jan 19-22 2008.

Day, C. (1986). Staff development in the secondary school: Management perspectives. London: Croom Helm.Earley, P. C. (1989). Social loafing and collectivism: A comparison of the United States and the People's Republic of

China. Administrative Science Quarterly, 34, 556-581.Engstrom, M.E., & Danielson, L.M. (2006). Teachers’ perceptions of an on-site staff development model. The

Clearing House, 79(4), 170-173.Fullan, M. G., & Hargreaves, A. (1992). Teacher development and educational change. In M. G. Fullan & A.

Hargreaves (Eds.), Teacher development and educational change (pp. 1-9). London: Falmer Press.Joyce, B. & Showers, B. (2002). Student achievement through staff development. Alexandria, VA: ASCD.Leung, K. (1996). The role of beliefs in Chinese culture. In M. H. Bond (Ed.), The handbook of Chinese psychology

(pp. 247-262). Hong Kong: Oxford University Press.Luke, A., & McArdle, F. (2009). A model for research-based state professional development policy. Asia-Pacific

Journal of Teacher Education, 37(3), 231-251.Tharp, R. & Gallimore, R. (1988). Rousing minds to life: teaching, learning and schooling in social context.

Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.Tubin, D., & Chen, D. (2002). School-based staff development for teaching within computerized learning

environments. Journal of Research on Technology in Education, 34(4), 517-529.

幼教研究方法重要概念學習清單A checklist for learning the important concepts in early

childhood research methods

林浩昌香港教育學院幼兒教育學系

摘要本文旨在提供一份幼教研究方法的學習清單，以供學員參考。筆者教授研究方法三年，從學員的提問及提交的研究計劃書及報告中，蒐集了很多常見的難題和誤解。這些問題，尤其是當中涉及基礎研究方法概念的例子，經過篩選、整理後，便成就了這份學習清單。筆者期望能以簡潔的說明方式，讓學員逐步掌握這些複雜、但又非常重要的研究概念。

AbstractThis paper sets out to provide a checklist for learning the importance concepts in early childhood research methods. After teaching courses on research methods to preschool teachers for three years, I have identified many conceptual problems where teachers often experience appalling difficulty. These problems were collected from the questions that the teachers raised in class and from the errors they made in their research proposals or reports. Based on this, the checklist was designed, which hopefully can help teachers little by little get hold of these complicated, but important, concepts in research.

引言 本文撰寫的目的，是為學習研究方法的幼教老師提供一份學習清單，以作為學員課後溫習的工具。筆者教授研究方法課時發現，由於教學與研究部分深層概念並不完全相符，熟悉教學活動的學員，往往會把教學觀念，錯誤地套用在研究之上。舉例說，部分學員採用的評量檢核表，本來只是讓老師在日常教學上使用的，但當這些檢核表用作前、後測時，就會出現教學與評量角色不同的問題。例如，有一評量幼兒社交能力的檢核表，當中包括表現項目：「當老師生病時，幼兒主動問候老師。」在日常使用時，這表現項目完全適用。但是當用作前、後測時，如果學員沒有在這表現項目中畫上 號，究竟這是指幼兒不懂得問候生病的老師？還是老師在前、後測時根本沒有生病？要評量這個項目，老師 是否必須在前、後測時生病？這些含混的地方，正是由於這些檢核表本

來只是為老師日常教學而設計，並不是作為在特定環境中進行測試的工具。學員學習研究方法時，往往遇到很多類似的複雜概念，一時難於完全掌握。因此，筆者把這些學員感到困難的地方，編撰成這份「幼教研究方法重要概念學習清單」（後稱：學習清單），讓學員清楚了解這些難點，逐步掌握這些抽象的研究概念。

換言之，這份學習清單的目的，乃是讓學員在上研究方法課後自己檢核不明白的地方，釐清當中重要的概念。這是一個學習的工具，而不是用來評核學員能力的指標。學習清單的內容，並不只是簡單地從幾本研究方法課本中摘錄出來的。理由是筆者相信：學生學習的內容，不應該完全取決於老師想教什麼，同樣重要的，是學生學習這些內容的經驗。學習清單的內容，是筆者這幾年來教授研究方法課時，學員在課堂上提出的問題、感到困惑的地方，

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Hong Kong Journal ofEarly Childhood香 港 幼 兒 學 報 Vol. 9 No. 2 December 2010

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Hong Kong Journal ofEarly Childhood香 港 幼 兒 學 報 Vol. 9 No. 2 December 2010

筆者回覆後，記錄下來的；又或是在學員所提交的研究報告中，反映學員理解錯誤的地方，及筆者在批改報告後寫給學員的建議。每年批改學員的功課時，筆者都有就學員最常錯誤理解的概念，加以歸納和分析，撰寫成簡單的報告，派發給學員作為建議，也用作教導來年課程的材料（對此有興趣的讀者，歡迎與筆者聯絡。）。這份學習清單，就是根據這些資料加以整理而成的。

理論基礎 把目光從老師進行什麼教學活動，轉移至學生怎樣學習，是筆者自瑞典馬飛龍教授

（Prof. Ference Marton） 學習得來的現象圖析學（Phenomenographic studies of learning） 及變易理論（Theory of Variation） 中的重要概念。簡單而言，現象圖析學的研究目的，是呈現出學生理解某一現象的不同看法。例如，重要的不只是

「什麼是對於某一具體研究方法的正確理解」，同樣重要的是「學員對於這一研究方法，有什麼不同的理解」。只要把這些不同的理解呈現給學生，學生就能夠明白自己的理解與正確的觀念有什麼分別（即：其變易），這樣老師就能提供學生學習的必要條件（祁永華、謝錫金、岑紹基，2005；Marton, & Tsui, 2004；Lo, Pong, & Chik, 2005）。因此筆者在撰寫這份學習單清時，除了說明某一研究方法的概念是什麼，更會指出對於這個概念的常見誤解。

資料蒐集 這份學習清單的資料，蒐集自筆在過去三年（2007-2009）於香港教育學院教授研究方法有關的課程當中學員的提問及功課。學員主要是香港幼稚園／幼兒院的在職校長或老師，他們就讀兼讀幼兒教育學士二年級。課程包括兩個：一、「兒童學的研究方法」，課時三十小時，共七班學員，228人，功課要求學員撰寫一份研究計劃書；二、「Integrated Field Studies II」，課時三十，另加學校探訪，共兩班學員，51 人，功課要求是：學員須自行設計及執行一項關於教與學的探究，完成後提交報告。這些課程都是資料的來源。

分析結果 以下列舉一些在學員撰寫的報告中常見的問題，以此說明筆者怎樣為學習清單取材。

一、「研究問題」 學員的功課是設計一項教與學的探究計劃。學員一般首先選出一種新穎的教學方法，並定出測試幼兒能力的方式；然後透過課堂實踐，檢視教學方法的成效。例如，在以下的例子，學員想檢視朗讀圖書是否能有效提升幼兒的認字能力。不過報告中的描述，卻反映學員對於何謂「探究」的不理解。在報告開頭的「研究問題」一節，有這樣的描述：

「藉著以上提及有關有助發展兒童認讀能力及朗讀故事的特點，本人深信以上的方法─成人與兒童進行朗讀故事，確是一個可信及能有效提昇兒童認讀能力的方法。 …」

這樣描述的問題是，如果我們從一開始已經完全肯定教學方法的成效，為什麼仍需要進行是次探究？既然「深信」是「可信及能有效提昇」的方法，為什麼仍需要檢核教學方法是否有成效？筆者相信，學員這樣撰寫的原因，是學員習慣於學習怎樣在自己的教學中應用一種教學方法，而不是學習 怎樣檢視一種教學方法的效能。前者要求學員首先肯定教學方法的成效，如果教學方法不是有效的，學員根本無需嘗試學習應用；而後者卻要求學員暫時不完全肯定教學方法的成效，嘗試根據是次計劃收集得來的資料，評估教學方法是否有效。筆者希望學員能清楚理解這個概念，故在學習清單「研究問題」中的首項，就直接指出：計劃必須明確提出研究問題。

二、「研究對象」 學員對於選擇研究對象的概念，往往未能準確掌握。在以下的例子，學員想探討合作遊戲的成效，找出這個教學方法能否有效促進幼兒主動與其他幼兒交往。雖然如此，學員在「研究對象」一節，卻這樣描述：

「主要針對較被動、朋輩較少 4-5 歲幼兒為研究對象，以同一班幼兒為單位。…」

如果研究對象只包括「較被動」的幼兒，題目是否應該改為：「透過合作遊戲較被動兒童能主動與伙伴交往」。如果計劃的重點，是探討合作遊戲這個教學方法，對於一般幼兒的成效，是否應該選擇一般能力的幼兒？筆者認為，這個問題反映學員對於探究計劃的不理解，誤把實驗當成是純粹推行一項教學計劃，以幫助幼兒的發展。因此學員選擇最需要幫助的幼兒，即「較被動」、「朋輩較少」的幼兒。筆者教授研究方法課時特別指出，選擇研究對象，不是要找出最需要幫助的幼兒，而是選擇這個教學方法一般使用的對象。筆者在學習清單「實驗設計」一節中，亦清楚指出：「研究對象」應該和

「研究問題」相符。

三、「前、後不一致」 另一個問題涉及的，是學員能否清晰地組織整份研究報告，全面地設定報告中各個環節之間的關係。例如：一位學員在「研究方法」一節有這樣的描述：

「採用觀察法、現場攝錄、相片、蒐集作品及問卷調查等作參考之用。 …」

這樣的描述本身沒有問題，但問題是：學員在報告往後的「資料分析」一節時，完全沒有提及問卷的結果，也沒有再提及攝錄、相片等，收集到什麼資料。筆者認為，這是由於學員對於報告的各個環節，割裂地分開思考及撰寫，而未能明白環節與環節之間的關係，即：

「研究方法」是探討「研究問題」的方法；「研究結果」是用「研究方法」收集得來的資料的結果。學員在撰寫「研究方法」時，可能為了全面地收集資料，就提出多樣的資料收集方式，但是最後並沒有分析這些資料，甚至根本沒有收集。一般關於研究方法的課本，不會專題論述研究報告各個環節是否一致的問題。但是筆者的經驗是，在學員的研究報告中，前、後不一致的問題是十分常見的。故此筆者除了在課堂

上經常提醒學員，亦在學習清單「論文撰寫」中，清楚指出論文全篇的一致性是十分重要的。從以上的例子可見，學單清單的取材，並不只是從一般研究方法的課本中取得，而是根據學員學習上遇到的困難而撰寫的。

結語 筆者曾經在教學的過程中，派發這份學習清單的部分，給予學員作為課後自行溫習之用。在今年的課程評估中，有學員的回應是：

「本單元對我學習最有幫助的地方是：當然是…每堂派發的教學重點重溫 notes!」、「…能清晰地讓我們慢慢掌握，釐清之前錯誤的概念」、「十分有參考價值，有助思考。」當然這些都只是學員初步的回饋，說不上是對學習清單嚴謹、有系統的評估。

作為未來研究的建議，筆者認為與學員進行深入的訪談，了解學員對於學習清單的看法，是十分有價值的。值得探討的問題包括：可以怎樣使用學習清單，更有效地教授研究方法？學員究竟怎樣使用這份學習清單？是否真的如預期般作為課後的溫習之用？當學員不明白學習清單上的概念時，究竟怎樣嘗試找出正確的概念？使用學習清單有什麼限制？學員會否過度地依賴學習清單，視之為速成的學習筆記？學習清單怎樣能夠引起學員進一步探討研究方法的興趣？學習清單怎樣促進學員閱讀更多有關研究方法的材料？這些都是未來可以繼續探討的問題。

另外筆者的經驗是，每班學員的困難，有時亦不完全相同。筆者每年都會增加或刪除學習清單內部的內容，以配合學員學習的需要。故此教授研究方法的導師，不應該視學習清單為萬靈丹，而應該更有系統地分析所教授學員的學習經驗，更深入了解學員究竟怎樣理解研究方法中重要的概念，這其實正是現象圖析學及變易理論的主要觀點。筆者現於文末附上這份學習清單，與所有幼教同工分享。

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Hong Kong Journal ofEarly Childhood香 港 幼 兒 學 報 Vol. 9 No. 2 December 2010

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Hong Kong Journal ofEarly Childhood香 港 幼 兒 學 報 Vol. 9 No. 2 December 2010

筆者回覆後，記錄下來的；又或是在學員所提交的研究報告中，反映學員理解錯誤的地方，及筆者在批改報告後寫給學員的建議。每年批改學員的功課時，筆者都有就學員最常錯誤理解的概念，加以歸納和分析，撰寫成簡單的報告，派發給學員作為建議，也用作教導來年課程的材料（對此有興趣的讀者，歡迎與筆者聯絡。）。這份學習清單，就是根據這些資料加以整理而成的。

理論基礎 把目光從老師進行什麼教學活動，轉移至學生怎樣學習，是筆者自瑞典馬飛龍教授

（Prof. Ference Marton） 學習得來的現象圖析學（Phenomenographic studies of learning） 及變易理論（Theory of Variation） 中的重要概念。簡單而言，現象圖析學的研究目的，是呈現出學生理解某一現象的不同看法。例如，重要的不只是

「什麼是對於某一具體研究方法的正確理解」，同樣重要的是「學員對於這一研究方法，有什麼不同的理解」。只要把這些不同的理解呈現給學生，學生就能夠明白自己的理解與正確的觀念有什麼分別（即：其變易），這樣老師就能提供學生學習的必要條件（祁永華、謝錫金、岑紹基，2005；Marton, & Tsui, 2004；Lo, Pong, & Chik, 2005）。因此筆者在撰寫這份學習單清時，除了說明某一研究方法的概念是什麼，更會指出對於這個概念的常見誤解。

資料蒐集 這份學習清單的資料，蒐集自筆在過去三年（2007-2009）於香港教育學院教授研究方法有關的課程當中學員的提問及功課。學員主要是香港幼稚園／幼兒院的在職校長或老師，他們就讀兼讀幼兒教育學士二年級。課程包括兩個：一、「兒童學的研究方法」，課時三十小時，共七班學員，228人，功課要求學員撰寫一份研究計劃書；二、「Integrated Field Studies II」，課時三十，另加學校探訪，共兩班學員，51 人，功課要求是：學員須自行設計及執行一項關於教與學的探究，完成後提交報告。這些課程都是資料的來源。

分析結果 以下列舉一些在學員撰寫的報告中常見的問題，以此說明筆者怎樣為學習清單取材。

一、「研究問題」 學員的功課是設計一項教與學的探究計劃。學員一般首先選出一種新穎的教學方法，並定出測試幼兒能力的方式；然後透過課堂實踐，檢視教學方法的成效。例如，在以下的例子，學員想檢視朗讀圖書是否能有效提升幼兒的認字能力。不過報告中的描述，卻反映學員對於何謂「探究」的不理解。在報告開頭的「研究問題」一節，有這樣的描述：

「藉著以上提及有關有助發展兒童認讀能力及朗讀故事的特點，本人深信以上的方法─成人與兒童進行朗讀故事，確是一個可信及能有效提昇兒童認讀能力的方法。 …」

這樣描述的問題是，如果我們從一開始已經完全肯定教學方法的成效，為什麼仍需要進行是次探究？既然「深信」是「可信及能有效提昇」的方法，為什麼仍需要檢核教學方法是否有成效？筆者相信，學員這樣撰寫的原因，是學員習慣於學習怎樣在自己的教學中應用一種教學方法，而不是學習 怎樣檢視一種教學方法的效能。前者要求學員首先肯定教學方法的成效，如果教學方法不是有效的，學員根本無需嘗試學習應用；而後者卻要求學員暫時不完全肯定教學方法的成效，嘗試根據是次計劃收集得來的資料，評估教學方法是否有效。筆者希望學員能清楚理解這個概念，故在學習清單「研究問題」中的首項，就直接指出：計劃必須明確提出研究問題。

二、「研究對象」 學員對於選擇研究對象的概念，往往未能準確掌握。在以下的例子，學員想探討合作遊戲的成效，找出這個教學方法能否有效促進幼兒主動與其他幼兒交往。雖然如此，學員在「研究對象」一節，卻這樣描述：

「主要針對較被動、朋輩較少 4-5 歲幼兒為研究對象，以同一班幼兒為單位。…」

如果研究對象只包括「較被動」的幼兒，題目是否應該改為：「透過合作遊戲較被動兒童能主動與伙伴交往」。如果計劃的重點，是探討合作遊戲這個教學方法，對於一般幼兒的成效，是否應該選擇一般能力的幼兒？筆者認為，這個問題反映學員對於探究計劃的不理解，誤把實驗當成是純粹推行一項教學計劃，以幫助幼兒的發展。因此學員選擇最需要幫助的幼兒，即「較被動」、「朋輩較少」的幼兒。筆者教授研究方法課時特別指出，選擇研究對象，不是要找出最需要幫助的幼兒，而是選擇這個教學方法一般使用的對象。筆者在學習清單「實驗設計」一節中，亦清楚指出：「研究對象」應該和

「研究問題」相符。

三、「前、後不一致」 另一個問題涉及的，是學員能否清晰地組織整份研究報告，全面地設定報告中各個環節之間的關係。例如：一位學員在「研究方法」一節有這樣的描述：

「採用觀察法、現場攝錄、相片、蒐集作品及問卷調查等作參考之用。 …」

這樣的描述本身沒有問題，但問題是：學員在報告往後的「資料分析」一節時，完全沒有提及問卷的結果，也沒有再提及攝錄、相片等，收集到什麼資料。筆者認為，這是由於學員對於報告的各個環節，割裂地分開思考及撰寫，而未能明白環節與環節之間的關係，即：

「研究方法」是探討「研究問題」的方法；「研究結果」是用「研究方法」收集得來的資料的結果。學員在撰寫「研究方法」時，可能為了全面地收集資料，就提出多樣的資料收集方式，但是最後並沒有分析這些資料，甚至根本沒有收集。一般關於研究方法的課本，不會專題論述研究報告各個環節是否一致的問題。但是筆者的經驗是，在學員的研究報告中，前、後不一致的問題是十分常見的。故此筆者除了在課堂

上經常提醒學員，亦在學習清單「論文撰寫」中，清楚指出論文全篇的一致性是十分重要的。從以上的例子可見，學單清單的取材，並不只是從一般研究方法的課本中取得，而是根據學員學習上遇到的困難而撰寫的。

結語 筆者曾經在教學的過程中，派發這份學習清單的部分，給予學員作為課後自行溫習之用。在今年的課程評估中，有學員的回應是：

「本單元對我學習最有幫助的地方是：當然是…每堂派發的教學重點重溫 notes!」、「…能清晰地讓我們慢慢掌握，釐清之前錯誤的概念」、「十分有參考價值，有助思考。」當然這些都只是學員初步的回饋，說不上是對學習清單嚴謹、有系統的評估。

作為未來研究的建議，筆者認為與學員進行深入的訪談，了解學員對於學習清單的看法，是十分有價值的。值得探討的問題包括：可以怎樣使用學習清單，更有效地教授研究方法？學員究竟怎樣使用這份學習清單？是否真的如預期般作為課後的溫習之用？當學員不明白學習清單上的概念時，究竟怎樣嘗試找出正確的概念？使用學習清單有什麼限制？學員會否過度地依賴學習清單，視之為速成的學習筆記？學習清單怎樣能夠引起學員進一步探討研究方法的興趣？學習清單怎樣促進學員閱讀更多有關研究方法的材料？這些都是未來可以繼續探討的問題。

另外筆者的經驗是，每班學員的困難，有時亦不完全相同。筆者每年都會增加或刪除學習清單內部的內容，以配合學員學習的需要。故此教授研究方法的導師，不應該視學習清單為萬靈丹，而應該更有系統地分析所教授學員的學習經驗，更深入了解學員究竟怎樣理解研究方法中重要的概念，這其實正是現象圖析學及變易理論的主要觀點。筆者現於文末附上這份學習清單，與所有幼教同工分享。

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Hong Kong Journal ofEarly Childhood香 港 幼 兒 學 報 Vol. 9 No. 2 December 2010

83

Hong Kong Journal ofEarly Childhood香 港 幼 兒 學 報 Vol. 9 No. 2 December 2010

參考文獻祁永華、謝錫金、岑紹基（2005）：《變易理論與學習空間》，香港，香港大學出版社。Lo, M.L., Pong, W.Y., & Chik, P.P.M.(Eds.).(2005). For Each and Everyone – Catering for Individual Differences

through Learning Studies. Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press.Marton, F., & Tsui, A.B.M. (Eds.). (2004). Classroom Discourse and the Space of Learning. New Jersey: Lawrence

Erlbaum Associates.

鳴謝： 筆者衷心感謝所有參與研究方法課的學員，他們在課堂上的提問，一直觸發筆者去思考「應該怎樣教」的問題。筆者亦感謝太太陳曦圖，為本文作文字修正。

附件幼教研究方法重要概念學習清單

姓名： 學號： 日期：

請把已經明白的學習重點加上✓。如果有不明白的地方，請向導師提出。• 學習研究方法，不能純粹跟隨導師的指示，必須明白自己在探究什麼，為什麼這樣做，有什麼理據支持自己的做法。

研究問題：• 計劃必須有研究問題，即：藉著是次計劃，期望找出什麼問題的答案。• 研究問題必須有意義，不可以預先已有肯定的答案（例如：以英文活動提升英文能力），否則研究結果的意義不大。

• 研究問題必須有焦點，數星期的研究計劃不可能解答過於宏觀的問題（例如：探究所有提升語文能力的方法。老師在數星期內，不可能全部嘗試這些方法）。

• 如果題目是：透過X以提升幼兒的Y，那麼X是教學方法，Y是能力。• 教學方法必須有可能提升能力，兩者的關係不應難以理解（例如：以想像性遊戲提升幼兒跳踏能力）。

• 教學問題與研究問題的分別：教學問題是老師在教學上遇到的問題，例如：幼兒懂得認讀的字形很少；而研究問題則是：老師藉著是次的研究，究竟想找出什麼問題的答案，例如：部件教學能否有效提升幼兒認讀字形？

• 如果題目是：以X提升Y能力，那麼X是提升Y的原因，而不只是情境。例如題目：以故事活動提升幼兒的閱讀興趣，應思考：如果幼兒閱讀興趣不高，有什麼方法令幼兒對閱讀更感興趣？例如：讓幼兒自己選擇圖書。那麼，故事活動其實只是情境，自選圖書才是提升的原因。因此，題目應該改為：在故事活動中以幼兒自選圖書提升幼兒的閱讀興趣。

質化與量化：• 研究方法有兩種取向：質化與量化 ＊ 質化：（例如：部件教學法如何有效提升幼兒認字）深入了解研究問題，以觀察、晤談等方式

進行，用文字詳細描述結果，藉分析提出創見，但是較難以把結論推展到其他情況。 ＊ 量化：（例如：部件教學法是否有效提升幼兒認字）嘗試就研究問題提出明確的答案，以實

驗、測試等方式進行，用數據作為支持的證據，可以某程度上把結論推展。• 採用量化取向，與採用質化取向，進行研究的過程有時完全相反。量化取向：先參考文獻→確認量表每項的類別是可靠的→在特定的環境，按量表觀察幼兒→統計幼兒每項的表現；質化取向：在日常的環境，拍攝、觀察幼兒的表現→從拍攝到的資料，歸納出幼兒表現的類別→把分析出來的類別，與其他文獻作比較。

• 採用量化或質化取向，應根據研究問題的性質。例如：研究問題是探討某教學方法是否比另一方法更為有效，一般就會採用量化取向。但如果研究題是探討某教學方法怎樣/如何有效地進行，則會採用質化取向。

• 量化取向的研究結論，往往是較為是非分明的，例如：朗讀是比講故事更能有效提升認字能力。質化取向的研究結論，則是開放式的，例如：如果老師做朗讀時，指著及讀出書中的每個字，幼兒更能掌握字形與字音的關係；但如果老師朗讀時，強調朗讀聲調抑揚頓挫的趣味，則幼兒對朗讀故事更感興趣。

The Hong Kong Institute of Education Library

For private study or research only. Not for publication or further reproduction.

82

Hong Kong Journal ofEarly Childhood香 港 幼 兒 學 報 Vol. 9 No. 2 December 2010

83

Hong Kong Journal ofEarly Childhood香 港 幼 兒 學 報 Vol. 9 No. 2 December 2010

參考文獻祁永華、謝錫金、岑紹基（2005）：《變易理論與學習空間》，香港，香港大學出版社。Lo, M.L., Pong, W.Y., & Chik, P.P.M.(Eds.).(2005). For Each and Everyone – Catering for Individual Differences

through Learning Studies. Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press.Marton, F., & Tsui, A.B.M. (Eds.). (2004). Classroom Discourse and the Space of Learning. New Jersey: Lawrence

Erlbaum Associates.

鳴謝： 筆者衷心感謝所有參與研究方法課的學員，他們在課堂上的提問，一直觸發筆者去思考「應該怎樣教」的問題。筆者亦感謝太太陳曦圖，為本文作文字修正。

附件幼教研究方法重要概念學習清單

姓名： 學號： 日期：

請把已經明白的學習重點加上✓。如果有不明白的地方，請向導師提出。• 學習研究方法，不能純粹跟隨導師的指示，必須明白自己在探究什麼，為什麼這樣做，有什麼理據支持自己的做法。

研究問題：• 計劃必須有研究問題，即：藉著是次計劃，期望找出什麼問題的答案。• 研究問題必須有意義，不可以預先已有肯定的答案（例如：以英文活動提升英文能力），否則研究結果的意義不大。

• 研究問題必須有焦點，數星期的研究計劃不可能解答過於宏觀的問題（例如：探究所有提升語文能力的方法。老師在數星期內，不可能全部嘗試這些方法）。

• 如果題目是：透過X以提升幼兒的Y，那麼X是教學方法，Y是能力。• 教學方法必須有可能提升能力，兩者的關係不應難以理解（例如：以想像性遊戲提升幼兒跳踏能力）。

• 教學問題與研究問題的分別：教學問題是老師在教學上遇到的問題，例如：幼兒懂得認讀的字形很少；而研究問題則是：老師藉著是次的研究，究竟想找出什麼問題的答案，例如：部件教學能否有效提升幼兒認讀字形？

• 如果題目是：以X提升Y能力，那麼X是提升Y的原因，而不只是情境。例如題目：以故事活動提升幼兒的閱讀興趣，應思考：如果幼兒閱讀興趣不高，有什麼方法令幼兒對閱讀更感興趣？例如：讓幼兒自己選擇圖書。那麼，故事活動其實只是情境，自選圖書才是提升的原因。因此，題目應該改為：在故事活動中以幼兒自選圖書提升幼兒的閱讀興趣。

質化與量化：• 研究方法有兩種取向：質化與量化 ＊ 質化：（例如：部件教學法如何有效提升幼兒認字）深入了解研究問題，以觀察、晤談等方式

進行，用文字詳細描述結果，藉分析提出創見，但是較難以把結論推展到其他情況。 ＊ 量化：（例如：部件教學法是否有效提升幼兒認字）嘗試就研究問題提出明確的答案，以實

驗、測試等方式進行，用數據作為支持的證據，可以某程度上把結論推展。• 採用量化取向，與採用質化取向，進行研究的過程有時完全相反。量化取向：先參考文獻→確認量表每項的類別是可靠的→在特定的環境，按量表觀察幼兒→統計幼兒每項的表現；質化取向：在日常的環境，拍攝、觀察幼兒的表現→從拍攝到的資料，歸納出幼兒表現的類別→把分析出來的類別，與其他文獻作比較。

• 採用量化或質化取向，應根據研究問題的性質。例如：研究問題是探討某教學方法是否比另一方法更為有效，一般就會採用量化取向。但如果研究題是探討某教學方法怎樣/如何有效地進行，則會採用質化取向。

• 量化取向的研究結論，往往是較為是非分明的，例如：朗讀是比講故事更能有效提升認字能力。質化取向的研究結論，則是開放式的，例如：如果老師做朗讀時，指著及讀出書中的每個字，幼兒更能掌握字形與字音的關係；但如果老師朗讀時，強調朗讀聲調抑揚頓挫的趣味，則幼兒對朗讀故事更感興趣。

The Hong Kong Institute of Education Library

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84

Hong Kong Journal ofEarly Childhood香 港 幼 兒 學 報 Vol. 9 No. 2 December 2010

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Hong Kong Journal ofEarly Childhood香 港 幼 兒 學 報 Vol. 9 No. 2 December 2010

實驗設計（量化）：• 運用前測、後測，以得知幼兒能力在實驗過程中提升了多少。• 設立實驗組、控制組，以得知教學方法比較什麼方法較為有效。• 隨機分配，以排除實驗、控制組幼兒其他方面的能力不一。• 選擇一般能力（而非能力較弱）的幼兒作為對象（如果題目只是關於教學方法對一般幼兒的影響）。

• 設立控制組的原因，是排除其他可能引起幼兒能力提升的可能性。如果只有一組實驗組，而後測比前測高分，則分數提升的可能性，除因為實驗組的教學之外，還包括：老師的多年教學經驗、教學過程的時間足夠、幼兒在學校之外的學習、幼兒的生長等很多因素。故此，如果設立了控制組，可以進一步排除這些可能性。

• 前、後測的難度必須一樣，才可以知道幼兒能力有否提升。其他方面（例如：項目出現的先後次序）可略為更改。

• 前、後測的目的，是測試幼兒能力有否提升，而不是測試幼兒的能力是否達到同齡的水平。• 為避免幼兒覺得測試太難而放棄（尤其在前測），可考慮在測試中加入幼兒一定懂得回答的問題，而這些問題的答案則無需加以分析。

• 採用量化取向，實驗一旦開始後，就不應更改當中的教學活動及測試方式。• 就量化比較，進行前測的時間多長（一小時？半小時？），應該與進行後測的時間相同。• 進行前 /後測的時間多長，主要取決於：是否有足夠的時間，能夠測量出幼兒這方面能力的水平，例如：測量社交能力，需有足夠的時間，觀察幼兒有沒有表現到某些社交的行為。

• 前測與後測之間，應該有多長時間（即：實驗教學進行多長時間？八星期？六星期），則取決於：教學的時間是否足夠，以令幼兒在能力上有所提升。例如：部件教學可能只需很短的時間，就能令幼兒學會一些字形，故實驗教學可能只需很短的時間。

• 量化測試與平日學校的評量並不相同，量化測試必須在特定的時段內進行（幼兒在十分鐘內有兩次打架的行為，與幼兒在一星期內有兩次打架的行為，程度並不相同。），測試員只可考慮幼兒在那段時候的表現，而不能考慮幼兒平日在學校其他時段的表現。就算幼兒平日的表現很好，但在那時段沒有表現出來，測試員也不會考慮幼兒平日的表現。

• 量表（或者檢核表）一般有多個項目。測試員用量表收集資料後，應該按照每一個項目逐一分析幼兒的表現。例如：就某一項目，幼兒平均在前測達到什麼水平？後測什麼水平？前、後測是否達到明顯的差異。

• 說明測試的計分方法時，如果純粹按照文獻中的一般定義是不足夠的，例如：變通力是指不同分類的思考；其實應該指出：在是次研究的具體測試中，這些能力怎樣表現出來，例如：在創意動作的表現中，變通力指：幼兒能靈活地改變動作，以一種不同方式的身體動作去表達想法。

問卷設計：• 使用問卷的目的，是探討對象怎樣理解某些事物，並不是探討對象能力的水平。如果需要探討能力，則可以直接進行測試，而不必使用問卷。

• 因為問卷的結果，是用來推論整體人口的特徵，研究員必須有系統地選擇問卷的對象，而不可以讓對象自由選擇是否回答問卷。

• 問卷的問題必須簡單、扼要，並只涉及單一觀念，並且不可以有假設性或暗示性的句子。例如：老師缺乏資源的問題是否嚴重？宜改為：老師的資源：缺乏□　一般□　足夠□

相關研究：• 相關研究是用來探討兩個項目之間的關係，例如：身高愈高，會否體重愈重？

• 相關係數的數值，是由-1.0到+1.0。負數值的意思是：一個項目的數值增加，則另一項目的數值減少；正數值：一個項目增加，則另一項目也增加；0：兩個項目沒有關係。

• 兩個項目有相關，並不等於這兩個項目有因果關係。即相關不可以推論出：一個項目的增加是由於另一項目的增加。

量化分析：• 測試一般包括多項能力，每項能力應該分開處理，逐一分析。• 可以用列表的方式，說明每組幼兒能力表現的平均及標準差。• 可用Excel/SPSS計算資料的平均及標準差。• 除列表外，亦可用Excel/SPSS製作圖示，以說明每組表現的走勢。• t-test的作用，是比較兩組數據有否達到明顯差異。p值愈少，有差異的機會愈大。一般會用.01或.05與p值比較，即：差異是否達到.01或.05的明顯水平。

• 有兩種t-test，以配合兩類數據的性質。 ＊ 成對t-test：兩組數據一一對應。例如：前、後測的表現是否達到明顯差異？ ＊ 不成對t-test：兩組數據沒有一一對應。例如：實驗、控制組的提升是否達到明顯差異？• t-test與相關係數，其中一項不同的地方是，t-test應用於兩組幼兒，比較一項表現（例如：去年幼班幼兒，與今年幼班幼兒，身高的比較）；而相關係數則應用於一組幼兒，測試兩項表現有否相關（例如：幼班幼兒的身高與體重是否相關）。

觀察：• 量化觀察是測試，必須在特定的環境進行（例如：採用時間取樣）；而質化觀察，則可以在自然的環境進行（例如：採用事件取樣）。

• 量化測試必須沒有任何提示（例如：評量認字的字咭，應該沒有配詞或圖示；又：避免在小組中進行，以免幼兒互相提示答案）。

• 量化觀察的環境，必須預先設定（例如：在同一茶點時段，觀察幼兒有沒有說謝謝），而不可在任意的時段進行觀察（否則，幼兒沒有說謝謝，可能只是在那個時段沒有需要說，而不是沒有禮貌）。

• 同時進行教學與評量，老師的角色有時會出現茅盾（例如：如果幼兒未能完成任務，老師作為教學應該出手幫忙，但作為評量則不應干預。）

• 觀察數量多的幼兒，可安排於不同日子（相近的時段）進行，每天集中觀察少量幼兒。• 研究報告必須清楚說明觀察評量表的出處，曾作出什麼修改，以及修改的原因。• 觀察評量表的表現項目，必須單憑觀察可以得知（例如：具體列出幼兒的行為表現），而盡量不應倚靠推測（例如：心理狀態「樂於閱讀」，可指很多不同的行為），從而令不同的觀察員有相同的觀察結果。

• 清楚說明進行評量的環境，以及步驟（例如：在課室進行？分組時段？逐一幼兒？老師提問幼兒時，問題是什麼？給予幼兒什麼指示？）

• 計分方法必須清楚說明，可用具體例子說明：幼兒的什麼行為，觀察員將會給予多少分數。• 要清晰判斷幼兒行為的得分，往往需要重複觀察，故此通常採用錄影較為適合，而不會單憑記憶。

質化設計：• 收集質化資料時，不應預設答案，不應問有引導性的問題，不可作出過份的評鑑及價值判斷。收集資料的目的，並不是要幼兒猜老師心目中的標準答案。老師需保持中立，以及創造自由、開放的氣氛。

The Hong Kong Institute of Education Library

For private study or research only. Not for publication or further reproduction.

84

Hong Kong Journal ofEarly Childhood香 港 幼 兒 學 報 Vol. 9 No. 2 December 2010

85

Hong Kong Journal ofEarly Childhood香 港 幼 兒 學 報 Vol. 9 No. 2 December 2010

實驗設計（量化）：• 運用前測、後測，以得知幼兒能力在實驗過程中提升了多少。• 設立實驗組、控制組，以得知教學方法比較什麼方法較為有效。• 隨機分配，以排除實驗、控制組幼兒其他方面的能力不一。• 選擇一般能力（而非能力較弱）的幼兒作為對象（如果題目只是關於教學方法對一般幼兒的影響）。

• 設立控制組的原因，是排除其他可能引起幼兒能力提升的可能性。如果只有一組實驗組，而後測比前測高分，則分數提升的可能性，除因為實驗組的教學之外，還包括：老師的多年教學經驗、教學過程的時間足夠、幼兒在學校之外的學習、幼兒的生長等很多因素。故此，如果設立了控制組，可以進一步排除這些可能性。

• 前、後測的難度必須一樣，才可以知道幼兒能力有否提升。其他方面（例如：項目出現的先後次序）可略為更改。

• 前、後測的目的，是測試幼兒能力有否提升，而不是測試幼兒的能力是否達到同齡的水平。• 為避免幼兒覺得測試太難而放棄（尤其在前測），可考慮在測試中加入幼兒一定懂得回答的問題，而這些問題的答案則無需加以分析。

• 採用量化取向，實驗一旦開始後，就不應更改當中的教學活動及測試方式。• 就量化比較，進行前測的時間多長（一小時？半小時？），應該與進行後測的時間相同。• 進行前 /後測的時間多長，主要取決於：是否有足夠的時間，能夠測量出幼兒這方面能力的水平，例如：測量社交能力，需有足夠的時間，觀察幼兒有沒有表現到某些社交的行為。

• 前測與後測之間，應該有多長時間（即：實驗教學進行多長時間？八星期？六星期），則取決於：教學的時間是否足夠，以令幼兒在能力上有所提升。例如：部件教學可能只需很短的時間，就能令幼兒學會一些字形，故實驗教學可能只需很短的時間。

• 量化測試與平日學校的評量並不相同，量化測試必須在特定的時段內進行（幼兒在十分鐘內有兩次打架的行為，與幼兒在一星期內有兩次打架的行為，程度並不相同。），測試員只可考慮幼兒在那段時候的表現，而不能考慮幼兒平日在學校其他時段的表現。就算幼兒平日的表現很好，但在那時段沒有表現出來，測試員也不會考慮幼兒平日的表現。

• 量表（或者檢核表）一般有多個項目。測試員用量表收集資料後，應該按照每一個項目逐一分析幼兒的表現。例如：就某一項目，幼兒平均在前測達到什麼水平？後測什麼水平？前、後測是否達到明顯的差異。

• 說明測試的計分方法時，如果純粹按照文獻中的一般定義是不足夠的，例如：變通力是指不同分類的思考；其實應該指出：在是次研究的具體測試中，這些能力怎樣表現出來，例如：在創意動作的表現中，變通力指：幼兒能靈活地改變動作，以一種不同方式的身體動作去表達想法。

問卷設計：• 使用問卷的目的，是探討對象怎樣理解某些事物，並不是探討對象能力的水平。如果需要探討能力，則可以直接進行測試，而不必使用問卷。

• 因為問卷的結果，是用來推論整體人口的特徵，研究員必須有系統地選擇問卷的對象，而不可以讓對象自由選擇是否回答問卷。

• 問卷的問題必須簡單、扼要，並只涉及單一觀念，並且不可以有假設性或暗示性的句子。例如：老師缺乏資源的問題是否嚴重？宜改為：老師的資源：缺乏□　一般□　足夠□

相關研究：• 相關研究是用來探討兩個項目之間的關係，例如：身高愈高，會否體重愈重？

• 相關係數的數值，是由-1.0到+1.0。負數值的意思是：一個項目的數值增加，則另一項目的數值減少；正數值：一個項目增加，則另一項目也增加；0：兩個項目沒有關係。

• 兩個項目有相關，並不等於這兩個項目有因果關係。即相關不可以推論出：一個項目的增加是由於另一項目的增加。

量化分析：• 測試一般包括多項能力，每項能力應該分開處理，逐一分析。• 可以用列表的方式，說明每組幼兒能力表現的平均及標準差。• 可用Excel/SPSS計算資料的平均及標準差。• 除列表外，亦可用Excel/SPSS製作圖示，以說明每組表現的走勢。• t-test的作用，是比較兩組數據有否達到明顯差異。p值愈少，有差異的機會愈大。一般會用.01或.05與p值比較，即：差異是否達到.01或.05的明顯水平。

• 有兩種t-test，以配合兩類數據的性質。 ＊ 成對t-test：兩組數據一一對應。例如：前、後測的表現是否達到明顯差異？ ＊ 不成對t-test：兩組數據沒有一一對應。例如：實驗、控制組的提升是否達到明顯差異？• t-test與相關係數，其中一項不同的地方是，t-test應用於兩組幼兒，比較一項表現（例如：去年幼班幼兒，與今年幼班幼兒，身高的比較）；而相關係數則應用於一組幼兒，測試兩項表現有否相關（例如：幼班幼兒的身高與體重是否相關）。

觀察：• 量化觀察是測試，必須在特定的環境進行（例如：採用時間取樣）；而質化觀察，則可以在自然的環境進行（例如：採用事件取樣）。

• 量化測試必須沒有任何提示（例如：評量認字的字咭，應該沒有配詞或圖示；又：避免在小組中進行，以免幼兒互相提示答案）。

• 量化觀察的環境，必須預先設定（例如：在同一茶點時段，觀察幼兒有沒有說謝謝），而不可在任意的時段進行觀察（否則，幼兒沒有說謝謝，可能只是在那個時段沒有需要說，而不是沒有禮貌）。

• 同時進行教學與評量，老師的角色有時會出現茅盾（例如：如果幼兒未能完成任務，老師作為教學應該出手幫忙，但作為評量則不應干預。）

• 觀察數量多的幼兒，可安排於不同日子（相近的時段）進行，每天集中觀察少量幼兒。• 研究報告必須清楚說明觀察評量表的出處，曾作出什麼修改，以及修改的原因。• 觀察評量表的表現項目，必須單憑觀察可以得知（例如：具體列出幼兒的行為表現），而盡量不應倚靠推測（例如：心理狀態「樂於閱讀」，可指很多不同的行為），從而令不同的觀察員有相同的觀察結果。

• 清楚說明進行評量的環境，以及步驟（例如：在課室進行？分組時段？逐一幼兒？老師提問幼兒時，問題是什麼？給予幼兒什麼指示？）

• 計分方法必須清楚說明，可用具體例子說明：幼兒的什麼行為，觀察員將會給予多少分數。• 要清晰判斷幼兒行為的得分，往往需要重複觀察，故此通常採用錄影較為適合，而不會單憑記憶。

質化設計：• 收集質化資料時，不應預設答案，不應問有引導性的問題，不可作出過份的評鑑及價值判斷。收集資料的目的，並不是要幼兒猜老師心目中的標準答案。老師需保持中立，以及創造自由、開放的氣氛。

The Hong Kong Institute of Education Library

For private study or research only. Not for publication or further reproduction.

86

Hong Kong Journal ofEarly Childhood香 港 幼 兒 學 報 Vol. 9 No. 2 December 2010

87

Hong Kong Journal ofEarly Childhood香 港 幼 兒 學 報 Vol. 9 No. 2 December 2010

• 質化取向的重點，是找出幼兒的角度。若能指出幼兒的看法，而這些看法與大部分成人的預期不同，則研究結果的更有創見。

質化分析：• 所收集得到幼兒的對話、訪談等資料，必須加以分析，並按照研究的問題/研究的焦點，歸納出主題或幾個類別。

• 對於教與學的質化課堂資料，一般可以按照以下三個角度分析：一、教學的角度：老師提升幼兒某種能力，有什麼策略/方法？二、學習的角度：幼兒學習某種能力，有什麼不同的表現？三、評量的角度：評量幼兒某種能力，有什麼評量的方法？

• 收集質化資料的目的，與做幼兒學習歷程檔案的目的不同。後者只需能說明幼兒的能力即可，其閱讀結果的對象可能是幼兒的家長；而前者則必須經過分析，歸納出一般性、對其他讀者有意義的結論（讀者不一定關心個別幼兒的表現），例如：要能達到認字的目的，進行朗讀時必需有的技巧。

• 質化的課堂觀察，可以全程錄影，以免漏失重要的片段。至於逐字稿，則可以只謄寫有用的部分，而無需全部謄寫，因為一小時的錄影，一般都需要幾小時的謄寫時間。

• 質化分析出來的類別名稱，不可過分籠統，也無需過分詳細，應能適當描述類別的特徵。• 質化分析出來的類別/結果，沒有絕對的答案。對於相同的資料，甲研究員可能分析出四類，而乙研究員則只得出三類。故此應提出所得分類的理據，例如：幼兒的寫字困難有三類，老師可就每一類困難作出不同的教學方法，以幫助幼兒。

論文撰寫：• 論文全篇的一致性，是十分重要的，例如：在「研究方法」中，有提及使用問卷，則「研究結果」部分必須有問卷結果的分析。

• 如果整個研究計劃包括幾題研究問題，則應就每一題研究問題，釐清該問題是量/質化的取向，收集什麼資料，怎樣分析等。例如：研究問題一：朗讀能否提升認字？量化取向、認字表、前後測比較等；研究問題二：朗讀如何提升認字？質化取向、課堂錄影、朗讀提升認字的片段等。

• 要描述教學活動，可以在內文中，以其中一次的教學活動舉例，以說明活動大致是怎樣進行的；而在附件中，把詳細全部活動的教案附上。同理，要說明評量方法時，可以在內文指出評量表其中的一項；而在附件附上全份評量表。

• 「討論及建議」部分的內容，應該根據是次研究的結果而寫，而非純粹綜合文獻中的建議。例如：是次的研究結果顯示：朗讀是有效的，因此「討論及建議」部分可以建議：老師應多使用朗讀。至於怎樣選擇圖書，如果是次研究根本沒有探討，則無需加以討論。

• 研究計劃書，是未曾進行的研究，故此沒有實質的研究結果部分，而分析只可說出資料將會怎樣分析。

文獻探討：• 當內文曾引用某文獻時，例如：Teale&Sulzby（1989），「參考資料」中必須列出Teale&Sulzby（1989）的出版資料。

• 「文獻探討」中，不應純粹只包括學科的一般書籍，例如：關於語文發展的書籍，而應採用具體與是次研究問題有關的論文，例如：關於評量幼兒寫字的論文。

• 「文獻探討」中，應採用可靠的資料，例如：學報、學術專輯，而非其他非學術性的報導，例如：報紙、雜誌。

• 對於資料可靠性的要求，「引言」比「文獻探討」部分可略為降低，例如：可以在「引言」中引用一則新聞，從而引發一社會現象的討論。

• 如果引用報紙中報導的某研究結果，則必須找出該研究本來的報告，然後直接引用該報告。• 引用文獻時，應統一使用西曆，例如：陳淑琴（2000）；或統一使用民國年曆，例如：陳淑琴（民89）。

• 一般情況下，不會引用導師的課堂筆記。• 內文未曾引用過的文獻，無須在「參考資料」中列出。• 文獻的作者數量不同，例如：一位、兩位，在內文中引用時，其格式略有不同。• 如果內文引用同一作者在同一年份多於一份的著作，可使用 a, b等分辨，例如：林浩昌（2006a）、林浩昌（2006b）。這並不找表林浩昌其人2006年只有兩份著作，而只是在內文中引用了其中兩份。

參考資料：• 請必須留意以下類型文獻的引用格式（根據學生手冊）： ＊ 期刊文章： 王文科（1989）：教育研究的基本性質及其相關概念剖析，《特殊教育學報》4，頁271-303。 ＊ 某書中的一章的作者： 林清出（1988）：儀器記錄法，輯於楊國樞等編《社會及行為科學研究法》下冊，（頁493-

548），台北，東華書局。 ＊ 學位論文： 王木榮（1985）：《威廉斯創造力測驗修訂研究》，國立台灣教育學院輔導研究所碩士論文，未

出版。• 參考資料的文獻，學生手冊是要求按漢語拼音排列的，而一般的做法則通常可以使用筆畫數排序。

• 引用英文文獻的格式，可參考AmericanPsychologicalAssociationPublicationManual；而中文則可參考學生手冊。

• 研究員對於研究題目有好奇心，則探討的過程是十分有趣的。祝你有一個愉快的研究經驗！

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Hong Kong Journal ofEarly Childhood香 港 幼 兒 學 報 Vol. 9 No. 2 December 2010

• 質化取向的重點，是找出幼兒的角度。若能指出幼兒的看法，而這些看法與大部分成人的預期不同，則研究結果的更有創見。

質化分析：• 所收集得到幼兒的對話、訪談等資料，必須加以分析，並按照研究的問題/研究的焦點，歸納出主題或幾個類別。

• 對於教與學的質化課堂資料，一般可以按照以下三個角度分析：一、教學的角度：老師提升幼兒某種能力，有什麼策略/方法？二、學習的角度：幼兒學習某種能力，有什麼不同的表現？三、評量的角度：評量幼兒某種能力，有什麼評量的方法？

• 收集質化資料的目的，與做幼兒學習歷程檔案的目的不同。後者只需能說明幼兒的能力即可，其閱讀結果的對象可能是幼兒的家長；而前者則必須經過分析，歸納出一般性、對其他讀者有意義的結論（讀者不一定關心個別幼兒的表現），例如：要能達到認字的目的，進行朗讀時必需有的技巧。

• 質化的課堂觀察，可以全程錄影，以免漏失重要的片段。至於逐字稿，則可以只謄寫有用的部分，而無需全部謄寫，因為一小時的錄影，一般都需要幾小時的謄寫時間。

• 質化分析出來的類別名稱，不可過分籠統，也無需過分詳細，應能適當描述類別的特徵。• 質化分析出來的類別/結果，沒有絕對的答案。對於相同的資料，甲研究員可能分析出四類，而乙研究員則只得出三類。故此應提出所得分類的理據，例如：幼兒的寫字困難有三類，老師可就每一類困難作出不同的教學方法，以幫助幼兒。

論文撰寫：• 論文全篇的一致性，是十分重要的，例如：在「研究方法」中，有提及使用問卷，則「研究結果」部分必須有問卷結果的分析。

• 如果整個研究計劃包括幾題研究問題，則應就每一題研究問題，釐清該問題是量/質化的取向，收集什麼資料，怎樣分析等。例如：研究問題一：朗讀能否提升認字？量化取向、認字表、前後測比較等；研究問題二：朗讀如何提升認字？質化取向、課堂錄影、朗讀提升認字的片段等。

• 要描述教學活動，可以在內文中，以其中一次的教學活動舉例，以說明活動大致是怎樣進行的；而在附件中，把詳細全部活動的教案附上。同理，要說明評量方法時，可以在內文指出評量表其中的一項；而在附件附上全份評量表。

• 「討論及建議」部分的內容，應該根據是次研究的結果而寫，而非純粹綜合文獻中的建議。例如：是次的研究結果顯示：朗讀是有效的，因此「討論及建議」部分可以建議：老師應多使用朗讀。至於怎樣選擇圖書，如果是次研究根本沒有探討，則無需加以討論。

• 研究計劃書，是未曾進行的研究，故此沒有實質的研究結果部分，而分析只可說出資料將會怎樣分析。

文獻探討：• 當內文曾引用某文獻時，例如：Teale&Sulzby（1989），「參考資料」中必須列出Teale&Sulzby（1989）的出版資料。

• 「文獻探討」中，不應純粹只包括學科的一般書籍，例如：關於語文發展的書籍，而應採用具體與是次研究問題有關的論文，例如：關於評量幼兒寫字的論文。

• 「文獻探討」中，應採用可靠的資料，例如：學報、學術專輯，而非其他非學術性的報導，例如：報紙、雜誌。

• 對於資料可靠性的要求，「引言」比「文獻探討」部分可略為降低，例如：可以在「引言」中引用一則新聞，從而引發一社會現象的討論。

• 如果引用報紙中報導的某研究結果，則必須找出該研究本來的報告，然後直接引用該報告。• 引用文獻時，應統一使用西曆，例如：陳淑琴（2000）；或統一使用民國年曆，例如：陳淑琴（民89）。

• 一般情況下，不會引用導師的課堂筆記。• 內文未曾引用過的文獻，無須在「參考資料」中列出。• 文獻的作者數量不同，例如：一位、兩位，在內文中引用時，其格式略有不同。• 如果內文引用同一作者在同一年份多於一份的著作，可使用 a, b等分辨，例如：林浩昌（2006a）、林浩昌（2006b）。這並不找表林浩昌其人2006年只有兩份著作，而只是在內文中引用了其中兩份。

參考資料：• 請必須留意以下類型文獻的引用格式（根據學生手冊）： ＊ 期刊文章： 王文科（1989）：教育研究的基本性質及其相關概念剖析，《特殊教育學報》4，頁271-303。 ＊ 某書中的一章的作者： 林清出（1988）：儀器記錄法，輯於楊國樞等編《社會及行為科學研究法》下冊，（頁493-

548），台北，東華書局。 ＊ 學位論文： 王木榮（1985）：《威廉斯創造力測驗修訂研究》，國立台灣教育學院輔導研究所碩士論文，未

出版。• 參考資料的文獻，學生手冊是要求按漢語拼音排列的，而一般的做法則通常可以使用筆畫數排序。

• 引用英文文獻的格式，可參考AmericanPsychologicalAssociationPublicationManual；而中文則可參考學生手冊。

• 研究員對於研究題目有好奇心，則探討的過程是十分有趣的。祝你有一個愉快的研究經驗！

The Hong Kong Institute of Education Library

For private study or research only. Not for publication or further reproduction.

88

Hong Kong Journal ofEarly Childhood香 港 幼 兒 學 報 Vol. 9 No. 2 December 2010

89

Hong Kong Journal ofEarly Childhood香 港 幼 兒 學 報 Vol. 9 No. 2 December 2010

香港幼師薪酬及年資的現況A Study on the Salaries and Qualifications of Hong Kong

Preschool Teachers

劉寶蓮香港教育學院幼兒教育學系

摘要學券制下, 香港政府取消了幼師的薪級表, 認為幼教應按自由市場决定幼師的待遇, 為了對幼師薪酬與專業發展的現況有最新的了解, 本研究邀請了約154名於香港教育學院進修的在職幼師參加一項問卷調查, 其中82位是幼兒高級文憑課程的學員，72位是幼兒教育學士學位的學員, 搜集幼師的學歷、年資及全職薪酬的資料。調查結果顯示受訪者最低的薪金為7,000元, 最高的為30,000元, 平均薪金為15,849.8元, 平均年資約13年, 接近兩成在職幼師薪金低於被取消的薪級表的起薪點。結果同時顯示幼師只有部份年資能在薪金中得到反映, 但薪金沒有反映幼師的學歷的高低, 進修得來的專業學歷並沒有帶來薪酬的增長, 建議政府在要求幼師專業進修及提升學歷之餘, 亦必須要對幼師提供合理的薪酬保障制度。

AbstractUnder the Voucher scheme for early childhood education, the Hong Kong government abandoned the salary scale for early childhood teachers with the assumption that teacher s’ salary should be determined by the job market. A survey was conducted to collect information about the salary, teaching experience and professional development of 154 early childhood teachers. Among the subjects, 82 were enrolled in the Higher Diploma in Early Childhood Education course and 72 were in the Bachelor of Early Childhood Education course. Results indicated that the average salary was $15,849.8. The salary range was from $7,000 to $30,000 and the average years of teaching were 12.97. Close to 20% of teachers are receiving salaries that are lower than the starting point of the abandoned salary scale. Teaching experience was partially reflected on the salary but not for qualification. Teachers who have higher qualification when compared to teachers with lower qualification do not receive higher salary. It is proposed that when the Government demands teachers to have a higher professional qualification, the teachers’ salary should be able to reflect the advancement in education qualification completed.

引言 2007 年 9 月，是香港幼兒教育發展的一個重要的日子，因為從那時起，香港政府以 20 億公帑，推出為期五年的幼稚園學券制。學券制的兩個主要目的是減輕家長對學費的負擔和資助幼師進修，從而提升師資水準（蘇淑蓮，2009） 。與此同時，政府取消了幼師的薪級表，認為學券計劃應讓幼教界享有自由決定員工待遇的空間，以達致自由市場營運的彈性及最低規管的限制。教評會幼兒教育召集人劉湘文（文匯報，2006） 曾指出學券制主要的受惠對象是

家長，對老師的經濟情況卻沒有幫助，因為幼稚園的資源並沒有增加。2010 年，幼師人數是10,063人（教育局，2010） ，究竟在教育界 ,幼師隊伍的薪酬以自由市場的思維及商業運作的模式去處理是否最公平的做法呢？實在是值得深入探討。

研究問題的背景 回顧香港幼兒教育的歷史，幼兒教育過往都是以私人或非牟利機構營辨，幼師的訓練是很少而且並不足夠（Opper, 1992） 。1997 年香

港政府才正視改善幼師的資歷的問題，為幼師增加培訓的機會（Ho, 2006） 。過去十多年，政府要求及鼓勵幼師進修，藉以提升師資水平，但是幼師薪酬有否得到合理的提升卻是值得了解的，岳佩蕭（Opper, 1993） 於九零年代做了一個關於本港幼師工作環境的研究，發現偏低薪酬是當時幼師對工作不滿的第二個最普遍的原因。在較近期的研究中，黃惠吟（ Wong, 2000） 在一個關於幼師的工作滿足感的研究中發現幼師對薪酬及工作條件普遍存在不滿的現象，這個現象到最近還仍然存在，在不久前閱讀到有二十年資歷的老師說：「現在還停滯於 90 年代的薪金，簡直諷刺！」（蘇淑蓮 ,2009）。另一近期對幼師工作的滿足感的研究（Wong,2010） 也發現幼師對其薪酬存在𣎴滿。最近香港教育學院發表了一個幼兒教師工作研究報告（袁慧筠、黎國、羅家儀，2010） 發現超過四成的幼師認為向己的工作和薪酬並不相符，同時很多幼師認為新政策𣎴再設立教學人員標準薪級表，令其薪酬欠缺保障。總結以上的研究資料及幼師的經驗都顯示幼師對薪酬存在不滿，究竟幼師薪酬偏低這情况是否一個普遍的客觀現象？還是只發生於某一類型的幼師身上？ 基於從上的研究均是以幼師對自己薪酬的主觀印象作薪酬作調查，缺乏客觀的薪酬數字資料，研究若能提供客觀的資料，可以幫助我們對幼師的薪酬有更深入的了解。薪酬一般與學歷及年資有相關，本文嘗試从在職的幼師作為對象對幼師的學歷、薪酬及年資的現況作出一些探討。

研究方法 為了掌握更多在職幼師的薪酬及年資的資料，筆者邀請了約 154 名於香港教育學院進修的在職的幼師，以自願的性質參加一項問卷調查，其中 82 位是幼兒教育高級文憑課程的學員，72 位是幼兒教育學士學位的學員，當中並不包括任何任職校長的學員，但全部均擁有合格幼稚員教師的資格，調查對象的年資由一年

至三十年不等，問卷調查為半結構性形式，調查內容主要是搜集幼師的學歷、年資及全職薪酬的資料，然後再作出客觀的分析並討論幼師待遇與學歷及年資的問題。全部資料以 SPSS 進行統計分析，採用最高 .05 的顯著水準。使用的統計方法有描述式統計（descriptive statistic）、t考驗（t-test） 及Spearman相關分析 。

調查結果幼師的普遍待遇

調查顯示該 154 位受訪者的平均年資為12.97 年，標準差為 6.55，最短年資為 1 年，最高為 30 年，相差達 29 年。 平均薪金為 15,849.8元，標準差為3,739.3，最低的薪金為7,000元，最高的為 30,000 元，相差達 23,000 元。當中 26位幼師的薪金比教育局所建議的幼稚園暨幼兒中心幼兒工作員標準薪級表的起薪點 $1,2460為低，約佔整體的 16.8%。 驟眼看，平均月薪15,849.8 元好像頗為不錯，但最高和最低薪金的相差是 23,000 元，最低薪金的幼師若以幼師平均工時計算只有三十多元時薪，最高薪金的幼師比最低薪金的超出四倍之多，究竟薪金較低的幼師是否是因為入行年資短，以致薪金不及年資長的幼師？為了回答這問題，筆者用了Spearman 相關去分析年資及薪金兩者的相關性，結果顯示年資與薪金呈現正相關性（r=.33, N=154, p<.01） ，即年資越高，薪金也傾向越高，但兩者相關性的強度𣎴算很高，即年資的增長只在薪金的遞增上得到一些反映。為了深入了解不同組別的幼師的實際情況，筆者進行了分組別的分析。

BEd學員與HD學員的年資與薪金比較 由於受訪者包括幼兒教育高級文憑課程的學員及幼兒教育學士學位的學員， 兩者的學歷有所不同，筆者將其分為幼兒教育高級文憑課程學員組（HD） 及幼兒教育學士學位學員組（BEd） 兩組再進行分析，結果如下表一顯示。

HD BEdM SD 人數 M SD 人數

年資 13.24 4.77 82 12.66 8.14 72薪金 15383 4055.8 82 16381.4 3290.5 72

表一 HD組與BEd組學員年資及薪金的平均數與標準差 The Hong Kong Institute of Education Library

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Hong Kong Journal ofEarly Childhood香 港 幼 兒 學 報 Vol. 9 No. 2 December 2010

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Hong Kong Journal ofEarly Childhood香 港 幼 兒 學 報 Vol. 9 No. 2 December 2010

香港幼師薪酬及年資的現況A Study on the Salaries and Qualifications of Hong Kong

Preschool Teachers

劉寶蓮香港教育學院幼兒教育學系

摘要學券制下, 香港政府取消了幼師的薪級表, 認為幼教應按自由市場决定幼師的待遇, 為了對幼師薪酬與專業發展的現況有最新的了解, 本研究邀請了約154名於香港教育學院進修的在職幼師參加一項問卷調查, 其中82位是幼兒高級文憑課程的學員，72位是幼兒教育學士學位的學員, 搜集幼師的學歷、年資及全職薪酬的資料。調查結果顯示受訪者最低的薪金為7,000元, 最高的為30,000元, 平均薪金為15,849.8元, 平均年資約13年, 接近兩成在職幼師薪金低於被取消的薪級表的起薪點。結果同時顯示幼師只有部份年資能在薪金中得到反映, 但薪金沒有反映幼師的學歷的高低, 進修得來的專業學歷並沒有帶來薪酬的增長, 建議政府在要求幼師專業進修及提升學歷之餘, 亦必須要對幼師提供合理的薪酬保障制度。

AbstractUnder the Voucher scheme for early childhood education, the Hong Kong government abandoned the salary scale for early childhood teachers with the assumption that teacher s’ salary should be determined by the job market. A survey was conducted to collect information about the salary, teaching experience and professional development of 154 early childhood teachers. Among the subjects, 82 were enrolled in the Higher Diploma in Early Childhood Education course and 72 were in the Bachelor of Early Childhood Education course. Results indicated that the average salary was $15,849.8. The salary range was from $7,000 to $30,000 and the average years of teaching were 12.97. Close to 20% of teachers are receiving salaries that are lower than the starting point of the abandoned salary scale. Teaching experience was partially reflected on the salary but not for qualification. Teachers who have higher qualification when compared to teachers with lower qualification do not receive higher salary. It is proposed that when the Government demands teachers to have a higher professional qualification, the teachers’ salary should be able to reflect the advancement in education qualification completed.

引言 2007 年 9 月，是香港幼兒教育發展的一個重要的日子，因為從那時起，香港政府以 20 億公帑，推出為期五年的幼稚園學券制。學券制的兩個主要目的是減輕家長對學費的負擔和資助幼師進修，從而提升師資水準（蘇淑蓮，2009） 。與此同時，政府取消了幼師的薪級表，認為學券計劃應讓幼教界享有自由決定員工待遇的空間，以達致自由市場營運的彈性及最低規管的限制。教評會幼兒教育召集人劉湘文（文匯報，2006） 曾指出學券制主要的受惠對象是

家長，對老師的經濟情況卻沒有幫助，因為幼稚園的資源並沒有增加。2010 年，幼師人數是10,063人（教育局，2010） ，究竟在教育界 ,幼師隊伍的薪酬以自由市場的思維及商業運作的模式去處理是否最公平的做法呢？實在是值得深入探討。

研究問題的背景 回顧香港幼兒教育的歷史，幼兒教育過往都是以私人或非牟利機構營辨，幼師的訓練是很少而且並不足夠（Opper, 1992） 。1997 年香

港政府才正視改善幼師的資歷的問題，為幼師增加培訓的機會（Ho, 2006） 。過去十多年，政府要求及鼓勵幼師進修，藉以提升師資水平，但是幼師薪酬有否得到合理的提升卻是值得了解的，岳佩蕭（Opper, 1993） 於九零年代做了一個關於本港幼師工作環境的研究，發現偏低薪酬是當時幼師對工作不滿的第二個最普遍的原因。在較近期的研究中，黃惠吟（ Wong, 2000） 在一個關於幼師的工作滿足感的研究中發現幼師對薪酬及工作條件普遍存在不滿的現象，這個現象到最近還仍然存在，在不久前閱讀到有二十年資歷的老師說：「現在還停滯於 90 年代的薪金，簡直諷刺！」（蘇淑蓮 ,2009）。另一近期對幼師工作的滿足感的研究（Wong,2010） 也發現幼師對其薪酬存在𣎴滿。最近香港教育學院發表了一個幼兒教師工作研究報告（袁慧筠、黎國、羅家儀，2010） 發現超過四成的幼師認為向己的工作和薪酬並不相符，同時很多幼師認為新政策𣎴再設立教學人員標準薪級表，令其薪酬欠缺保障。總結以上的研究資料及幼師的經驗都顯示幼師對薪酬存在不滿，究竟幼師薪酬偏低這情况是否一個普遍的客觀現象？還是只發生於某一類型的幼師身上？ 基於從上的研究均是以幼師對自己薪酬的主觀印象作薪酬作調查，缺乏客觀的薪酬數字資料，研究若能提供客觀的資料，可以幫助我們對幼師的薪酬有更深入的了解。薪酬一般與學歷及年資有相關，本文嘗試从在職的幼師作為對象對幼師的學歷、薪酬及年資的現況作出一些探討。

研究方法 為了掌握更多在職幼師的薪酬及年資的資料，筆者邀請了約 154 名於香港教育學院進修的在職的幼師，以自願的性質參加一項問卷調查，其中 82 位是幼兒教育高級文憑課程的學員，72 位是幼兒教育學士學位的學員，當中並不包括任何任職校長的學員，但全部均擁有合格幼稚員教師的資格，調查對象的年資由一年

至三十年不等，問卷調查為半結構性形式，調查內容主要是搜集幼師的學歷、年資及全職薪酬的資料，然後再作出客觀的分析並討論幼師待遇與學歷及年資的問題。全部資料以 SPSS 進行統計分析，採用最高 .05 的顯著水準。使用的統計方法有描述式統計（descriptive statistic）、t考驗（t-test） 及Spearman相關分析 。

調查結果幼師的普遍待遇

調查顯示該 154 位受訪者的平均年資為12.97 年，標準差為 6.55，最短年資為 1 年，最高為 30 年，相差達 29 年。 平均薪金為 15,849.8元，標準差為3,739.3，最低的薪金為7,000元，最高的為 30,000 元，相差達 23,000 元。當中 26位幼師的薪金比教育局所建議的幼稚園暨幼兒中心幼兒工作員標準薪級表的起薪點 $1,2460為低，約佔整體的 16.8%。 驟眼看，平均月薪15,849.8 元好像頗為不錯，但最高和最低薪金的相差是 23,000 元，最低薪金的幼師若以幼師平均工時計算只有三十多元時薪，最高薪金的幼師比最低薪金的超出四倍之多，究竟薪金較低的幼師是否是因為入行年資短，以致薪金不及年資長的幼師？為了回答這問題，筆者用了Spearman 相關去分析年資及薪金兩者的相關性，結果顯示年資與薪金呈現正相關性（r=.33, N=154, p<.01） ，即年資越高，薪金也傾向越高，但兩者相關性的強度𣎴算很高，即年資的增長只在薪金的遞增上得到一些反映。為了深入了解不同組別的幼師的實際情況，筆者進行了分組別的分析。

BEd學員與HD學員的年資與薪金比較 由於受訪者包括幼兒教育高級文憑課程的學員及幼兒教育學士學位的學員， 兩者的學歷有所不同，筆者將其分為幼兒教育高級文憑課程學員組（HD） 及幼兒教育學士學位學員組（BEd） 兩組再進行分析，結果如下表一顯示。

HD BEdM SD 人數 M SD 人數

年資 13.24 4.77 82 12.66 8.14 72薪金 15383 4055.8 82 16381.4 3290.5 72

表一 HD組與BEd組學員年資及薪金的平均數與標準差 The Hong Kong Institute of Education Library

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Hong Kong Journal ofEarly Childhood香 港 幼 兒 學 報 Vol. 9 No. 2 December 2010

以 t考驗比較兩組學員的年資及薪金資料，結果顯示：薪金於兩組沒有顯著差異，只有年資於兩組之間確實有顯著差異，（t=2.12,df=152, p<.05） ，即 HD 組年資較 BEd 組為高，但其薪金與BEd組沒有顯著差異。 由於兩組的年資有顯著差異，筆者再用了Spearman 相關去分析 HD 及 BEdニ組學員的年資及薪金兩者的相関性。結果顯示：薪金於HD 組呈現正相關性（r=.31, N=82, p<.01） ，於 BEd亦呈現正相關性（r=.40, N=72, p<.01） ，即兩組均顯示年資越高，薪金也傾向越高。

不同資歷的BEd學員與HD學員的年資與薪金比較

由於學員的入行年資分別由 1 年至 30 年不等，筆者从學員的平均年資約十三年為分介線將學員的資歷分為低和高二個年資等級统計薪金平均數與標準差，再以ｔ考驗比較不同組別學員的年資及薪金。低年資指年資低於平均以下，即一至＋ニ年年資的老師 , 高年資則指十三年經驗以上的老師。結果如表二顯示。

年資 HD BEdM SD 人數 M SD 人數

低（一至＋二年）

14149.3 3727.5 40 15219.9 2958.0 36

高（十三年或以上）

16558.0 4047.7 42 17542.9 3230.9 36

表二 HD組與BEd組學員不同年資等級的薪金平均數與標準差

以ｔ考驗比較 HD 組及 BEd 組內低和高年資學員的薪金差距，發現兩組學員的低和高年資學員的薪金確有分別，HD 組低和高年資學員的薪金顯著分別（t=-2.8, df=80, p<0.05） ，BEd組低和高年資學員的薪金也有顯著分別（t=-3.18, df=70, p<0.01） ，兩組均顯示年資有在薪金中反映出來。

分析顯示二組學員的年資有在薪金中反映出來，但薪金有否反映學員的學歷是第二個分析的要點，BEd 的學員已擁有 HD 的資歷，但HD 的學員仍在進修中， 兩組的學歷並不相同。以所有學員作分析，以ｔ考驗比較低和高年資學員的薪金差距 , 發現所有低年資的學員，不論有沒有 HD 資歷，薪金都沒有顯著的分別（t=-1.38, dt=74），高年資的學員的薪金也出現相同的情況，即沒有顯著的分別（t=-1.17, df=76） 。結果顯示學員的學歷並不對其薪金有顯著的影響，這跟之前的發現即CE組與BEd組的薪金沒有差別是吻合的。

討論 根據以上調查結果顯示，一般幼師的年資

有在薪金中反映出，但是其學歷並不對其薪金有顯著的影響，即幼教界對基本資歷以上的幼師沒有特別給予較高的薪金，這樣的做法對於進修的幼師並不構成鼓勵的作用，這可能是其中一個幼師對其薪酬存在𣎴滿的原因。學卷制其中一個目的是資助幼師進修，但與此同時，政府卻取消了幼師的薪級表，認為學券計劃應讓幼教界享有自由決定員工待遇的空間，這樣的做法是否能解决本研究所發現的現況問題，即業界沒有將幼師的學歷在薪金中反映，若政府能夠在薪級表反映幼師的學歷及年資會對幼師專業帶來正面的影響，增加幼師的保障。

幼師整體平均 薪金 $15,383 好像很不錯，很多人說 2009 年大學剛畢業的大學生很多都是 $8,000 多而已，在調查受訪者中，有 26 人的薪金是低於起薪點 $12,460，其平均年資是 10.4年，最低的薪金是 $7,000，與薪級表的起薪點$12,460 的距離實在很遠，是 $5460 之距，足見建議標準薪級表與這群幼師沒有什麽關係。根據香港教育學院 2008 年畢業生的調查（2009） 顯示，幼兒教育高級文憑課程的職前畢業生平均薪金是 $12,662，這樣的差別顯示出部份在

職幼師的薪酬有被遏抑或剝削的現象。根據香港教育統籌局所言：「所有幼稚園應享有完全自决權，按市場情況釐定教師和校長的薪酬。因此，在推行建議學卷計劃後，我們𣎴能為幼稚園教師或校長制定薪級表或規定其薪酬水平。」（2006, p.6） ，香港教育统籌局於 2007 年表示會致力提高幼兒教育的質素及提升師資專業水平，但根據教育局資料顯示 , 2008 年幼師有 10.6% 流失率，超過一千人放棄教席，幼教界普遍認為對幼師保障𣎴足，恐未來流失率會增加（香港文匯報 ,2008）。試問在缺乏保障的薪酬架構，幼師受到不公平的待遇的情況下，幼兒教育如何能吸引及保留高質素的師資，沒有高質素及受保障的師資，如何能有高質素的教育？兩者實在是非常矛盾。

幼師是幼兒的啟蒙老師，影響整個幼兒階段的教育質素，若然政府採取一個積極𣎴干預的政策，任由業界按自由市場的規則釐定幼師的薪酬，當中會出現很多問題，就如是次調查發現，約有百份之十八的受訪者，平均年資達十年的幼師薪金低於起薪點，當中有幼師只獲$7,000 月薪，遠低於初出茅蘆的幼兒教育高級文憑課程的職前畢業生，雖然這並不是大部份幼師的待遇，百份之十八也不是一個小數目，政府希望有高素質的幼兒教育，就必須對整體幼師的薪酬有所承担，讓幼師的薪酬獲得合理的保障，營造公平的幼師工作環境，認同幼師的學歷及年資經驗，這樣才能吸引高質素的人才並推動幼師 的專業發展，為高質素的幼兒教育創造基本的先决條件。針對上述的問題，現在提出下列建議。

建議訂立幼師薪酬的監管機制

合理的待遇對保留及吸引高質素的人才是非常重要的，因此政府必須防止幼師薪酬被遏

抑或剝削的情況，設立申訴及監管的機制去保障幼師的合理權益是一個公道的做法。

訂立幼師薪酬級表 以自由市場的角度以確保幼師獲得合理的待遇其實存在着很大的漏洞。 如果要確保幼師獲得合理的保障，政府就必須重新考慮替幼師訂立能反映學歷及年資的薪級表，讓業界對幼師薪酬的釐定有一個準則，讓相同學歷及年資的幼師擁有相若的待遇，以增加幼師隊伍的穩定性。

給予幼師專業發展成果的認同 幼師的專業發展對幼兒教育的質素最為重要，當局應積極支持及推動幼師的專業發展 , 獎勵幼師持續進修，認同幼師學歷提升的成果 , 並將其反映於薪酬机制之內，𣎴分中、小、幼各教育階段，同學歷同待遇的做法，讓幼師得到作為教師應得的公平待遇。

總結 本調查結果顯示了部份幼師的待遇問題，但本調查以在進修的幼師為調查對象，日後若能將調查對象擴濶致包括全港的幼師，以隨機抽樣的方法再進行深入的薪酬趨勢研究，可以讓我們更了解整體幼兒教師的待遇實況。提高幼兒教育質素是社會樂於見到的事，政府要求幼師進修及提升學歷之餘，亦必須要對幼師提供合理的保障，訂立幼師薪酬監管的機制，制定幼師薪級表及認同幼師專業發展成果，讓幼師在一個公平及隱定的工作環境中專心教導我們的下一代。

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Hong Kong Journal ofEarly Childhood香 港 幼 兒 學 報 Vol. 9 No. 2 December 2010

以 t考驗比較兩組學員的年資及薪金資料，結果顯示：薪金於兩組沒有顯著差異，只有年資於兩組之間確實有顯著差異，（t=2.12,df=152, p<.05） ，即 HD 組年資較 BEd 組為高，但其薪金與BEd組沒有顯著差異。 由於兩組的年資有顯著差異，筆者再用了Spearman 相關去分析 HD 及 BEdニ組學員的年資及薪金兩者的相関性。結果顯示：薪金於HD 組呈現正相關性（r=.31, N=82, p<.01） ，於 BEd亦呈現正相關性（r=.40, N=72, p<.01） ，即兩組均顯示年資越高，薪金也傾向越高。

不同資歷的BEd學員與HD學員的年資與薪金比較

由於學員的入行年資分別由 1 年至 30 年不等，筆者从學員的平均年資約十三年為分介線將學員的資歷分為低和高二個年資等級统計薪金平均數與標準差，再以ｔ考驗比較不同組別學員的年資及薪金。低年資指年資低於平均以下，即一至＋ニ年年資的老師 , 高年資則指十三年經驗以上的老師。結果如表二顯示。

年資 HD BEdM SD 人數 M SD 人數

低（一至＋二年）

14149.3 3727.5 40 15219.9 2958.0 36

高（十三年或以上）

16558.0 4047.7 42 17542.9 3230.9 36

表二 HD組與BEd組學員不同年資等級的薪金平均數與標準差

以ｔ考驗比較 HD 組及 BEd 組內低和高年資學員的薪金差距，發現兩組學員的低和高年資學員的薪金確有分別，HD 組低和高年資學員的薪金顯著分別（t=-2.8, df=80, p<0.05） ，BEd組低和高年資學員的薪金也有顯著分別（t=-3.18, df=70, p<0.01） ，兩組均顯示年資有在薪金中反映出來。

分析顯示二組學員的年資有在薪金中反映出來，但薪金有否反映學員的學歷是第二個分析的要點，BEd 的學員已擁有 HD 的資歷，但HD 的學員仍在進修中， 兩組的學歷並不相同。以所有學員作分析，以ｔ考驗比較低和高年資學員的薪金差距 , 發現所有低年資的學員，不論有沒有 HD 資歷，薪金都沒有顯著的分別（t=-1.38, dt=74），高年資的學員的薪金也出現相同的情況，即沒有顯著的分別（t=-1.17, df=76） 。結果顯示學員的學歷並不對其薪金有顯著的影響，這跟之前的發現即CE組與BEd組的薪金沒有差別是吻合的。

討論 根據以上調查結果顯示，一般幼師的年資

有在薪金中反映出，但是其學歷並不對其薪金有顯著的影響，即幼教界對基本資歷以上的幼師沒有特別給予較高的薪金，這樣的做法對於進修的幼師並不構成鼓勵的作用，這可能是其中一個幼師對其薪酬存在𣎴滿的原因。學卷制其中一個目的是資助幼師進修，但與此同時，政府卻取消了幼師的薪級表，認為學券計劃應讓幼教界享有自由決定員工待遇的空間，這樣的做法是否能解决本研究所發現的現況問題，即業界沒有將幼師的學歷在薪金中反映，若政府能夠在薪級表反映幼師的學歷及年資會對幼師專業帶來正面的影響，增加幼師的保障。

幼師整體平均 薪金 $15,383 好像很不錯，很多人說 2009 年大學剛畢業的大學生很多都是 $8,000 多而已，在調查受訪者中，有 26 人的薪金是低於起薪點 $12,460，其平均年資是 10.4年，最低的薪金是 $7,000，與薪級表的起薪點$12,460 的距離實在很遠，是 $5460 之距，足見建議標準薪級表與這群幼師沒有什麽關係。根據香港教育學院 2008 年畢業生的調查（2009） 顯示，幼兒教育高級文憑課程的職前畢業生平均薪金是 $12,662，這樣的差別顯示出部份在

職幼師的薪酬有被遏抑或剝削的現象。根據香港教育統籌局所言：「所有幼稚園應享有完全自决權，按市場情況釐定教師和校長的薪酬。因此，在推行建議學卷計劃後，我們𣎴能為幼稚園教師或校長制定薪級表或規定其薪酬水平。」（2006, p.6） ，香港教育统籌局於 2007 年表示會致力提高幼兒教育的質素及提升師資專業水平，但根據教育局資料顯示 , 2008 年幼師有 10.6% 流失率，超過一千人放棄教席，幼教界普遍認為對幼師保障𣎴足，恐未來流失率會增加（香港文匯報 ,2008）。試問在缺乏保障的薪酬架構，幼師受到不公平的待遇的情況下，幼兒教育如何能吸引及保留高質素的師資，沒有高質素及受保障的師資，如何能有高質素的教育？兩者實在是非常矛盾。

幼師是幼兒的啟蒙老師，影響整個幼兒階段的教育質素，若然政府採取一個積極𣎴干預的政策，任由業界按自由市場的規則釐定幼師的薪酬，當中會出現很多問題，就如是次調查發現，約有百份之十八的受訪者，平均年資達十年的幼師薪金低於起薪點，當中有幼師只獲$7,000 月薪，遠低於初出茅蘆的幼兒教育高級文憑課程的職前畢業生，雖然這並不是大部份幼師的待遇，百份之十八也不是一個小數目，政府希望有高素質的幼兒教育，就必須對整體幼師的薪酬有所承担，讓幼師的薪酬獲得合理的保障，營造公平的幼師工作環境，認同幼師的學歷及年資經驗，這樣才能吸引高質素的人才並推動幼師 的專業發展，為高質素的幼兒教育創造基本的先决條件。針對上述的問題，現在提出下列建議。

建議訂立幼師薪酬的監管機制

合理的待遇對保留及吸引高質素的人才是非常重要的，因此政府必須防止幼師薪酬被遏

抑或剝削的情況，設立申訴及監管的機制去保障幼師的合理權益是一個公道的做法。

訂立幼師薪酬級表 以自由市場的角度以確保幼師獲得合理的待遇其實存在着很大的漏洞。 如果要確保幼師獲得合理的保障，政府就必須重新考慮替幼師訂立能反映學歷及年資的薪級表，讓業界對幼師薪酬的釐定有一個準則，讓相同學歷及年資的幼師擁有相若的待遇，以增加幼師隊伍的穩定性。

給予幼師專業發展成果的認同 幼師的專業發展對幼兒教育的質素最為重要，當局應積極支持及推動幼師的專業發展 , 獎勵幼師持續進修，認同幼師學歷提升的成果 , 並將其反映於薪酬机制之內，𣎴分中、小、幼各教育階段，同學歷同待遇的做法，讓幼師得到作為教師應得的公平待遇。

總結 本調查結果顯示了部份幼師的待遇問題，但本調查以在進修的幼師為調查對象，日後若能將調查對象擴濶致包括全港的幼師，以隨機抽樣的方法再進行深入的薪酬趨勢研究，可以讓我們更了解整體幼兒教師的待遇實況。提高幼兒教育質素是社會樂於見到的事，政府要求幼師進修及提升學歷之餘，亦必須要對幼師提供合理的保障，訂立幼師薪酬監管的機制，制定幼師薪級表及認同幼師專業發展成果，讓幼師在一個公平及隱定的工作環境中專心教導我們的下一代。

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professionalism. International Journal of Educational Development. v26, 3, 305-314.Opper, Sylvia, (1993) Working Conditions of Early Childhood Educators in Hong Kong. CUHK Primary Education,

v3. 1, 1-8.Wong, Y. H. P. (2008). Kindergarten teachers’perceived school culture and well-being: a comparison of non-profit-

making and profit-making kindergartens. Early Child Development and Care, v9,1, 1-8.Wong, W. Y. (2000). Job satisfaction of kindergarten teachers in Hong Kong. A holistic interpretation. Unpublished

doctoral dissertation, University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong.袁慧筠、黎國、羅家儀（2010）：《幼兒教師工作研究報告》，香港教育學院。教 育 局 ：《 幼 稚 園 教 育 统 計 資 料 》， 瀏 覽 日 期 : 8 / 6 / 2 0 1 0 ， h t t p : / / w w w . e d b . g o v . h k / i n d e x .

aspz?langno=1037&print=yes教 育 局 ：《 財 務 委 員 會 討 論 文 件 》， 瀏 覽 日 期 : 8 / 6 / 2 0 0 9 ， h t t p : / / w w w . e d b . g o v . h k / i n d e x .

aspx?nodeID=91&langno=2教育學院（2009）： “Strong Employment Demand for HKIED Graduates”, HKIED Intranet（2/6/2009） 蘇淑蓮（2009）：學券制究竟幫到了誰？《大公報》2009年5月28日。頁A18。

《文匯報》，二零零六年＋一月十日，http://paper.wenweipo.com/2006/11/10/HK0611100067.htm《文匯報》，二零零八年四月十七日，http://paper.wenweipo.com/2008/4/17/HK0804170056.htm

强化語文環境──繪本教育

黃玉卿東華三院田灣幼稚園

校園簡介 東華三院田灣幼稚園成立於一九九八年，為東華三院屬下第十三所幼稚園，位於香港仔田灣邨，為香港南區居民提供優質的幼兒教育服務。

學校秉承東華三院一貫的辦學精神，為學生進行「全人教育」，使他們在語言、社群、情緒、體能及智能等各方面有均衡的發展；並提供一個優良的學習環境，使能發揮個人的潛能，日後具備知識、技能、有獨立思考能力、勇於承擔責任和關注社會事務的良好公民；以校訓「勤、儉、忠、信」為進德修業的依歸，勉勵學生拓展豐盛而有意義的人生。

教育理念 學校從遊戲、學習和照顧這三大元素，以整合並重的精神發展課程，通過各種學習環境的氛圍﹐培養幼兒擁有「三心兩意」，包括好奇心、關愛心、自信心、樂意和創意。從生活中培養幼兒具備專注、觀察、推理及解決問題的能力，讓幼兒對知識和周圍環境具有積極的學習態度，並為幼兒建立正面的自我觀念、自尊及自立能力，培養社交技能和責任感，成為一個主動積極、熱愛生活、關心社會的好孩子。

學校深信語文能促進幼兒的思維能力，是一切智力發展的基礎。因此一直致力培養幼兒建立早期的閱讀能力，推廣閱讀文化。並採用各種教學策略，促進幼兒的語文發展。

發展繪本教學 學校自一九九八年開校以來便採用「朗讀圖書」的方式，將書面語（現代漢語）作朗讀示範，讓幼兒進一步認識中文的書寫文字。並於二零零二年更嘗試以故事書取代教科書，進行主題活動，由於故事題材多樣化，又貼近幼兒的興趣，而老師所設計的活動都是依著幼兒的遊戲需要，進行有功能性的讀寫活動，確能增進幼兒的語文學習成效。同時，亦能培養幼兒成為喜歡閱讀的孩子，促進學生整體的學習能力。

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