ED 406 490 UD 031 651 TITLE African-American Heritage. A ... · DOCUMENT RESUME. UD 031 651....

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African-American Heritage. A Resource Guide forTeachers. Grades 6-8. Draft.New York City Board of Education, Brooklyn. Office ofMulticultural Education.ISBN-1-55839-257-293

126p.

Publications Sales Center of the Office ofInstructional Publications, Room 515, 131 LivingstonStreet, Brooklyn, NY 11201.Books (010) Guides Classroom Use TeachingGuides (For Teacher) (052)

MF01/PC06 Plus Postage.African Culture; African History; Black Culture;Black History; *Blacks; *Civil Rights; *Curriculum;Foreign Countries; Intermediate Grades; Junior HighSchools; *Middle Schools; *Resource Materials;Thematic Approach

IDENTIFIERS *African Americans; Middle School Students

ABSTRACTThis curriculum guide provides teachers with

materials on African-American history and culture that include someof the most recent scholarship in the field. The activities andresources assembled do not constitute a comprehensive treatment ofAfrican-American history, but they do examine many topics within thathistory. The volume encompasses six themes: (1) "The AfricanHomeland"; (2) "Nile Valley Civilizations"; (3) "African Empires andVillage Societies"; (4) "Africans in the Americas"; (5) "The Strugglefor Human Rights"; and (6) "Present and Future." Each theme sectionopens with background information for the teacher and then listsmajor ideas and the performance objectives for the theme. Learningactivities for each theme provide a development section.Corresponding activity sheets can be duplicated for students and usedas the basis for class discussion. The activity sheets containmaterials of various types, such as photographs, maps, and othervisual aids. A list of suggested readings for teachers contains 114items. (SLD)

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Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be madefrom the original document.

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AFRICAN-AMERICAN

HERITAGE

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A RESOURCE GUIDE FOR TEACHERS

U.S. DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONOffice of Educational Research and Improvement

EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES INFORMATIONCENTER (ERIC)

Y1/41;his document has been reproduced aseceived from the person or organization

originating it.O Minor changes have been made to improve

reproduction quality.

Points of view or opinions stated in this docu-ment do not necessarily represent officialOE RI position or policy.

GRADES 6-8PERMISSION TO REPRODUCE AND

DISSEMINATE THIS MATERIALHAS BEEN GRANTED BY

Evelyn /3 Kall.hatc.NVC tkard of- Ed.

TO THE EDUCATIONAL RESOURCESINFORMATION CENTER (ERIC)

BOARD OF EDUCATION OF THE CITY OF NEW YORK

BEST COPY AVAILABLE

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AFRICAN-AMERICANHERITAGE

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A RESOURCE GUIDEFOR TEACHERS

GRADES 6-8

BOARD OF EDUCATIONOF THE CITY OF NEW YORK

3

BOARD OF EDUCATIONOF THE CITY OF NEW YORK

Carol A. GresserPresident

Irene H. ImpellizzeriVice President

Victor GotbaumMichael J. Petrides

Luis 0. ReyesNinfa Segarra-VelezDennis M. Walcott

Members

Andrea SchlesingerStudent Advisory Member

Ramon C. CortinesChancellor

11/18/93

I I

Copyright ©1993by the Board of Education of the City of New York

ISBN 1-55839-257-2

Application for permission to reprint any section of thismaterial should be made to the Chancellor, 110Livingston Street, Brooklyn, NY 11201. Reprint of anysection of this material shall carry the line, "Reprintedfrom African-American Heritage: A Resource Guide forTeachers by permission of the Board of Education of theCity of New York."

Persons and institutions may obtain copies of thispublication from the Publications Sales Center of theOffice of Instructional Publications, Room 515, 131Livingston Street, Brooklyn, NY 11201. See currentcatalog for price. For information, call (718) 935-3990.

Every effort has been made to ascertain properownership of copyrighted materials and obtainpermission for their use. Any omission is unintentionaland will be corrected in future printings upon propernotification.

It is the policy of the Board of Education of the CitySchool District of the City of New York not todiscriminate on the basis of race, color, creed, religion,national origin, age, disability, marital status, sexualorientation, or sex in its educational programs, activities,and employment policies, and to maintain anenvironment free of sexual harassment, as required bylaw. Inquiries regarding compliance with appropriatelaws may be directed to Mercedes A. Nesfield, Director,Office of Equal Opportunity, 110 Livingston Street,Room 601, Brooklyn, NY 11201, Telephone: (718) 935-3320.

FOREWORD

New York City is a multicultural community like no other in the world. Living,working, and attending school here has many cultural benefits, but also entailscertain responsibilities, including the need not only to be aware of one's owncultural identity, but also to understand and appreciate the cultures of others.To help meet the challenge of cultivating this responsibility in its students, theBoard of Education of the City of New York has developed this draft edition ofAfrican-American Heritage: A Resource Guide for Teachers.

The need to understand the rich African inheritance is especially acute today.Many aspects of African-American history have been distorted, leaving somepeople of all backgrounds generally uninformed or misinformed. This lack ofaccurate information continues to perpetuate the cycle of racial bias, prejudice,and discrimination.

This curriculum guide provides teachers with materials on African-Americanhistory and culture that include some of the most recent scholarship in the field.While the activities and resources presented here do not constitute acomprehensive treatment of African-American history, they do examine manyimportant periods, events, and topics within that history and suggest areas forfurther study.

African-American Heritage: A Resource Guide for Teachers has been published topresent historical and educational issues in a proper perspective. It is alsointended to inspire all students to learn more about African-American history andculture, as well as to encourage the further investigation of other heritages. Withthe help of these materials, students and teachers will discover the kinship of allhumankind and the necessity of understanding, cooperation, and peace.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

African-American Heritage: A Resource Guide for Teachers is a project of the Office ofMulticultural Education. Leslie Agard-Jones, Director, and Evelyn B. Kalibala, AssistantDirector of that Office provided overall supervision and guidance for the developmentand review of the manuscript. Eileen Neeson, Curriculum Developer, Office ofMulticultural Education, assisted in the manuscript's preparation.

Our sincerest thanks go to the following members of the African-American HeritageCurriculum Planning Committee for their assistance in developing an outline for theguide, suggesting activities and resources, and reviewing the manuscript:

Beryle Banfield, Metro Center, New York UniversityHerbert Boyd, College of New RochelleLloyd Bromberg, Director of Social Studies, Division of Instruction

and Professional DevelopmentEugenia Clarke, Teacher (Retired)Booker T. Coleman, Community School District 9Michael Hooper, Community School District 16Audrey Hubbard, JHS 265Florence Jackson, Former Community Assistant SuperintendentChristopher Moore, ConsultantDonald Smith, Baruch College, City University of New York

The contributions of the following writers are also gratefully acknowledged:

Audrey Hubbard, JHS 265Florence Jackson, former Community Assistant SuperintendentAlaire Mitchell, Assistant Director (Retired), Office of Instructional PublicationsSania Andrea Metzker, Teacher (Retired)Christopher Moore, Consultant

Special appreciation is also extended to Dr. Lynda Day, Brooklyn College, CityUniversity of New York; Ms. Edwina Chavers-Johnson, Consultant; Dr. ClaudeMangum, Fordham University; and Dr. William Seraile, Lehman College, CityUniversity of New York, for their assistance in reviewing the manuscript.

We wish to thank Eugenia Clarke, Teacher (Retired), for her assistance in preparing theteachers' suggested reading list.

This guide was prepared for publication by the Office of Instructional Publications,Nicholas A. Aiello, Ph.D., Director, Regina Paleski, Copy Chief; and Kent Beaty,Supervisor of Production Administration.

6IV

INTRODUCTION

This draft edition of African-American Heritage: A Resource Guide for Teachers hasbeen developed as a component of the curriculum for grades 6-8 mandated bythe New York State Education Department. Activities and resources containedin this guide can be integrated into the mandated study of Africa in grade 6, andinto the study of United States and New York State history in grades 7 and 8.

This guide's treatment of the history of Americans of African ancestry is not acomprehensive one; however, it does present a number of significant topics andspans a period of time from prehistory to the present. For a much morecomprehensive treatment of the enslavement period, and of African-Americanresistance to enslavement and racism, see the Board of Education curriculumguide entitled Grades 7 and 8 United States and New York State History: AMulticultural Perspective.

African - American Heritage comprises six themes: "The African Homeland," "NileValley Civilizations," "African Empires and Village Societies," "Africans in theAmericas," "The Struggle for Human Rights" and "Present and Future." Eachtheme begins with background information for the teacher, then lists major ideasand performance objectives for the theme.

Learning activities in each theme provide a development section directed to theteacher and corresponding activity sheets, which can be duplicated for studentsand used as the basis of class discussion. The learning activities incorporate orsuggest a variety of instructional strategies, including cooperative learning, roleplaying, and decision making. The activity sheets contain materials of varioustypes interesting to students, including photographs, maps, graphs, readings fromhistorical documents, dialogues, newspaper articles, and biographical sketches.Each learning activity also suggests follow-up activities for students.

Finally, a teachers' suggested reading list follows the themes. Although this listhas been prepared primarily for teachers, it can be used, at the teacher'sdiscretion, by students who wish to broaden their knowledge of relevant topicsby doing further research.

Comments and suggestions pertaining to this guide are welcome and may bedirected to the Office of Multicultural Education, Room 611, 131 LivingstonStreet, Brooklyn, NY 11201.

VII r-

CONTENTS

Introduction vii

Theme A: The African Homeland A-1

Theme B: Nile Valley Civilizations B-1

Theme C: African Empires and Village Societies C-1

Theme D: Africans in the Americas D-1

Theme E: The Struggle for Human Rights E-1

Theme F: Present and Future F-1

Teachers' Suggested Reading R-1

THEME ATHE AFRICANHOMELAND

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TEACHER BACKGROUNDMost anthropologists and archaeologists todayagree that humankind originated in Africa.Until very recently, however, the Westernscientific community rejected this idea, whichCharles Darwin suggested in The Descent ofMan in 1871, in favor of the theory that Asia,specifically the area in and around theIndonesian island of Java, is the birthplace ofthe human species.

As a result of the work of several dedicatedscholars, the evidence of humankind's Africanorigins eventually became too strong to deny.The process of uncovering this evidence andpersuasively presenting it, however, tooknearly half a century. It began in 1924, whenJosephine Salmons, a student of the notedscientist Raymond A. Dart, was searching forprimate fossils in South Africa. Instead shefound remains of an early ancestor ofhumankind that dated from approximatelyone million B.C. Dart verified the discovery,which greatly predated previous samples.This discovery, like Darwin's contention, wasridiculed and rejected by the generalscientific community as late as 1955.

The painstaking and tenacious work of theLeakey family and their native Kenyanresearchers at the Olduvai Gorge in the GreatRift Valley of eastern Africa finally providedoverwhelming evidence of the African originof humans. The team discovered over 600specimens of the oldest fossil remains of earlyhumans. These fossils were preserved in thevolcanic ash that filled valleys as the earth'scrust shifted and mountains were lifted.Perhaps the most important of these was a

skull found by Bernard Nyeneo, an Africanmember of the Leakey team, in 1972.

Although much remains to be learned, andseveral academic controversies continueconcerning specific details of these earlyancestors, the broad outline of early humanhistory has become increasingly clear. Based onexisting evidence, most scholars today agree that:

As recently as six million B.C., there wereonly Africans. That is, the only ancestorsof humans alive today lived on the Africancontinent.Sometime between 500,000 and 400,000B.C., Africans began to migrate across theSahara and along the Nile and ultimatelyto other parts of the world.Isolation and environmental differencesworked to produce differing physicalcharacteristics among migrating groups.

MAJOR IDEASTwentieth-century archaeologicaldiscoveries in Ethiopia, Kenya, Uganda,Tanzania, and southern Africa indicatethat humankind originated in Africa.Over millions of years the descendants ofthe first humans spread out from Africa tothe other continents.

PERFORMANCE OBJECTIVESStudents will be able to:

discuss evidence that indicateshumankind's originating in Africa.assess the evidence that supports Africa ashumankind's birthplace.interpret a map that depicts the spread ofhumankind's ancestors from Africa to theother continents.

THEME A: THE AFRICAN HOMELAND Al

LEARNING ACTIVITY 1Recent evidence indicates that the ancestorsof modern human beings originated in Africamore than 3.5 million years ago. Fossilevidence from Ethiopia, Kenya, Uganda,Tanzania, and southern Africa indicates thatthe ancestors of humans first became bipedaland began using tools in Africa, and thenmigrated to the other continents.

DEVELOPMENTAsk students to imagine that they want tofind out about people who lived long, longago, but who left no written records.What would they do?

Among their responses, students willprobably include "digging" for artifacts,remains, or fossils. If they do not know,tell students that scientists calledarchaeologists study the lives of ancientpeoples by digging for artifacts, etc.

Tell students that Africa has been the siteof many investigations by archaeologiststhat have yielded important discoveries.

Distribute Activity Sheet 1, "Africa:Birthplace of Humankind?" Havestudents enact the dialogue and completethe exercises. Then have studentsexplain their answers to the followingquestions:

What does this dialogue tell us aboutthe origins of humankind?

What evidence did the Leakeys andDonald Johanson find to support thetheory that humankind originated inAfrica?

Why would Richard Leakey point tothe map of archaeological sites tosupport his opinion abouthumankind's origins?

Why have archaeologists sometimesbeen called "history detectives"?

How important is the search forhumankind's origins?

How do you think people around theworld reacted to the discoveries of the

A-2 V AFRICAN-AMERICAN HERITAGE

Leakey family and Donald Johanson?Explain.

Do you believe that archaeologistshave unearthed enough evidence toprove that Africa is the birthplace ofhumankind? Why or why not?

FOLLOW-UP ACTIVITIES

Students can:

pretend that they are members of theteams working with the Leakeys or withDonald Johanson at the time of theirdiscoveries. They can write a letter to afriend giving their reactions to thesediscoveries.

write newspaper articles about thearchaeological discoveries pointing tohumankind's beginnings in Africa.

create a bulletin board charting theevolution of humankind and featuringarchaeological discoveries in Africa.

visit the Hall of Human Biology, thenewest permanent exhibition at theAmerican Museum of Natural History onCentral Park West. One of the dioramasin the exhibition shows "Lucy" makingthe 3.5-million-year-old footprints thatwere found in Laetoli, Tanzania. (Seephoto below.)

FIGURE A-2: Cathy Leone of the American Museum ofNational History works on the "Lucy" diorama.

10

ACTIVITY SHEET 1

AFRICA: BIRTHPLACE OF HUMANKIND?

Mary Leakey, her sonRichard, and DonaldJohanson are three of themost famousarchaeologists who haveworked in Africa. Aninterview with themmight proceed as follows:

Interviewer. It is aprivilege to talk with threeof the most notablearchaeologists to havemade major discoveries inAfrica. Dr. Mary Leakey,will you tell us about yourfindings? FIGURE A-3

Mary Leakey: In 1959, after working atOlduvai Gorge in northern Tanzania [seemap] for almost thirty years, my latehusband Louis and I made a startlingdiscovery. While digging one morning, Ifound two teeth and part of a skull. Whenwe studied the fossils, we concluded thatwe had discovered the fragments of ahominid, or human-like individual, thatlived about 1.8 million years ago. Wecalled our discovery Zinjanthropus (EastAfrica Man). Zinjanthropus belongs to thesame hominid species that Raymond Dartfirst found in South Africa in the 1920s.Within a year of my discovery, myhusband found the skull of Homo habilis, atool-using hominid, two million years old,and a direct ancestor of our species.

Interviewer: Richard Leakey, growingup as the child of two archaeologistscertainly did not discourage you frombecoming one yourself. Please tell usabout your work.

Richard Leakey:Archaeology is hard,tedious work, but whatcould be more excitingthan to discover where weactually come from? In1972, Bernard Nyeneo, aKenyan member of myresearch team, found thebroken pieces of a skullresembling that of modernman. It was the skull of abig-brained Homo habilis(skillful man) a humanancestor two million yearsold. We knew it wasHomo habilis because the

Kenyan site also yielded many stone tools,believed to be the oldest known artifactsmade by hominids.

Interviewer: Donald Johanson, don'tyou date your discovery, "Lucy," to aneven earlier time than Richard Leakey'sHomo habilis? Why did you name her"Lucy"?

Donald Johanson: Yes, in 1974, Idiscovered a three-million-year-oldskeleton that was forty percent intact.The minute we found her, my partner andI knew she was the most complete, best-preserved skeleton of any erect-walkinghuman ancestor that had yet been found.We named her "Lucy" from the Beatles'song, "Lucy in the Sky with Diamonds,"which we listened to at our campsite thatnight.

Interviewer: Mary Leakey, tell us aboutyour most recent discoveries at OlduvaiGorge.

8EST COPY MAMIE

THEME A: THE AFRICAN HOMELAND A-3

ACTIVITY SHEET 1 CONTINUED

Mary Leakey: In 1978, in Laetoli,Tanzania, we found fossil footprints leftby two adults and a child (perhaps afamily) pressed into volcanic ash morethan 3.5 million years ago. It is the closestwe have come to discovering the ancestorsof our species. They walked upright ontwo legs in a human manner, but theyweren't fully human.

Interviewer: Where do each of you thinkhuman beings first appeared on earth?

Richard Leakey: I believe that thearchaeological evidence overwhelminglypoints to Africa as the birthplace ofhumankind. The very oldest human-likefossils ever found were found in EastAfrica. [The map at top of Activity Sheetshows the main sites where remains ofhominids have been found.]

Mary Leakey: Like most experts today,I would have to agree that the ancestors ofhumans first became two-footed andbegan using tools in Africa.

Johanson: But all of the evidence isn't inyet: Archaeologists have determined thathominids lived in East Africa 3.5 millionyears ago. But geologists tell us that atthat time Africa and Arabia wereconnected. Important fossils are stillbeing uncovered in China. There is a sitein Shanghai province that might be 1.8million years old, the same age as Olduvai.It is possible that human evolution tookplace in a band from Africa through Arabiato India and China. But I, too, tend tobelieve that Africa will continue toprovide us with the fossils that will answerall our questions.

EXERCISE 1

Now is your chance to respond to the same question asked of the Leakeys and Johanson.

Interviewer: Where do you think human beings originated on earth? Explainyour opinion.

Your name

12A-4 V AFRICAN-AMERICAN HERITAGE


EXERCISE 2Put yourself in the role of Donald Johanson. You have just discovered the skeleton below, whichyou named "Lucy." What have you learned from each of the bones? Draw a line from each bone(labeled in Column A) to what has been learned from that part of the skeleton (Column B).

Ilk

1

2

3

4

5

6

FIGURE A-5

BEST COPY AVAILABLE,

COLUMN AWHAT WAS FOUND

O Bits of skull

CO Wisdom teeth wornfrom chewing

Vertebrae deformed

O One complete pelvicbone and sacrum

O Weight-bearing part ofhip socket is fairly small

O Femur only 12 incheslong

COLUMN BWHAT WAS LEARNED

Lucy was an adult,perhaps 25-30 years old.

Lucy weighedprobably 50 pounds.

Lucy had arthritis oranother ailment asign of age.

Since pelvic opening isalways larger in femalesto allow childbirth, thisidentifies skeleton asfemale.

Lucy's entire skull wasthe size of a softball;one can only guessbrain size, perhaps onefourth that of a human.Lucy was either adirect ancestor ofhumankind or aprimitive relative.

Lucy was no more than4 feet tall. She walkederect on two legs ahominid (erect-walkingprimate).

13THEME A: THE AFRICAN HOMELAND V A-5

LEARNING ACTIVITY 2

Around a million and a half years ago, a newsubspecies of human developed in easternAfrica. The first traces of fire, found in a sitein the Kenyan Rift Valley, date back to thesame period. This new kind of human wascalled Homo erectus. Several features of humannature developed in the species Homo erectus:gait, hand skills, social structure and language.Skeletal remains of Homo erectus have beenfound from China to southern Europe. Mostscholars believe that Homo erectus originated inAfrica and very gradually migrated to Asia andEurope, adapting to the environment as hemoved. Although the exact migratory routesare unknown, fossil remains indicate likelypatterns.

DEVELOPMENTHave students brainstorm answers to thequestion, "If humankind did originate inAfrica, how do we explain the peopling ofthe other continents, including theAmericas?"

Distribute Activity Sheet 2, "The Originand Spread of Humankind." Havestudents examine the map, complete theexercise, and explain their answers to thefollowing questions:

What do we learn from this activitysheet?

How does this map indicate thathumankind spread to Asia? to Europe?to the Americas?

A-6 V AFRICAN-AMERICAN HERITAGE

How have the discoveries of humanremains around the world helpedarchaeologists to chart the most likelypattern of human expansion?

If you were an archaeologist, howwould you react to a new discovery ofhuman remains somewhere in theworld?

How could a new discovery changescholars' beliefs about the origins andspread of humankind?

FOLLOW-UP ACTIVITIESStudents can:

research and report on one of thediscoveries of human remains charted onthe map.

examine pictures of Olmec artifacts (fromsouthern Mexico) that suggest theexistence of African people in theAmericas long before ChristopherColumbus's arrival.

listen to an archaeologist, or a collegestudent studying archaeology, who couldbe asked to speak to the class about thisvery exciting field of science. Studentsshould prepare questions for the guestspeaker beforehand.

141

ACTIVITY S H E ET 2

THE ORIGIN AND SPREAD OF HUMANKIND

Although the exact routes of migration are not known, the arrows on the map below suggest apossible pattern of human expansion.

Bering Streit410

Pacific Ocean

10,000 years ago

23.600 years ago

11.000 years ago1200 A.O.

10.000 years19.900 years ago

2.700 years ago

1.000 year. ago10.000 years ago

`,0... Atlantic Ocean

Pacific Ocean

12,000 years ago

9.000 years ago

7,700 years ago

15.000 years ago12400 years ago

4.OWuvai Gorge(Human Credleland)

Indian Ocean

9.400 years ago

8.000 years agoStrait of Magellan

Discoveries of Artifacts or Human Remains(in America)

Exact routes of migration are not known;arrows merely suggest possible pattern ofhuman expansion.

Discoveries of Human Remains

1. Zinjanthropus Man 6. Steinheim Man600.000 years ago 250.000 years ago

2. Java Man 7. Fontechevade Man500.000 years ago 150,000 years ago

3. Heidelberg Man 8. Neanderthal Man500.000-300,000 years ago 50- 100.000 years ago

4. Chellean Man 9. Cro-Magnon Man400,000 years ago 28.000-14,000 years ago

5. Peking Man 10. Rhodesian Mari360.000 years ago 23.000 years ago

Note: "Lucy," also found in East Africa, has been dated at 3.5 million years much earlier than Zinjanthropus Man.

FIGURE A-7

EXERCISE

1. Where were the earliest known human remains discovered?

2. How old are the next-to-earliest human remains?

3. On which continent was Cro-Magnon Man discovered?

4. Which strait is believed to have been used by people to migrate from Asia into the Americas?

5. What conclusions can you draw from this map about the origins and spread of humankind?

[Mr COPY AVAILABLETHEME A: THE AFRICAN HOMELAND V A-7

THEME BNILE VALLEY

CIVILIZATIONSIli\1111110111111111111upiwariIIIIIII

TEACHER BACKGROUNDScientists believe that the earliest civilizationsbegan to emerge during the Neolithic period,when the earth began to grow warmer,glaciers covering much of the earth melted,and human beings became less nomadic,learned to farm, and invented better tools.Cities followed. In Africa, the Neolithicperiod began around 10,000 B.C.

It is not surprising that the earliest Africancivilizations emerged on the banks of the NileRiver, an important source of water for vaststretches of land with little rainfall. TheWhite Nile flows more than 4000 miles fromthe Luvironza River in Burundi, leaving richsilt (alluvial soil) as it flows north throughRwanda, Uganda, Sudan, and finally intoEgypt (also known as Kemet). The Blue Nileflows north from Ethiopia. African peoplesbegan farming in the Nile Valley about 4000B.C. and, sometime before 3000 B.C.,pharonic civilization began to emerge.

Recently, evidence has been gathered thatindicates the earliest developments in Egyptderived from African peoples of the Nile Val-ley. Until 60 years ago, the connections be-tween Egypt and Nubia to the south remainedlargely unexplored. Today a large body ofscholarship focuses on Nubia and the Kushiteempire. Based on this research, the followingconcepts form a logical and cohesive theory.

Earlier forms of Egyptian architecture,science, religion, art, and writing werepresent in the older Nubian culture. Asthe noted Egyptologist Jean Vercoutterhas said, "Egypt was African in its way ofwriting, in its culture, and in its way ofthinking."

Nubia had a form of pharonic civilizationpredating Egypt's. In the excavations in1967 at Qustul, a city in Lower Nubia onthe border between present-day Egyptand Sudan, tombs of kings were foundindicating that Nubian kings participatedwith the kings of Upper (southern) Egyptto form a "unified culture" before the firstEgyptian dynasty.

Diodorus of Sicily, a first-century B.C.historian, stated that the Ethiopians (aterm referring to color and accepted nowas meaning Nubians or Kushites) werebelieved to be the "first of all men" andthat Egypt was their colony.

The symbolic animals of Egypt includedanimals native to the tropical regions.Also, there are gods related to thunder andrain and a text that describes a severestorm. "The sky melts into water, wherethe heavens speak and the earthtrembles," says the pyramid of Unas.Since there is little rain in Egypt, this textis cited as evidence of Egypt's NubianMts.Many Egyptian temple rituals involvedfacing south, which is interpreted asshowing the importance of the land of theancestors.

African cultures often practiced a form ofmatrilineal descent that passedinheritance to the chief's sister's son.There are certain remnants of this customin Egyptian culture, according to recordsof marriages and descent. Moreover,Egyptian Pharaohs frequently marriedNubians, a fact that supports the theory

THEME B: Ni VALLEY CIVILIZATIONS B-1

that Egypt's rulers turned to Nubia tolegitimize their rule.

New studies of the cities of Napata andMerod have brought to light the uniqueculture of the Kushite empire as well asEgypt's influence on Kush. Merod, forexample, developed its own form ofwriting, which has still not beendeciphered. There are sites in these twocities that promise a rich yield ofinformation if they can be excavated.Understanding how Napata and Merodinfluenced the rest of Africa is critical forthe future development of African history.

The history of Egypt and Nubia is highlycomplex and spans thousands of years. Butthe recognition of the continuity of Africancivilization from the Nile Valley of 4000 B.C.to the United States of the present day is animportant part of the heritage of African-American students. Such recognition is longoverdue.

B-2 V AFRICAN-AMERICAN HERITAGE

MAJOR IDEASAfrica enjoyed a long and rich historybefore the era of European explorationand conquest.Ancient Egypt was not only a geographicpart of the African continent but anintegral part of its cultural structure as well.The relationship between Egypt andNubia was long and complex.

PERFORMANCE OBJECTIVES

Students will be able to:identify the civilizations of the NileValley.draw conclusions about daily life inancient Egypt.compare and contrast the Egyptiancreation story with other stories ofcreation.discuss the moral and religious beliefs ofthe Egyptians.analyze evidence of the close connectionbetween Nubia and Egypt.

LEARNING ACTIVITY 1By about 4000 B.C., a settled and fairly densepopulation lived in the lower Nile Valley.About 2850 B.C., a prince of Upper Egyptnamed Menes conquered Lower Egypt andunited the two parts into one kingdom, withits capital city at Memphis. This unificationmarked the beginning of the Old Kingdom.Menes and his successors were Egypt's firstdynasty. During the Old Kingdom, Egyptiancivilization reached its height with thedevelopment of new farming methods, theemergence of religious beliefs, thedevelopment of hieroglyphic writing, thebuilding of the great pyramids, and thecreation of beautifully worked sculptureand art.

DEVELOPMENTDraw a pyramid on the chalkboard andask the class what it suggests to them. Youmay want to chart a semantic map ofstudents' answers.

Explain that Egypt is the most well-known civilization of the Nile Valleybecause more work has been done todiscover Egypt's history.

Write the words Nubia, Kush, and Aksumon the chalkboard and ask students whatthey know about these societies. Explainthat they, like Egypt, were ancientcivilizations of the Nile Valley, developedby Africans. Nubia was Egypt's neighborto the south. Kush was a Nubian kingdomthat was at its height around 800 B.C. Thekingdom of Aksum arose in the 400s B.C.south of Kush in what is today Ethiopia.Work on discovering the histories ofNubia, Kush, and Aksum is justbeginning.

Distribute Activity Sheet 1, "Nile ValleyMap." Have students examine the mapand complete the exercise. Have themexplain their answers to the followingquestions:

What information does the map show?

How do you explain the fact thatseveral civilizations developed alongthe Nile?

How would the cataracts of the Nileaffect travel on the river? How do yousuppose the difficulties of travel wereovercome? (There were caravan routesalong the river banks as well.)

Where might the people in the NileValley have come from?

Where might the Egyptians havecome from?

Explain that until 60 years ago, scholarspaid little attention to the connectionsbetween the Egyptians and the people ofNubia. Today, new research stronglysuggests that the ancient Egyptians hadtheir roots in Nubia.

Divide the class into six groups.Distribute one of the activity sheetsentitled, "A Mosaic of Ancient Egypt 1,'2,and 3" (1B, 1C, 1D respectively) to eachgroup (so that each sheet will be used bytwo groups). Have them examine thepictures on the sheet and complete theexercise.

Have a spokesperson from each grouppresent the group's findings to the class.Have students explain their answers tothe following questions:

What did you learn from this activityabout daily life in Egypt?

What did you learn about how theEgyptians met their need for food?

What did you learn about Egyptiangovernment?

What do the pictures tell us aboutEgyptian religion?

What do the pictures tell us aboutEgyptian arts?

What evidence is there that theancient Egyptians had a writtenlanguage?

Is it important to determine ifEgyptian civilization was mainlycreated by Nubians? Why or why not?

What else would you like to find outabout life in ancient Egypt?18

THEME B: NILE VALLEY CIVILIZATIONS V B-3


research the lives and accomplishments ofsome of the most famous pharaohs andqueens, e.g., Hatshepsut, Ramses,Nefertiti, and Imhotep. This informationcan then be used to create posters,bulletin board displays, a "magazinespecial feature" on ancient Egypt,dialogues, etc.

write an essay on the nature of writinghistory books. Because we gain much ofour knowledge from books, studentsshould explore how the biases of writers


can affect the knowledge of futuregenerations. They can explain in a shortessay, giving examples, and conclude withtheir ideas on how to correctmisinformation or omissions.

examine the process by which Europeanexplorers mapped the continent of Africa,including numbering and naming. Forexample, the Nile cataracts werenumbered by Europeans as they exploredfrom the mouth of the river (the Delta)south to its source. Have students numberthe Nile cataracts as they think Africanswould have, then explain their numberingmethod in writing.

19

ACTIVITY SHEET 1A

NILE VALLEY MAP

The map below shows the major civilizations that developed in the Nile Valley.

EXERCISE

Name a capital city of Upper Egypt.

Name a capital city of Lower Egypt.

Which was a capital city of the Kushite empire?

Name a capital city of Ethiopia.

Which Nile River cataract separated Egypt from Nubia?

Into which sea does the Nile River flow?

BEST COPY AVAUBLETHEME B: NILE NalLEY CIVILIZATIONS V B-5

ACTIVITY SHEET 1B

A MOSAIC OF ANCIENT EGYPT (1)

FIGURE B-6.1: This painting from a tomb shows achild drawing water from the Nile with the shaduf (abasket on a pole).

FIGURE B-6.2: A wrestling match is shown insequence with the winner emerging and raising hisarms in victory.

FIGURE B-6.3: This picture story shows menmaking pottery.

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FIGURE B-6.4: This picture shows a husband and wife harvesting wheat.

B-6 V AFRICAN-AMERICAN HERITAGE2 L 3ET COPY AVAiLABLE

ACTIVITY SHEET 1B CONTINUED

EXERCISECircle the numbers of the statements that can be made based on the information in the pictures.Explain one of the statements whose number you circled.

1. The Egyptians had pets.

2. The Egyptians were fierce fighters.

3. The women and men worked together.

4. The Egyptians engaged in competitive sports.

5. The Egyptians were skilled artisans.

Statement's number and explanation:

22


ACTIVITY SHEET 1C


FIGURE B-8.1:The PharaohAkhenaton, hisqueen Nefertiti, andtheir daughterMerytaten arepictured worshippingthe sun god Aton.

FIGURE B-8.2:The bottom part of acoffin containspicture writing orhieroglyphs.

FIGURE B-8.3: This box is both a game board and a container for holdingthe pieces to play the game.


23

ACTIVITY SHEET 1C CONTINUED

EXERCISECircle the numbers of the statements that can be made based on the information in the pictures.Explain one of the statements whose number you circled.

1. The Egyptians played games similar to checkers or chess.

2. The sun was important in the Egyptian religion.

3. Taking care of the bodies of the dead was important to the Egyptians.

4. Egyptians had a system of picture writing or hieroglyphics.


24THEME B: NILE VALLEY CIVILIZATIONS V B-9

ACTIVITY SHEET 1D


,t -t

FIGURE B-10.1: This bust of PrincessMerytaten is actually a lid to a jar.

FIGURE B-10.2: Thefollowing is a selection from apoem from ancient Egypt.

The love of the beloved ison the far bank;

The river lies between,and a crocodile lurkson the sand bank.

But I go into the water,and I wade throughthe waves.

And my heart is strong inthe flood.

The water is like land tomy feet, the love ofher protects me.

It makes a water-magic forme!

FIGURE B-10.3: This map shows a gold mining area.

B-10 V AFRICAN-AMERICAN HERITAGE25

ACTIVITY SHEET 1D CONTINUED

EXERCISECircle the numbers of the statements that can be made based on the information in the pictures orthe poem. Explain one of the statements whose number you circled.

1. The Egyptians were excellent sculptors.

2. The Egyptians felt love very much like we do today.

3. The Egyptians worshipped many different gods.

4. The Egyptians planted crops.


2


LEARNING ACTIVITY 2Egypt was the land of many gods. At least 700different gods have been identified. Each cityhad its own special gods and goddesses andthese changed with time, merging with thoseof other areas or other peoples. One god orgoddess could take on the roles or functions ofothers. Also one god might have many names.For example, there were names for the sungod at different stages of the daily journey.The god associated with the sun wasworshiped as Re or Ra or also as Amun. In thetime of the Pharaoh Akhenaton a new symbolwas created, the Aton, which stood for the onecreator god. The Pharaoh and his queen,Nefertiti, ordered the worship of Aton as theonly god throughout Egypt. However, it wasan enforced religion and when the rulers died,their son Tutankamen, who was only a boy,was not able to continue to enforce theuniversal worship of Aton. Egypt returned tothe worship of Amun and other gods.

Some scholars have cited passages from theEgyptian Book of the Dead which speak ofthe one creator god as evidence that Egypthad a foundation of monotheism from thebeginning of its civilization and that the othergods were regarded as manifestations of theone creator god.

Egyptian gods were often represented byparticular animals or a part of an animal.Egyptologists generally agree that animalswere used symbolically. Some also believethat the use of animals in this way is evidenceof totemism (in which a sacred animalrepresents a particular clan) and shows theNubian roots of Egyptian religion.

DEVELOPMENTAsk students why the sun is so often a godin ancient religions. To help studentsexpand their answers, discuss theimportance of the sun to all life.

Explain that in Egypt, the sun was alwaysone of the most important gods, and at


one point was worshipped as the onlygodthe Aton.Distribute Activity Sheet 2, "Gods andCreation." Have students read andcomplete the exercises and explain theiranswers to the following questions:

What information does this activitysheet provide about Egyptian religion?

How is the Egyptian creation storylike other creation stories?

How is it different?

Which of the gods on the list did youfind most interesting? Why?


visit the Egyptian section of theMetropolitan or Brooklyn Museum andsketch several other gods. They canidentify these gods from reference booksor the text in the museum, then createtheir own page of Egyptian gods.

write a report about how the qualities ofthe various animals that are identifiedwith the gods fit the principles and valuesof those gods. (For example, "Are joy andwarmth well chosen for the cat goddess?")

choose another culture, such as that ofancient Greece, and compare some of thesacred animals to the sacred animals of theEgyptian culture. (For example, the bullcult in Egypt and the bull cult in Cretehad certain similarities.)

make clay or papier-mâché figures of thesmall statues of gods and goddesses thatwere often placed within the royal tombsof Egypt.

compare in detail one or more of theEgyptian gods or goddesses with those ofancient Greece such as Amon and Zeus orOsiris and Dionysus.

2?

ACTIVITY SHEET 2

GODS AND CREATION

Read the Egyptian story of creation below. In the space on the right, summarize another story ofcreation that is familiar to you.

An Egyptian Creation Story:The Story of Re*

In the Nun were the seeds of allthings, but the Nun wasnothingness. Then I, Re, createdmyself from the Nun and broughtmy light. Then I made Shu (the airor space) and spat out Tephnet(water) and from them came Geb(the god of Earth) and Nut (thegoddess of the sky). Then the earthand the sky bore children. Firstwere Isis and Osiris, then Nephthysand Set. They peopled the world.The sun and the moon are my eyesand many are the gods andgoddesses of my creation.

*One of the forms of the sun god.

Another Creation Story:The Story of

28

THEME B: NILE VALLEY CIVILIZATIONS V B13

ACTIVITY SHEET2 CONTINUED

SOME EGYPTIAN GODS AND GODDESSES

Match the symbols below with the descriptions of the Egyptian gods and goddesses by writing theletter beneath to the picture.

A.

Anubis, witha jackal (wilddog) head, isthe god of thedead and ofburial chambers.

B.

Khnum, themolder god,shapes from claythe humanbeings to beborn and has asa sacred symbolthe ram.

C.

Bastet is thegoddess of joyand warmthand has as asacred symbolthe cat.

D.

Bird-headedThoth is thegod of writing.

E.

Maat, thegoddess of truthand justice, ismost pleasing tothe god Re.When the deadare judged, thefeather of truthand justice,which is hersymbol, isweighed againsttheir hearts.

FIGURE B-14

B-14 V AFRICAN-AMERICAN HERITAGE 29

LEARNING ACTIVITY 3The story of Osiris is a keystone of thereligion of the afterlife. In the beginning onlythe Pharaoh and those who were buried withhim to serve him in the after life could beresurrected. Later, after an attemptedrevolution, the populace could also participatein the Osirian rites that assured the afterlife.The story of Osiris has parallels in otherancient religions as well as some similarities toChristianity.

DEVELOPMENTAsk volunteers to share their own beliefsconcerning the afterlife.

Ask if students know what the Egyptiansbelieved about life after death. Who hadthe right to life after death in Egyptiansociety? Was it only the Pharaoh or couldothers live forever?

Tell students that, at first, Egyptiansbelieved that only the Pharaoh and thosewho would serve him in the next worldwould awake to an afterlife. LaterEgyptians believed that others could gainthe right to life after death.

Distribute Activity Sheet 3, "Story of Isisand Osiris." Have students read the story.Help them identify the figures in thedrawing, such as Anubis, the jackal-headed god of burial chambers, to the leftof Osiris. Have students explain theiranswers to the following questions:

What does this story tell us about thebeliefs of the ancient Egyptians?

How does the story tell us that burialwas important to the Egyptians?

Why was burial so important to them?

According to Egyptian belief, how arepeople judged after they die?

How do Egyptian beliefs about lifeafter death compare with your ownbeliefs? Explain.

What do you think happens to Set?

What do you think happens to Isis'schild?

Have students use the space provided onthe activity sheet to complete the story asthey think it ended.

Have several students read their storyendings for the class.

Finally, tell students that, according toEgyptian belief, Set becomes the enemyof Isis's divine child, Horns. Horns alsobecomes identified with Re. TheEgyptians symbolized the struggle of thesun to rise again as a fight between Hornsand Setlight and darknessthat isfought every night.


Students can:

write a story or draw a story board showingthe struggles of Set and Horns.

write a short essay about the similaritiesand differences in the Egyptian religion asshown in the Osiris story and in anotherreligion.

conduct a mock judgment by Osiris basedon the judgment picture.

write a poem based on any part of thestory.

30


ACTIVITY SHEET 3

STORY OF ISIS AND OSIRIS

Isis and Osiris were wife and husband, the first people. Osiris's brother, Set,was envious of him. One day Thoth, the God of writing, came to Isis and toldher that she would give birth to a divine child, son of Re.

Set and his wife, Nephthys, had no children and Set grew more angry. Oneday he made a beautiful large chest decorated with jewels and gold. Hebrought it to Osiris and said, "This chest shall belong to the one who can fitin it."

Osiris jumped into the chest and Set slammed down the lid and locked it. Hecarried the chest away and threw it into the sea.

After many days the chest with Osiris's body in it floated to an island whereIsis found it. She carried Osiris home and prepared to bury his body. Setbecame enraged and cut Osiris's body into fourteen pieces. He took them andscattered them in different parts of the world.

Isis wept and could not be comforted. She moved through the whole worldweeping continually, searching for the pieces of Osiris's body. Slowly andpainfully she collected one piece and then another until, after many months,she had found almost every piece. Again Isis returned home and dressedOsiris's broken body with oils and perfumes and fine linen. The god Anubiscared for the body so that it would be preserved.

FIGURE B-16: Anubis anoints the mummy of Osiris with Isis giving directions.

0-16 V AFRICAN-AMERICAN HERITAGE


Re then granted that Osiris live again. He became the god who judges thedead. A person's heart is weighed on a scale against Maat's feather of truth andjustice and Osiris gives the judgment. Those whose hearts are good are given ablessed life in the hereafter. Those whose hearts are evil are punished.

FIGURE B-17: Above are Anubis, weighing a heart against Maat's feather, and Osiris,seated, giving judgment.

EXERCISEIn the space below write an ending for the story that tells what happened to Set and to Isis's child.

BEST COPY MUM3 2

THEME II: NILE VALLEY CIVILIZATIONS B-17

LEARNING ACTIVITY 4The relationship between Egypt, Nubia, andKush is long and complex, but it is at theheart of the debate on how the Nile Valleycivilizations developed. The most northernarea of Nubia had the most direct contact withEgypt, although boundaries and the extent ofEgyptian control changed as power shiftedback and forth between Egypt and Nubia.The cultures were in constant interaction.

The general area of Nubian cultures stretchedfrom just south of the first cataract (aroundAswan) to south of the third cataract. (Youmay want to review Activity Sheet 1A.) Somearchaeologists believe that in the lateprehistoric period Nubia was developing itsown pharonic kingship parallel to that ofEgypt. From what is known, both systemswere similar, but the Nubian had its owndistinctive elements.

After the reunification of Egypt during theMiddle Kingdom (2134-1786 B.C.), Nubiabecame a territory of Egypt and remainedmore or less controlled by the Egyptian rulersor closely affiliated as a parallel kingdom. By800 B.C., the Nubian kingdom of Kush waspowerful and Egypt had been conquered bythe Hyksos or sea people. About 720 B.C.,Piankhi, the King of Kush, overthrew theHyksos and conquered Egypt. He began theline of Nubian rulers of Egypt about 720 B.C.,the XXV dynasty of Egypt.

DEVELOPMENTDistribute Activity Sheet 4, "Egypt andNubia." Have students complete theexercise and explain their answers to thefollowing questions:

What information do these picturespresent?

How is the statue of the Nubian kingsimilar to Egyptian statues?

How is the Kushite temple like andunlike Egyptian temples?

How do the pyramids of Kushcompare with the pyramids of Egyptthat you have seen pictured?

What questions are raised by theancient Egyptian tomb paintings?

What statements can you make aboutthe relationship between Nubia andEgypt, based on the informationprovided?

Why would it be important to findmore ruins in Nubia?


Students can:

write an essay on why it would beimportant to be able to read the uniquewriting of Merod (the capital city ofKush), which is yet to be deciphered.

pretend they are archaeologists who wantto study the links between Egyptian andNubian cultures. They can present arequest to the Egyptian government formoney to dig for ruins on the site ofancient Merod. (It may be made orally oras a written request and should includereasons why such work is important.)

research and report on the life of Piankhi,the Kushite king who overthrew theHyksos and conquered Egypt around720 B.C.

3?B-18 V AFRICAN-AMERICAN HERITAGE

ACTIVITY S H E ET 4

EGYPT AND NUBIA

Egypt and Nubia were two different countries that fought each other for control at different times.But their cultures and their people were very closely related. Some historians say they were thesame people except that Egypt had more contact with other peoples and had easier conditions fortrading and raising crops. The Nubian kingdom of Kush conquered Egypt about 720 B.C.

V Pretend that you are an archaeologist on a dig in the Nile Valley. Digging at a site in ancientEgypt, you find the following:

FIGURE B-19.1: An ancient Egyptian tomb paintingshows people (Nubians or Egyptians?) on the deck of aboat in the Nile River.

FIGURE B-19.2: Another paintingshows people (Nubians or Egyptians?)bringing gifts to the Egyptian Viceroy.

FIGURE B-19.3: This sculptured head is of aNubian princess identified as wife of a nobleat the court of Khufu, the Egyptian pharaohwho built the Great Pyramid.

34,



Digging at a site in Kush, you find the following:

FIGURE B-20.1: These pyramids in Kush are 2200 years old.

FIGURE B-20.2: This is a statueof King Aspalta of Kush stridingforward in the Egyptian style.

FIGURE B-20.3: This structure is theTemple at Musawarat. Its heavy stonecolumns reflect the style of Egyptiantemples, but it was dedicated to the old liongod whom the Kushites worshipped beforethey came under Egyptian influence.

B-20 V AFRICAN-AMERICAN HERITAGE 3


EXERCISEYou are very excited and cannot wait to tell your colleagues (other archaeologists) your conclusionabout the relationship between ancient Egypt and Nubia. Send them a telegram in 25 words or lessstating your conclusions.

3

THEME Et: NILE VALLEY CIVILIZATIONS V 0-21

THEME CAFRICAN EMPIRES

AND VILLAGE SOCIETIES.iiii ii\ii$111111111111iimilliiiiiiiirlifili 1 illillk1111111

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TEACHER BACKGROUNDFor many years it was widely believed amongEuropeans that before their arrival in Africathe continent had never attained a high levelof civilization. This distortion is closelyrelated to European and American racialattitudes that sought to justify slavery andcolonial domination. A propagation ofstereotypes about African history and cultureresulted. However, many Western scholarsare now working with African historians toaddress these issues and confront the varioushistorical stereotypes and generalizations thathave arisen over the centuries.

The task of reconstructing African history hasbeen a challenging one, particularly becauseareas in Africa south of the Sahara remainwithout written records. An importantdevelopment in the reconstruction process hasbeen the recognition of the oral tradition as asource of historical information. Researchershave learned a great deal from interviewinggriots, or clan historians, who recount thetraditions of their community. In addition,many literate African societies preserveaspects of their oral traditions in their myths,proverbs, and tales.

It is now recognized that in all parts ofAfricanorth, south, central, and westcomplex, organized, and centralized kingdomsdeveloped long before the coming of theEuropeans. In ancient times Egypt, Kush,

and Aksum flourished. Later, Ghana, Mali,Songhai, Kanem-Boru, the Hausa states, andthe Yoruba states of Benin and Oyodeveloped in the western Sudan, as didZimbabwe in south-central Africa.

While the study of African history has usuallyhighlighted the kingdoms and empires, mostof the people of Africa lived not in thefabulous cities of the empires, but inrelatively small rural villages. These societies,with their diversity of political and socialorganization, deserve special study.

MAJOR IDEAAfrica enjoyed a long and rich history andculture before the era of Europeanexploration and conquest.


Students will be able to:explain the rise and fall of West Africanempires from the sixth through thesixteenth centuries A.D.draw conclusions about the cultures ofAfrican empires.describe the role of the griot, or oralhistorian, in West African village cultures.make inferences about the cultural valuesof African ethnic groups from theirproverbs.

3 ti

THEME C: AFRICAN EMPIRES AND VILLAGE SOCIETIES V C-1

LEARNING ACTIVITY 1From the fourth to the sixteenth centuries aseries of powerful empires developed in thewestern Sudan: Ghana (4th -11th c.), Mali(13th-15th c.) and Songhai (15th-16th c.).This period has been known as the GoldenAge of West Africa. (In central and southernAfrica, organized and centralized kingdomsflourished as well.)

The rise of the West African empires was aresult of their successive ability to control thetrans-Saharan trade in gold and salt. Goldbecame a major industry connecting sub-Saharan Africa with the Mediterranean,Europe, the Middle East and Asia. Theeventual disintegration of the major Africankingdoms resulted from both internalproblems, e.g., weak leaders and civil wars,and external factors like the advent of theinternational slave trade.

DEVELOPMENTEngage students in a general discussion ofwhy great civilizations rise and fall. Whatfactors led to the United States becominga great world power? What factors couldlead to the decline of our civilization?

Distribute Activity Sheet 1, "Timeline ofWest African History." Have studentsread the timeline, examine the map, andcomplete the exercise. Review theirresponses and then have students explaintheir answers to the following questions:

What do this timeline and map tell usabout the history of West Africa before1500 A.D.?

C-2 V AFRICAN-AMERICAN HERITAGE

What does the timeline tell us aboutWest African cultures?

How can the rise and fall of kingdomsin West Africa be explained?

What evidence is there here thatAfricans had contact with other worldcultures prior to the arrival of theEuropeans in the 16th century?

Until recent times it was commonlybelieved that Africa was a "darkcontinent" without culture or historyworth examining. Why do you thinkAfrica's history was so distorted?Explain.


investigate the curious fact that salt wasvalued by the people of West Africa asmuch as was gold. They can find thereasons why salt was so valued.

research and report on the influence ofIslam in West Africaon religious beliefs,art, architecture, etc.

research the biographies of famous WestAfrican kings (for example, Mama Musa,Sunni Ali Ber, Askia Muhammed).Afterwards, several students could assumethese roles and hold a classroom "pressconference."

develop timelines of European and Asianhistory to parallel that of African history.

3 a

ACTIVITY SHEET I

TIMELINE OF WEST AFRICAN HISTORY

500 A.D. 'V Kingdom of Ghana founded bySoninke people of West Africa. Theyuse iron weapons to conquerneighbors equipped only withwooden weapons.

640-700s Muslim Arabs conquer North Africa.Islam begins to spread to sub-Saharankingdoms.

900s V Empire of Ghana, midway betweenSahara salt mines and tropical goldmines, at its peak. Control of trademakes Ghana rich and powerful.

1000s V Ghana declines after ten years ofinvasion by Muslims from NorthAfrica.

1235 V Kingdom of Mali established asMuslim state. Takes control of goldand salt trade throughout much ofWest Africa.

1300s V Timbuktu, in Mali, well establishedas center of Muslim scholarship.Draws students from as far away as Rome and Greece.

1324 V Powerful Mali king Mansa Musa makes pilgrimage to holy city of Mecca in Middle East.50,000 people and 1,000 camels go with him-100 of which are loaded with gold. Europe'sattention is focused on Africa as source of great wealth.

1330s Mansa Musa dies and local rulers break away from Mali empire.

1400s Sons of king of city of Gao in Mali lead revolt and set up empire of Songhai. Songhai expands

trade network to Europe and Southwest Asia.

1460-78 Portuguese navigators explore African coast.

1500 Timbuktu reaches height as center of culture and learning.

1500 Height of Songhai Empire under Askia Muhammad.

1500 European slavetraders begin to capture Africans and transport them to the Americas.

1591 Songhai falls to an army from Morocco, in North Africa, which possessed an early type of gun.

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EXERCISEOn the chart below, for each West African kingdom, list one factor leading to its rise and one factorleading to its fall.

West African kingdom Factor leading to kingdom's rise Factor leading to kingdom's fall

Ghana

Mali

Songhai

30THEME C: AFRICAN EMPIRES AND VILLAGE SOCIETIES V (-3

BEST COPY AVAiLABLE

LEARNING ACTIVITY 2All three of the powerful West AfricanempiresGhana, Mali, and Songhaishareda common economic base: control of thelucrative caravan trade routes between NorthAfrica and West Africa. This trade was madepossible by the existence in Ghana, Mali, andthen Songhai, of a centralized government,strong agricultural base, advanced systems oftaxation, large armies, an extensive system oftribute, and an advanced technology. Theempires of Ghana, Mali, and Songhaicompared favorably in size and wealth to anyof the empires in the world at that time.

Although less well known than the empires ofthe Western Sudan, the kingdoms of Benin inWest Africa and Zimbabwe in south-centralAfrica also were politically and culturallysophisticated.

DEVELOPMENTAsk students to list the features that theythink make a civilization great. Havestudents share their lists and discuss.

Divide the class into groups of fourstudents each. Assign to each groupmember a different reading from amongthe A, B, C, and D accounts from ActivitySheet 2, "African Empires." After readingtheir individual accounts, students work .

together to complete the exercise at theend of the activity sheet.

Have students role-play meetingsbetween:

a visiting scholar and the king inTimbuktu, Songhai

the king (sultan) of Mali and a robber

the oba (king of Benin) and a sculptor

Finally have students explain theiranswers to the following questions:

What information do we gain fromthese accounts?


What conclusions can you draw aboutthese African kingdoms? About theirpolitical, economic, and socialsystems?

In what ways were these kingdomssimilar? In what ways were theydifferent?

Which of these kingdoms would youhave most liked to visit?

As a visitor to these kingdoms, whatwould have impressed you most?What would you have wanted to do?Where would you have wanted to go?Who would you have wanted to meet?Explain.

What would you like the UnitedStates to learn from thesecivilizations? Explain.


Students can:

design what they think a travel poster forTimbuktu, Mali, Zimbabwe, and Beninwould look like.

pretend they are playing "pictionary" withfriends, and draw a picture to representeither the kingdom of Mali, Songhai(Timbuktu), Zimbabwe, or Benin.

imagine that they live in a small WestAfrican village and have come on a visit toa large trading city for the first time.Have them write and illustrate postcardsto send to members of their family back inthe village.

visit museums that house permanentexhibits on the African kingdoms, such asthe Brooklyn Museum and theMetropolitan Museum of Art.

4`)

ACTIVITY SHEET2

AFRICAN EMPIRES

Read the accounts of African kingdoms below and complete the exercise that follows.

ACCOUNT BIn the 14th century Ibn Battuta, a NorthAfrican scholar, visited Mali in WestAfrica, a great center of learning andcommerce:

ACCOUNT AIn the 16th century, Leo Africanus, anAfrican scholar, described what he saw inthe amazing city of Timbuktu (see picturebelow) in the empire of Songhai:

"There is an impressive temple tobe seen, whose walls are made ofstone and lime.... Here are manyshops of craftsmen and merchantsand especially those that weavelinen and cloth, which are laterbrought by merchants to Europe....There are many rich people here....The rich king has many slates andscepters of gold, some of whichweigh 1300 pounds.... He alwayshas 3000 horsemen and a greatnumber of footmen to protecthim.... Here are many doctors,judges, priests, and other learnedmen that are paid for by the king.Many books and manuscripts arebrought here which are sold formore money than anything else."

Adapted from Leo Africanus, Tas History sod Description a/Africa. Dr.Robert Brown, ed. vol. 3. Reprinted by permission. (Hakluyt Society,1896), pp. 824825.

"I arrived at the capital city Mantiby ferry.... On these days thesultan takes his seat after the mid-afternoon prayer. The armorbearers bring in swordsornamented with gold, gold andsilver lances, and crystal macres....The commanders and preacher sitin their usual places.... A chair isplaced for the sultan to sit on....The people of Mali are seldomunjust. The sultan spares nomercy to anyone who displaysinjustice. Everyone feels safe inthis country. No one has anythingto fear from robbers or violentpeople. If someone should die,that person's property is returnedto the rightful heirs."

Adapted from Ibn Battuta, Travel; is Asia, H.A.R. Gibb, liana (NewYork: A.M. Kelley Publishers, 1929). Reprinted by permission.

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ACCOUNT CArchaeologist J. Desmond Clark describesthe "Temple Ruins" of a Zimbabweculture that existed hundreds of years ago:

"The 'Temple' was probably the`palace of the chief.' Within themaze of walls and passages, madeof stone at Zimbabwe but of reedsor pole and thatch in other chiefs'villages, lived the sacred "God-Chief," surrounded by splendorand protected from prying eyes.His actual houses were circular,built of pole, daga [mud], andthatch... and on a special platformwhere several columns have beenfound he may have held his courtand given his audiences. His relichut, which housed the sacred tribalrelics, would also be in the"Temple" as would the huts of hiswives and immediate followers.The common people lived insimilar, though probably smaller,huts among the walls and passagesof the "Valley Ruins." Each groupof huts would belong to a self-contained family unit. The cattlekraals [stock pens] were alsoprobably in the "Valley Ruins";and on the slopes outside theymust have cultivated their milletgardens and pastured their stock."

James Clark, ed. Africa Peoples ma Ca/tars Sails. (Evanston, IL:McDougall, Lima & Co., 1989), p. 22.

C-6 AFRICAN-AMERICAN HERITAGE

ACCOUNT PThe following is a description of the kingof Benin in the year 1300:

"Of all the places I've seen, thekingdom of Benin contains themost impressive artwork. Much ofthe artwork is dedicated to theOba, as the hereditary absoluteruler is called. The adventures ofthe Oba are illustrated in bronzesculptures and scenes of life atcourt and the victories of the Beninarmy. The Oba is also pictured ingarments and jewelry such as anklebracelets and necklaces. Benin[the capital city of Benin] isenclosed on one side by a wall tenfeet high, made of two layers oftrees with wooden stakes inbetween.... The king's palace... isa collection of buildings whichoccupy as much space as the townof Haarlem [Amsterdam, in theNetherlands].... There are manyapartments for the king's ministersand many fine art galleries."

Adapted from 77k Book of Druz* Barbosa. Manse! Longworth Dames,trans., in The African Pas& Carotrieks fram Afetigaily to Modes Thus(Boston: Little, Brown & Co., 1964) Permission pending.

49

ACTIVITY S H EET 2 CONTINUED

EXERCISEBelow are statements about the African kingdoms described in the accounts above. Next to eachstatement, make a check () to indicate whether, based on the accounts, it applies to the kingdomsof Mali, Songhai (Timbuktu), Zimbabwe, and/or Benin. Statements can apply to any or allkingdoms.

STATEMENTSABOUT KINGDOMS SONGHAI MALI ZIMBABWE BENIN

1. A powerful ruler governed.

2. The empire had great wealth.

3. Religion was important.

4. Events surrounding the rulerinvolved a great deal ofceremony.

5. Art was important to thepeople of the kingdom.

6. Architecture was advanced.

7. Learning was valued.

8. Gold was an importantproduct.

9. Goods came from as far awayas Europe.

10. The kingdom had little crime;citizens felt safe.

4 3

THEME C: AFRICAN EMPIRES AND VILLAGE SOCIETIES C-7

LEARNING ACTIVITY 3In recent years the study of African historyhas usually highlighted the kingdoms andempires. But the majority of West Africansdid not live in the large trading cities ofGhana, Mali, and Songhai. They lived insmall villages on riverbanks, on the savanna,or in the rain forests. In these environments,Africans of many different cultural groupsdeveloped political, economic, and socialsystems to serve their needs.

As African societies did not keep writtenrecords, most African villages had a personknown as a griot, or oral historian, who wasspecially trained through years of study topass down the history of the lineage of thepeople who lived in the village. Even today,ethnographers (people who study and writeabout different cultures of the world)continue to uncover cultural histories throughinterviews with village elders.

DEVELOPMENTAsk students to explain how the historiesof their families are kept. Are therewritten records? Have family stories beenpassed down orally through thegenerations?

Distribute Activity Sheet 3, "RootsDiscovered." Have students read andexplain their answers to the followingquestions:

What do these excerpts from Roots tellus about the African tradition of oralhistory?


Why does the griot play an importantrole in Africa?

What did the Gambians mean whenthey told Alex Haley that people "wholive in the Western culture are soconditioned to the 'crutch of print'that few among us understand what atrained memory can do"?

From the griot's story, what do welearn about Haley's family? What dowe learn about West African cultureand customs?

Why was this meeting with the griotimportant to Alex Haley?

How important is it to know your"roots"? Alex Haley traveled to Africato discover his. How far would you goto find your roots? Explain.


draw a "family tree" of Alex Haley'sancestors based on what the griot told him(Activity Sheet 3).

begin in class to construct an oral historyof their own families by formulating, asdirected in the exercise on ActivitySheet 3, some questions that can be posedto relatives.

compile their family histories into a classbook that can be shared with other classes.

4

ACTIVITY SHEET 3

ROOTS DISCOVERED

In 1976 Alex Haley wrote a book entitledRoots, which tells of his search for hisAfrican heritage. In the excerpt below,Haley discusses the role of the griot, ororal historian, with a small group of menfrom Gambia in West Africa.

Then they told me something of whichI'd never have dreamed: of very oldmen, called griots, still to be found in theolder back-country villages, men whowere in effect living, walking archives oforal history. A senior griot would be aman usually in his late sixties or earlyseventies; below him would beprogressively younger griots andapprenticing boys, so a boy would beexposed to those griots' particular line ofnarrative for forty or fifty years before hecould qualify as a senior griot, who toldon special occasions the centuries-oldhistories of villages, of clans, of families,of great heroes. Throughout the wholeof black Africa such oral chronicles hadbeen handed down since the time of theancient forefathers, I was informed, andthere were certain legendary griots whocould narrate facets of African historyliterally for as long as three days withoutever repeating themselves.

Seeing how astounded I was, theseGambian men reminded me that everyliving person ancestrally goes back tosome time and some place where nowriting existed; and then humanmemories and mouths and ears were theonly ways those human beings couldstore and relay information. They saidthat we who live in the Western cultureare so condition to the "crutch of print"that few among us comprehend what atrained memory is capable of.

Alex Haley had traced his family to thevillage of Juffure in West Africa. It is avillage of about seventy people. In thescene below, he speaks to a griot who tellshim the history of the Kinte family,Haley's family.

The old man sat down, facing me, as thepeople hurriedly gathered behind him.Then he began to recite for me theancestral history of the Kinte clan, as ithad been passed along orally downacross centuries from the forefathers'time....

Simplifying to its essence the story thatI was told, the griot said that the Kinteclan had begun in the country calledOld Mali. Then the Kinte mentraditionally were blacksmiths, "whohad conquered fire," and the womenmostly were potters and weavers. Intime, one branch of the clan moved intothe country called Mauritania; and it wasfrom Mauritania that one son of this clanwhose name was Kairaba Kunta Kintea marabout, or holy man of the Moslemfaithjourneyed down into the countrycalled The Gambia. He went first to avillage called Pakali N'Ding, stayedthere for a while, then went to a villagecalled Jiffarong, and then to the villageof Juffure.

In Juffure, Kairaba Kunta Kinte took hisfirst wife, a Mandinka maiden whosename was Sireng. And by her he begottwo sons, whose names were Nannehand Saloum. Then he took a secondwife; her name was Yaisa. And by Yaisa,he begot a son named Omoro.

Those three sons grew up in Juffureuntil they became ofage. Then theelder two, Janneh and Saloum, wentaway and founded a new village calledKinte-Kundah Janneh-Ya.

4 5



The youngest son, Omoro, stayed on inJuffure village until he had thirtyrainsyears--of age, then he took as hiswife a mandinka maiden named BintaKebba. And by Binta Kebba, roughlybetween the years 1750 and 1760,Omoro Kinte begat four sons, whosenames were, in the order of their birth,Kunta, Lamin, Suwadu, and Madi.

The old griot had talked for nearly twohours up to then, and perhaps fiftytimes the narrative had included somedetail about someone who he hadnamed. Now after he had just namedthose four sons, again he appended adetail, and the interpreter translated

"About the time the King's soldierscame"another of the griefs time-fixing references"the oldest of thesefour sons, Kunta, went away from his

village to chop wood... and he was neverseen again..." and the griot went on withhis narrative.

I sat as if I were carved of stone. Myblood seemed to have congealed. Thisman whose lifetime had been in thisback-country African village had no wayin the world to know that he had justechoed what I had heard all through myboyhood years on my grandma's frontporch in Henning, Tennessee... of anAfrican who always had insisted that hisname was "Kin-iay"; who had called aguitar a "ko," and a river within the stateof Virginia, "Damby Bolongo"; and whohad been kidnapped into slavery whilenot far from his village, chopping wood,to make himself a drum.

From Alex Haley, Rootr (New York: Dell, 1976), pp. 714, 718710.Reprinted by permission.

EXERCISE

You can trace your own family's history, or that of any family with which you are acquainted, byinterviewing relatives and tape-recording or writing down their answers to your questions.

In the spaces provided below, write five questions that you would pose to relatives to learn as muchas you can about your family's past. Then, if possible, actually interview family members and sharewith your class the information they provide.

1.

2.

3.

4.

5.

4


LEARNING ACTIVITY 4One of the best ways to understand a people'sculture is to examine their literature. Africanproverbs are a valuable aspect of Africa's oralliterature because they are often used ineveryday conversation and reveal moralbeliefs, impart wisdom, or give advice.Proverbs are also learning tools for teachingchildren the ways of adulthood and life.Proverbs reflect the values and codes ofbehavior of their cultures, yet the proverbs ofvarious cultures are sometimes very similar.

DEVELOPMENTWrite a proverb, for example, "A pennysaved is a penny earned," on thechalkboard. Ask the students:

What do you think this saying means?

What values does it reflect?

Can you share any other proverbs youknow? (Help students by defining"proverb" as a short saying thatexpresses a well-known truth.)

Distribute Activity Sheet 4, "AfricanProverbs: Springs of Wisdom."

Divide the class into groups of equal size.Have each group examine the map, readthe proverbs, and work together tocomplete the chart on the activity sheet.

A reporter for each group can present tothe whole class his or her group'sresponses to one of the proverbs.

Have students explain their answers tothe following questions:

What do these proverbs tell us aboutthe values of African people?

To what extent do these proverbsreflect universal values as well asAfrican values?

Are there any proverbs in the cultureof the United States that are similar tothese African proverbs?

Which of these proverbs can yourelate to your own values andexperiences? Explain.

If you were an African parent, howwould these proverbs be teachingtools?

Which of these proverbs would youteach your children? Explain.


Students can:

work in pairs to write original proverbsthat tell something about their ownvalues.

write stories in which one of the proverbsdiscussed sums up the moral of the story.

discuss the following Swahili proverbs[Found in African Studies. Louise Crane,ed. (Urban IL: Center for African Studies,University of Illinois, 1985), pp. 243-8.1:

Kiss the hand you cannot cut off.

It is better to have a clever enemythan a blundering friend.

A captain who desires a ship shouldknow how to handle it.

A bad brother is better than nobrother.

He who mounts two horses splitsin two.

learn a proverb in Swahili: "Haraka,haraka, haina baraka!" ("Haste makeswaste.")

4?


ACTIVITY S H E ET 4

AFRICAN PROVERBS: SPRINGS OF WISDOM

The proverbs below are identified by the African ethnic groups in which they are found. (There areabout 2,000 different ethnic groups in Africa and more than 1,000 languages spoken.)

THREE TI4TiqqsARE IMFORTANTTN THIS WORLD:

Top NIEWLTKPEACE WIN ORE'S

FIENNBOR,toutrIUSHIF W7T4

MIN WMOSUFFERS

iCrUCM,

MOWSMUCM;

tyKyoRcrairrqs HIM

NEW WISDOM.

ERR

NINETT-NIRE

LIES

MEy brElp Tog

BUT 1HENUFIURED114

wiLLgivE Toy inwAT

IT ISBETTER TOincow- TOUR0778 FAULTS

11.M7 THEOF TOUR

NEI9NBOR.

SD= WEIRFERSONgoEs

WHEIKE

ME IS

SMILED wr.

mErCEIce

Map and illustrations from: Springs of African Wisdom (New York: Hcrdcs and Hordes. 1970). Pemission pending.

FIGURE C-12

C-12 V AFRICAN-AMERICAN HERITAGE 48

BEST COPY MUNI


EXERCISEComplete each of the columns in the chart below.

Proverband Africanethnic group

Restatement ofproverb in yourown words

Values emphasizedin proverb

Do you agree withthe proverb?Why or why not?

A man who suffersmuch knows much;every day brings himnew wisdom.

Ewe

Ninety-nine lies mayhelp you but thehundredth will giveyou away.

Hausa

A negligent manstarves in the midst ofabundance.

Baya

A weak person goeswhere he is smiled at.

Herrero

It is better to knowyour own faults thanthose of your neighbor.

Serer

Three things areimportant in this worldgood health, peacewith one's neighbor,friendship with all.

Serer

.

4


THEME DAFRICANS

IN THE AMERICAS

iii,insimilmago11111111111111111-rill

TEACH ER BACKGROUNDSoon after Columbus's voyages to theAmericas, some European entrepreneurs,attracted by the descriptions of the NewWorld's vast resources, began to capitalize onthe opportunity, exploring, conquering, andcolonizing these continents. Explorers andinvestors soon discovered that mining andagric4Iture especially in Central and SouthAmerica could produce great wealth. Theplantation system of productionthe use oflarge tracts of land for agriculturecultivationdeveloped, creating a greatdemand for enormous numbers of workers.

After the indigenous populations weredecimated by European-carried diseases andforced labor on plantations and in mines,sixteenth-century Spanish, Portuguese,French, English, and Dutch colonizers ofSouth America turned to Africa for theirsupply of labor. By the late 1500s, thousandsof Africans were being transported each yearacross the Atlantic, mostly to Brazil, but alsoto Argentina, Columbia, and Peru, fordistribution throughout South America.

About 50 percent of the total African slavetrade (estimated to be between 10 and 50million people) went to South America. About40 to 45 percent were sent to the Caribbeanand an estimated 5 to 10 percent of the slavetraffic arrived in the territory that wouldbecome the United States.

In the 1600s, the European colonizers profitablyestablished plantation culture in the islands ofthe CaribbeanBarbados, Jamaica, Cuba, Haiti,and Puerto Rico. By 1700, however, many ofthese early European colonizers had tired of theuncomfortable tropical heat and epidemicdiseases that often killed enslaved Africans andtheir holders alike. Many sold their farms andmoved to the new colonies that were beingestablished in the southern half of NorthAmerica, where similar plantation cropssugar,cotton, tobacco, and indigocould beintroduced in a far less hostile climate andterrain. By the time the enslaved population ofthe territories that would become the UnitedStates reached a few thousand, the slave tradehad transported more than half a million Africanmen, women, and children as captives to otherparts of the Americas.

In 1626, the Dutch West India Companybrought enslaved Africans to the land thatwould become New York City. Because theDutch had encountered difficulties inattracting European settlers to the newcolony, thus threatening the profitability ofthe colony, the Dutch company importedslave labor to farm the fields. In 1664, justbefore the Dutch ceded Manhattan to theEnglish, enslaved Africans made up about 20percent of New Amsterdam's total population.The English continued the slave trade,importing as many as 6,800 Africans between1700 and 1774, many of whom had workedpreviously on Caribbean plantations. On theeve of the American Revolution, New YorkCity had the largest number of enslaved

5j

THEME D: AFRICANS IN THE AMERICAS V DI

Africans of any English colonial settlementexcept Charleston, South Carolina, and it hadthe highest proportion of enslaved Africans toEuropeans of any northern settlement.Though seldom acknowledged, Africans wereessential to the functioning, as well as thebuilding, of colonial New York City.

By the 1700s and 1800s,.the slave tradeconstituted an integral part of the "triangulartrade," a global economic system ofexploitation that involved Europe, Africa, andthe Americas. This commercial system, whichthe laws of European and, later, Americannations established and supported, greatlyfurthered the industrial and technologicalprogress of Western Europe. It also formedthe foundation of United States' prosperitybefore the Civil War.

An important component of the slave tradewas the use and sale of arms. Slave tradersfrom Europe landed in Africa armed andready to snatch Africans from their villages.Also, these slave traders took advantage of theAfrican practice of enslaving prisoners of warby offering guns to African leaders for theirprisoners. This practice enticed certainAfrican leaders who were eager to becomemore powerful into capturing more prisonersfrom rival villages. The profits these Africanslave traders derived from the slave trade,however, were infinitesimal in comparison tothe Europeans' profits. Moreover, unlike thechattel slavery that European tradersintroduced, slaves in many West Africansocieties were not regarded as mere property,but as members of the families they served,enjoying certain rights and privileges.

Both the short- and long-range consequencesof the slave trade for Africa are inestimable.While Africa lost creative and valuable humanresources, the New World benefited not onlyeconomically but also culturally from theimportation of Africans. Africans in theAmericas created new forms of self-expressionout of African traditions as a means ofsurviving their oppression.

D-2 V AFRICAN-AMERICAN HERITAGE

MAJOR IDEASThe "triangular trade" was a slave tradethat was part of a global economic systemthat involved Europe, Africa, and theAmericas.Most enslaved Africans were brought fromthe West African coast; between five andten percent of those Africans brought asslaves to the Americas went to territorythat became the United States.The institution of slavery denied the basichuman rights of enslaved Africans.In the early 1600s, New York City becamea destination for enslaved peoples.Slavery did not destroy the cultures thatAfricans brought to the New World;African culture has had an impact on allcultures in the Americas.


Students will be abk to:describe the operation of the Atlanticslave trade.analyze the impact of enslavement onAfrican people.interpret a graph showing the destinationsof Africans brought to the New World asslaves.explain the presence of enslaved Africansin colonial New Amsterdam.discuss the decision of the Dutch in NewAmsterdam to free a number of enslavedAfricans.assess the contributions of both enslavedand free Africans to life in colonial NewAmsterdam.evaluate the significance of recentdiscoveries made at the African burialground in lower Manhattan.analyze the impact of African culture onthe many cultures in the United States.

5

LEARNING ACTIVITY 1It is estimated that during the first 300 yearsof European occupation of the Americasbetween 10 and 50 million Africans of manydifferent West African ethnic groups weresold into slavery and distributed throughoutthe Americas. The slave trade developed intoan organized and profitable business in whichEuropean, American, and African slave tradersmade fortunes in the sordid business of"human cargo."

Each stage of the slave trade brutalized theenslaved Africans' sense of dignity and self-worth. Slave captors seized unsuspectingvillagers in raids, then marched the captives,linked by chains, to the slave markets to besold to agents and then resold to the captainsof the slave ships. Aboard the slave ships,captives often rebelled and managed tochallenge their captors. These insurrectionsusually failed and were cruelly repressed.

DEVELOPMENTHave students recall (from Theme C,Activity Sheet 4) Alex Haley's account ofhis ancestor Kunta Kinte's capture intoslavery when he went away from hisvillage to chop wood to make himself adrum.

Ask students: "What happened to Africansin the weeks and months after they weretaken from their homes?" If students donot know, tell them that the captives wereput on ships bound for the Americas. Thissea journey on slave ships to the Americasis often referred to as the "middlepassage." Ask the class why it is so called.

Distribute Activity Sheet 1A, "TheMiddle Passage." Have students read theactivity sheet, examine the picture,complete the exercise, and explain theiranswers to the following questions:

What do we learn about the slavetrade from this worksheet?

What does the story of the MiddlePassage tell us about the system ofenslaving Africans?

Why did only about two thirds of thecaptives survive the trip?

How do you suppose the MiddlePassage affected those Africans whosurvived the voyage to the Americas?Explain.

There is evidence that captives oftenrebelled during the Middle Passage.What evidence of resistance can youfind in the story of Gustavus Vasa? Inhis position, how might you haveresisted? Explain.

Distribute Activity Sheet 1B, "Impact ofSlave Trade on the Global Economy."Have students examine the map,complete the exercise, and explain theiranswers to the following questions:

What information can you get fromthis map?

How does this map help explainreasons for the slave trade?

How did the slave trade affect theglobal economy, the economies ofEurope, and the economies of theAmericas and Africa?

Why is the trade route shown herecalled the "triangular trade"?

The almost four centuries of theAtlantic slave trade are considered oneof the most disastrous periods in thehistory of humankind. Do you agreewith this? Explain.

Distribute Activity Sheet 1C, "Originsand Destinations." Have studentsexamine the maps and graph, completethe exercises, and explain their answers tothe following questions:

What do these maps and graph tell usabout the Atlantic slave trade?

As a student of African-Americanhistory, how could you use thisinformation?

5THEME D: AFRICANS IN THE AMERICAS V D-3

As a descendant of Africans, howimportant would research into theorigins of your ancestors be to you?Explain.

Does the information in the graphsurprise you? Why or why not?

Why were many more Africansbrought to Brazil and the Caribbeanthan to North America? (Theplantation system, first established inBrazil, then in the Caribbean, requiredenormous numbers of workers. Later,plantations were established in thesouthern part of the North Americancolonies.)

How important is the informationrevealed in the graph for anunderstanding of the slave trade?Explain.



Students can:

research slavery as it existed in other partsof the world and at other times and thencompare and contrast it with chattelslavery in the Americas.

research the impact of the slave trade onindividual African kingdoms.

find and read aloud to the class excerptsfrom the narratives of enslaved Africans.

write diary accounts imagining that theyare enslaved Africans.

research and report on the various forms ofresistance to enslavement in whichAfricans and their descendants engaged.

ACTIVITY SHEET 1A

THE MIDDLE PASSAGE

Soon after the Europeans' first explorations of the Americas, trading in slaves developed betweenAfrica and the Americas. Slave traders took Africans from their homes, families, and ways of life inAfrica, and brought them to the New World aboard slave ships. A captured African man, OlaudahEquiano (or, as he came to be known, Gustavus Vasa), described the voyage across the AtlanticOcean as follows:

THEN I WAS CARRIED on board,some of the crew handled meimmediately to see if I was healthy. Iwas convinced that I had entered into a

world of bad spirits, and that they were going to killme. Their different complexions and languageconfirmed this belief. When I looked around theship, I saw a multitude of black people of everydescription chained together, every one of theirfaces expressing dejection and sorrow.

I was soon put under the decks. The smell was soterrible that I was unable to eat. I now wished fordeath to relieve me of my grief. Two of the whitemen offered me something to eat, and when Irefused, one of them held me fast by the hands,while the other tied my feet. They then whippedme severely. They then put coals of fire, glowinghot, on a shovel so near to my lips as to scorch andbum them. They then threatened to make meswallow the hot coals unless I ate something.

The place for the slaves under the deck wasterribly hot. The captives were chained to thewall in such a way so that their knees were drawn up close to their chests. The heat producedgreat perspiration, so that the air soon became unfit for breathing, and brought on a sicknessamong many slaves, of which many died. This terrible situation was aggravated by the sorescaused by the chains, and the filth of the tubs filled with human waste. The shrieks of thewomen, and the groans of the dying, made the scene one of horror. Those captives who diedwere unchained and members of the crew threw them overboard.Adapted from Olaudah Equiano, Epicure's Trxrcods. 2 vols. Paul Edwards, ed. (Oxford: Heinemann Education, 1967) pp. 46-53. Reprinted bypermission.

FIGURE D-5: Enslaved Africans on deck of ship Wildfire,brought into Key West. They arc described as "walkingskeletons covered with a piece of tanned leather."

EXERCISEFor each of the following statements based upon Olaudah Equiano's account, indicate with a checkmark (/) whether the statement is valid (supported by his account) or not valid (not supported byhis account).

VALID NOT VALID

1. Before his capture, Olaudah Equiano had contact with Europeans.

2. Slave traders had an interest in keeping the Africans alive.

3. Large numbers of Africans did not survive the Middle Passage.

4. Africans were treated like cargo on the voyage.

THEME D: AFRI5C6A'NS IN THE AMERICAS V D-5

ACTIVITY SHEET IB

IMPACT OF SLAVE TRADE ON THE GLOBAL ECONOMY

NORTHAMERICA

SOUTHERNCOLONDIES

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FIGURE D-6

EXERCISE

What products did Europe export to Africa?

Name three destinations to which Africans were transported

What products did Europe import from the New World (North, Central, and South America)?

Name three groups of people who profited from the slave trade.

Based on the map, what impact did the slave trade have on the global economy?

D-6 AFRICAN-AMERICAN HERITAGEBEST COPY AVAILABLE

ACTIVITY SHEET IC

ORIGINS AND DESTINATIONS

MAP A MAP B

Ham

Cube Clusters krWI Carolina1 Mande 25%2 Mane War 7%3M 11%4 Sucks*5 Nicer Cress Ri.er6 tiper Data 1%7 8alcovv13arni 11%8 OviTtuncluiliolu9 Lam Lux148ariuI 17% Iran tricrom areas d cep,

FIGURE D-7.1: Map A shows the routesby which Africans arrived in South Carolina.

4lC4

Ethnic Groups ofthe Guinea Coast

0 5(0 Mos

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0

Luba

FIGURE D-72: Map B shows the Africanorigins of most slaves delivered to South Carolina.

EXERCISEBase your answers to the following questions on the maps above.

Name three culture regions (or culture dusters) from which Africans sent to South Carolinaoriginated.

Which culture cluster is believed to have furnished the greatest number of Africans in SouthCarolina?

Name three specific African ethnic groups that lived along the West African Guinea Coast.

What do you conclude from these maps about the origins of the Africans who were brought toNorth America?

BEST COPY AMIABLE 56

THEME D: AFRICANS IN THE AMERICAS V D-7


DESTINATION OF AFRICANS BROUGHT AS SLAVES TO THE AMERICAS 1500-1870

UNITED STATES

6%

DUTCH, DANISH,& SWEDISHCARIBBEAN

6%

SPANISHAMERICA

17%

FIGURE D-8

EXERCISE

Base your answers to the following questions on the circle graph.

What does the graph show?

Which region imported the largest percentage of Africans as slaves from 1500 to 1870?

What percentage of enslaved Africans were brought to the Caribbean?

Which two regions imported the lowest percentage of Africans as slaves?

5?D-8 AFRICAN-AMERICAN HERITAGE

LEARNING ACTIVITY 2The first African people arrived in NewNetherland (an area encompassing present-day New York, New Jersey, and part ofConnecticut) as slaves of the Dutch in theearly 1600s. In 1647, the Dutch West IndiaCompany decided to bring more enslavedAfrican workers to New Netherland.Agricultural production in the Dutch colonywould be increased, and the surplus couldthen be exported to Holland and to otherparts of Europe.

Hang a map of the United States and askstudents to identify places where theythink slavery existed.

Distribute Activity Sheet 2, "EnslavedAfricans in New Netherland." Havestudents read, complete the exercise, andexplain their answers to the followingquestions:

What does this document tell us aboutslavery?

Why did the Dutch West IndiaCompany decide to allow moreenslaved Africans to be brought toNew Netherland?

Who profited most from thecompany's decision?

What other decisions could thecompany have reached? Explain.


Students can:

visit the Schomburg Center for the Studyof Black Culture to find out more aboutslavery in the New York area.

prepare charts or posters highlighting theachievements of Africans and theirdescendants who were enslaved in theAmericas.

5cd


ACTIVITY SHEET 2

ENSLAVED AFRICANS IN NEW NETHERLAND

New York City (once known as New Amsterdam) was among the first settlements in thenortheastern colonies of North America., then called New Netherland. The Dutch West IndiaCompany, one of Holland's international trading companies, controlled New Netherland, made upof parts of present-day New York, New Jersey, and Connecticut. In the 1640s, the company alsotraded extensively in Brazil.

The document below tells of a decision the Company made in 1647.

Concerning New Netherland:

That country is considered to be the most fruitful of all the

Dutch colonies and the best for raising all sorts of this country's

produce (rye, wheat, barley, peas, beans, etc.), and cattle. Even

more could be produced if it were suitably peopled and farmed.

Many Dutch laborers now enter the profitable fiir trade and

neglect agriculture altogether. In order then to encourage

agriculture and to increase population, it would be highly

advantageous to allow the fanners in New Netherland to export

their produce to Brazil, to trade it there, and to carry slaves back

in return. In this way not only would Brazil be supplied with

farm products at a cheaper rate, but also slave labor zvou

enable New Netherland to be more extensively fanned than it has

been until now. If more slaves are taken to and maintained in

New Netherland at a cheap rate, more farm products will be

raised, and because of their abundance, be reduced in price.

When there is a surplus of farm products, these can be profitably

exported to Holland and to other parts of Europe.

This nineteenth of April, in the

Year of Our Lord sixteen hundred and fort-seven.

Adapted from J. R. Bradhead, Documents Relative to the Colonial History of the State of New York, vol. I. E. B. Collaghan. ed. (New York AMS Press,Reprint 1887 ed.), pp. 243 and 246. Reprinted by permission.

D-10 V AFRICAN-AMERICAN HERITAGE 5 Q

ACTIVITY S H E ET 2 CONTINUED

EXERCISE

In the space provided, briefly state the Dutch West India Company's decision and two reasons for it.

Decision:

Reason #1:

Reason #2:


LEARNING ACTIVITY 3Just three years before the decision was madeto increase the number of slaves in NewNetherland, the colonial Dutch governmentfreed a group of eleven enslaved men andtheir wivesall laborers of the Dutch WestIndia Company in New Amsterdam. Theseeleven enslaved men had petitioned thedirector and the council of New Amsterdamfor their freedom. In February of 1644, theywere manumitted (freed) with their wivesbecause of their "long and faithful services."Their freedom, however, did have a catch.Each was given a grant of farmland and werefreed only if each promised to provide foodfor the colony. Further, their children werenot freed, remaining enslaved as "property"ofthe Dutch West India Company. The freedmen and women later purchased theirchildren's freedom.

Some historians believe the colony used thefreed Africans as a protective buffer zonebetween the colony and Native Americansduring the height of the Dutch and Indianwars. These freed African men, women, andchildren once totaled about 10 percent ofNew Amsterdam's population. Their farmscovered more than 300 acres of lowerManhattan and became known in the city'srecords as "The Land of the Blacks."

Display a map of New York City andpoint out that from about 1643 to 1716 thearea in Manhattan between Wall Streetand 34th Street, including present-dayChinatown, So Ho, Little Italy, andGreenwich Village, was known as "TheLand of the Blacks." Ask students whatthey think this phrase meant.

Distribute Activity Sheet 3, "The Land ofthe Blacks." Have students read, examinethe map, complete the exercise, and

explain their answers to the followingquestions:

What does this worksheet tell us aboutthe Land of the Blacks?

Why did the government of NewAmsterdam free eleven enslavedAfricans and grant them farmland?

As an African freed in 1644, howwould you have reacted to beinggranted farmland beyond the citywalls? Explain.

How did free Africans contribute tolife in colonial New Amsterdam andNew York?

What problems do you suppose thesefree Africans faced? How would yousuggest they be solved?

Our knowledge of the lives ofAfricansenslaved and freeincolonial New York remains veryincomplete. How important arescholars' efforts to fill in the gaps?Explain.


Students can:

write and stage a one-act play about life inthe Land of the Blacks.

visit Weeksville, a community in Brooklynthat free African-Americans established inthe 1840s. Contact:

The Weeksville SocietyP.O. Box 120St. John's StationBrooklyn, New York 11213-0002(718) 756-5250


ACTIVITY SHEET 3

THE LAND OF THE BLACKS

Antony Portugese was one of eleven enslaved men that the Dutch West India Company freed in1644 and gave a grant of farmland. If he could travel through time to today, he might want to tell usthe following:

THE DAY IN MY LIFE that I remember best is February 25,1644when I and ten other Africans, all of us laborers of theDutch West India Company in New Amsterdam, were freed.The joy we all felt on that day cannot be described. I also

remember September 5, 1645, when the government of New Amsterdamgranted to me, Antony Portugese, a piece of land amounting in all to sixmorgens (12 acres). I could not believe my good fortune.

But it turned out that freedom and the grant of farmland had a catch. We allhad to promise to provide food for the colony. And it was rumored that thegovernors of the colony had an even more selfish motive when they grantedus farmland.

At that time (1645-64) peace had just been made after a long war between theDutch and neighboring Indian peoples. During that war, the farms of Dutchsettlers beyond the walls village's had been ruined and the occupantsmassacred or driven off. Some say that we Africans were freed and givenfarmland on the frontier of the Dutch settlement, north of the village wall(Wall Street), to establish a protective buffer zone for the colony.

We free Black men, women, and children once totaled about 10 percent ofNew Amsterdam's population. Our farmland, called the Land of the Blacks,covered more than 300 acres of lower Manhattan.

I am proud to say that most free Blacks in New Amsterdam were skilledworkers. Our free children became some of the city's first merchants andbusinessmen. For example, Lucas Peters, son of one of the first free Blackfamilies, was the city's first Black doctor. His brother, Solomon, a successfulmerchant, purchased land (a six block area between 26th and 32nd Street).Anthony John Everts was the only Black to own farmland outside the Land ofthe Blacks. In 1685, Everts purchased a 100 acre farm (on Manhattan's UpperWest Side, on land extending from the Hudson River to Central Park). Mydaughter, Susan Anthony Roberts, was among the colony's free Black womenfarmers. (Susan's farm was on the area of Washington Square Park, near NewYork University.)

Adapted from Christopher Moore, PMaerrs: The Story of Africak-Aostricasu is tie History ofNOM York City (Brooklyn, NY: Brazilia-Yancey, 1992), pp.

1-10. Reprinted by permission.

THEME D: AFRICA IN THE AMERICAS D-13


PennsylvaniaStation

Black BurialGround

City Hall(today)

CC

0

Broadway

WilliamsburgBridge

Chambers St.

BrooklynBridge

ManhattanBridge

New York City Limits in 1716The Land of the Blacks f0

0 3 Km

N3 Mi

FIGURE D-14

EXERCISE

In the 1600s, free Blacks lived within the same New Amsterdam (later New York) colonialcommunity as enslaved Blacks. By 1712, however, laws were passed that prohibited free Blacksfrom owning land in New York City, and the number of enslaved Africans (and some enslavedNative Americans) grew to about 20 percent of the total population of New York City.

Pretend the year is 1712 and the New York Colonial Assembly is meeting to consider the lawsreferred to above. You are called on to advise the Assembly on the issue of enslaved people in thecolony. What advice do you give?

6>D-14 V AFRICAN-AMERICAN HERITAGE EST COPY AVALABLE

LEARNING ACTIVITY 4In the late 17th and early 18th centuries,Blacks, who in some instances had been ableto gain freedom and hold land under theDutch, had to endure increasingly repressiveconditions under English rule: for example, an1712 law prohibited Africans from owningland or receiving inheritance, restrictedgatherings of three or more slaves, andsanctioned physical punishment.

It was within this political climate that it wasdecided that Africans would be buried outsidethe city limits. This area became known asthe "Negro Burial Ground" and is estimatedto cover an area of five to six acres in what isnow the City Hall area of lower Manhattan.

The recent discovery of this burial ground,the earliest known African cemetery in theUnited States, has excited scholars seeking toknow more about the history of Africans inthe United States. Moreover, communityactivists have moved to ensure that thememory of their ancestors is honoredappropriately. In February 1993, the NewYork City Landmarks PreservationCommission designated the African BurialGround an official historic site.

DEVELOPMENTAsk students: "If you wanted people 100years from now to know about contempo-rary life in the United States, what objectscould you bury in a time capsule?"

Tell students that archaeologists have re-cently been digging in the area of Broad-way and Reade Streets in lower Manhat-tan. Display a map of New York City andhelp students locate that intersection.

Distribute Activity Sheet 4A, "AfricanBurial Ground." Have students completethe exercise and explain their answers tothe following questions:

What does this article tell us aboutrecent excavations in lower Manhattan?

How was the African Burial Grounddiscovered?

Why are archaeologists, anthropologists,and historians excited about the findings?

What kinds of knowledge might theskeletal remains and artifacts provide?

Why did State Senator David Patersondemand that scholars specializing inAfrican-American studies be involvedin the removal and study of theartifacts and skeletal remains?

What recommendations did MayorDinkins's special advisory committeemake regarding the burial ground?What are your reactions to theserecommendations?

Tell students that in February of 1993,the New York City LandmarksPreservation Commission designated theAfrican Burial Ground as an officialhistoric site. Ask:

What is your reaction to New YorkCity making the African BurialGround a historic landmark?

Should people take action to make theAfrican Burial Ground a nationalhistoric site? Why or why not?

What do you think would be a propermemorial on the site of the burialground? Explain.

Distribute Activity Sheet 4B, "Art Aboutthe African Burial Ground." Havestudents examine the photocopy of theprint and complete the exercise. Reviewtheir responses and discuss.


Students can:

design on posterboard what they believeto be proper memorials for the AfricanBurial Ground site.

arrange for a class visit to the LiaisonOffice of the African Burial Ground andFive Points Archaeological Project, wherea variety of educational programs on thehistory and status of the African BurialGround are offered. In addition, theirspecialists will bring slide presentationsto schools.

THEME D: AFRICANS IN THE AMERICAS D-15

create art panels or posters on the themeof the African Burial Ground like theexamples shown below. These posters,created by New York City school children,were selected by the Federal Advisory

:3

DUTCh COLONIES ALORTHE HyDSOli PIVEN IN THE I8


Committee for the African Burial Groundto be posted around the construction siteat 290 Broadway. They were provided bythe Awareness Through Art Program,sponsored by Linpro New York, Inc.

6 Li

4.*

EST COPY (=WARABLE,

ACTIVITY 5 H E ET 4A

AFRICAN BURIAL GROUND

The article below describes exciting new archaeological findings in lower Manhattan:

ARCHAEOLOGY TODAYIMPORTANT DISCOVERY

MADE IN LOWER MANHATTANON'TWALKTHERE,"cautions an

archaeologist to an observerventuring onto a damp, red,unmarked strip of soil. "Westill don't know what isbeneath that spot." Severalyears ago no one seemed tocare what lay there. But whenthe General Services Admin-istration (GSA) decided topour 34 stories of cement overthis portion of African-American history, grass-rootsindignation combined withNew York City's politicalleadership to stopconstruction.Maps from the early 18thcentury labeled this section oflower Manhattan as the"Negro Burial Ground," sixuntamable acres outside thecity limits where the bodies of20,000 enslaved and freeBlacks, as well as those ofcriminals and victims ofepidemic diseases, wereburied between 1712 and1792. During the late 18thcentury and throughout the19th and 20th centuries, thecemetery was layered withlandfill and the surroundingarea covered with commercialand municipal buildings. The

Figure D-17

burial site, now in the hub ofthe citywithin walkingdistance of both New YorkCity's financial district and theports that harbored NewYork's shipping industrywas all but forgotten.

When the GSA, a federalgovernment agency,purchased the property at thecorner of Broadway and ReadeStreets from New York City in1990, it was believed that thebodies once buried there hadbeen removed or destroyed.Yet before construction could

begin on the $275 millionoffice building and pavilion,historic-site preservationregulations required that thearea be examined.

The exploration revealed whatis arguably the most significantdiscovery in African-Americanhistory. Beneath 20 to 25 feetof landfill, the skeletons of anestimated 435 Blacks (manyof them the first Africansbrought onto Colonial soil)were found intact. Nearly halfof the remains were thoseof children.

THEME D: AFRICAN THE AMERICAS V D-17

ACTIVITY SH E ET 4A CONTINUED

The graves also containedapproximately 500,000artifacts; among these anAfrican shroud, a shroud pin, abrass ring and brass buttons,and pottery. The teeth of oneman buried there had beenfiled in a manner identifiedwith West African tradition.This discovery and otherskeletons could provideinsight into the diet, illnessesand geographic origins of thedeceased.

Archaeologists, anthropol-ogists, and historians praisedthe extraordinary findthisnation's only known cemeteryfor African-Americans datingback to the Colonial era. Thusbegan the battle between agovernment agency bent onprogress and communityactivists determined to honorthe memory of their ancestors.

A community task force, ledby New York State SenatorDavid Paterson, demandedthat scientists and historiansspecializing in African-American studies be involvedin the removal and study ofthe artifacts and skeletalremains. AnthropologistMichael Blakey of HowardUniversity was contacted, andAfrican-American "diggers"were brought in to assist in theexcavation.

Then, in what was laterdescribed as a "simple humanerror of miscommunication,"20 graves were destroyedwhen construction workersshoveled a portion of land

and filled it with concretefooting. The dirt removedcontained broken bones.Claiming that the GSA'scareless treatment of thecemetery and its failure toinvolve African-Americans indecision-making was inviolation of the NationalPreservation Act of 1964, thetask force prepared a lawsuitand threatened to initiate actsof civil disobedience. Itseemed that only an act ofCongress would resolve theconflict.

At a hearing of the U.S. Houseof Representatives'subcommittee on PublicBuildings, which is the initialauthorizing body for majorGSA projects, the GSAacknowledged its failure tocomply with the PreservationAct's guidelines.Subcommittee chairman,Representative Gus Savage ofChicago, demanded thatexcavation cease and told GSAadministrators that thesubcommittee would withholdapproval from all GSA projectsuntil the Burial Ground matterhad been resolved. Days later,GSA officials met with Savagein Washington, DC, andagreed to halt excavation ofthe Burial Ground, pendingthe recommendations of anadvisory committee composedof community leaders,preservationists, and others.

Prior to the congressionalhearing, a special advisorycommittee appointed by

6?.


Mayor David Dinkins andheaded by historian HowardDodson, chief of theSchomburg Center forResearch in Black Culture,had made the followingrecommendations: that re-interment of the bodiesremoved be considered; thatthe Burial Ground bedesignated a national historicsite; that the cemetery, itsartifacts, and remains beplaced under the auspices ofeither the National ParkService or the SmithsonianInstitution; that a committeebe formed to oversee theresearch and development ofan appropriate memorial; andthat a "world class" museumdedicated to Blacks of theColonial period be constructedupon or near the site.

Work on the office buildinghas begun; its foundation isnow "culturally sterile" (notexpected to contain skeletalremains). New York SenatorAlfonse D'Amato hasrequested $3 million from theSenate AppropriationsCommittee to financemodifications in the pavilionand to prevent furtherdeterioration of the burial site.Eventually, the pavilion areamay not only see the reburialof the bodies, it may receivelandmark status and become afitting memorial to theseforgotten participants inAmerican history.

Adapted from Sharon Fitzgerald, `Negro BurialGround."Americos ruins, Oct/Nov 1992, pp. l&19. Reprinted by permission.

ACTIVITY SHEET 4A CONTINUED

EXERCISEIn the space provided, write a letter to the Mayor David Dinkins, expressing your opinion on hisspecial advisory committee's recommendations on the African Burial Ground.

Dear Mayor Dinkins.

I have just read the recommendations made by your special advisorycommittee on the African Burial Ground. I (agree/disagree) with thoserecommendations for the following reasons:

Second,

Third,

Sincerely,

3d

THEME D: AFRICANS IN THE AMERICAS D19

ACTIVITY SHEET4B

ART ABOUT THE AFRICAN BURIAL GROUNDExcavations at the African Burial Ground site inspired the artist David Rashid Gayle to create theprint below. Study the print. Next to each of its features, listed below, briefly state its meaning to you.

FIGURE D-20: "African Burial Ground"

FEATURES OF ARTIST'S PRINT MEANING TO YOU

1. Use of traditional African kente cloth toshow burial ground location

Z. Lighted (green) candles to show area whereAfricans first lived

3. Human bones substituting for somecolumns of United States Courthouse

4. Images of African and African-Americanancestors ..

Questions adapted from Amal Muhammad. The African Burial Ground: Learning History through Art" 1993,unpublished essay. Reprinted by permission.

D-20 V AFRICAN-AMERICAN HERITAGE 60

LEARNING ACTIVITY 5The heritage that Africans brought with themto the Americas can perhaps best be seen to-day on the islands in the Atlantic off the coastof South Carolina and Georgia. On theseislands live the descendants of enslavedAfricans who had worked on cottonplantations. Separated from the mainland forgenerations, the descendants' African andCaribbean cultures remained relativelyunaffected by contact with others. Thiscontinued isolation gives us a glimpse at whatsome aspects of these cultures might havebeen like before contact with Europeans.

Engage students in a brief discussion ofthe advantages and disadvantages of livingon an island off the mainland.

Tell students that some enslaved Africanslived on such islands off the coast of SouthCarolina and Georgia.

Display a map and help students to locatethe area of the islands.

Distribute Activity Sheet 5A, "Passing onthe Heritage." Have students read thesheet, complete the exercise, and explaintheir answers to the following questions:

What do these two interviews tell usabout the people of St. Johns Island?

What is important to Mrs. JanieHunter? To Mrs. Idell Smalls?

Why does Mrs. Hunter take pride inpassing on her heritage to her children?

How do the older people of St. JohnsIsland pass on their heritage? Howdoes this method reflect their Africanbackground? Explain.

Why do you suppose some people,according to Mrs. Hunter, areembarrassed to explain their heritageto other people? How would youconvince them not to be embarrassed?

How did her visit to Africa affect Mrs.Idell Smalls? As an Islander, wouldshe be better able to recognize inAfrica aspects of her culture thanwould an African-American from themainland United States? Explain.

How important is it to pass on yourcultural past? How can we do this?Explain.

Distribute Activity Sheet 5B, "Gullah."Have students read the sheet, completethe exercises, and explain their answers tothe following questions:

What is the "Gullah" language?

Why do the Sea Island people stillspeak Gullah today?

How is Gullah used in the song "OldLady Came from Booster"?

Why do you suppose historians andanthropologists (people who studyhuman cultures) are very interested inthe Gullah language?

Should Gullah be preserved? Explain.


Students can:research and report on other Africanismspresent in the culture of the Sea Islandpeople.compile a book that includes eachstudent's explanation of an aspect of his orher cultural heritage and its specialmeaning or value to the student.

view a video of Family Across the Sea, a filmavailable through PBS and ETV about theexperiences of a group of Gullah speakersfrom the Sea Islands of Georgia and SouthCarolina who visit the area in Sierra Leonefrom which their ancestors were taken.The Gullah speakers are immediatelyable to communicate with the Kriospeakers of Sierra Leone. There are manyexciting moments as the two groupsexplore their common ancestral roots.

research the cultures of various maroonpeoples of the Caribbean Islands andcompare and contrast these with theculture of the Sea Island people. Forexample, maroons in Jamaica are a peoplewhose ancestors escaped slavery andcreated their own communitiescompletely separate from other peoples.

THEME D: AFRICA IN THE AMERICAS V D-21

ACTIVITY SHEET 5A

PASSING ON THE HERITAGE

Because they were separated from the mainland for generations, the African and Caribbean culturesof the people of St. Johns Island, descendants' of cotton plantation slaves, have remained relativelyunaffected by contact with others. This isolation gives us a glimpse at what some aspects of thesecultures might have been like before contact with Europeans.

St. Johns Island people today farm and fish. When they sit at home, they swap folk stories and shareold-time remedies and cures from Africa. But the St. johns Islanders are most famous for their"shouting" style of singing spiritual songs, which they perform without instrumental accompani-ment, not only with their voices, but also with their hands and feet.

When two St. Johns Islanders were interviewed, they related the following stories.

MRS. JANIE HUNTER: WHAT I KNOW I TRY TO TEACH MY CHILDRENWHEN I COME UP, my parents

sat us down on Sunday after-noon after church and taughtus stories, and their life stories

how they came up. Some of my great-grandparents came up in slavery times, and allthese stories and folktales that I tell are fromway back in the history of slavery times.

The songs tell stories, toothe religioussongs and the blues songs. Those songs gaveus a feeling to go on. That's all we had to liveby. We sang and the games we played. Wedidn't go to piccolo or none of thattherewasn't any of that in those times. We'd take atub and washboard and make our own music.On Sunday evening my father's house was fullup. We sing and shout and feel good about it.We had a good time. We didn't be sick. Wedidn't get in no trouble. Everybody loved oneanother. And we still love to sing. That is ourtalent God bless us with. We love to sing andwe love people. We love to get along witheverybody. We was brought up like that.

And what I know I try to teach my childrenmy seven daughters and six sons and ninety-five grandchildren and twenty-four great-grandsso as the generations go on, it won'tdie out. I think the past is very important for

FIGURE D-22: Mrs. Janie Hunter is a singer for theMoving Star Hall Singers. She carries in her memorya collection of animal stories and is a maker of quiltsand dolls.

them to understand. There's a lot of peopleon this island, older than I am, they know allabout the past, but they feel so embarrassedto explain about it. They figure that peopleare going to look down on them as nothing.But I always say, "I am just what I am." Andwhat I want my children to know is that whenI'm gone, my children can teach theirchildren.

From Abu Yoe Got a Right to the Tree of LOP : The People Volta Irked, Soatth Carolina. Guy and Candle Carawan, eds. (Athens, GA: University of GeorgiaPress, 1989). Reprinted by permission.

D-22 AFRICAN-AMERICAN HERITAGE

ACTIVITY SHEET 5A CONTINUED

MRS. IDELL SMALLS: I WANT THE YOUTH TO BE PROUDOF WHO WE ARE AND WHERE WE'RE FROM

IN 1985 I HAD the opportunity to goto Nairobi, Kenya. I had anexperience that is hard to put intowords. Being there, I could feel, smell,

and relive my childhood through tradition,dialect, customs, and being able to look at mypeople there in Nairobi and see my family inSouth Carolina in their faces. On returning

home I wanted to instill in the youth andadults the importance of holding onto ourheritage and African customs, because notmany of us will ever get to Africa to exper-ience what I did. I wanted the youth to beproud of who we are and where we're from.From Abet Yea Got a Right to thermsof Life?: ne Peopk Vans Irked,South Garouia. Guy and Candle Carawan, eds. (Athens, GA: Universityof Georgia Press, 1989). Reprinted by permission.

EXERCISEThink of some thing or event in your past that illustrates your culture. Write a paragraph about that

thing or event to explain its value for you.

7r)


ACTIVITY SHEET 5B

GULLAH

The people who live on St. Johns Island today speak an African dialect called Gullah. Gullah mixesEnglish words with words from the Caribbean and West Africa. The chart below lists on the left someGullah words and phrases with their English translations on the right.

Old-time talk we still de talkem here!

(We still speak Gullah here!)

chigger small flea

day clean 4 daybreak

goober peanut

heh yes

long eye envy

nana 4. grandmother

one day `mong all! 4. finally!

small small 4 very small

small small small 4. tiny

sweetmouth 4. flatter

ugly too much 4. very ugly

FIGURE 0-24

EXERCISE

Write three sentences using at least two Gullah words or phrases in each.

1.

2.

3.

7


ACTIVITY SHEET 5B CONTINUED

The song below is sung by St. Johns Islanders and includes Gullah words. Circle the Gullah wordsand try to determine their English meanings from the context.

'Mrs. Janie Hunter,Mrs. Mary,Pinckney,

and their children

Old lady came from Booster,

She had two hen and a roosterShe couldn't get egg like she useter.

Oh, Ma, you look so,

Oh, Pa, you look so.Who been here since I were gone?Two little boy with the blue cap on.

Hang 'em on a hick'ry stick,Ranky tanky down my shoe,

The Buffalo Boy gonna buy it back.

Painy me hip, Ranky tanky.Painy me knee, Ranky tanky.Painy me leg, Ranky tanky.

Painy me elbow, Ranky tanky.Painy me shoulder, Ranky tanky.

Painy me neck, Ranky Tanky.On up my head, Ranky tanky.

Don't leave me here, Ranky tanky.

Old lady came from Booster,She had two hen and a rooster,

The rooster died, the old lady cried,

She couldn't tell the news like she useter.

FIGURE D-25

74THEME I): AFRICANS IN THE AMERICAS V D-25

LEARNING ACTIVITY 6The institution of slavery did not destroy theculture that Africans brought to the Americas,nor did it erase their memories of pastcustoms and traditions. Enslaved Africanssurvived their oppression by maintaining theideals fundamental to African culture, bycreating new expressive forms out of Africantraditions, and by reshaping EuropeanAmerican customs to conform to Africanculture. The Africanisms found in the cultureof African-Americans today have had animpact on the dominant American culture.

Divide the class into groups of sixstudents each. Distribute one of thefollowing activity sheets to each memberof each group: 6A, "African-AmericanMusic"; 6B, "African-American HairBraiding"; 6C, "African-AmericanSculpture"; 6D, "African-AmericanCuisine"; 6E, "African-American Dance";and 6F, "African-American BasketWeaving."

Distribute one copy of Activity Sheet 6G,"Africanisms in American Culture," toeach group.

Instruct each group member to examinehis or her assigned activity sheet andshare the information it contains with thegroup. Have group members worktogether to complete the exercise onActivity Sheet 6G.

Have a spokesperson from each groupreport on one category of Africanisms inAmerican culture. Finally, have studentsexplain their answers to the followingquestions:

What information did you get from thepictures and illustrations?

What Africanisms continue to befound in the culture of African-Americans today?

How much of an impact has Africanculture had on the culture of otherAmericans?


How has African music influencedmusic in the United States? In theCaribbean? In other parts of theworld?

How does the history of Africans inAmerica help explain the evolution oftheir music? Give specific examples.

How is rap music a continuation of theAfrican oral tradition? Explain.

Why are African-American women andAfrican women today wearing similarhair styles? Which culture do yousuppose has borrowed this style fromthe other? Explain.

Why did enslaved Africans in SouthCarolina continue to weave Africanbaskets?

How and why has the tradition ofbasket weaving been passed down toeach new generation?

What do the photographs reveal aboutthe continuity of African sculpture inAmerica?

What evidence is there that Africancuisine influenced Southern UnitedStates cooking?

How has African dance influencedAmerican dance? Explain.

Why do you suppose Americans otherthan African-Americans have adoptedaspects of African culture? Can yougive other examples of things oractivities that are now consideredAmerican but originated in othercultures?

What do you consider to be the mostimportant contribution of Africans toAmerican culture? Explain.

How might the culture of the UnitedStates change in the future? Whatpredictions would you make for thefuture of culture in the United States?Explain.


Students can:

record different types of American musicthat evolved from West African music.Students can borrow the music from thepublic library and play it for the class.

write rap songs on the theme of culturalroots.

research and report on Africanisms inAmerican language (e.g., the words banjo,bongo, and boogie-woogie are derived fromWest African languages).

share with the class African items(clothing, objects) that they might have athome and explain their significance.

research and share with the class theorigins of Kwanzaa in the United States,its seven principles, and its symbols.


ACTIVITY SHEET 6A

AFRICAN-AMERICAN MUSICThe chart below shows three types of African-American music emerging from West African rootsand their development in the United States over time.

AFRICAN-AMERICAN MUSIC: ITS DEVELOPMENT

AFRICAN-AMERICANSACRED TRADITIONS

WEST AFRICANMUSICAL ROOTS

AFRICAN-AMERICANSECULAR TRADITIONS

(NON-JAZZ)

AFRICAN-AMERICANSECULAR TRADITIONS

(JAZZ)

1600s WORK, SONGS, FIELDCALLS, PROTEST SONGS

1GAME SONGS

SOCIAL SONGSSYNCOPATEDDANCE MUSIC

1700s FOLK SPIRITUALS

1870s rARRANGEDSPIRITUALS

1880s RURAL BLUES RAGTIMEV

1890s FOLK GOSPEL NEW ORLEANS JAZZ

C. 1900GOSPEL-HYMN VAUDEVILLE BLUES BOOGIE-WOOGIE

. 1920sTRANSITION INTO

BIG BANDS

SWING BANDS1930s fiTRADITIONAL GOSPEL

rV

1940s GOSPEL QUARTETS RHYTHM & BLUES URBAN BLUES RHYTHM & BLUES BEBOP

GOSPEL GROUPS

ri1950s

GOSPEL CHOIRS ROCK N' ROLL HARD BOP COOL

1960sCIVIL RIGHTS SONGS SOUL SOUL JAZZ MODERN JAZZ

Avant Garde

1970s CONTEMPORARY GOSPEL DISCO FUNK JAZZ FUSION

1980s TECHNO FUNK HOUSE MUSIC GO-GO

indicates cross references 0 1980, 1988, 1989. Portia K. MaultsbyRevised 1986,1988 and 1989.


EST COPY OVA LABLE

ACTIVITY SHEET 6B

AFRICAN-AMERICAN HAIR BRAIDING

%titi'Az

FIGURE D-29.1: Young Yoruba woman with acontemporary hair style.

teNderi. -411114e-:\

FIGURE D-292: African-American actress AngelaBassett wearing her hair braided.

FIGURE D-29.3: Bust of Nora Augus, believed tohave been carved by a Union soldier during the1860s.

'7 8


ACTIVITY SHEET 6C

AFRICAN - AMERICAN SCULPTURE

Compare the following African sculptures with the African-American sculptures on the next page.

FIGURE D-30.1: Mali. DogonMother and Child. Wood, 18"

wit 4+

FIGURE D-30.2: Gabon. FangReliquary Head. Wood, 13 3/4"

I

FIGURE 30.3: Liberia. GreboMask. Wood and paint, 21"


FIGURE D-30.4: Angola.Chokwe Figure of WarriorHero. Wood, 14 5/8"

7 E BEST con AVAIL ,E


FIGURE D-31.1: Oliver Jackson, untitled woodand mixed media sculpture.

FIGURE D-31.2: Elizabeth Catlett, Mother andChild. Terra cotta sculpture.

80


ACTIVITY SHEET 61)

AFRICAN-AMERICAN CUISINE

AFRICAN PEANUTSOUP

10 tablespoons or 6 ouncespeanut butter

2 cups salted water or chickenbroth

Small tomato (optional)Red pepper (optional)Bit of chopped onion (optional)

Mix peanut butter and liquid,stirring slowly until dissolved.Bring mixture slowly to a boil.Add optional ingredients ifdesired. Serve. (Peanut soupmay be used as a sauce forshrimp, beef, or chicken. For amain dinner course, use peanutsoup as a basting over slicedchicken. Bake chicken slowlyuntil tender.)Edwina Chavers Johnson, The What and How ofTeaching Afro-Awuricart Cathy: and History in theElernattary Schools. (Albany, NY: University ofthe State of New York, Division ofIntercultural Relations in Education, 1972),p. 31. Permission pending.

%SI)1

P.

VIRGINIA PEANUTSOUP

1/4 pound butter1 small onion, diced2 stalks celery, diced3 tablespoons flour2 quarts chicken broth, heated1 pint peanut butter1/3 teaspoon celery salt1 teaspoon salt1 tablespoon lemon juice1/2 cup ground peanuts

Melt butter in pan and addcelery and onion. Sauté 5minutes, but do not brown. Addflour and blend well. Stir in hotchicken broth, and cook for 30minutes. Remove from stove,strain, and add peanut butter,celery salt, salt, and lemon juice.Sprinkle ground peanuts onsoup just before serving.Anne Reynolds Tomlin Edwards, in TheSmithfield Cookbook, The Junior Woman's Clubof Smithfield Virginia (Hampton, VA: Multi-print, 1978, p. 43). Permission pending.

v v Vv v v v v v


CARIBBEAN PEANUTSOUP

1/2 cup Spanish-type peanutbutter or 1 cup unsalted,roasted Spanish or Africanpeanuts

2 cups concentrated, low-saltchicken broth

1 small onion or 2 scallions,chopped

1 cup half-and-halfSaltYellow bonney pepper sauce or

equivalent, to taste

Process the peanuts untilreduced to a butteryconsistency. (Skip this stage ifusing packaged peanut butter.)In the processor bowl, combinethe peanut butter with 1/2 cupof the chicken broth and theonion. Spin for 10 seconds whilegradually adding the remainingbroth. Transfer the puree to acasserole and heat to a simmer.Cook until the mixture slowlythickens, about 5 minutes. Thenslowly add the half-and-half,stirring constantly. Stop addingliquid when the soup is theconsistency of heavy syrup.There may be milk left over or alittle more may be needed. Saltto taste. Then stir in the chilisauce, drop by drop, until theflavor suits you. Serve in cups orshallow soup bowls with plantainchips or crackers.

Virginia F. and George A. Elbert, Dosor-IslandCaribbean Cookery (New York: Simon &Schuster, 1991), p.87. Reprinted by permission

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ACTIVITY SHEET 6 E

AFRICAN-AMERICAN DANCE

African-American dance uses movements and gestures that are considered distinctly African. Whattypes of movements do the illustrations below suggest?

ei

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FIGURE D-33.1: The Katherine Dunham Dance Company. The use of drums from Africa and Haitiheightened the dance and drama.

FIGURE D-33.2: Cartoonist AlHirschfeld's drawing KatherineDunham and Avon Long in CaribSong, 1945. © 1945 Al Hirschfeld


ACTIVITY SHEET 6F

AFRICAN-AMERICAN BASKET WEAVING

FIGURE D-34.1: Woman weaving a traditionalAfrican basket.

FIGURE D-34.2: Basket made in South Carolinaby African-Americans.

WHEN AFRICANS WEREbrought to South Carolina, it wasnot African labor alone that wasbeing imported but African

technology as well. The methods used to clearand irrigate the fields and the tools used toharvest and mill the grainflail, mortar, andpestlewere African. So were the importantfanner baskets.

These coiled baskets, circular trays nearly twofeet in diameter, were used to winnow thegrain. Coiled baskets were made everywherein Africa, but on the coast of West Africawhere slave traffic was heaviest, rice had beencultivated from an early periodinSenegambia, as early as 1800 to 1500 B.C.

Rice cultivation in South Carolina began in1672 and, according to a plantation inventoryfrom 1730, these coiled baskets were in use.Further evidence includes notices describingthe skills ("excellent basket maker") of slavesup for public auction. The earliest existingbasket of this kind is dated 1850.

By the early 1900s, basketry was taught as partof the school curriculum. At the turn of thecentury, the Penn School on St. Helena'sIsland began selling "sea island baskets"outside the area, primarily through mail order.But only the boys were willing students: Farm


baskets were large and heavy, thus basketmaking was considered to be "men's work."

However, a Charleston merchant started asecond mail-order business that began buyinga steady supply of small baskets made bywomen from Charleston and Mt. Pleasant.Both businesses operated into the 1940s.

African-American basket makers, once foundthroughout coastal South Carolina and the SeaIslands, are concentrated today in the farmingcommunity of Mt. Pleasant, selling theirwares either at makeshift basket stands alonga five-mile stretch of U.S. 17 or on the streetcorners of Charleston.

Basket makers worked year-round, buildingup their inventories over the winter monthswhen sales are slow. If the people who gatherthe materials and the children who are justlearning the craft are counted with theaccomplished weavers, there may be as manyas 1500 basket makers in the Mt. Pleasantcommunity. Weaver Mary Scott says that thecraft is passed down in families for goodreason: "That was one of the main things wedid, learning to survive, was how to makebaskets!"Adapted from Margaret Osburn, "Along the Side of the Road," inAmerican Visions, April 19 p. 1619. Reprinted by permission.

ACTIVITY SHEET 66

AFRICANISMS IN AMERICAN CULTURE

DIRECTIONS.Work together with members of your group to complete the chart below. All group members shouldsign their names below to signify their contributions.

Aspects of African=American Culture Africanisms Found

Influence onAmerican Culture

Music

Hair Braiding

Sculpture

Cuisine

Dance

Basket Weaving

Signatures:

1. 4.

2. 5.

3. 6.

84


THEME ETHE STRUGGLE

FOR HUMAN RIGHTS

.11111 11111iinithmitillifilili11111111111111111111

TEACHER BACKGROUNDAfrican-Americans' resistance, first toenslavement, and then to racism, has been thefocus of the human rights struggle in thisnation. The struggle has included individualand group action, non-violent and violentaction, and action limited to African-Americanparticipation as well as action involving otherAmericans. Some notable examples of theAfrican-American struggle for human and civilrights are the Amistad Mutiny, Nat Turner'sRebellion, the Abolitionist Movement, theUnderground Railroad, legal challengesmounted by the National Association for theAdvancement of Colored People( N.A.A.C.P.), and the Civil Rights Movementof the 1960s.

While individuals have always figuredprominently in the African-American struggle,these men and women were most oftenconnected to organizations, institutions, ormovements that have been important agentsfor change. These include the manyabolitionist organizations; African-Americanchurches, newspapers, and schools; humanand civil rights organizations such as theNiagara Movement, the N.A.A.C.P., theUniversal Negro Improvement Association,the Southern Christian LeadershipConference, the Urban League, and the BlackPanther Party.

Over the centuries, African-Americanresistance to oppression has used both thewritten and the spoken wordin tracts,newspaper articles and editorials,autobiographies, scholarly journals, speeches,songs, poems, etc. The power of their words

was a result not only of what they said, butalso how they said it.

Some of the individuals whose words havefurthered the cause of human rights are verywell known, others are less so. One suchlesser known figure is David Walker. Duringthe enslavement period, Walker, a freeAfrican-American, risked (and gave) his lifewhen he published a tract appealing to whiteAmericans to end slavery or live in fear ofrebellion. Abolitionists distributed "DavidWalker's Appeal" for thirty years after hisdeath. A more well known leader in thecrusade for human rights during this sameperiod was Sojourner Truth, a freed slaveherself, who spoke powerfully against thesubjugation of both enslaved Africans andwomen.

The Emancipation Proclamation, issued byPresident Abraham Lincoln in 1862 duringthe Civil War, had a great impact on humanrights in the United States. African-Americans' reactions at the time to theProclamation show that they realized thedocument was significant not as a finalsolution to the terrible scourge of slavery, butas a first step in the long and difficult process.In 1993, on the 130th anniversary of theeffective date of the Proclamation, Americansare still reexamining that document andassessing its meaning and impact.

Shortly after the 13th Amendment to theConstitution finally abolished slavery, African-Americans in the South were again stripped oftheir civil rights. In the North, African-Americans also experienced discriminationand racism. Among Che many African-Americans whose words had a great impact

8hTHEME E: THE STRUGGLE FOR HUMAN RIGHTS Y E-1

during this Jim Crow period were Ida B.Wells, W.E.B. DuBois, A. Philip Randolph,and the Caribbean leader Marcus Garvey.

The 1954 Supreme Court decision on Brownv. Board of Education, which was argued bythe N.A.A.C.P. lawyer and later SupremeCourt Justice Thurgood Marshall, ended legalsegregation, but much work remained to bedone in the struggle for human rights.Southern states continued to prevent African-Americans from registering to vote. Lunchcounters, buses, water fountains, and schoolsremained segregated. In the North, de factosegregation existed in housing, jobs, andeducation. During this era in which manyAfrican-American leaders gained prominence,Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., and Malcolm X,both powerful speakers, came to represent thedivergent points of view that were emergingin the African-American community. Thewords of these two great leaders still resonatetoday as the struggle for human rights in thisnation continues.

MAJOR IDEASAfrican-Americans' resistance toenslavement and racism has taken manyforms, including the use of the writtenand spoken word.

E-2 V AFRICAN-AMERICAN HERITAGE

The words that prominent African-Americans have spoken and written havebeen powerful tools in the struggle forhuman rights.


Students will be able to:

explain why wordsprinted andspokenwere and are powerful tools inthe struggle for human rights.

recognize the courage required to speakout in the struggle for human rights.

evaluate the effectiveness of DavidWalker's and Sojourner truth's use ofwords in the antebellum (pre-Civil War)struggle for human rights.

assess the meaning and impact of theEmancipation Proclamation, which tookeffect in 1863.

compare and contrast the various wayspeople of African ancestry have usedwords in the struggle againstsegregationist legislation and racism.

analyze the methods for securing rightsadopted by Martin Luther King, Jr., andMalcolm X, as explained in their ownwords.

8 6

LEARNING ACTIVITY 1David Walker (1785-1830), the son of anenslaved father and a free mother, wrote"Walker's Appeal in Four Articles, Togetherwith a Preamble, to the Coloured Citizens ofthe World, but in Particular and VeryExpressly to Those of the United States ofAmerica," which condemned slavery andpredicted that it would cause the destructionof the United States.

Walker's pamphlet was smuggled into theSouth where it infuriated slave owners whothen put a price on his head. Walker,however, refused to flee Boston or hide; he isreported to have said, "I will stand myground. Somebody must die in this cause." InJune 1830, he was found dead near his shop,allegedly poisoned. Although someabolitionists criticized the Appeal for itsjustification of bloodshed, others frequentlyreprinted it during the next thirty years.

Sojourner Truth (c. 1797-1883) was born intoslavery in New York State and set free in1827. A riveting speaker, her message mixedreligion, abolitionism, and, after shediscovered the women's rights movement,feminism as well. She made her most famousspeech in 1851 at the Ohio Women's RightsConvention; initially, many participantsobjected to her presence, fearing that theunpopular abolitionist cause would get mixedup with the feminist cause. But after shefinished her speech, the audience respondedwith "roars of applause."

DEVELOPMENTWrite on the chalkboard: "The pen ismightier than the sword." Ask students toexplain what they think this means andwhy they agree or disagree.

Ask students to give examples of wordswritten or oralthat have had a majorimpact on people and events.

Ask students why some words are morepowerful than others. What qualities make

a particular speech, article, song, or poempowerful? (the message, phrasing, drama,imagery, etc.)

Distribute Activity Sheet 1, "The Powerof Words During Slavery." Have studentsread the activity sheet and complete theexercise; then have them explain theiranswers to the following questions:

What did David Walker say in hispamphlet? What did Sojourner Truthsay in her speech?

How are their words different? Arethere any similarities?

Why do you suppose David Walkerworked to smuggle his "Appeal" intothe South?

Most holders of enslaved Africans,supported by state laws, did not allowthem to learn to read and write. Why?

How do you imagine enslaved peoplewho could read reacted to "Walker'sAppeal"? How do you imagine thoseholding enslaved people reacted?

David Walker is believed to havebeen poisoned in 1830, but his"Appeal" was reprinted anddistributed by Abolitionists (peoplewho wanted to abolish slavery) for thenext 30 years. Why?

Why were there "roars of applause"and "streaming eyes" after SojournerTruth finished her speech?

If you had been in the audience, howwould you have reacted to SojournerTruth's speech?

Why do you suppose Sojourner Truth,a former slave, decided to speak out atthe Ohio Women's RightsConvention?

Should Sojourner Truth have spokenout only against slavery? Why orwhy not?

87THEME E: THE STRUGGLE FOR HUMAN RIGHTS V E-3

Are the words that Sojourner Truthspoke in 1851 relevant to women inthe 1990s? Why or why not?

Is David Walker's message stillmeaningful today? Why or why not?


Students can:

research and report on the biography ofSojourner Truth.

E-4 AFRICAN-AMERICAN HERITAGE

read aloud other speeches that SojournerTruth delivered.

design a bulletin board display on thetheme of "The Power of Words in theStruggle for Human Rights."

88

ACTIVITY SHEET I

THE POWER OF WORDS DURING SLAVERY

zxzetteSPECIAL PRE-CIVIL WAR EDITION

DAVID WALKER WARNS AMERICANSOF SLAVERY'S CONSEQUENCES

DAVID WALKER,a free Bostonian,wrote his "Appeal"in 1829. Through

his contacts with sailors, thepamphlet was smuggled intothe Southern United States. Anexcerpt has been adaptedbelow:

Americans! notwithstandingyou have and do continue totreat us more cruel than anyheathen nation ever did apeople it had subjected to thesame condition that you haveus. Now let us reasonI meanyou of the United States,whom I believe God designsto save from destruction, if youwill hear. For I declare to you,whether you believe it or not,that there are some on thecontinent of America, who willnever be able to seek forgive-ness. God will surely destroythem, to show you his disap-proval of the murders they andyou have inflicted on us....

Remember Americans, that wemust and shall be free and,enlightened as you are, willyou wait until we shall, under

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God, obtain our liberty by thecrushing arm of power? Will itnot be dreadful for you? Ispeak, Americans, for yourgood. We must and shall befree, I say, in spite of you. Youmay do your best to keep us inwretchedness and misery, toenrich you and your children,but God will deliver us fromunder you. And woe, woe, willbe to you if we have to obtainour freedom by fighting.Throw away your fears and

8

prejudices then, and enlightenus and treat us like men, andwe will like you more than wedo now hate you, and tell usnow no more about coloni-zation, for America is as muchour country, as it is yours.

Treat us like men, and there isno danger but we will all livein peace and happinesstogether. For we are not likeyou, hardhearted, unmerciful,and unforgiving. What a happycountry this will be, if thewhites will listen. What nationunder heaven, will be able todo anything with us, unlessGod gives us up into its hand?But Americans, I declare toyou, while you keep us andour children in bondage, andtreat us like brutes, to make ussupport you and your families,we cannot be your friends. Youdo not look for it, do you?Treat us then like men, andwe will be your friends.

Adapted from Walter's Appeal& Games Meru.American Negro: His History and LiteratureSeries, no. 2. (Salem. NH: Ayer Co. 1968)Reprinted by permission.

THEME E: THE STRUGGLE FOR HUMAN RIGHTS E-5


SOJOURNER TRUTH SPEAKS OUTON RIGHTS FOR WOMENAND ENSLAVED PEOPLE

414_ .

FIGURE E-6

j

1N 1851, at the OhioWomen's Rights Con-vention, SojournerTruth, a former New

York slave, listened quietly tothe speakers, many of whomwere males opposed towomen's equality. Then sherose to speak. Some hisseddisapproval. But whenSojourner Truth finished herstatement, there were "roars ofapplause" and "streamingeyes." Her statement follows:

Well, children, where there isso much racket, there must besomething out of kilter. I thinkthat between the Negroes of

the South and the women ofthe North, all talking aboutrights, the white men will bein a fix pretty soon. But what'sall this here talking about?

That man over there says thatwomen need to be helped intocarriages, and lifted overditches, and to have the bestplace everywhere. Nobodyever helps me into carriages,or over mud-puddles, or givesme any best place! and ar'n't Ia woman? Look at me! Lookat my arm! I have ploughedand planted and gatheredinto barns, and no man couldhead me!


And ar'n't I a woman? I couldwork as much and eat as muchas a manwhen I could getitand bear the lash as well!And ar'n't I a woman? I haveborn thirteen children andseen them most all sold off toslavery, and when I cried outwith my mother's grief, nonebut Jesus heard me! And ar'n'tI a woman?

If my cup won't hold but apint and yours hold a quart,wouldn't you be mean not tolet me have my little half-measure full?

Then that little man in blackthere [a minister], he sayswomen can't have as muchrights as men, 'cause Christwasn't a woman! Where didyour Christ come from? FromGod and a woman! Man hadnothing to do with Him.

If the first woman God evermade was strong enough toturn the world upside down allalone, these women togetherought to be able to turn it backagain, and get it right side upagain. And now they is askingto do it, the men better letthem. Obliged to you forhearing on me, and now oldSojourner hasn't got nothingmore to say.

Adapted from Sojourner Truth, in We, theAmerico' Women: A Dammam:1y History. Beth M.Kava and Jeanne Bodin, eds. (Englewood, NJ:Jerome S. Ozer, 1987), p. 117. Reprinted bypermission.


EXERCISE 1

Use the chart below to compare and contrast the words of David Walker and Sojourner Truth. Nextto each characteristic listed at left, give an example from the words of David Walker and SojournerTruth that illustrates it.

Characteristic David Walker's Words Sojourner Truth's Words

The Message

Poetry/Imagery

Drama

Effectiveness Ratingon the scale below

0 1 2 3I 1

ineffective somewhateffective

effective mosteffective

91

THEME E: THE STRUGGLE FOR HUMAN RIGHTS E-7

LEARNING ACTIVITY 2Many Americans today continue to associatethe freeing of enslaved Africans with thefamous Emancipation Proclamation, issued byPresident Abraham Lincoln in 1862, duringthe Civil War. The EmancipationProclamation freed only enslaved Africans inareas still in rebellion against the UnitedStates. In reality, it freed not one enslavedAfrican because those to whom theproclamation referred were not within thejurisdiction of the president at the time. It didnothing to end slavery in the loyal borderstates, nor in specific conquered areas in theSouth. In all, about 800,000 African-Americanpeople remained enslaved in these areas.Nevertheless, the Proclamation clearlyforeshadowed and set the stage for the end ofslavery, which the states legally achievedwhen they ratified the 13th Amendment tothe United States Constitution in 1865, eightmonths after the war ended.

DEVELOPMENTAsk students why Abraham Lincoln is oneof the two presidents of the United Stateswho are honored today with specialholidays. (One probable response is:"Lincoln freed the slaves.")

Distribute Activity Sheet 2A, "Lincoln onSlavery: 1862." Have students read theactivity sheet; then have them explaintheir answers to the following questions:

What does this letter tell us aboutAbraham Lincoln's official view ofslavery in 1862?

What does this letter tell us aboutAbraham Lincoln's personal views ofslavery in 1862?

How did his personal views comparewith what he considered his officialduty?

Why did Lincoln make the survival ofthe Union his first priority?

If you had lived in 1862, how do youthink you would have reacted toreading Lincoln's words in The NewYork Tribune?


Distribute Activity Sheet 2B, "Lincoln'sDecision." Divide the class into smallgroups and instruct each group to read andfollow the directions on the activity sheet.

Have representatives of each group sharetheir "memos to Lincoln" with the class.

Distribute Activity Sheet 2C, "TheEmancipation Proclamation." Havestudents read the activity sheet; then havethem explain their answers to thefollowing questions:

What decisions did Abraham Lincolnmake in 1862 concerning slavery?

How were enslaved people in therebel states affected by theEmancipation Proclamation? Howwere enslaved people in the borderstates affected?

Why do you think Lincoln askedthose enslaved people set free not toengage in violence? How useful wasthis request?

Lincoln allowed freed slaves to jointhe Union army. If you had been afreed African, would you havedone so?

Lincoln considered the Proclamation a"war measure." What did he mean? Inwhat ways could it help win the war?

How important was the EmancipationProclamation to enslaved Africans?

What do you think might havehappened if Lincoln had not issuedthe Emancipation Proclamation?

Abraham Lincoln has been called"The Great Emancipator." Does hedeserve this title?

Was Lincoln's issuance of theEmancipation Proclamation proof ofthe saying "The pen is mightier thanthe sword"? Why or why not?

Distribute Activity Sheet 2D, "BostonAfrican-Americans React." Have studentsread the activity sheet; then have them

explain their answers to the followingquestions:

What information do we get from thisactivity sheet?

How did African-Americans in Bostonreact upon hearing that Lincoln hadissued the EmancipationProclamation?

Why were free African-Americanswaiting in "hope and fear" in Bostonon the night of December 31, 1862?

Why did they begin to sing, "Soundthe loud timbrel o'er Egypt's dark sea,Jehovah hath triumphed, his peopleare free"?

Why does Frederick Douglass saythat African-Americans that nightwere celebrating the "first step"taken by the United States towardending slavery?

Do you agree with Douglass that theEmancipation Proclamation was animportant "first step" in the struggleto end slavery?

FOLLOW -UP ACTIVITIES

Students can:

debate whether celebrations that arebeing planned around the nation tocommemorate 1993 as the 130thanniversary of the EmancipationProclamation are merited.

work in small groups to rewrite theEmancipation Proclamation, makingchanges, additions, and deletions.

research and report on events that led upto the adoption of the 13th Amendment,which legally abolished the institution ofslavery throughout the United States.

93

THEME E: THE STRUGGLE FOR HUMAN RIGHTS V E-9

ACTIVITY SHEET 2A

LINCOLN ON SLAVERY: 1862

Abraham Lincoln was elected President of the United States in 1860. Within months, sevenSouthern states, fearful that Lincoln would end slavery, announced that they were leaving theUnion. Civil war broke out.

In 1862, during the Civil War, a New York newspaper editor published an open letter insisting thatPresident Lincoln free the slaves immediately. Lincoln wrote the following letter back:

FIGURE E-I

Dear Sir:

I have just read your letter addressed to methrough The New York Tribune. As to the policy I"seem to be pursuing," as you say, I have notmeant to leave anyone in doubt.

I would save the Union. I would save it theshortest way (that can be taken) under theConstitution.

If there be those who would not save the Unionunless they could at the same time save slavery, Ido not agree with them. If there be those who wouldnot save the Union unless they could at the sametime destroy slavery, I do not agree with them. Myparamount object in this struggle is to save theUnion, and is not either to save or destroy slavery.

If I could save the Union without freeing anyslave, I would do it; and i f I could save it byfreeing all the slaves, I would do it; and if I coulddo it by freeing some and leaving others alone, Iwould also do that. What I do about slavery andthe colored race, I do because I believe it helps tosave this Union; and what I forbear [refrain fromdoing', I forbear because I do not believe it wouldhelp to save the Union.

I have here stated my purpose according to myview of official duty; and I intend no modificationof my oft -expressed personal wish that all men,everywhere, could be free.

The New York Tribuote, August 25, 1862. Public Domain.

9E-10 V AFRICAN-AMERICAN HERITAGE

43.

ACTIVITY SHEET 2B

LINCOLN'S DECISION

Pretend that the year is 1862 and you are an advisor to President Lincoln. The war is going badly forthe North. Meanwhile, abolitionists are demanding that the president free the slaves at once byMeans of a wartime proclamation. "Teach the rebels and traitors that the price they are to pay forthe attempt to abolish this Government must be the abolition of slavery," said Frederick Douglass,the famous African-American editor and reformer.

The president has asked you to list for him the pros and cons of freeing enslaved people at this time,which you have done in chart form below. Then you are to make recommendations. Review thechart and write a memorandum to President Lincoln explaining your advice.

EMANCIPATION OF ENSLAVED PEOPLE

ADVANTAGES

Freeing the enslaved now will strengthenthe moral cause of the Union at home andabroad.

England, proud of having abolished slaveryin 1833, will refuse to side with theConfederacy.

Abolitionists will be satisfied. They arguethat it is absurd to fight a war withoutdestroying the institution that caused it.

An economic blow will be delivered to theSouth, which depends on slavery.

Freed slaves will join Union armies, whichbadly need soldiers.

DISADVANTAGES

Words cannot free enslaved people. Unionarmies cannot even enforce the Constitutionin the rebel states. They will not be able toenforce emancipation.

The Union cannot feed and care forenslaved Africans if they are freedimmediately. A state of extreme disordermay result, especially as this is wartime.

If the enslaved people are freed, the fourborder states, which rely on slavery, may goover to the Confederacy.

Some northerners oppose emancipation.They volunteered to save the Union, notfight slavery.

THEME E: THE STRUGgL FOR HUMAN RIGHTS E-11

ACTIVITY SH E ET 2B CONTINUED

EXERCISE

MEMORANDUMTo: President Lincoln

From: Your Advisor,

Subject Emancipation of Enslaved People

With regard to the decision you face on freeing the enslaved, I recommend that you

I make this recommendation because


ACTIVITY SH E ET 2C

THE EMANCIPATION PROCLAMATION

In September 1862, President Abraham Lincoln issued the proclamation, effective January 1, 1863,which is adapted below:

1.rt,

11,A'

I, Abraham Lincoln,President of the United States, by virtue of

the power vested in me as Commander-in-Chiefof the United States in time of armed rebellion...

Do order and declare that on the first day ofJanuary 1863, all persons held as slaves within areas

still in rebellion against the United States, shall beforever free... And I ask the people so declared to

be free to avoid all violence, unless in necessary self-defense; and I recommend to them that, in all caseswhen allowed, they labor faithfully for reasonable

jz wages. Such persons, should they so volunteer, willbe received into the armed services of the UnitedStates. And upon this act, sincerely believed to

be an act of justice, warranted by the, Constitution upon military necessity, I44

ask the favor of Almighty God.

*, e

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97

ACTIVITY SHEET 2D

BOSTON AFRICAN-AMERICANS REACT

On the evening of December 31, 1862, African-Americans and their friends held meetings all overthe United States. One such meeting, held in Boston, is described below by Frederick Douglass, aformer slave and a well known abolitionist.

LARGE CROWD gathered in Tremont Temple to wait for thetelegram announcing the "new departure." Two years of warhad passed, and we now met together to receive and celebratethe long-hoped-for proclamation, "if" it came . For, in view of

the past, it was by no means certain that it would come.The occasion, therefore, was one of both hope and fear. Our ship was on theopen sea, tossed by a terrible storm. Wave after wave was passing over us, andevery hour the danger increased.

Every moment of waiting chilled our hopes, and strengthened our fears. Aline of messengers was established between the telegraph office and TremontTemple, and the time was occupied with brief speeches.

But speaking or listening to speeches was not the thing for which the peoplehad come together. We were waiting and listening as for a bolt from the sky,which would break the chains of four millions of slaves. We were watching bythe dim light of the stars, for the dawn ofa new day. We were longing for theanswer to the agonizing prayers of centuries. Remembering those in bonds asbound with them, we wanted to join in the shout for freedom.Eight, nine, ten o'clock came and went, and still no word. A visible shadowseemed falling on the crowd. At last, when patience was almost exhausted,and suspense was becoming agony, a man (I think it was Judge Russell)quickly came through the crowd, and with a face bright with the news hebore, shouted in tones that thrilled all hearts, "It is coming! It is on thewires!"

The effect of this announcement was startling beyond description, and thescene was wild and grand. Joy and gladness exhausted all forms of expression,from shouts of praise to sobs and tears. My old friend Rue, a Negro preacher,a man of wonderful vocal power, expressed the heartfelt emotion of the hour,when he led all the people in the anthem, "Sound the loud timbrel o'erEgypt's dark sea, Jehovah hath triumphed, his people are free."It was one of the most thrilling occasions I ever witnessed, and a worthycelebration of the first step on the part of the nation in its departure from thethralldom of ages.

From Federick Douglass, Tim Lift and Tina of Frukrith Douglass, Wring,* by Histreff (New York: Carol Publishing, 1964), pp. 38789. Reprinted bypermission.


LEARNING ACTIVITY 3The 13th, 14th, and 15th Amendments to theUnited States Constitution, called theReconstruction Amendments, abolishedslavery, extended rights of citizenship to allAmericans (except Native Americans), andextended voting rights to all African-Americanmales, respectively. For a short time, African-Americans were elected to Congress and othergovernment positions. But when theReconstruction period ended in 1877,Southern state governments were already ontheir way toward disenfranchising African-Americans once again.

It was during this time that the Ku Klux Klan,emerged. A secret society of night riders, theKlan used violence to terrorize African-Americans and "keep them in their place."During the decade from 1890 to 1900, morethan 1,800 mob murders by hanging, burning,shooting or beating were recorded. Of thevictims, 1,400 were African-American. FromJanuary to October 1900, newspapers reported114 lynchings, all but two in the South.Furthermore, Southern state governments andmunicipalities passed so-called Jim Crow lawsthat discriminated against African-Americansby setting aside separate facilities for them inpublic places such as railroad cars, hospitals,and schools. The federal government gave thedoctrine of "separate but equal" legal sanctionin the 1896 Supreme Court ruling in the caseof Pkssy v. Ferguson. This period lasted inessence until the 1960s, when the Civil RightsMovement gathered popular support,bolstered by the Supreme Court's 1954decision against enforced segregation inBrown v. Board of Education.

During the Jim Crow era, the voices of anumber of African-Americans rose in thestruggle for human rights. Among the mostprominent were Ida B. Wells, an editor andwriter for the African-American press; W.E.B.Dubois, a founder of the Niagara Movementand of the National Association for theAdvancement of Colored People(NA.A.C.P.); Marcus Garvey, founder of theUniversal Negro Improvement Association(U.N.I.A.); and A. Philip Randolph, founderand president of the Brotherhood of SleepingCar Porters.

DEVELOPMENTShow students photographs (widelyavailable) of segregated bathrooms,drinking fountains, movie theaters, etc., inthe United States prior to 1954.

Ask students what they imagine life waslike for African-Americans during thatperiod.Divide the class into groups of fourstudents each. To each student in a groupdistribute one of the selections on ActivitySheet 3, "African-American Hall ofFame": Ida B. Wells; W.E.B. DuBois;Marcus Garvey; and A. Philip Randolph.

Instruct students to read their assignedselections and then work together tocomplete Exercises 1 and 2 on the activitysheet.Have a spokesperson from each group tellthe class which of the individuals featuredthey would give a "Special AchievementAward," as directed in Exercise 2.

Finally, have students explain theiranswers to the following questions:

What information do we get from thisactivity sheet?

How did each of these African-American leaders contribute to thestruggle for human rights?

How did their goals for African-Americans compare?

Were the methods they chose toachieve their goals similar or different?Explain.

Why didn't the First Amendment ofthe Constitution, guaranteeing offreedom of the press, protect Ida B.Wells and her Memphis Free Speechnewspaper in 1892?

As an African-American living in 1897,how do you think you would havereacted to W.E.B. DuBois' statement?

9aTHEME E: THE STRUGGLE FOR HUMAN RIGHTS V E-15

How do you explain Marcus Garvey'spopularity in the 1920s?

Why do you suppose A. PhilipRandolph targeted discrimination inthe armed forces and defense industryin 1942? How would you have feltabout fighting in a segregated militaryunit? Explain.

What qualities did these people havewhich made them effective leaders?

Which of these leaders would youwant to learn more about? Which ofthese people would be effectiveleaders today?


visit the offices of the Amsterdam News orthe City Sun and discuss how thosenewspapers view themselves in thestruggle for human rights today.


work together in small groups to write adialogue in which all four of the African-American leaders featured in this learningactivity explain their positions in thecontext of the times in which they lived.

view the video "Ida B. Wells: A Passionfor Justice," which has been distributed toall district offices and can be borrowed forclass use.

interview adults who experienced racialsegregation in this country. Students canmake tape recordings and play them backfor the class.

do further research into the lives of Ida B.Wells, W.E.B. DuBois, Marcus Garvey,and A. Philip Randolph and report to theclass.

research the lives of other prominentAfrican-American leaders (such as BookerT. Washington, James Weldon Johnson,Mary McLeod Bethune, Claude McKay,Langston Hughes, Paul Robeson), whosewords made a difference during the JimCrow era.

OD

ACTIVITY SHEET 3

AFRICAN-AMERICAN HALL OF FAME

The 13th, 14th, and 15th Amendments to the United States Constitution ended enslavement andguaranteed full rights to all Americans. But when the period of Reconstruction ended in 1877, theSouthern state governments passed laws, called Jim Crow laws, which prevented African-Americansand white people from using the same public facilities, services, and places. African-Americans werekept from voting. Lynch mobs often attacked, hung, or burned innocent African-Americans.

During the Jim Crow era, the voices of a number of African-Americans rose in the struggle forhuman rights. Among the most prominent were Ida B. Wells, W.E.B. DuBois, Marcus Garvey, andA. Philip Randolph. An "African-American Hall of Fame" would include these people, whosepictures and words appear below.

IPA B. WELLSIda B. Wells started her campaign against lynching in Tennessee at the age of 19. Her articles inthe Memphis Free Speech exposed the growing number of lynchings. In 1892 she publishedinformation showing that the lynchings of three successful African-American grocers was the work oftheir white competitors. In her autobiography, Ida B. Wells describes events soon after shepublished that piece.

FIGURE E-17

Mr. Fortune met me in Jersey City. He greeted mewith "Well, we've been a long time getting you toNew York, but now you are here I am afraid you willhave to stay." "I can't see why that follows," said I."Well," he said, "from the rumpus you have kickedup I feel assured of it. Oh, I know it was you becauseit sounded just like you."

"Will you please tell me what you are talking about?"I asked. "Haven't you seen the morning paper?" hereplied. I told him no. He handed me a copy of The

New York Sun where he had marked an article fromMemphis. The article stated that a committee ofleading citizens had gone to the office of the FreeSpeech, run the business manager, J.L. Fleming, out oftown, destroyed the type and furnishings of the office,and left a note saying that anyone trying to publishthe paper again would be punished with death.

The article went on to say that the paper was ownedby Ida B. Wells, a former school-teacher, who wastraveling in the North.

Although I had been warned repeatedly by my ownpeople that something would happen if I did not stopharping on the lynching of three months before, I hadexpected that happening to come when I was at home.I had bought a pistol the first thing after Tom Moss waslynched, because I expected some cowardly retaliationfrom the lynchers. I felt that one had better die fightingagainst injustice than to die like a dog or a rat in a trap.I had already decided to sell my life as dearly as possibleif attacked. I felt if I could take one lyncher with me, thiswould even up the score a little bit.

Because I saw the chance to be of more service to thecause by staying in New York than by returning toMemphis, I took a position on the New York Age, andcontinued my fight against lynching and lynchers.They had destroyed my paper, in which every dollar Ihad in the world was invested. They had made me anexile and threatened my life for hinting at the truth. Ifelt that I owed it to myself and my race to tell thewhole truth.

From Ida B. Wells, Crusade for face: The AstobiograpAy of Ida B. WI&Alfred& Duster, ed. (University of Chicago Press, 1972), pp. 61-63.Reprinted by permission.

101THEME E: THE STRUGGLE FOR HUMAN RIGHTS E-17


W. E. B. DUBOISW. E. B. DuBois was the first African-American to graduate from Harvard with a Ph.D.degree. He was one of the founders in 1909 of the National Association for theAdvancement of Colored People. Editor of the N.A.A.C.P.'s journal, The Crisis, DuBois alsowrote a number of books and scholarly papers, one of which is excerpted below.

Here, then, is the dilemma, and it is a puzzlingone, I admit. What, after all, am I? Am I anAmerican or am I a Negro? Can I be both? Or isit my duty to cease to be a Negro as soon aspossible and be an American? Here, it seems tome, is the solution to the riddle that puzzles somany of us. We are Americans, not only by birthand by citizenship, but by our political ideals,our language, our religion. Farther than that, ourAmericanism does not go. At that point, we areNegroes, members of a vast historic race thatfrom the very dawn of creation has slept, buthalf awakening in the dark forests of its Africanfatherland. We are the first fruits of this newnation, the sign of that black to-morrow which isyet destined to soften the whiteness of to-day.We are that people whose sense of song hasgiven America its only American music, its onlyAmerican fairy tales, its only touch of warmthand humor. As such, it is our duty to maintainour physical and intellectual powers and ourspiritual ideals. As a race we must strive by raceunity to the realization of that broader humanitywhich freely recognizes differences in men, butrefuses to accept inequality in theiropportunities of development.Adapted from W.E.B. DuBois, The Cosservadem of the Raas (Washington,DC: American Negro Academy, Occasional Papers, No. 2,1897), pp. 11-12.Public domain.

FIGURE E-18



MARCUS GARVEYBorn in Jamaica, Marcus Garvey formed the Universal Negro Improvement Association'there in 1914. In 1917 he reorganized the Association in the United States. Although hisgoal, which he explains below in his own words, was never achieved, about one millionpeople did join his group.

FIGURE E -19

The Negro must have a country, and anation of his own. If you laugh at the idea,then you are selfish and wicked, for you andyour children do not intend that the Negroshall trouble you in yours. If you do notwant him to have a country and a nation ofhis own; if you do not intend to give him

equal opportunities in yours; then it is plainto see that you mean that he must die, evenas the Indian to make room for yourgenerations.

Why should the Negro die? Has he notserved America and the world? Has he notborne the burden of civilization in thisWestern world for three hundred years? Hashe not contributed his best to America?Surely all this stands to his credit, but therewill not be enough room and the one answeris "find a place." We have found a place, itis Africa and as black men for threecenturies have helped white men buildAmerica, surely generous and grateful whitemen will help black men build Africa....

Let the Negroes have a government of theirown. Don't encourage them to believe thatthey will become social equals and leadersof the whites in America, without first ontheir own account proving to the world thatthey are capable of evolving a civilization oftheir own....Adapted from Marcus Garvey, An Appeal to the Soul of White Aoseriaz. Libraryof Congress. Permission pending..

THEME E: THE STRUGGLE FOR HUMAN RIGHTS V E-19


A. PHILIP RANDOLPH

In 1941, A. Philip Randolph, a well known labor leader, threatened President FranklinRoosevelt with a mass march on Washington, D.C., if the president would not endsegregation in the United States armed forces.and in the defense industries. Below,Randolph addresses his followers.

FIGURE E-20

We have met at an hour when the war isbecoming more threatening. As one of thesections of the oppressed darker races, weare deeply concerned that the armies ofHitler, Hirohito, and Mussolini do notdestroy democracy. We know that ourfuture is tied with the future of thedemocratic way of life. But we would not behonest with ourselves were we to stop witha call for a victory of arms alone. We knowthis is not enough.

Our aim must not only be to defeat theenemy on the battlefield but to win thepeace, for democracy, for freedom and theBrotherhood of Man without regard to hispigmentation, land of his birth or the God ofhis fathers....

We want the full works of citizenship withno reservations. We will accept nothing less.

But goals must be achieved. They are notsecured because it is just and right that theybe possessed by Negro or white people.Slavery was not abolished because it wasbad and unjust. It was abolished becausemen fought, bled and died on thebattlefield. They must win their goals andto win them they must fight, sacrifice,suffer, go to jail and, if need be, die forthem. These rights will not be given. Theymust be taken.

As to the composition of our movement.Our policy is that it be all-Negro, and pro-Negro but not anti-white, or anti-semitic oranti-labor, or anti-Catholic. The reason forthis policy is that all oppressed people mustassume the responsibility and take theinitiative to free themselves.

[Note: In response, President Roosevelt didissue an order ending discrimination in thedefense industries, but he did notdesegregate the military.]Adapted from A. Philip Randolph, "Keynote Address to the March onWashington Movement," September 26, 1942, A. Philip Randolph Institute.Permission pending.

E-20 V AFRICAN-AMERICAN HERITAGE 10


EXERCISE 1Work together to complete the chart below. You may not be able to fill in all items for everyindividual.

LEADER GOALS METHODS OUTCOME

Ida B. Wells

W.E.B. DuBois

Marcus Garvey

A. Philip Randolph

THEME E: THE STRUGgli FOR HUMAN RIGHTS V E-21


EXERCISE 2

To which one of the above African-American leaders would you give a Special Achievement Awardfor his or her contribution to the struggle for human rights? On the plaque below, writeaninscription to describe his or her contribution.

1 0 3E-22 V AFRICAN-AMERICAN HERITAGE

LEARNING ACTIVITY 4The two African-Americans whose wordsresonated most during the Civil RightsMovement of the 1960s were Dr. Martin

.Luther King, Jr., and Malcolm X. Their goalsand the methods they advocated to achievethose goals differed fundamentally. Dr. King,a founder of the Southern ChristianLeadership Conference, believed in racialintegration and nonviolent resistance.Malcolm X, a forceful advocate of the blackMuslims, believed in advancement onlythrough self-help, including Blacknationalism, and self defense. After a trip toMecca and Africa in 1964, however, Malcolm,who had changed his name to Al Hajj Malikal-Shabazz, began to change his approach. Heagreed to cooperate with other civil rightsgroups and whites to achieve his goals. But heheld fast to the need for a revolution in theUnited States. According to Malcolm, themethod of changepeaceful or violentwasultimately up to whites.

Write the names Dr. Martin Luther King,Jr., and Malcolm X on the chalkboard. Askstudents to tell what they know abouteach man.

Distribute Activity Sheet 4, "Dr. King andMalcolm X." Have students read theactivity sheet and work in pairs to com-plete the exercise; review it with the class.

Have students write two questions thatthey would have liked to have asked Dr.King and two questions they would haveliked to have asked Malcolm X. Havevolunteers pose their questions. Otherstudents can give the answers they thinkDr. King and Malcolm X would havegiven.

Finally, have students explain theiranswers to the following questions:

What do the words of Dr. King andMalcolm X tell us about the strugglefor human rights in the United Statesduring the 1960s?

How did the goals of Dr. King andMalcolm X compare?

How did their methods compare?

Why was each considered an effectiveleader?

Why do you suppose some African-Americans criticized Dr. King'snonviolent approach in the 1960s?

How do you react to the ideas of thesetwo leaders? If you had been anAfrican-American living in the 1960s,how would you have reacted to theseideas?

Whose ideas do you think African-Americans should have followed?Why?

Whose ideas do you think are thewisest for people who are oppressedtoday to follow? Explain.


Students can:

research and report on how the ideas ofboth Malcolm X and Dr. King evolvedover time.

role-play discussions between Dr. Kingand Malcolm X at different points in theirrespective careers.

share their reactions to the Spike Leemovie Malcolm X with the class.

read The Autobiography of Makolm X, astold to Alex Haley, or Malcolm X by DeanMyers, published by Scholastic Magazine.

prepare and deliver a dramatic reading ofDr. King's "I Have A Dream" speech.

write away for literature distributed byThe Martin Luther King, Jr., Center forNonviolent Social Change in Atlanta,Georgia.

view and discuss segments of Eyes on thePrize, a documentary film of the CivilRights Movement.

107THEME E: THE STRUGGLE FOR HUMAN RIGHTS V E-23

ACTIVITY S H E ET 4

DR. KING AND MALCOLM X

Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., and Malcolm X were among the most prominent civil rights leaders ofthe 1960s. Read the following excerpts from their speeches. In the passages below, identify eachman's goal for African-Americans, then tell whether you agree or disagree with the ideas expressedand explain your position. Then, for the passages on the next page, identify each man's method forachieving that goal, and again tell whether you agree or disagree with the ideas expressed andexplain your position.

DR. KINGI have a dream that one day the state ofAlabama... will be transformed into asituation where little black boys and blackgirls will be able to join hands with little whiteboys and girls and walk together as sisters andbrothers....

This will be the day when all of god's childrenwill be able to sing with new meaning, "Mycountry `tis of thee, sweet land of liberty, ofthee I sing..."Martin Luther King, Jr., "I Have a Dream" Copyright 0 1963 by MartinLuther King, Jr., copyright renewed 1991 by Coretta Scott King.Reprinted by arrangement with The Heirs to the Estate of MartinLuther King, Jr., c/o Joan Daves Agency, New York.

Dr. King's goal

Your position


MALCOLM XI'm a Black nationalist. Now the politicalphilosophy of Black nationalism only meansthat the Black man should control the politicsand the politicians in his own community.

And the economic philosophy of Blacknationalism only means that our people needto be re-educated into the importance ofcontrolling the economy of our owncommunity.

And the social philosophy of Blacknationalism means that we have to becomesocially mature to the point where we willrealize the responsibility is upon us to elevatethe condition, the standard of our community,to a higher level, so that our people will besatisfied to live in our own social circles...instead of trying to force our way into thesocial circles of those who don't want us.Paraphrased from Malcolm X, 1964. Copyright 0 Betty Shabazz andPathfinder Press. Reprinted by permission.

Malcolm X's goal

Your position


DR. KINGIt must be emphasized that nonviolentresistance (to evil) is not for cowards. If oneuses this method because he is afraid ormerely because he lacks the weapons ofviolence, he is not truly nonviolent. Noindividual or group need submit to any wrong,nor need they use violence to right a wrong.This is ultimately the way of the strongman....

Nonviolence does not seek to defeat orhumiliate the opponent, but to win hisfriendship and understanding. The nonviolentresister not only refuses to shoot his opponentbut he also refuses to hate him. To strike backin the same way as his opponent would donothing but increase the existence of hate inthe universe. Along the way of life, someonemust have sense enough and morality enoughto cut off the chain of hate.Martin Luther King, Jr., Stride Toward Frralowt: no Montgomery Story(New York: Harper & Row, 1958), pp. 83-85. Copyright 0 1958 byMartin Luther King, Jr., copyright renewed 1986 by Coretta Scott King.Reprinted by arrangement with The Heirs to the Estate of MartinLuther King, Jr., c/o Joan Daves Agency, New York.

Dr. King's method

Your position

MALCOLM XI have to respect the believer in nonviolencebecause he is doing something that I don'tunderstand. It would be equivalent to puttinghandcuffs on me and putting me in the ringand telling me to fight Cassius Clay(Muhammad Ali) or Sonny Listonnonviolently. I don't think I could do it. Butall I am saying is this, whenever you'redealing with an enemy, you have to be able tocommunicate. You want to speak the languagethat the other person understands. Whenyou're in Mississippi speaking the language ofmorality or the language of nonviolence, youare not communicating, you are talking alanguage that they don't understand.Malcolm X, New York Militant Labor Forum, January 7, 1965. CopyrightC Betty Shaba= and Pathfinder Press. Reprinted by permission.

Malcolm X's method

Your position

1 0THEME Ei THE STRUGGLE FOR HUMAN RIGHTS VE25

THEME FPRESENT AND FUTURE

Illii11111h1

TEACHER BACKGROUNDSince the Civil Rights Movement of the 1950sand 1960s, African-Americans have achievedlarge gains in many areas, including politics andgovernment, business, and the arts. Moreover,African-American culture has increasinglyinfluenced mainstream popular culture.

Although there are still disparities between theincomes and education levels of African-Americans and European-Americans, therehave been gains. Since 1970, the number ofAfrican-American households earning over$50,000 has more than doubled. The numberof African-American college graduates hassoared from 281,000 in 1960 to more than twomillion in the early 1990s. The high schoolcompletion rate for African-American studentsincreased from 59.5% in 1970 to 76.1% in 1989.

In international affairs, the power andleadership of African-Americans has recentlyhelped shape United States foreign policy inits support for the movements for freedomand equality of Blacks in South Africa andstarvation relief in Somalia.

Yet much remains to be done. How are theremaining disparities between African-Americans and European-Americans ineducation, health, and income levels to beremedied? What are the priorities to beaddressed today? Who are the leaders whowill set the agenda for future progress? Andwhat is the role of Americans of Africanancestry in helping Africans to better theirlives as they struggle to overcome thedevastating effects of colonialism?

MAJOR IDEASThere are still disparities betweenincomes, health, and educational levels ofAfrican-Americans and European-Americans, but there have also been gains.Since the Civil Rights Movement of the1960s, African-Americans have achievedgains in the areas of politics andgovernment, business, and the arts.The power and leadership of African-Americans helped shape American foreignpolicy concerning South Africa and Somalia.


Students will be able to:

draw conclusions from statistics on African-American income, education, age, leadingbusinesses, occupations, geographicdistribution, and life expectancy, as well asimmigration from the Caribbean.analyze changes over time in African-American income, education, and lifeexpectancy compared to that of European-Americans.discuss reasons for the continuingdisparities between the income, educationlevel, and life expectancy of African-Americans and European-Americans.make projections for the future of African-Americans.assess the leadership qualities of influentialAmericans of African ancestry today.explain the role that African-Americanshave had in the formation of United Statesforeign policy regarding Africa.evaluate the responsibility all Americanshave to address human rights issuesaround the world.

1iTHEME F: PRESENT AND FUTURE V F-1

LEARNING ACTIVITY 1To gain a demographic picture of African-Americans today, there are many types ofstatistics to consider. This activity asksstudents to summarize information and drawconclusions from statistics on African-American income, education, life expectancy,age, geographic distribution, national origin,types of occupations and businesses. Statisticscomparing African-Americans and European-Americans over time are provided for income,education, and life expectancy, allowingstudents to identify trends and assess how farwe have yet to go to achieve this nation's goalof equality of opportunity.

NOTE: Students might need some assistancein interpreting tables and graphs. Forexample, in Table D students might thinkthat more black males are succeeding ineducation than white males since 50.4% ofblack males have completed 4 years of highschool whereas only 40.66% of white maleshave completed 4 years of high school.However, the percentages reflect the numberof individuals who, after having completedthe number of years indicated on the table,have stopped attending school. If thequestion is what percentage of black maleswent to college, the last three percentages inTable D must be added together. In 1990,33% of black males between 25 and 34 yearsof age had some college education. (The 33%figure is arrived at by adding 21.03%, thepercentage of black males who went tocollege from 1-3 years; 8.89%, the percentagewith 4 years of college education; and 3.08%,the percentage with 5 or more years of collegeeducation.) Therefore, 77% of black males didnot go to college. In comparison, 45.38% ofwhite males had some college education while54.62% did not go to college.

DEVELOPMENTAsk the class: "How would you rate thestatus of African-Americans compared toother groups in the United States?"Discuss.

Distribute Activity Sheet 1, "Profile ofAmericans of African Descent." Havestudents, working in pairs, examine thestatistics and complete the exercise.

F-2 V AFRICAN-AMERICAN HERITAGE

Have students explain their answers tothe following questions:

What information do you get from thisactivity sheet?

What conclusions can you draw fromthe figures about income?

What conclusions can you draw fromthe figures about education?

How do you account for thedifferences between the income levelsof whites and of African-Americans?between the educational levels ofwhites and African-Americans?

How do you explain the figures on lifeexpectancy?

Why do you suppose the leading typesof African-American businesses areauto dealerships and food/beveragebusinesses?

How do you explain the differences inthe occupations of African-Americanmen and women?

After studying the statistics here, howwould you rate the status of African-Americans compared to other groupsin the United States?

How does the future for African-Americans look?

What could you as an individual, or asa member of a community group, doto bring conditions closer to equality?

If you were a government leader, whatcould you do to help bring aboutequality of opportunity for allAmericans?

Divide the class into small groups. Assigneach group to write a paragraphincorporating the group's ideas, or topresent their ideas orally, on one of thetopics below:

Construct a written or oral profile ofAmericans of African descent based onthe data from all the charts.

After studying the education chart,explain what changes you would liketo see and give your reasons why thosechanges would be important

After studying the occupation chart,explain what changes you would liketo see and why those changes wouldbe important.

After studying the life expectancychart, explain what changes you wouldlike to see and why those changeswould be important.

Explain what special problems affectAfrican-American young people underage 25 and what you think should bedone to solve those problems.

Trends now show that for the firsttime more African-Americans aremoving to the South than are leavingthe South to live in the North. If youor members of your family have livedin the South, explain some differencesbetween living in the North and in theSouth that might affect African-Americans' choices of where to live.

If you, members of your family, oryour friends have migrated here fromthe Caribbean, give some reasons whyand explain.

Explain what special problems orneeds affect recent immigrants fromthe Caribbean and what you thinkshould be done to solve thoseproblems or meet those needs.

After studying the business chart,explain what changes you would liketo see in the types of businessesAfrican-Americans own and explainwhy those changes would beimportant.


Students can:

compare the 1990 figures in one area (suchas education, income, or occupation) withthose from the 1980 census, and analyzethe differences.

interview family and community membersabout what changes they would like to seefor the future of African-Americans, andpresent their findings.

work in small groups to prioritize thechanges they would like to see for thefuture of African-Americans and presentthe results in a chart.

take part in a panel discussion on "Profileof Americans of African Ancestry in theYear 2000."

t 2

THEME F: PRESENT AND FUTURE V F-3

ACTIVITYSHEET1

PROFILE OF AMERICANS OF AFRICAN DESCENT

A: THE AFRICAN-AMERICAN POPULATION

TOTAL U.S. POPULATIONAFRICAN AMERICAN POPULATION

248,709,873

29,986,060

Percent of Total

12

Source: US. Department of Commerce, Bureau of Census, /990 Cams f Popidatiox aid Hots*

B: INCOME DISTRIBUTIONS IN 1990 DOLLARS

WHITE FAMILIES 1970 1990

Over $50,000 24.1 % 323 %

$35,000-$50,000 24.1 % 20.8 %

$25,000-$35,000 20.6 % 163 %

$15,000$25,000 16.9 % 16.0 %

Under $15,000 14.3 % 14.2 %

Median Income $34,481 $36,915

BLACK FAMILIES 1970 1990

Over $50,000 9.9 % 143 %

$35,000-$50,000 13.9 % 15.0 %

$25,000-$35,000 17.6 % 14.0 %

$15,000425,000 24.0% 19.5 %

Under $15,000 34.6 % 37.0 %

Median Income $21,151 $21,423

Source Andrew Hacker, Two Nations: Black mid Whits, Scoaratt, Hostik, Nepal (New York:Charles Scribner's Sons, 1992), p. 98. Reprinted with permission of Charles Saibner's Sons,an imprint of Macmillan Publishing Company.

C: AFRICAN-AMERICAN-OWNED BUSINESSES

BUSINESS

Auto Dealerships

Food/Beverage

Media

Manufacturing

Computer/Office Supplies

Construction

Health and Beauty Aids

Entertainment

Transportation

Telecommunications

Miscellaneous

PERCENTAGE

37.07

30.48

6.40

5.67

5.43

4.94

233

2.20

1.60

1.35

1.33

Ranking based on millions of dollars to the nearestthousand. Source: "1990 Mai Eaterwriso 100Companies by Industry," Blatt Esuawrim June 1992.Copyright 0 June 1992. The Earl G. GravesPublishing Co., New York. Reprinted by permission.

D: YEARS OF SCHOOL COMPLETED BY RACE AND SEX AMONG 25-34 YEAR OLDS IN 1990

MALE FEMALESCHOOLING BLACK WHITE BLACK WHITE

8 yrs. 2.92% 4.70% 2.65% 3.98%

1-3 yrs. High School 13.70 9.27 16.75 8.61

4 yrs. High School 50.40 40.66 42.58 41.21

1-3 yrs. College 21.03 20.80 25.63 21.99

4 yrs. College 8.89 16.20 9.39 17.97

5+ yrs. College 3.08 8.38 3.02 7.23

Sown: US. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Mossy hamar of Homtliokb, Familia, aid i Paws: is LW U.S.: 1990, September 1991,

Series P.60, No. 174, Table 29.

113F-4 V AFRICAN-AMERICAN HERITAGE BEST COPY AVAltni,E


E: LIFE EXPECTANCIES AT BIRTH

80

70

60

--White oBlack

501940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990

Source: Andrew Hacker, Two Nations: Black and Whim, Spann,Hartik, IhteguaL (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1992), p. 231.Reprinted with the permission of Charles Scribner's Sons, an imprint ofMacmillan Publishing Company.

F: AGES OF AFRICAN AMERICANS

75 and over

3.5%

Under 25

39.6%

Source: US. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, "Projectionsof the Population of the US, Age, Sex, Race, 1988.2080" 1991 OmitPopulation Swviy. Series P-23. No. 1018.

G: AFRICAN-AMERICAN POPULATION BY REGION

Source: U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census, Summary Population and HomingCharacteristic; 1990.

I: OCCUPATIONS OF AFRICAN-AMERICANS(EMPLOYED, 16 YEARS AND OLDER)

PERCENTOCCUPATION TOTAL MEN WOMEN

Managerial and Professional Specialty 16.1 13.4 18.8

Technical, Sales, and Administrative Support 28.9 183 39.2

Service Occupations 22.9 18.6 27.2

Precision Production, Craft, and Repair 9.0 15.8 2.3

Operators, Fabricators, and Laborers 21.7 31.1 12.4

Fanning, Forestry, and Fishing 1.4 2.6 .2

Sour= U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Employment and Earnings, Vol. 38,No. 1, Jan. 1991, p. 38.

H: IMMIGRANTS FROM THE CARIBBEANBY COUNTRY OF BIRTH

1

11111111111111111111119.4

ON THOUSANDS)

37.5WY/.

III 1 1 1111111 1 1111111 1 1 11

24.6

20.9

94.1

71.0

So

58.7////7/.

I III I I III III IV

15.7

61.8

148.0

142.0

148.6

119.9

32.8

115.4

10.642.2

20.325.0

6.7

Total CaribbeanBarbadosCuba

12 DominicanRepublic

209.6

188.8

276.8

519.5

7S9.8

777.3

0 HaitiA Jamaica

Trinidad andTobago

Source: Statistical Abstract of tdt (hi& Stars, 1990:The National Data Book Government PrintingOffice, p. 11.

BEST COPY MORE 14THEME F: PRESENT AND FUTURE V F-5


EXERCISE

Answer the following questions based on Tables A through I, above.

1. What percentage of the total American population is the African-Americanpopulation?

2. What percentage of African-American families earned over $50,000 in 1990?

3. What percentage of African-American businesses are related to theentertainment industry?

4. At what point do the greatest numbers of African-Americans stop going toschool?

5. What was the difference in the life expectancy of African-Americans andwhite Americans in 1980?

6. In which region of the United States did most African-Americans live in1990?

7. From which Caribbean country did the largest number of immigrants cometo the United States in the year 1990?

8. Which age group of African-Americans is the largest?

9. Among African-Americans, what three types of occupations employ themost people?

10. What general conclusions about the status of African-Americans can youdraw from the various tables and graphs? Explain.

F-6 V AFRICAN-AMERICAN HERITAGE

LEARNING ACTIVITY 2Americans of African ancestry have a longhonor role of historic leaders who haveworked to bring progress and equality. Todaythe leaders may be heads of business, human-itarian, or educational organizations; electedofficials; or individuals whose achievementswithin their field are so outstanding that theyhave great influence on a national level.

DEVELOPMENTAsk the class:

Why is the term "African-American"used today?

Are immigrants from the Caribbean tothe United States "African-Americans"? Why or why not?

Ask the class: "In what areas of life havepeople of African ancestry made thegreatest progress since the 1960s?"

List on the chalkboard categories such aspolitics /government, entertainment, busi-ness, literature, military, sports, music, law.

Play a five-minute game with thefollowing rules:

Divide the class into small groups orteams, so that the game is cooperativeas well as competitive. The objectiveis to name as many influential African-Americans as possible in five minutes.Each team may have a recorder tokeep a record of the namescontributed by that team.

Give one student from one team apiece of chalk. That student is toname a category in which he or sheknows the name of an influentialAfrican-American.

That student hands the chalk to astudent on another team to write aname of a person in that field.Students have a limited time to conferwith their teammates. If the studentwho is called on is able to name aperson in that field, he or she thennames another category, and asks astudent on another team to name aperson in that category.

If a team cannot respond within thetime frame, the student who namedthe category must write a name andthen choose a different category.

Distribute Activity Sheet 2, "CurrentInfluential Americans of AfricanDescent." Have students read thedescriptions of the people listed andexplain their answers to the followingquestions:

Are all of these people familiar to you?If not, what is the field of theperson(s) not familiar to you?

Do some fields receive more mediaattention than others? Explain.

How is each individual shown here apositive influence?

If you were to give an award to one ofthese influential people, to whomwould you give the award? Why?

Which of these individuals would youwant to know more about? Explain.

Have students work in teams of three orfour to design an award for onecontemporary American of Africandescent, as directed on the activity sheet.They may use the names on the sheet, onthe chalkboard, or others that have notbeen mentioned.

List on the chalkboard the awards and therecipients that each group designates.


Students can:

create a finished award as an art project.

research outstanding Americans of Africanancestry, including people from theCaribbean, in a variety of fields and con-duct an ongoing nomination activity untilthere are at least 10 nominees in eachfield. Display their names andaccomplishments on.a bulletin board.

create the criteria for an award for a futureleader and present the award to a student.

1b'

THEME F: PRESENT AND FUTURE V F-7

ACTIVITY SHEET2

CURRENT INFLUENTIAL AMERICANS OF AFRICAN DESCENT

Listed below are some influential Americans of African decent. To which living African-Americanwould you give a Special Achievement Award? In the certificate below, write that person's nameand explain your reasons for giving the award to that person.

COLIN L. POWELLFirst American of Africanand Caribbean descent tobe appointed Chairman ofthe Joint Chiefs of Staff,the highest position in thenation's armed forces.

DEREK WALCOTTBlack writer who won theNobel Prize for Literature(1992); native of St. Lucia;United States residentsince 1950s.

DR. MAE JEMISONFirst African-Americanastronaut.

DAVID DINKINSNew York City's firstAfrican-American mayor.

JOHN H. JOHNSONPublisher, Chairman andCEO of JohnsonPublication Company,which publishes Ebonymagazine.

CAROL MOSELY BRAUNFirst African-Americanwoman to be elected aUnited States Senator.

JACKIE JOYNER KERSEEOlympic gold medalist;known as world's greatestwoman athlete.

MAYA ANGELOUWriter and poet, whoseworks include I Know Whythe Caged Bird Sings.

SPIKE LEEForemost young African-American filmmaker,whose latest movie isMalcolm X.

The Award

is presented to

because:

F-8 V AFRICAN-AMERICAN HERITAGE II

LEARNING ACTIVITY 3The involvement of African-Americans in thestruggle to build a viable Africa is not new.There have been ties to the mother continentsince the arrival of the first transportedAfricans. These ties have taken many forms,from the founding of Liberia and MarcusGarvey's Pan African movement, toindividuals such as Alex Haley searching fortheir own roots.

As African-Americans extend their power andinfluence at home, the potential for aiding thestruggle of Africans and those of Africandescent in other countries is also increasing.The views of the African-Americancommunity can influence popular opinion andUnited States foreign policy. Recently,African-Americans led the movement foreconomic sanctions against South Africa inprotest of apartheid, and helped to uniteAmericans in their support of United Statesintervention to feed the starving in Somalia.

DEVELOPMENTAsk the class, "How are Americans ofAfrican descent connected to Africa?"Briefly discuss some of the answers.

Distribute Activity Sheet 3, "BuildingBridges to Africa." Assign seven studentsto read the discussion aloud as if theywere the panel.

Have the other students, in the role ofreporters, address questions to those onthe panel.

Have the class complete the exercise onthe activity sheet, and then explain theiranswers to the following questions:

What does this dialogue tell us aboutthe connection between African-Americans and Africa?

What arguments are given to supportthe idea that it is important forAfrican-Americans to learn about theirAfrican heritage?

How important is it for otherAmericans to learn about the historyand culture of Africa? Why?

What points are made to support theidea that African-Americans should beinvolved and concerned with theproblems of Africans?

Do you agree or disagree with Speaker4's idea that problems in the UnitedStates should be solved first?

Why does Speaker 6 say that whathappens in Africa is everyone'sconcern?

What position would you take on thequestions raised in this discussion?Explain your thinking.

What other questions and issues couldbe raised?


Students can:

conduct one or more panel discussions onissues raised by the class.

role-play a United States Congressionalcommittee discussing what course ofaction should be followed in Somaliabased on current developments.

research the history of Somalia focusingon how colonialism and the cold warsowed the seeds of present suffering.

clip recent newspaper articles on SouthAfrica and design a bulletin board displayaround the theme of "Change."

research the recent history of Haiti andpresent a position for United States policy.

survey the local community and report onneighborhood organizations that havelinks to Africa and/or the Caribbean.

start a class pen-pal project with Africanstudents.

i1THEME F: PRESENT AND FUTURE V F-9

ACTIVITY S H E ET 3

BUILDING BRIDGES TO AFRICA

Read the following panel discussion on the topic of "Building Bridges to Africa" and try to decidewhat your position would be on the issues raised. Write your position in the space provided.Moderator: Today our topic is "Building Bridges to Africa." How important is it for Americans of

African descent to have close ties to Africa?"

Speaker 1: It is very important. As an African-American, I want to know the culture and historyof the land my ancestors came from. This will show me more about who I am andmake me proud of what Africans have accomplished. I hope one day to visit Africa.

Speaker 2: As a Caribbean-American, I, too, feel a close connection to Africa. Although myfamily has lived in the Caribbean for generations, and the United States is my newhome, I will not forget the land from which my people originallycame.

Speaker 3: It's very important for African-Americans to have close ties to Africa. I organized astudent boycott of companies that bought products from South Africa to help fightapartheid. When Nelson Mandela came here and thanked us, I felt we were all onepeople.

Speaker 4: I think that it's fine to be connected to Africa, but it should not be the priority ofAfrican-Americans. There is too much that needs to be done right here in the UnitedStates. That's my priority. I'll wait until there's real equality in the United Statesbefore I worry about the rest of the world.

Speaker 5: As an African, I would like to say that it is important to me that African-Americansbecome part of our struggle. There is much that you Americans have been through,and it helps us to know that you have succeeded. And I am happy to hear that it isimportant to you to have a sense of your heritage and to be connected to us. Just becareful not to tell us how to run things; some Americans have, and we don'tappreciate it.

Speaker 6: I'd like to answer the argument about putting the United States' problems first. Thesame organizations that are working to change things in the United States can workfor causes in Africa, too. Today, everything that happens in the world can affect us.When South Africa practiced apartheid, it hurt African-Americans. When we helpedto bring apartheid down, we were working for the recognition that all people areentitled to equal rights.

Speaker 7: I agree that Americans of African ancestry have a special relationship to Africa, butwhat happens in Africa is also the concern of all Americans. I am proud that theUnited States is leading the intervention in Somalia. I think we are beginning tolearn that the people of the world must act together to stop oppression and humansuffering wherever it occurs.

Speaker 8 (you):

F-10 V AFRICAN-AMERICAN HERITAGE11

TEACHERS'SUGGESTED READING

THEME A: THE AFRICANHOMELANDBen-Jochannan, Josef. Africa: Lands, Peoples

and Cultures of the World. Sadlicke, 1969.

Africa: Mother of Western Civilization.New York: Alkebu-Lan Books, 1971.

Buck, Gladys G. and Jones, Josephine Buck.The African Experience. St. Louis, MO:Milliken. (Student worksheets withoverlays.)

Davidson, Basil. A Guide to African History.Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1965.

Diop, Cheikh Anta. The African Origin ofCivilization: Myth or Reality? Brooklyn,NY: Lawrence Hill, 1974.

. Civilization or Barbarism. Brooklyn,NY: Lawrence Hill, 1989.

Harris, Joseph. Global Dimensions of the AfricanDiaspora. Washington, DC: HowardUniversity Press, 1982.

History of the World: Africa and the Origin ofHumans. Milwaukee, WI: RaintreePublishers, 1985.

Leakey, Louis Seymour B. and Vanne MorrisGoodall. Unveiling Man's Origins: TenDecades of Thought About Human Evolution.Cambridge, MA: Schenkman, 1969.

Van Sertima, Ivan. African Presence in Eare5,America. New Brunswick, NJ:Transaction Publishers, 1992.

. African Presence in Early Asia. NewBrunswick, NJ: Transaction Books, 1985.

. Journal of African Civilizations, Vol. 7,No. 2. The African Presence in Early Europe.New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Books,1987.

THEME B: NILE VALLEYCIVILIZATIONSAdams, William Y. Nubia: Corridor to Africa.

Princeton, NJ: Princeton UniversityPress, 1978.

Ben-Jochannan, Josef. Black Man of the Nileand His Family. New York: Alkebu-LanBooks, 1981.

Budge, E.A. Wallis, trans. The Egyptian Bookof the Dead. New York: Dover, 1967.

Davidson, Basil. The African Past: ChroniclesFrom Antiquity to Modern Times. Boston:Little, Brown, 1964.

Diop, Cheikh Anta. The African Origin ofCivilization: Myth or Reality? Brooklyn,NY: Lawrence Hill, 1974.

"Egyptian History Revised." In Journal ofAfrican Civilizations. Vol. 4. November1982. New Brunswick, NJ: TransactionPeriodicals Consortium.

Harris, Joseph E., ed. The William LeoHansberry African History Notebook. Vol. I:Pillars in Ethiopian History. Washington,DC: Howard University Press, 1974.

. The William Leo Hansberry AfricanHistory Notebook. Vol. II: Africa andAfricans As Seen by Classical Writers.Washington, DC: Howard UniversityPress, 1977.

Hilliard, Asa G. Waset: The Eye of Ra andthe Abode of Maat: The Pinnacle ofBlack Leadership in the Ancient World."In Journal of African Civilizations. Vol. 10.Summer 1989. New Brunswick, NJ:Transaction Periodicals Consortium.

Houston, Drusilla Dunjee. WonderfulEthiopians of the Ancient Cushite Empire.Baltimore, MD: Black Classic Press, 1985.

120TEACHERS' SUGGESTED READING R-1

Jackson, John G. Introduction to AfricanCivilizations. Secaucus, NJ: The CitadelPress, 1970. (See Chapter 1, "Africa andthe Origin of Man.")

Van Sertima, Ivan, ed. Nile Valley Civilizations.New Brunswick, NJ: TransactionPublishers, 1985.

Williams, Bruce. "The Last Pharoahs ofNubia." Archaeology Magazine.September/October, 1980.

THEME C: AFRICAN EMPIRESAND VILLAGE SOCIETIESAfigbu, A.E., et al. The Making of Modern

Africa, Vol. 1: The Nineteenth Century.London: Longman, 1986. (See pp. 340-363.)

Boahen, A. Adu. African Perspectives onColonialism. Baltimore, MD: JohnHopkins University Press, 1987.

. Topics in West African History.London: Longman, 1975. School edition.

Buck, Gladys G. and Josephine Buck Jones.The African Experience. St. Louis, MO:Milliken. (Teacher materials withoverlays.)

Chu, Daniel and Elliott Skinner. A GloriousAge in Africa. Trenton, NJ: African WorldPress, 1990.

Davidson, Basil and the editors of Time-LifeBooks. African Kingdoms. New York:Time-Life Books, 1971.

Davidson, Basil. A History of West Africa. NewYork: Doubleday Anchor, 1966.

African Civilization Revisited fromAntiquity to Modern Times. Trenton, NJ:Africa World Press, 1991.

. The African Past. New York: Little,Brown, 1964. (See pp. 61-97.)

Marquet, Jacques. Civilizations of Black Africa.New York: Oxford University Press, 1972.

Snowden, Frank M., Jr. Blacks in Antiquity:Ethiopians in the Greco-Roman Experience.Cambridge, MA: Harvard UniversityPress, 1970.

R-2 V AFRICAN-AMERICAN HERITAGE

Webster, J.B. and A. Adu Boahen, with acontribution by H.O. Idowu. History ofWest Africa: The Revolutionary Years 1815 toIndependence. New York: Praeger, 1970.(See parts one and two.)

THEME D: AFRICANS IN THEAMERICASAllen, James Egert. The Negro in New York: A

Historical-Biographical Evaluation from1626. New York: Exposition Press, 1964.

Bontemps, Arna, ed. Great Slave Narratives.Boston: Beacon Press, 1%9.

Clarke, John H. Harlem: A Community inTransition. Secaucus, NJ: The CitadelPress, 1969.

Davidson, Basil. The African Past: ChroniclesFrom Antiquity to Modern Times. Boston:Little, Brown 1964.

. The African Slave Trade: PrecolonialHistory 1450-1850. Boston: Little, Brown,1961.

Dilliard, J.L. Black English. New York: VintageBooks, 1973.

Foner, Eric, ed. Nat Turner. EnglewoodCliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1971.

Franklin, John Hope. From Slavery toFreedom: A History of American Negroes.New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1964.

Frye, Gilberto. The Masters and the Slaves: AStudy in the Development of BrazilianCivilization. New York: Alfred A. Knopf,1956.

Haley, Alex. Roots. New York: Doubleday,1976.

Hallibarton, Warren and Ernest Kaiser.Harlem: A History of Broken Dreams. NewYork: Doubleday, 1974.

Harris, Joseph. The African Presence in Asia:Consequences of the East African Slave Trade.Evanston, IL: Northwestern UniversityPress, 1971.

Hornsby, Alton, Jr. Chronology of African-American History. Detroit, MI: Gale, 1991.

IL 2

Hughes, Langston and Ama Bontemps, eds.Book of Negro Folklore. New York: Dodd,Mead, 1958.

Johnston, Harry H. A History of theColonization of Africa By Alien Rams. NewYork: Cooper Square Publishers, 1966.

Karenga, Maulana, The African AmericanHoliday of Kwanzaa. Los Angeles, CA:University of Sankore Press, 1988.

Kay, George F. The Shameful Trade. NewYork: A.S. Barnes, 1968.

Locke, Main, ed. The New Negro: Voices of theHarlem Renaissance. New York:Atheneum, 1992.

Mellon, James E., ed. Bullwhip Days: TheSlaves Remember. An Oral History. NewYork: Avon Books, 1988.

McManus, Edgar J. A History of Negro Slaveryin New York. Syracuse, NY: SyracuseUniversity Press, 1966.

Nichols, Charles H. Many Thousand Gone: TheEx-Slave Account of Their Bondage andFreedom. Bloomington, IN: IndianaUniversity Press, 1969.

Quarles, Benjamin. The Negro in the Civil War.New York: Da Capo Press, 1989.

. The Negro in the Making of America.New York: Collier Books, 1964.

Scheiner, Seth M. Negro Mecca: A History ofthe Negro in New York City, 1865-1920.New York: New York University Press,1965.

Starobin, Robert S. Industrial Slavery in theOld South. New York: Oxford UniversityPress, 1970.

Turner, Lorenzo D. Africanisms in the GullahDialect. Ann Arbor, MI: University ofMichigan Press, 1973.

Williams, Eric E. From Columbus to Castro:The History of the Caribbean, 1492-1969.New York: Vintage Books, 1984.

THEME E: THE STRUGGLEFOR HUMAN RIGHTSAnderson, Jervis. A. Philip Randolph: A

Biographical Portrait. New York: HarcourtBrace Jovanich, 1972.

Bennett, Lerone, Jr. Before the Mayflower: AHistory of the Negro in America, 1619-1962.Chicago: Johnson, 1966.

. The Shaping of Black America.Chicago: Johnson, 1975.

. Wade in the Water: Great Moments inBlack History. Chicago: Johnson, 1979.

Brawley, Benjamin. A Social History of theAmerican Negro. New York: Collier-Macmillan, 1921.

Carson, Claybome. Malcolm X: The FBI File.New York: Carroll & Graf, 1991.

Clarke, John H., ed. Malcolm X: The Man andHis Times. New York: Macmillan, 1969.

. Marcus Garvey and the Vision of Africa.New York: Random House, 1974.

Cone, James H. Martin and Malcolm andAmerica: A Dream or A Nightmare? LosAngeles: Orbis, 1991.

Davis, Benjamin 0. Benjamin 0. Davis, Jr.,American: An Autobiography. Washington,DC: Smithsonian, 1991.

DuBois, W. E. B. Black Reconstruction inAmerica, 1860-1880. New York:Atheneum, Reprinted 1992.

Earley, Charity Adams. One Woman's Army: ABlack Officer Remembers the WAC. CollegeStation, TX: Texas A&M UniversityPress, 1989.

Emilio, Luis F. A Brave Black Regiment. NewYork: Bantam, 1992.

Franklin, John Hope. The EmancipationProclamation. New York: DoubledayAnchor, 1969.

Giddings, Paula. When and Where I Enter: TheImpact of Black Women on Race and Sex inAmerica. New York: Bantam, 1985.

Haley, Alex. The Autobiography of Malcolm X.New York: Ballantine, 1964.

122TEACHERS' SUGGESTED READING V R-3

Hamilton, Charles V. Adam Clayton Powell,Jr.: The Political Biography of An AmericanDilemma. New York: Atheneum, 1991.

Hampton, Henry and Steve Fager, Voices ofFreedom: An Oral History of the Civil RightsMovement from the 1950s through the 1980s.New York: Bantam, 1990.

Harding, Vincent. The Other AmericanRevolution. California and Georgia:University of California and the Instituteof the Black World, 1982.

. There Is A River: The Black Struggle forFreedom in America. New York: HarcourtBrace Jovanovich, 1981.

Harris, William H. Keeping the Faith: A. PhilipRandolph, Milton P. Webster, and theBrotherhood of Sleeping Car Potters, 1925-37.Chicago: University of Illinois Press,1977.

Hill, Robert A., ed. Marcus Gamey: Life andLessons. University of California Press,1987.

Hughes, Langston. Fight for Freedom: TheStory of the N.A.A.C.P. New York: Norton,1962.

Lemann, Nicholas. The Promised Land: TheGreat Black Migration and How It ChangedAmerica. New York: Vintage, 1992.

Lemer, Gerder, ed. Black Women in WhiteAmerica: A Documentary History. NewYork: Vintage, 1972.

Logan, Rayford W. The Betrayal of the Negrofrom Rutherford B. Hayes to WoodrowWilson. New York: Collier Books, 1968.

Martin, Tony. Race First: The Ideological andOrganizational Struggles of Marcus Garveyand the Universal Negro ImprovementAssociation. Canton, MA: The MajorityPress, 1986.

Metcalf, George R. Black Profiles. New York:McGraw-Hill, 1968.

Ottley, Roi. New World A-Coming. Boston:Houghton Mifflin, 1943.

Rowan, Carl Thomas. Go South to Sorrow.New York: Random House, 1957.

R-4 V AFRICAN-AMERICAN HERITAGE

Sterling, Dorothy. We Are Your Sisters: BlackWomen in the Nineteenth Century. New York:Norton, 1984.

Stampp, Kenneth M. The Era of Reconstruction1865-1877. New York: Alfred A. Knopf,1965.

Walker, David. David Walker's Appeal.American Century Series. New York:Hill and Wang, 1965.

Washington, James M., ed. A Testament ofHope: The Essential Writings and Speeches ofMartin Luther King, Jr. New York:Harper, 1986.

Weisbrot, Robert. Freedom Bound: A Historyof America's Civil Rights Movement.New York: Plume, 1991.

Williams, Juan. Eyes on the Prize: America'sCivil Rights Years 1954-1965. New York:Penguin, 1987.

Woodward, C. Vann. The Strange Career of JimCrow. New York: Oxford UniversityPress, 1957.

Wright, Sarah E. A. Philip Randolph:Integration in the Workplace. EnglewoodCliffs, NJ: Silver Burdett, 1990.

THEME F: PRESENT AND FUTUREBerry, Mary Francis and John W.

Blassingame, Long Memory: The BlackExperience in America. New York: OxfordUniversity Press, 1982.

Billingsley, Andrew. Climbing Jacob's Ladder.New York: Simon & Schuster, 1992.

Corner, James. Maggie's American Dream.New York: Dutton, 1989.

. The Life and Times of a Black Family.New York: Plume, 1988.

Edelman, Marian Wright. The Measure of OurSuccess. New York: Beacon, 1992.

Greenberg, Jonathan. Staking A Claim: JakeSimmons, Jr., and the Making of an African-American Oil Dynasty. New York:Antheneum, 1990.

Hacker, Andrew. Two Nations: Black andWhite, Separate, Hostile, Unequal. NewYork: Scribners, 1992.

F,, )

Hamilton, Charles V. The Black Experience inAmerican Politics. New York: Putnam,1973.

Pieterse, Jan Nederveen. White On Black:Images of Africa and Blacks in WesternPopular Culture. New Haven, CN: YaleUniversity Press, 1992.

The State of Black America 1992. New York:National Urban League, Inc., 1992.

Welsing, Frances Cress. The Isis. Papers: TheKeys to the Colors. Chicago: Third WorldPress, 1991.

Woodson, Carter G. The Miseducation of theNegro. Glendora, CA: AssociatedPublications/AMS Press, 1977.

124

TEACHERS' SUGGESTED READING R-5

AFRICAN-AMERICAN HERITAGEPHOTO AND ILLUSTRATION CREDITS

FIGURE A-2: Fred R.Conrad/New York TimesPictures. Reprinted bypermission.

FIGURE A-3: From African andthe Origin of Humans. Historyof the World Series.(Milwaukee, WI: RaintreePubs., 1988), p. 11.Reprinted by permission.

FIGURE A-5: ©ClevelandMuseum of Natural History.Reprinted by permission.

FIGURE A-7: William H.McNeill, A History of theHuman Community: Prehistoryto the Present. 3rd ed.(Englewood Cliffs, NJ:Prentice-Hall, 1990), p. 9.Reprinted by permission.

FIGURE B-6.1: From A. RosalieDavid, The Egyptian Kingdoms.(Oxford: Andromeda, 1988),p. 132. Permission pending.

FIGURE B-6.2: TheMetropolitan Museum of Art.Reprinted by permission.

FIGURE B-6.3: From A. RosalieDavid, The Egyptian Kingdoms.(Oxford: Andromeda, 1988),p. 135. Permission pending.

FIGURE B-6.4: TheMetropolitan Museum of Art.Reprinted by permission.

FIGURE B-8.1: EgyptianMuseum, Cairo. Reprintedby permission..

FIGURE B-8.2: The Trustees,British Museum, London.Permission pending.

FIGURE B-8.3: TheMetropolitan Museum of Art,Gift of Egypt ExplorationFund, 1901. Reprinted bypermission.

FIGURE B-10.1: TheMetropolitan Museum of Art,the Theodore M. DavisCollection. Reprinted bypermission.

FIGURE B-10.2: Adapted from atranslation by Barbara Mertz,Red Land, Black Land. (NewYork: Peter Bedrick Books,1990), p. 49. Permissionpending.

FIGURE B-10.3: From BarbaraMertz, Red Land, Black Land.(New York: Peter Bedrick

Books, 1990), p. 33.Permission pending.

FIGURE B-14: Adapted fromBarbara Mertz, Red Land,Black Land. (New York:Peter Bedrick Books, 1990),pp. 246-7. Permissionpending.

FIGURE B-16: From Nile ValleyCivilization, Ivan Van Setima,ed. (New Brunswick, NJ:Transaction Pub., 1985), p.187. Reprinted bypermission.

FIGURE B-17: The MetropolitanMuseum of Art. Reprintedby permission.

FIGURE B-19.1: TheMetropolitan Museum of Art.Permission pending.

FIGURE B-19.2: Museum ofFine Arts, Boston.Permission pending.

FIGURE B-19.3: Museum ofFine Art, Boston. Permissionpending.

FIGURE B-20.1: Marc andEvelyne Bamheim fromRalph Guillamette.Permission pending.

FIGURE B-20.2: Museum ofFine Arts, Boston. Permissionpending.

FIGURE B-20.3: ArabInformation Center, NewYork City. Permissionpending.

FIGURE C-5: From Barth,Travels in Central Africa, 1857.Public domain.

FIGURE C-12: From Springs ofAfrican Wisdom. (New York:Herdes and Herdes, 1970).Permission pending.

FIGURE D-5: Harper's Weekly,June 1860. Public domain.

FIGURE D-6: From TeachingDevelopment Issues.(Manchester England:Manchester Polytechnic,1985), p. 19. Permissionpending.

FIGURES D-7.1 and D-7.2:From Joseph Holloway,Africanisms in African Culture.Blacks in the Diaspora Series.(Bloomington, IN: IndianaUniversity Press, 1990), pp. 2-3. Reprinted by permission.

12

FIGURES D-8 : From RobertFogel and StanleyEngermann, Time on the Cross:The Economics of AmericanNegro Slavery. (Boston:Little, Brown and Co., 1974),p. 14. Reprinted bypermission.

FIGURE D-17: Hakim Mutlaq.Permission pending.

FIGURE D-20: ©1992 DavidRashid Gayle. Reprinted bypermission.

FIGURE D-22: Gary Hamilton.Reprinted by permission.

FIGURES D-24 and D-25: FromGuy and Candie Carawan,Ain't You Got a Right to the Treeof Life?: The People of JohnsIsland, South Carolina.(Athens, GA: University ofGeorgia Press, 1989).Reprinted by permission.

FIGURE D-28: ©1992 Portia K.Maultsby. Music ResearchInternational, Inc.,Bloomington, IN. Reprintedby permission.

FIGURE D-29.1: H. ArmstrongRoberts, reprinted in GlobalInsights (Columbus, OH:Merrill, 1988), p. 92.Permission pending.

FIGURE D-29.2: From Essence,Dec. 1992, p. 60. Permissionpending.

FIGURE D-29.3: From AmericanVisions, Oct. 1990, p. 45.Permission pending.

FIGURE D-30.1: GrahamCollection, New York.Permission pending. Thisand the next three figureswere reprinted in AmericanVisions, Oct. 1987, p. 32.

FIGURE D-30.2: Privatecollection. Permissionpending.

FIGURE D-30.3: Collection ofMr. and Mrs. Saul Stanoff.Permission pending.

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FIGURE D-31.1: M. LeeFatherree. Reprinted inAmerican Visions, Dec. 1986, p.27. Permission pending.

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FIGURE D-31.2: Privatecollection. Reprinted inAmerican Visions Dec. 1987, p.19. Permission pending.

FIGURE D-33.1: KatherineDunham Museum, East St.Louis, IL. Permissionpending.

FIGURE D-33.2: ©1945 AlHirschfeld. Drawingreproduced by specialarrangement withHirschfeld's exclusiverepresentative, The MargoFeiden Galleries, Ltd. NewYork.

FIGURE D-34.1: Edward S.Ross, California Academy ofSciences. Reprinted bypermission.

FIGURE D-34.2 01986 CountryHome/Meredith Corp.Permission pending.

FIGURE E-5: AmericanAntiquarian Society.Reprinted by permission.

FIGURE E-6: Sophia SmithCollection, Smith College,MA. Reprinted bypermission.

FIGURE E-10: Library ofCongress. Public domain.

FIGURES E-17, E-18, E-19 andE-20: Ebony Magazine, TheJohnson Publishing Co.,Chicago. Permissionpending.

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