Ecosystems & Communities · • Ecosystems are found not just in obvious places such as ... •...
Transcript of Ecosystems & Communities · • Ecosystems are found not just in obvious places such as ... •...
Ecosystems amp Communities Organisms and their Environments
1
Ecosystems have living and non-
living components
What are ecosystems
2
What is an Ecosystem
bull A community of biological organisms plus the non-
living components with which the organisms interact
bull Living organisms are not self-sufficient They need
energy and raw materials
3
4
5
What is an Ecosystem
bull The biotic environment consists of all the living
organisms within an area and is often referred to as
a community
bull The abiotic (aka non-living or physical) environment
often referred to as the organismsrsquo habitat consists of
bull the chemical resources of the soil water and air
such as carbon nitrogen and phosphorus
bull the physical conditions such as the temperature
salinity (salt level) moisture humidity and energy
sources
6
7
Soil erosion on a
trail in the
Adirondack
mountains
Which scenario below exemplifies an
ecosystem
1 A group of organisms of the same species living in the same place at the same time
2 Different species interacting together at the same place and time
3 Different species interacting with each other at the same time in a desert
4 A smaller species living on a larger species in a mutually beneficial relationship
8
Take-Home Message
bull An ecosystem is all of the living organisms in a habitat
as well as the physical environment
bull Ecosystems are found not just in obvious places such as
ponds deserts and tropical rainforests but also in some
unexpected places like the digestive tracts of organisms
or the shell of a beetle
9
Challenge Question
bull An ecosystem is made of two components the biotic
environment or community consisting of the living
organisms within an area and the physical environment
or the habitat in which these organisms live
bull A habitat consists of its chemical resources of the soil
water and air as well as its physical conditions
bull List some of the aspects that make up the physical
conditions of a habitat
10
Ecosystems have living and non-
living components
A variety of biomes occur around the
world each determined by temperature
and rainfall
11
A variety of biomes occur around the world
each determined by temperature and
rainfall
bull What is the average temperature
bull What is the average rainfall (or other precipitation)
bull Is the temperature relatively constant or does it vary
seasonally
bull Is the rainfall relatively constant or does it vary
seasonally
12
13
14
15
Tropical Rain Forest
bull forest of tall trees in a region of year-round warmth
bull ~ 125 to 660 cm yearly rainfall
bull temperature ranges from 20 degC - 34 degC
bull average humidity 77 - 88
bull rainfall gt 250 cmyear (may be a brief dry season)
bull almost all rain forests lie near the equator
16
Tropical Rain Forest
bull lt 6 of Earths land surface
bull gt 50 of all the worlds plant and animal species live in
tropical rain forests
bull produce ~40 of Earths oxygen
bull ~70 of the plants in the rainforest are trees
bull ~25 of all the medicines we use come from rainforest
plants
17
Tropical Rain Forest
18
Indicator Species
bull any biological species that defines a trait
or characteristic of the environment
bull may delineate an ecoregion
bull could indicate an environmental condition such as
a disease outbreak pollution species competition
or climate change
bull can be among most sensitive species in a region
sometimes act as early warning to monitoring biologists
19
Tropical Rain Forest ndash Indicator Plant Species
20
Tropical Rain Forest ndash Indicator Animal Species Gorilla
Gorilla gorilla
Orangutan (Pongo pygmaeus)
Spider Monkey
Ateles geoffreyi
21
Tropical Rain Forest ndash Indicator Animal Species 2-toed sloth
Cholepus
hoffmanni
Three-toed Sloth (Bradypus
variegatus) with baby - Costa Rica 22
Tropical Rain Forest ndash Indicator Animal Species
Collared Aracari
Pteroglossus torquatus
23
Grasslands (Prairie)
bull 2 different types
bull tall-grass humid amp very wet
bull short-grass dry hotter summers and colder winters
than the tall-grass prairie
bull found in middle latitudes in the interiors of continents
bull either moist continental climates or dry subtropical
climates
bull Argentina ndash grasslands are known as pampas
bull Russia ndash steppes
bull grasslands in southern hemisphere tend to get more
precipitation than those in the northern hemisphere
24
Grasslands (Prairie)
25
Grasslands (Prairie)
bull temperatures range from -40deg F 70deg F
bull growing season and a dormant season
bull growing season is when there is no frost and plants
can grow (which lasts from 100 to 175 days)
bull tropical and subtropical grasslands the length of
the growing season is determined by how long the
rainy season lasts
bull temperate grasslands the length of the growing
season is determined by temperature (ge 50deg F)
bull dormant (not growing) season nothing can grow
because its too cold
26
Grasslands (Prairie)
bull average rainfall per year ranges from 10 - 30 inches
bull tropical and sub-tropical grasslands average rainfall
per year ranges from 25 - 60 inches
bull amount of rainfall is very important in determining which
areas are grasslands
bull hard for trees to compete with grasses in places
where the uppers layers of soil are moist during part
of the year but where deeper layer of soil are always
dry
27
Grasslands (Prairie)
28
Grasslandsndash Indicator Plant Species Old Field Habitat Ohio
Grassland North Dakota
Ironweed
(Vernonia sp) with
Hedge Bindweed
Vine (Calystegia sepium) 29
Grasslandsndash Indicator Plant Species
Ironweed (Vernonia sp)
Joe Pye Weed
Eupatorium purpureum
30
Grasslands ndash Indicator Plant Species
Common Teasel
Dipsacus fullonum Queen Annes Lace (Daucus carota)
31
Grasslands ndash Indicator Animal Species
Bison (Bison bison) on the range
Theodore Roosevelt National Park North
Dakota
32
Grasslands ndash Indicator Animal Species
Przewalskis horse (Equus caballus
przewalskii) The Wilds Ohio
33
Grasslands ndash Indicator Animal Species
34
Taiga
bull Russian word for forest
bull largest biome in the world
bull Eurasia North America
bull located just below the tundra biome
bull many coniferous trees
bull aka boreal forest Boreal was the Greek goddess of the
North Wind
35
Taiga
bull winter temperature range is -54 to -1deg C (-65 to 30deg F)
bull summer -7deg C (20deg F) to 21deg C (70deg F)
bull summers are very short (50 - 100 frost free days)
bull average yearly precipitation 30 - 85 cm (12 - 33 in)
bull main seasons are winter and summer
bull spring and autumn are very short
bull weather is either hot and humid or very cold
36
Taiga
37
Taiga ndash Indicator Plant Species
Balsam Fir
Abies balsamea
Black Spruce
Picea mariana
38
Taiga ndash Indicator Plant Species
Jack Pine
Pinus banksiana
Paper Birch
Betula papyrifera
White Poplar
Populus alba
39
Taiga ndash Indicator Animal Species
American Black Bear
Ursus americanus
Bald Eagle
Haliaeetus leucocephalus 40
Taiga ndash Indicator Animal Species
Long-eared Owl
Aiso otus
Snowshoe Rabbit
Lepus americanus
41
Desert
bull cover about one fifth of Earths land surface
bull hot and dry near Tropic of CancerTropic of
Capricorn
bull cold near the Arctic
bull temperature
bull hot amp dry ~ 25deg C to ~ 49deg C
bull cold -2 to 4deg C (winter) 21 to 26deg C (summer)
bull precipitation
bull hot amp dry very little rainfall andor concentrated
rainfall in short periods between long rainless periods
(lt 15 cmyear)
bull cold 15 - 26 cmyear 42
Desert
43
Desert ndash Indicator Plant Species
44
Desert ndash Indicator Plant Species
Saguaro Cactus
Carnegiea gigantea
Fishhook Cactus
Mammillaria microcarpa
45
Desert ndash Indicator Plant Species
Trichomes
46
Desert ndash Indicator Animal Species
Zebratail Lizard - Callisaurus draconides
47
Desert ndash Indicator Animal Species
Rock hyrax (Procavia capensis) 48
Desert ndash Indicator Animal Species
Bactrian Camel Camelus bactrianus
49
Temperate Deciduous Forest
bull temperature 0 - 20 C
bull precipitation ~ 50 ndash 200 cmyear
50
Temperate Deciduous Forest
51
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Plant Species
Oaks (Quercus sp)
Dutchmans-Breeches
Dicentra cucullaria 52
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Plant Species
Sassafras
Sassafras albidum
Redbud
Cercis canadensis
53
Temperate Deciduous Forest ndash Succession
bull orderly succession of communities to a climax
community (biome)
bull two main types of succession
bull primary succession begins with bare rock exposed
by geologic activity
bull secondary succession begins on soil from which
previous community has been removed (by fire
agriculture etc)
bull secondary succession can proceed much faster
because the soil has been prepared by the
previous community
54
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
American Toad
Bufo americanus
Box Turtle
55
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
Eastern Chipmunk
Tamias striatus
Eastern Gray Squirrel
Sciurus carolinensis
56
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
Yellow-breasted chat
Icteria virens 57
Tundra
bull annual average temperature lt 5 C
bull precipitation (mostly in the form of snow) lt 100 mmyear
bull summer is brief
bull temperatures above freezing last only a few weeks at
most
bull warm summer coincides with periods of almost 24
hour daylight so plant growth can be explosive
58
Tundra
Anaktuvuk Pass Alaska
59
Tundra ndash Indicator Plant Species
Arctic Tundra Wildflowers - Alaska
60
Tundra ndash Indicator Plant Species
Lichen
Polytrichum Moss
(photographed in Ohio not on the
Tundra)
61
Tundra ndash Indicator Animal Species
Reindeer
Rangifer tarandus
62
Tundra ndash Indicator Animal Species
Caribou On Autumn Tundra Denali National Park Alaska
63
Savanna
bull rolling grassland scattered with shrubs and isolated trees
bull found between a tropical rainforest and desert biome
bull not enough rain falls on a savanna to support forests
bull found in a wide band on either side of the equator on
the edges of tropical rainforests
bull warm temperature year round
bull very long dry season (winter) ~ 10 cm rain none at all
from Dec - Feb
bull very wet season (summer) ~ 35-65 cm rain
64
Savanna
65
Savanna ndash Indicator Plant Species
Baobab
Adansonia digitata Umbrella Thorn Acacia
Acacia tortillis
66
Savanna ndash Indicator Animal Species
Savanna Elephant
Loxodonta africana
Black Mamba
Dendroaspis polylepis
Lion
Panthera leo
67
Chaparral
bull winter mild and moist but not rainy
bull summer very hot and dry
bull annual temperature range between -1deg and 38deg C
bull annual precipitation ~ 25-45 cm mostly in the winter
68
Chaparral
69
Chaparral ndash Indicator Plant Species
Blue Oak
Quercus douglasii
Common Sagebrush
Artemisia tridentata
Olive Tree
Olea europaea
70
Chaparral ndash Indicator Animal Species
Black-tailed Jackrabbit
Lepus californicus Golden Jackal
Canis aureus
Spotted Skunk
Spilogale gracilis
71
The Freshwater Biome
bull low salt concentration mdash usually less than 1
bull plants and animals in freshwater regions are adjusted to
the low salt content and would not be able to survive in
areas of high salt concentration (ie ocean)
bull 3 different types of freshwater regions
bull ponds and lakes
bull streams and rivers
bull wetlands
72
The Freshwater Biome ndash Ponds and Lakes
From left a view across Manzanita Lake toward Mt Lassen California a
forest pond near Donnelly Idaho a Great Blue Heron Paranagat Lake
southeastern Nevada
73
The Freshwater Biome ndash Streams and
Rivers
From left McArthur-Burney Falls State Park California trout Green
River Utah Brooks River Alaska
74
The Freshwater Biome - Wetlands
From left Pescadero Marsh California coastal marsh at Umpqua
Dunes Oregon trees and bogs on Esther Island Alaska
75
The Marine Biome
bull cover about three-fourths of the Earths surface
bull marine algae supply much of the worlds oxygen supply
and take in a huge amount of atmospheric carbon
dioxide
bull evaporation of the seawater provides rainwater for the
land
bull 3 different types of marine regions
bull oceans
bull coral reefs
bull estuaries
76
The Marine Biome - Oceans
From left mussels worms and a spider crab at a hydrocarbon seep
community in the Gulf of Mexico a sea fan and brain coral in the Florida
Keys National Marine Sanctuary a school of Atlantic amberjack off North
Carolina
77
The Marine Biome ndash Coral Reefs
From left reef life in the Gulf of Aqaba Red Sea a reef at Fanning
Island atoll in the central Pacific a reef in the Florida Keys National
Marine Sanctuary
78
The Marine Biome - Estuaries
From left Mangrove roots south Florida wetlands and tidal streams
in the Ashe Island area ACE Basin National Estuarine Research
Reserve South Carolina a salt marsh in Winyah Bay National
Estuarine Research Reserve South Carolina
79
Ecological Notes
These are the biomes in order of their productivity (highest
first)
1 estuaries and tropical rain forest (highest)
2 temperate forest
3 agricultural land
4 temperate grassland
5 lakes and streams
6 coastal zone
7 tundra
8 open ocean
9 desert (lowest)
80
Ecological Notes
In order to be productive and have a lot of living material
standing around (biomass) an ecosystem has to have 4
basic necessities for plant life to thrive (if there are
enough plants the ecosystem will also support a lot of
animals) The four things are
1 Sunlight
2 Nutrients
3 Warm temperatures
4 Water
81
Biomes Video
82
Take-Home Message
bull Biomes are the major ecological communities of earth
characterized mostly by the vegetation present
bull Different biomes result from differences in temperature
and precipitation and the extent to which they vary from
season to season
83
Challenge Question
bull Terrestrial biomes are determined by the temperature
and precipitation amounts as well as whether those
factors are constant or vary by season
bull By contrast how are aquatic biomes determined
84
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy flows from producers to
consumers
85
86
87
First Stop Primary Producers
bull ecosystem producers or consumers
bull primary producers plants algae (some) bacteria
bull convert light energy from sun into chemical energy
through photosynthesis
bull chemical energy = food
bull consumers eat or absorb their food
bull energy stored in chemical bonds of carbohydrate
protein and lipid molecules is captured and
harnessed for consumersrsquo own movement
reproduction and growth
88
Food Chain
89
Food Web
90
Food Web
91
Food Chains amp Food Webs
bull A change in one link in a food chain will affect the other
links
bull The table on the next slide gives one example of a food
chain and the trophic levels represented in it
92
Food Chains amp Food Webs
93
GRASS
GRASSHOPPER
TOAD
SNAKE
HAWK
BACTERIA
IN GENERAL
AUTOTROPHS
(PRODUCERS)
HERBIVORES
(PRIMARY
CONSUMERS)
CARNIVORES
(2 3 ETC)
DECOMPOSERS
94
Chain Reaction Game
95
Energy Flows through a Food Web
bull Losses at every ldquosteprdquo in a food chain
bull Inefficiency of energy transfers
96
Energy flow through a food chain
Energy flow refers to the way that energy is transformed through
a food chain (pictured here) containing a series of levels
including plants consumers predators and decomposers 97
Amount of energy available at each of the
four levels of an ecosystem
Ecological pyramids illustrate the amount of energy
available at each of the four levels of an ecosystem 98
Ecological Pyramid
99
A grasshopper eats a plant A mouse eats the
grasshopper A snake eats the mouse A hawk
could eat the snake or the mouse In this food
web how would we categorize the hawk
1 Producer
2 Primary consumer
3 Secondary consumer
4 Tertiary consumer
5 Quaternary consumer
6 4 and 5
100
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps
bull First it is converted to chemical energy in
photosynthesis
bull Herbivores then consume the primary producers the
herbivores are consumed by carnivores and the
carnivores in turn may be consumed by top carnivores
101
Take-home message
bull Detritivores and decomposers extract energy from
organic waste and the remains of organisms that have
died
bull At each step in a food chain some usable energy is lost
as heat
102
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy pyramids reveal the inefficiency of
food chains
103
Biomass
bull biomass total weight of all living organisms in a given
area
bull only about 10 of the plants in an ecosystem is
converted into biomass
bull Food Energy Pyramid
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
bull African savannas and grasslands sustain more species
of higher-order carnivores than any other terrestrial
ecosystem
104
105
Food Energy Pyramids
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
106
107
108
You go out to eat at a fancy restaurant You
have a salad salmon and for dessert ice
cream Which part of the meal was the most
energy efficient food for you to eat
1 Salad
2 Salmon
3 Ice cream
4 2 and 3
109
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps known as trophic levels
bull Energy pyramids reveal that the biomass of primary
producers in an ecosystem tends to be far greater than
the biomass of herbivores
bull The biomass transferred at each step along the food chain tends to be only about 10 of the biomass of the organisms being consumed due to energy lost in cellular respiration
bull As a consequence of this inefficiency food chains rarely exceed four levels
110
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Essential chemicals cycle through
ecosystems
111
Chemical Reservoirs
bull Each chemical is stored in a non-living part of the environment
bull Organisms acquire the chemical from the reservoir a non-living part of the environment
bull The chemical cycles through the food chain (biogeochemical cycles)
bull Eventually the chemical is returned to the reservoir
112
Hydrologic Cycle and the Florida Springs
bull Click here for a description of how falling rain feeds underground aquifers in Florida and forms springs
113
The Most Important Chemical Cycles
1) Carbon
2) Nitrogen
3) Phosphorus
4) Sulfur
114
115
The
Carbon
Cycle
116
The Carbon Cycle
Keeping Up With Carbon
NASA video provides key information on the carbon cycle
117
118
Carbon Cycle Game
Fossil Fuels
bull created when large numbers of organisms die and are buried in sediment lacking oxygen
bull In absence of oxygen at high pressures and after very long periods of time organic remains are ultimately transformed into coal oil and natural gas
bull burning coal oil and natural gas releases large amounts of carbon dioxide
bull increases average CO2 concentration in the atmosphere
bull current level of CO2 in the atmosphere is the highest it has been in almost half a million years
119
Global CO2 levels are rising in
general but they also exhibit a
sharp rise and fall within each
year ndash why
120
121
The Nitrogen Cycle
122
The Nitrogen Cycle
Fertilizers
bull Because it is necessary for the production of every plant
protein and because all nitrogen must first be made
usable by bacteria plant growth is often limited by
nitrogen levels in the soil
bull For this reason most fertilizers contain nitrogen in a
form usable by plants
123
124
125
126
127
Oxygen reduction downstream of a source of
organic pollution
128
Algal growth and eutrophication in an Australian
outback waterway
129
Sulfur Cycle
bull component of protein
bull cycles in both a gas and sedimentary cycle
bull source earths crust
bull enters the atmosphere as hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
during fossil fuel combustion volcanic eruptions
gas exchange at ocean surfaces decomposition
130
Sulfur Cycle
bull H2S is immediately oxidized to sulfur dioxide (SO2)
bull SO2 + water vapor H2SO4 (falls to earth in rain)
bull sulfur in soluble form is taken up by plant roots
incorporated into amino acids such as cysteine
bull travels through food chain
bull eventually released through decomposition
131
How is carbon recycled back to the
atmosphere in the carbon cycle
1 It is ldquofixedrdquo by bacteria
2 It is a product of cellular respiration
3 Burning of fossil fuels
4 2 and 3
5 All of the above
132
Why do commercial fertilizers usually
contain usable forms of nitrogen and
phosphorous
1 These chemicals are not efficiently recycled in
the soil
2 Nitrogen and phosphorous need to be ldquofixedrdquo
by bacteria or the plant
3 Nitrogen and phosphorous are found at high
levels in the atmosphere but not in the soil
4 Nitrogen and phosphorous only enter the soil
through erosion
133
Take-home message
bull Chemicals essential to lifemdashincluding carbon nitrogen and phosphorusmdashcycle through ecosystems
bull They are usually captured from the atmosphere soil or water by growing organisms passed from one trophic level to the next as organisms eat other organisms and returned to the environment through respiration decomposition and erosion
bull These cycles can be disrupted as human activities significantly increase the amounts of the chemicals utilized or released to the environment
134
Symbiotic Relationships
bull Symbiosis close relationship between organisms of
two different species
bull At least one participant gains some sort of benefit
(usually nutritional)
bull Types of symbiosis
bull Parasitism
bull Commensalism
bull Mutualism
bull Predation
135
Symbiotic Relationships in the
Ocean
bull Click here for an explanation of the
relationships of marine animals
including sharks rays and various
fishes
136
Parasitism bull Parasite derives nutrition from the host
bull This harms the host but a true parasite does
not usually kill its host (directly)
137
Ectoparasites
Remain outside the host
Ticks fleas leeches
138
Endoparasites
Live inside the hostrsquos body
Tapeworms malarial parasites
139
Parasite Transmission
bull Many parasites live on or in a single organism
bull Some will alternate between 2 or more host species
bull Vertical transmission ndash from mother offspring
bull Horizontal transmission ndash between members of a
population
bull Direct contact (head lice)
bull Vectors (mosquitos)
140
141
Commensalism
bull Neither species is totally dependent on the other
bull One benefits ndash no effect on the other
bull Feeding or protection
bull Porcelain anemone crabs and anemones
142
Mutualism
bull Both species benefit
bull Food or shelter
bull Examples
bull Plants and microbes (rhizobium in root nodules)
bull Plants and fungi (orchids and mycorrhizae)
bull Protists and fungi (lichen)
bull Plants and insects (pollination)
bull Animals and bacteria (ruminants)
bull Animals and other animals (crocodiles and
plover birds)
143
Mutualism shrimp and moray
Cleaner shrimp cleaning a zebra moray eel Mutualistic
relationships such as these promote the well-being of the
host fishes and provide food for those that do the cleaning 144
Rhizobium
Rhizobium in root nodules of certain plants convert
nitrogen in soil to usable form
145
Orchid Mycorrhizae
Fungi aid the plant in the uptake of nutrients
Fungi ingest some of the food from plant
photosynthesis 146
Lichen
Most of the lichen is composed of fungal filaments
but living among the filaments are algal cells
usually from a green alga or a cyanobacterium
The lichen fungus provides its partner(s) a benefit
(protection) and gains nutrients in return 147
Ruminants
Ruminants are characterized by their four-chambered
stomach and cud-chewing behavior Cud is a food bolus
that is regurgitated rechewed and reswallowed The
rumen is a large fermentation vat containing billions of
microorganisms including bacteria and protozoa which
allow ruminants to digest fibrous feeds such as grass and
hay that other animals cannot efficiently utilize 148
Crocodiles amp
Plover Birds
The bird gets into the crocodiles mouth and picks out
the tiny bits of food stuck in his teeth then eats it (the
tiny bits)
This cleans the crocodiles teeth and keeps his mouth
fresh and free from infections 149
Predation
bull Consumption of one living organism by
another
bull Predators must have offensive strategies
bull ways of finding catching and eating
their prey
bull Prey organisms must have defensive
strategies
bull ways of avoiding or discouraging this
activity
150
Predation
bull Encompasses all levels within an
ecological food chainweb
bull plant-herbivore systems
bull herbivore-carnivore systems
bull three-way interactions of
interdependent plant-herbivore-
carnivore systems
151
This goshawk is the tertiary consumer in his ecosystem
and the mouse in his beak is the secondary consumer
Beneath the mouse on the ecological pyramid lies his
foodsource likely a worm which fed on the primary
producer leafy plants 152
Ecosystem of Life in Floridas
Springs
bull Click here for a close-up look of life
in Floridas springs and the various
predator-prey interactions there
153
Ecosystems have living and non-
living components
What are ecosystems
2
What is an Ecosystem
bull A community of biological organisms plus the non-
living components with which the organisms interact
bull Living organisms are not self-sufficient They need
energy and raw materials
3
4
5
What is an Ecosystem
bull The biotic environment consists of all the living
organisms within an area and is often referred to as
a community
bull The abiotic (aka non-living or physical) environment
often referred to as the organismsrsquo habitat consists of
bull the chemical resources of the soil water and air
such as carbon nitrogen and phosphorus
bull the physical conditions such as the temperature
salinity (salt level) moisture humidity and energy
sources
6
7
Soil erosion on a
trail in the
Adirondack
mountains
Which scenario below exemplifies an
ecosystem
1 A group of organisms of the same species living in the same place at the same time
2 Different species interacting together at the same place and time
3 Different species interacting with each other at the same time in a desert
4 A smaller species living on a larger species in a mutually beneficial relationship
8
Take-Home Message
bull An ecosystem is all of the living organisms in a habitat
as well as the physical environment
bull Ecosystems are found not just in obvious places such as
ponds deserts and tropical rainforests but also in some
unexpected places like the digestive tracts of organisms
or the shell of a beetle
9
Challenge Question
bull An ecosystem is made of two components the biotic
environment or community consisting of the living
organisms within an area and the physical environment
or the habitat in which these organisms live
bull A habitat consists of its chemical resources of the soil
water and air as well as its physical conditions
bull List some of the aspects that make up the physical
conditions of a habitat
10
Ecosystems have living and non-
living components
A variety of biomes occur around the
world each determined by temperature
and rainfall
11
A variety of biomes occur around the world
each determined by temperature and
rainfall
bull What is the average temperature
bull What is the average rainfall (or other precipitation)
bull Is the temperature relatively constant or does it vary
seasonally
bull Is the rainfall relatively constant or does it vary
seasonally
12
13
14
15
Tropical Rain Forest
bull forest of tall trees in a region of year-round warmth
bull ~ 125 to 660 cm yearly rainfall
bull temperature ranges from 20 degC - 34 degC
bull average humidity 77 - 88
bull rainfall gt 250 cmyear (may be a brief dry season)
bull almost all rain forests lie near the equator
16
Tropical Rain Forest
bull lt 6 of Earths land surface
bull gt 50 of all the worlds plant and animal species live in
tropical rain forests
bull produce ~40 of Earths oxygen
bull ~70 of the plants in the rainforest are trees
bull ~25 of all the medicines we use come from rainforest
plants
17
Tropical Rain Forest
18
Indicator Species
bull any biological species that defines a trait
or characteristic of the environment
bull may delineate an ecoregion
bull could indicate an environmental condition such as
a disease outbreak pollution species competition
or climate change
bull can be among most sensitive species in a region
sometimes act as early warning to monitoring biologists
19
Tropical Rain Forest ndash Indicator Plant Species
20
Tropical Rain Forest ndash Indicator Animal Species Gorilla
Gorilla gorilla
Orangutan (Pongo pygmaeus)
Spider Monkey
Ateles geoffreyi
21
Tropical Rain Forest ndash Indicator Animal Species 2-toed sloth
Cholepus
hoffmanni
Three-toed Sloth (Bradypus
variegatus) with baby - Costa Rica 22
Tropical Rain Forest ndash Indicator Animal Species
Collared Aracari
Pteroglossus torquatus
23
Grasslands (Prairie)
bull 2 different types
bull tall-grass humid amp very wet
bull short-grass dry hotter summers and colder winters
than the tall-grass prairie
bull found in middle latitudes in the interiors of continents
bull either moist continental climates or dry subtropical
climates
bull Argentina ndash grasslands are known as pampas
bull Russia ndash steppes
bull grasslands in southern hemisphere tend to get more
precipitation than those in the northern hemisphere
24
Grasslands (Prairie)
25
Grasslands (Prairie)
bull temperatures range from -40deg F 70deg F
bull growing season and a dormant season
bull growing season is when there is no frost and plants
can grow (which lasts from 100 to 175 days)
bull tropical and subtropical grasslands the length of
the growing season is determined by how long the
rainy season lasts
bull temperate grasslands the length of the growing
season is determined by temperature (ge 50deg F)
bull dormant (not growing) season nothing can grow
because its too cold
26
Grasslands (Prairie)
bull average rainfall per year ranges from 10 - 30 inches
bull tropical and sub-tropical grasslands average rainfall
per year ranges from 25 - 60 inches
bull amount of rainfall is very important in determining which
areas are grasslands
bull hard for trees to compete with grasses in places
where the uppers layers of soil are moist during part
of the year but where deeper layer of soil are always
dry
27
Grasslands (Prairie)
28
Grasslandsndash Indicator Plant Species Old Field Habitat Ohio
Grassland North Dakota
Ironweed
(Vernonia sp) with
Hedge Bindweed
Vine (Calystegia sepium) 29
Grasslandsndash Indicator Plant Species
Ironweed (Vernonia sp)
Joe Pye Weed
Eupatorium purpureum
30
Grasslands ndash Indicator Plant Species
Common Teasel
Dipsacus fullonum Queen Annes Lace (Daucus carota)
31
Grasslands ndash Indicator Animal Species
Bison (Bison bison) on the range
Theodore Roosevelt National Park North
Dakota
32
Grasslands ndash Indicator Animal Species
Przewalskis horse (Equus caballus
przewalskii) The Wilds Ohio
33
Grasslands ndash Indicator Animal Species
34
Taiga
bull Russian word for forest
bull largest biome in the world
bull Eurasia North America
bull located just below the tundra biome
bull many coniferous trees
bull aka boreal forest Boreal was the Greek goddess of the
North Wind
35
Taiga
bull winter temperature range is -54 to -1deg C (-65 to 30deg F)
bull summer -7deg C (20deg F) to 21deg C (70deg F)
bull summers are very short (50 - 100 frost free days)
bull average yearly precipitation 30 - 85 cm (12 - 33 in)
bull main seasons are winter and summer
bull spring and autumn are very short
bull weather is either hot and humid or very cold
36
Taiga
37
Taiga ndash Indicator Plant Species
Balsam Fir
Abies balsamea
Black Spruce
Picea mariana
38
Taiga ndash Indicator Plant Species
Jack Pine
Pinus banksiana
Paper Birch
Betula papyrifera
White Poplar
Populus alba
39
Taiga ndash Indicator Animal Species
American Black Bear
Ursus americanus
Bald Eagle
Haliaeetus leucocephalus 40
Taiga ndash Indicator Animal Species
Long-eared Owl
Aiso otus
Snowshoe Rabbit
Lepus americanus
41
Desert
bull cover about one fifth of Earths land surface
bull hot and dry near Tropic of CancerTropic of
Capricorn
bull cold near the Arctic
bull temperature
bull hot amp dry ~ 25deg C to ~ 49deg C
bull cold -2 to 4deg C (winter) 21 to 26deg C (summer)
bull precipitation
bull hot amp dry very little rainfall andor concentrated
rainfall in short periods between long rainless periods
(lt 15 cmyear)
bull cold 15 - 26 cmyear 42
Desert
43
Desert ndash Indicator Plant Species
44
Desert ndash Indicator Plant Species
Saguaro Cactus
Carnegiea gigantea
Fishhook Cactus
Mammillaria microcarpa
45
Desert ndash Indicator Plant Species
Trichomes
46
Desert ndash Indicator Animal Species
Zebratail Lizard - Callisaurus draconides
47
Desert ndash Indicator Animal Species
Rock hyrax (Procavia capensis) 48
Desert ndash Indicator Animal Species
Bactrian Camel Camelus bactrianus
49
Temperate Deciduous Forest
bull temperature 0 - 20 C
bull precipitation ~ 50 ndash 200 cmyear
50
Temperate Deciduous Forest
51
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Plant Species
Oaks (Quercus sp)
Dutchmans-Breeches
Dicentra cucullaria 52
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Plant Species
Sassafras
Sassafras albidum
Redbud
Cercis canadensis
53
Temperate Deciduous Forest ndash Succession
bull orderly succession of communities to a climax
community (biome)
bull two main types of succession
bull primary succession begins with bare rock exposed
by geologic activity
bull secondary succession begins on soil from which
previous community has been removed (by fire
agriculture etc)
bull secondary succession can proceed much faster
because the soil has been prepared by the
previous community
54
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
American Toad
Bufo americanus
Box Turtle
55
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
Eastern Chipmunk
Tamias striatus
Eastern Gray Squirrel
Sciurus carolinensis
56
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
Yellow-breasted chat
Icteria virens 57
Tundra
bull annual average temperature lt 5 C
bull precipitation (mostly in the form of snow) lt 100 mmyear
bull summer is brief
bull temperatures above freezing last only a few weeks at
most
bull warm summer coincides with periods of almost 24
hour daylight so plant growth can be explosive
58
Tundra
Anaktuvuk Pass Alaska
59
Tundra ndash Indicator Plant Species
Arctic Tundra Wildflowers - Alaska
60
Tundra ndash Indicator Plant Species
Lichen
Polytrichum Moss
(photographed in Ohio not on the
Tundra)
61
Tundra ndash Indicator Animal Species
Reindeer
Rangifer tarandus
62
Tundra ndash Indicator Animal Species
Caribou On Autumn Tundra Denali National Park Alaska
63
Savanna
bull rolling grassland scattered with shrubs and isolated trees
bull found between a tropical rainforest and desert biome
bull not enough rain falls on a savanna to support forests
bull found in a wide band on either side of the equator on
the edges of tropical rainforests
bull warm temperature year round
bull very long dry season (winter) ~ 10 cm rain none at all
from Dec - Feb
bull very wet season (summer) ~ 35-65 cm rain
64
Savanna
65
Savanna ndash Indicator Plant Species
Baobab
Adansonia digitata Umbrella Thorn Acacia
Acacia tortillis
66
Savanna ndash Indicator Animal Species
Savanna Elephant
Loxodonta africana
Black Mamba
Dendroaspis polylepis
Lion
Panthera leo
67
Chaparral
bull winter mild and moist but not rainy
bull summer very hot and dry
bull annual temperature range between -1deg and 38deg C
bull annual precipitation ~ 25-45 cm mostly in the winter
68
Chaparral
69
Chaparral ndash Indicator Plant Species
Blue Oak
Quercus douglasii
Common Sagebrush
Artemisia tridentata
Olive Tree
Olea europaea
70
Chaparral ndash Indicator Animal Species
Black-tailed Jackrabbit
Lepus californicus Golden Jackal
Canis aureus
Spotted Skunk
Spilogale gracilis
71
The Freshwater Biome
bull low salt concentration mdash usually less than 1
bull plants and animals in freshwater regions are adjusted to
the low salt content and would not be able to survive in
areas of high salt concentration (ie ocean)
bull 3 different types of freshwater regions
bull ponds and lakes
bull streams and rivers
bull wetlands
72
The Freshwater Biome ndash Ponds and Lakes
From left a view across Manzanita Lake toward Mt Lassen California a
forest pond near Donnelly Idaho a Great Blue Heron Paranagat Lake
southeastern Nevada
73
The Freshwater Biome ndash Streams and
Rivers
From left McArthur-Burney Falls State Park California trout Green
River Utah Brooks River Alaska
74
The Freshwater Biome - Wetlands
From left Pescadero Marsh California coastal marsh at Umpqua
Dunes Oregon trees and bogs on Esther Island Alaska
75
The Marine Biome
bull cover about three-fourths of the Earths surface
bull marine algae supply much of the worlds oxygen supply
and take in a huge amount of atmospheric carbon
dioxide
bull evaporation of the seawater provides rainwater for the
land
bull 3 different types of marine regions
bull oceans
bull coral reefs
bull estuaries
76
The Marine Biome - Oceans
From left mussels worms and a spider crab at a hydrocarbon seep
community in the Gulf of Mexico a sea fan and brain coral in the Florida
Keys National Marine Sanctuary a school of Atlantic amberjack off North
Carolina
77
The Marine Biome ndash Coral Reefs
From left reef life in the Gulf of Aqaba Red Sea a reef at Fanning
Island atoll in the central Pacific a reef in the Florida Keys National
Marine Sanctuary
78
The Marine Biome - Estuaries
From left Mangrove roots south Florida wetlands and tidal streams
in the Ashe Island area ACE Basin National Estuarine Research
Reserve South Carolina a salt marsh in Winyah Bay National
Estuarine Research Reserve South Carolina
79
Ecological Notes
These are the biomes in order of their productivity (highest
first)
1 estuaries and tropical rain forest (highest)
2 temperate forest
3 agricultural land
4 temperate grassland
5 lakes and streams
6 coastal zone
7 tundra
8 open ocean
9 desert (lowest)
80
Ecological Notes
In order to be productive and have a lot of living material
standing around (biomass) an ecosystem has to have 4
basic necessities for plant life to thrive (if there are
enough plants the ecosystem will also support a lot of
animals) The four things are
1 Sunlight
2 Nutrients
3 Warm temperatures
4 Water
81
Biomes Video
82
Take-Home Message
bull Biomes are the major ecological communities of earth
characterized mostly by the vegetation present
bull Different biomes result from differences in temperature
and precipitation and the extent to which they vary from
season to season
83
Challenge Question
bull Terrestrial biomes are determined by the temperature
and precipitation amounts as well as whether those
factors are constant or vary by season
bull By contrast how are aquatic biomes determined
84
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy flows from producers to
consumers
85
86
87
First Stop Primary Producers
bull ecosystem producers or consumers
bull primary producers plants algae (some) bacteria
bull convert light energy from sun into chemical energy
through photosynthesis
bull chemical energy = food
bull consumers eat or absorb their food
bull energy stored in chemical bonds of carbohydrate
protein and lipid molecules is captured and
harnessed for consumersrsquo own movement
reproduction and growth
88
Food Chain
89
Food Web
90
Food Web
91
Food Chains amp Food Webs
bull A change in one link in a food chain will affect the other
links
bull The table on the next slide gives one example of a food
chain and the trophic levels represented in it
92
Food Chains amp Food Webs
93
GRASS
GRASSHOPPER
TOAD
SNAKE
HAWK
BACTERIA
IN GENERAL
AUTOTROPHS
(PRODUCERS)
HERBIVORES
(PRIMARY
CONSUMERS)
CARNIVORES
(2 3 ETC)
DECOMPOSERS
94
Chain Reaction Game
95
Energy Flows through a Food Web
bull Losses at every ldquosteprdquo in a food chain
bull Inefficiency of energy transfers
96
Energy flow through a food chain
Energy flow refers to the way that energy is transformed through
a food chain (pictured here) containing a series of levels
including plants consumers predators and decomposers 97
Amount of energy available at each of the
four levels of an ecosystem
Ecological pyramids illustrate the amount of energy
available at each of the four levels of an ecosystem 98
Ecological Pyramid
99
A grasshopper eats a plant A mouse eats the
grasshopper A snake eats the mouse A hawk
could eat the snake or the mouse In this food
web how would we categorize the hawk
1 Producer
2 Primary consumer
3 Secondary consumer
4 Tertiary consumer
5 Quaternary consumer
6 4 and 5
100
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps
bull First it is converted to chemical energy in
photosynthesis
bull Herbivores then consume the primary producers the
herbivores are consumed by carnivores and the
carnivores in turn may be consumed by top carnivores
101
Take-home message
bull Detritivores and decomposers extract energy from
organic waste and the remains of organisms that have
died
bull At each step in a food chain some usable energy is lost
as heat
102
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy pyramids reveal the inefficiency of
food chains
103
Biomass
bull biomass total weight of all living organisms in a given
area
bull only about 10 of the plants in an ecosystem is
converted into biomass
bull Food Energy Pyramid
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
bull African savannas and grasslands sustain more species
of higher-order carnivores than any other terrestrial
ecosystem
104
105
Food Energy Pyramids
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
106
107
108
You go out to eat at a fancy restaurant You
have a salad salmon and for dessert ice
cream Which part of the meal was the most
energy efficient food for you to eat
1 Salad
2 Salmon
3 Ice cream
4 2 and 3
109
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps known as trophic levels
bull Energy pyramids reveal that the biomass of primary
producers in an ecosystem tends to be far greater than
the biomass of herbivores
bull The biomass transferred at each step along the food chain tends to be only about 10 of the biomass of the organisms being consumed due to energy lost in cellular respiration
bull As a consequence of this inefficiency food chains rarely exceed four levels
110
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Essential chemicals cycle through
ecosystems
111
Chemical Reservoirs
bull Each chemical is stored in a non-living part of the environment
bull Organisms acquire the chemical from the reservoir a non-living part of the environment
bull The chemical cycles through the food chain (biogeochemical cycles)
bull Eventually the chemical is returned to the reservoir
112
Hydrologic Cycle and the Florida Springs
bull Click here for a description of how falling rain feeds underground aquifers in Florida and forms springs
113
The Most Important Chemical Cycles
1) Carbon
2) Nitrogen
3) Phosphorus
4) Sulfur
114
115
The
Carbon
Cycle
116
The Carbon Cycle
Keeping Up With Carbon
NASA video provides key information on the carbon cycle
117
118
Carbon Cycle Game
Fossil Fuels
bull created when large numbers of organisms die and are buried in sediment lacking oxygen
bull In absence of oxygen at high pressures and after very long periods of time organic remains are ultimately transformed into coal oil and natural gas
bull burning coal oil and natural gas releases large amounts of carbon dioxide
bull increases average CO2 concentration in the atmosphere
bull current level of CO2 in the atmosphere is the highest it has been in almost half a million years
119
Global CO2 levels are rising in
general but they also exhibit a
sharp rise and fall within each
year ndash why
120
121
The Nitrogen Cycle
122
The Nitrogen Cycle
Fertilizers
bull Because it is necessary for the production of every plant
protein and because all nitrogen must first be made
usable by bacteria plant growth is often limited by
nitrogen levels in the soil
bull For this reason most fertilizers contain nitrogen in a
form usable by plants
123
124
125
126
127
Oxygen reduction downstream of a source of
organic pollution
128
Algal growth and eutrophication in an Australian
outback waterway
129
Sulfur Cycle
bull component of protein
bull cycles in both a gas and sedimentary cycle
bull source earths crust
bull enters the atmosphere as hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
during fossil fuel combustion volcanic eruptions
gas exchange at ocean surfaces decomposition
130
Sulfur Cycle
bull H2S is immediately oxidized to sulfur dioxide (SO2)
bull SO2 + water vapor H2SO4 (falls to earth in rain)
bull sulfur in soluble form is taken up by plant roots
incorporated into amino acids such as cysteine
bull travels through food chain
bull eventually released through decomposition
131
How is carbon recycled back to the
atmosphere in the carbon cycle
1 It is ldquofixedrdquo by bacteria
2 It is a product of cellular respiration
3 Burning of fossil fuels
4 2 and 3
5 All of the above
132
Why do commercial fertilizers usually
contain usable forms of nitrogen and
phosphorous
1 These chemicals are not efficiently recycled in
the soil
2 Nitrogen and phosphorous need to be ldquofixedrdquo
by bacteria or the plant
3 Nitrogen and phosphorous are found at high
levels in the atmosphere but not in the soil
4 Nitrogen and phosphorous only enter the soil
through erosion
133
Take-home message
bull Chemicals essential to lifemdashincluding carbon nitrogen and phosphorusmdashcycle through ecosystems
bull They are usually captured from the atmosphere soil or water by growing organisms passed from one trophic level to the next as organisms eat other organisms and returned to the environment through respiration decomposition and erosion
bull These cycles can be disrupted as human activities significantly increase the amounts of the chemicals utilized or released to the environment
134
Symbiotic Relationships
bull Symbiosis close relationship between organisms of
two different species
bull At least one participant gains some sort of benefit
(usually nutritional)
bull Types of symbiosis
bull Parasitism
bull Commensalism
bull Mutualism
bull Predation
135
Symbiotic Relationships in the
Ocean
bull Click here for an explanation of the
relationships of marine animals
including sharks rays and various
fishes
136
Parasitism bull Parasite derives nutrition from the host
bull This harms the host but a true parasite does
not usually kill its host (directly)
137
Ectoparasites
Remain outside the host
Ticks fleas leeches
138
Endoparasites
Live inside the hostrsquos body
Tapeworms malarial parasites
139
Parasite Transmission
bull Many parasites live on or in a single organism
bull Some will alternate between 2 or more host species
bull Vertical transmission ndash from mother offspring
bull Horizontal transmission ndash between members of a
population
bull Direct contact (head lice)
bull Vectors (mosquitos)
140
141
Commensalism
bull Neither species is totally dependent on the other
bull One benefits ndash no effect on the other
bull Feeding or protection
bull Porcelain anemone crabs and anemones
142
Mutualism
bull Both species benefit
bull Food or shelter
bull Examples
bull Plants and microbes (rhizobium in root nodules)
bull Plants and fungi (orchids and mycorrhizae)
bull Protists and fungi (lichen)
bull Plants and insects (pollination)
bull Animals and bacteria (ruminants)
bull Animals and other animals (crocodiles and
plover birds)
143
Mutualism shrimp and moray
Cleaner shrimp cleaning a zebra moray eel Mutualistic
relationships such as these promote the well-being of the
host fishes and provide food for those that do the cleaning 144
Rhizobium
Rhizobium in root nodules of certain plants convert
nitrogen in soil to usable form
145
Orchid Mycorrhizae
Fungi aid the plant in the uptake of nutrients
Fungi ingest some of the food from plant
photosynthesis 146
Lichen
Most of the lichen is composed of fungal filaments
but living among the filaments are algal cells
usually from a green alga or a cyanobacterium
The lichen fungus provides its partner(s) a benefit
(protection) and gains nutrients in return 147
Ruminants
Ruminants are characterized by their four-chambered
stomach and cud-chewing behavior Cud is a food bolus
that is regurgitated rechewed and reswallowed The
rumen is a large fermentation vat containing billions of
microorganisms including bacteria and protozoa which
allow ruminants to digest fibrous feeds such as grass and
hay that other animals cannot efficiently utilize 148
Crocodiles amp
Plover Birds
The bird gets into the crocodiles mouth and picks out
the tiny bits of food stuck in his teeth then eats it (the
tiny bits)
This cleans the crocodiles teeth and keeps his mouth
fresh and free from infections 149
Predation
bull Consumption of one living organism by
another
bull Predators must have offensive strategies
bull ways of finding catching and eating
their prey
bull Prey organisms must have defensive
strategies
bull ways of avoiding or discouraging this
activity
150
Predation
bull Encompasses all levels within an
ecological food chainweb
bull plant-herbivore systems
bull herbivore-carnivore systems
bull three-way interactions of
interdependent plant-herbivore-
carnivore systems
151
This goshawk is the tertiary consumer in his ecosystem
and the mouse in his beak is the secondary consumer
Beneath the mouse on the ecological pyramid lies his
foodsource likely a worm which fed on the primary
producer leafy plants 152
Ecosystem of Life in Floridas
Springs
bull Click here for a close-up look of life
in Floridas springs and the various
predator-prey interactions there
153
What is an Ecosystem
bull A community of biological organisms plus the non-
living components with which the organisms interact
bull Living organisms are not self-sufficient They need
energy and raw materials
3
4
5
What is an Ecosystem
bull The biotic environment consists of all the living
organisms within an area and is often referred to as
a community
bull The abiotic (aka non-living or physical) environment
often referred to as the organismsrsquo habitat consists of
bull the chemical resources of the soil water and air
such as carbon nitrogen and phosphorus
bull the physical conditions such as the temperature
salinity (salt level) moisture humidity and energy
sources
6
7
Soil erosion on a
trail in the
Adirondack
mountains
Which scenario below exemplifies an
ecosystem
1 A group of organisms of the same species living in the same place at the same time
2 Different species interacting together at the same place and time
3 Different species interacting with each other at the same time in a desert
4 A smaller species living on a larger species in a mutually beneficial relationship
8
Take-Home Message
bull An ecosystem is all of the living organisms in a habitat
as well as the physical environment
bull Ecosystems are found not just in obvious places such as
ponds deserts and tropical rainforests but also in some
unexpected places like the digestive tracts of organisms
or the shell of a beetle
9
Challenge Question
bull An ecosystem is made of two components the biotic
environment or community consisting of the living
organisms within an area and the physical environment
or the habitat in which these organisms live
bull A habitat consists of its chemical resources of the soil
water and air as well as its physical conditions
bull List some of the aspects that make up the physical
conditions of a habitat
10
Ecosystems have living and non-
living components
A variety of biomes occur around the
world each determined by temperature
and rainfall
11
A variety of biomes occur around the world
each determined by temperature and
rainfall
bull What is the average temperature
bull What is the average rainfall (or other precipitation)
bull Is the temperature relatively constant or does it vary
seasonally
bull Is the rainfall relatively constant or does it vary
seasonally
12
13
14
15
Tropical Rain Forest
bull forest of tall trees in a region of year-round warmth
bull ~ 125 to 660 cm yearly rainfall
bull temperature ranges from 20 degC - 34 degC
bull average humidity 77 - 88
bull rainfall gt 250 cmyear (may be a brief dry season)
bull almost all rain forests lie near the equator
16
Tropical Rain Forest
bull lt 6 of Earths land surface
bull gt 50 of all the worlds plant and animal species live in
tropical rain forests
bull produce ~40 of Earths oxygen
bull ~70 of the plants in the rainforest are trees
bull ~25 of all the medicines we use come from rainforest
plants
17
Tropical Rain Forest
18
Indicator Species
bull any biological species that defines a trait
or characteristic of the environment
bull may delineate an ecoregion
bull could indicate an environmental condition such as
a disease outbreak pollution species competition
or climate change
bull can be among most sensitive species in a region
sometimes act as early warning to monitoring biologists
19
Tropical Rain Forest ndash Indicator Plant Species
20
Tropical Rain Forest ndash Indicator Animal Species Gorilla
Gorilla gorilla
Orangutan (Pongo pygmaeus)
Spider Monkey
Ateles geoffreyi
21
Tropical Rain Forest ndash Indicator Animal Species 2-toed sloth
Cholepus
hoffmanni
Three-toed Sloth (Bradypus
variegatus) with baby - Costa Rica 22
Tropical Rain Forest ndash Indicator Animal Species
Collared Aracari
Pteroglossus torquatus
23
Grasslands (Prairie)
bull 2 different types
bull tall-grass humid amp very wet
bull short-grass dry hotter summers and colder winters
than the tall-grass prairie
bull found in middle latitudes in the interiors of continents
bull either moist continental climates or dry subtropical
climates
bull Argentina ndash grasslands are known as pampas
bull Russia ndash steppes
bull grasslands in southern hemisphere tend to get more
precipitation than those in the northern hemisphere
24
Grasslands (Prairie)
25
Grasslands (Prairie)
bull temperatures range from -40deg F 70deg F
bull growing season and a dormant season
bull growing season is when there is no frost and plants
can grow (which lasts from 100 to 175 days)
bull tropical and subtropical grasslands the length of
the growing season is determined by how long the
rainy season lasts
bull temperate grasslands the length of the growing
season is determined by temperature (ge 50deg F)
bull dormant (not growing) season nothing can grow
because its too cold
26
Grasslands (Prairie)
bull average rainfall per year ranges from 10 - 30 inches
bull tropical and sub-tropical grasslands average rainfall
per year ranges from 25 - 60 inches
bull amount of rainfall is very important in determining which
areas are grasslands
bull hard for trees to compete with grasses in places
where the uppers layers of soil are moist during part
of the year but where deeper layer of soil are always
dry
27
Grasslands (Prairie)
28
Grasslandsndash Indicator Plant Species Old Field Habitat Ohio
Grassland North Dakota
Ironweed
(Vernonia sp) with
Hedge Bindweed
Vine (Calystegia sepium) 29
Grasslandsndash Indicator Plant Species
Ironweed (Vernonia sp)
Joe Pye Weed
Eupatorium purpureum
30
Grasslands ndash Indicator Plant Species
Common Teasel
Dipsacus fullonum Queen Annes Lace (Daucus carota)
31
Grasslands ndash Indicator Animal Species
Bison (Bison bison) on the range
Theodore Roosevelt National Park North
Dakota
32
Grasslands ndash Indicator Animal Species
Przewalskis horse (Equus caballus
przewalskii) The Wilds Ohio
33
Grasslands ndash Indicator Animal Species
34
Taiga
bull Russian word for forest
bull largest biome in the world
bull Eurasia North America
bull located just below the tundra biome
bull many coniferous trees
bull aka boreal forest Boreal was the Greek goddess of the
North Wind
35
Taiga
bull winter temperature range is -54 to -1deg C (-65 to 30deg F)
bull summer -7deg C (20deg F) to 21deg C (70deg F)
bull summers are very short (50 - 100 frost free days)
bull average yearly precipitation 30 - 85 cm (12 - 33 in)
bull main seasons are winter and summer
bull spring and autumn are very short
bull weather is either hot and humid or very cold
36
Taiga
37
Taiga ndash Indicator Plant Species
Balsam Fir
Abies balsamea
Black Spruce
Picea mariana
38
Taiga ndash Indicator Plant Species
Jack Pine
Pinus banksiana
Paper Birch
Betula papyrifera
White Poplar
Populus alba
39
Taiga ndash Indicator Animal Species
American Black Bear
Ursus americanus
Bald Eagle
Haliaeetus leucocephalus 40
Taiga ndash Indicator Animal Species
Long-eared Owl
Aiso otus
Snowshoe Rabbit
Lepus americanus
41
Desert
bull cover about one fifth of Earths land surface
bull hot and dry near Tropic of CancerTropic of
Capricorn
bull cold near the Arctic
bull temperature
bull hot amp dry ~ 25deg C to ~ 49deg C
bull cold -2 to 4deg C (winter) 21 to 26deg C (summer)
bull precipitation
bull hot amp dry very little rainfall andor concentrated
rainfall in short periods between long rainless periods
(lt 15 cmyear)
bull cold 15 - 26 cmyear 42
Desert
43
Desert ndash Indicator Plant Species
44
Desert ndash Indicator Plant Species
Saguaro Cactus
Carnegiea gigantea
Fishhook Cactus
Mammillaria microcarpa
45
Desert ndash Indicator Plant Species
Trichomes
46
Desert ndash Indicator Animal Species
Zebratail Lizard - Callisaurus draconides
47
Desert ndash Indicator Animal Species
Rock hyrax (Procavia capensis) 48
Desert ndash Indicator Animal Species
Bactrian Camel Camelus bactrianus
49
Temperate Deciduous Forest
bull temperature 0 - 20 C
bull precipitation ~ 50 ndash 200 cmyear
50
Temperate Deciduous Forest
51
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Plant Species
Oaks (Quercus sp)
Dutchmans-Breeches
Dicentra cucullaria 52
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Plant Species
Sassafras
Sassafras albidum
Redbud
Cercis canadensis
53
Temperate Deciduous Forest ndash Succession
bull orderly succession of communities to a climax
community (biome)
bull two main types of succession
bull primary succession begins with bare rock exposed
by geologic activity
bull secondary succession begins on soil from which
previous community has been removed (by fire
agriculture etc)
bull secondary succession can proceed much faster
because the soil has been prepared by the
previous community
54
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
American Toad
Bufo americanus
Box Turtle
55
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
Eastern Chipmunk
Tamias striatus
Eastern Gray Squirrel
Sciurus carolinensis
56
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
Yellow-breasted chat
Icteria virens 57
Tundra
bull annual average temperature lt 5 C
bull precipitation (mostly in the form of snow) lt 100 mmyear
bull summer is brief
bull temperatures above freezing last only a few weeks at
most
bull warm summer coincides with periods of almost 24
hour daylight so plant growth can be explosive
58
Tundra
Anaktuvuk Pass Alaska
59
Tundra ndash Indicator Plant Species
Arctic Tundra Wildflowers - Alaska
60
Tundra ndash Indicator Plant Species
Lichen
Polytrichum Moss
(photographed in Ohio not on the
Tundra)
61
Tundra ndash Indicator Animal Species
Reindeer
Rangifer tarandus
62
Tundra ndash Indicator Animal Species
Caribou On Autumn Tundra Denali National Park Alaska
63
Savanna
bull rolling grassland scattered with shrubs and isolated trees
bull found between a tropical rainforest and desert biome
bull not enough rain falls on a savanna to support forests
bull found in a wide band on either side of the equator on
the edges of tropical rainforests
bull warm temperature year round
bull very long dry season (winter) ~ 10 cm rain none at all
from Dec - Feb
bull very wet season (summer) ~ 35-65 cm rain
64
Savanna
65
Savanna ndash Indicator Plant Species
Baobab
Adansonia digitata Umbrella Thorn Acacia
Acacia tortillis
66
Savanna ndash Indicator Animal Species
Savanna Elephant
Loxodonta africana
Black Mamba
Dendroaspis polylepis
Lion
Panthera leo
67
Chaparral
bull winter mild and moist but not rainy
bull summer very hot and dry
bull annual temperature range between -1deg and 38deg C
bull annual precipitation ~ 25-45 cm mostly in the winter
68
Chaparral
69
Chaparral ndash Indicator Plant Species
Blue Oak
Quercus douglasii
Common Sagebrush
Artemisia tridentata
Olive Tree
Olea europaea
70
Chaparral ndash Indicator Animal Species
Black-tailed Jackrabbit
Lepus californicus Golden Jackal
Canis aureus
Spotted Skunk
Spilogale gracilis
71
The Freshwater Biome
bull low salt concentration mdash usually less than 1
bull plants and animals in freshwater regions are adjusted to
the low salt content and would not be able to survive in
areas of high salt concentration (ie ocean)
bull 3 different types of freshwater regions
bull ponds and lakes
bull streams and rivers
bull wetlands
72
The Freshwater Biome ndash Ponds and Lakes
From left a view across Manzanita Lake toward Mt Lassen California a
forest pond near Donnelly Idaho a Great Blue Heron Paranagat Lake
southeastern Nevada
73
The Freshwater Biome ndash Streams and
Rivers
From left McArthur-Burney Falls State Park California trout Green
River Utah Brooks River Alaska
74
The Freshwater Biome - Wetlands
From left Pescadero Marsh California coastal marsh at Umpqua
Dunes Oregon trees and bogs on Esther Island Alaska
75
The Marine Biome
bull cover about three-fourths of the Earths surface
bull marine algae supply much of the worlds oxygen supply
and take in a huge amount of atmospheric carbon
dioxide
bull evaporation of the seawater provides rainwater for the
land
bull 3 different types of marine regions
bull oceans
bull coral reefs
bull estuaries
76
The Marine Biome - Oceans
From left mussels worms and a spider crab at a hydrocarbon seep
community in the Gulf of Mexico a sea fan and brain coral in the Florida
Keys National Marine Sanctuary a school of Atlantic amberjack off North
Carolina
77
The Marine Biome ndash Coral Reefs
From left reef life in the Gulf of Aqaba Red Sea a reef at Fanning
Island atoll in the central Pacific a reef in the Florida Keys National
Marine Sanctuary
78
The Marine Biome - Estuaries
From left Mangrove roots south Florida wetlands and tidal streams
in the Ashe Island area ACE Basin National Estuarine Research
Reserve South Carolina a salt marsh in Winyah Bay National
Estuarine Research Reserve South Carolina
79
Ecological Notes
These are the biomes in order of their productivity (highest
first)
1 estuaries and tropical rain forest (highest)
2 temperate forest
3 agricultural land
4 temperate grassland
5 lakes and streams
6 coastal zone
7 tundra
8 open ocean
9 desert (lowest)
80
Ecological Notes
In order to be productive and have a lot of living material
standing around (biomass) an ecosystem has to have 4
basic necessities for plant life to thrive (if there are
enough plants the ecosystem will also support a lot of
animals) The four things are
1 Sunlight
2 Nutrients
3 Warm temperatures
4 Water
81
Biomes Video
82
Take-Home Message
bull Biomes are the major ecological communities of earth
characterized mostly by the vegetation present
bull Different biomes result from differences in temperature
and precipitation and the extent to which they vary from
season to season
83
Challenge Question
bull Terrestrial biomes are determined by the temperature
and precipitation amounts as well as whether those
factors are constant or vary by season
bull By contrast how are aquatic biomes determined
84
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy flows from producers to
consumers
85
86
87
First Stop Primary Producers
bull ecosystem producers or consumers
bull primary producers plants algae (some) bacteria
bull convert light energy from sun into chemical energy
through photosynthesis
bull chemical energy = food
bull consumers eat or absorb their food
bull energy stored in chemical bonds of carbohydrate
protein and lipid molecules is captured and
harnessed for consumersrsquo own movement
reproduction and growth
88
Food Chain
89
Food Web
90
Food Web
91
Food Chains amp Food Webs
bull A change in one link in a food chain will affect the other
links
bull The table on the next slide gives one example of a food
chain and the trophic levels represented in it
92
Food Chains amp Food Webs
93
GRASS
GRASSHOPPER
TOAD
SNAKE
HAWK
BACTERIA
IN GENERAL
AUTOTROPHS
(PRODUCERS)
HERBIVORES
(PRIMARY
CONSUMERS)
CARNIVORES
(2 3 ETC)
DECOMPOSERS
94
Chain Reaction Game
95
Energy Flows through a Food Web
bull Losses at every ldquosteprdquo in a food chain
bull Inefficiency of energy transfers
96
Energy flow through a food chain
Energy flow refers to the way that energy is transformed through
a food chain (pictured here) containing a series of levels
including plants consumers predators and decomposers 97
Amount of energy available at each of the
four levels of an ecosystem
Ecological pyramids illustrate the amount of energy
available at each of the four levels of an ecosystem 98
Ecological Pyramid
99
A grasshopper eats a plant A mouse eats the
grasshopper A snake eats the mouse A hawk
could eat the snake or the mouse In this food
web how would we categorize the hawk
1 Producer
2 Primary consumer
3 Secondary consumer
4 Tertiary consumer
5 Quaternary consumer
6 4 and 5
100
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps
bull First it is converted to chemical energy in
photosynthesis
bull Herbivores then consume the primary producers the
herbivores are consumed by carnivores and the
carnivores in turn may be consumed by top carnivores
101
Take-home message
bull Detritivores and decomposers extract energy from
organic waste and the remains of organisms that have
died
bull At each step in a food chain some usable energy is lost
as heat
102
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy pyramids reveal the inefficiency of
food chains
103
Biomass
bull biomass total weight of all living organisms in a given
area
bull only about 10 of the plants in an ecosystem is
converted into biomass
bull Food Energy Pyramid
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
bull African savannas and grasslands sustain more species
of higher-order carnivores than any other terrestrial
ecosystem
104
105
Food Energy Pyramids
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
106
107
108
You go out to eat at a fancy restaurant You
have a salad salmon and for dessert ice
cream Which part of the meal was the most
energy efficient food for you to eat
1 Salad
2 Salmon
3 Ice cream
4 2 and 3
109
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps known as trophic levels
bull Energy pyramids reveal that the biomass of primary
producers in an ecosystem tends to be far greater than
the biomass of herbivores
bull The biomass transferred at each step along the food chain tends to be only about 10 of the biomass of the organisms being consumed due to energy lost in cellular respiration
bull As a consequence of this inefficiency food chains rarely exceed four levels
110
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Essential chemicals cycle through
ecosystems
111
Chemical Reservoirs
bull Each chemical is stored in a non-living part of the environment
bull Organisms acquire the chemical from the reservoir a non-living part of the environment
bull The chemical cycles through the food chain (biogeochemical cycles)
bull Eventually the chemical is returned to the reservoir
112
Hydrologic Cycle and the Florida Springs
bull Click here for a description of how falling rain feeds underground aquifers in Florida and forms springs
113
The Most Important Chemical Cycles
1) Carbon
2) Nitrogen
3) Phosphorus
4) Sulfur
114
115
The
Carbon
Cycle
116
The Carbon Cycle
Keeping Up With Carbon
NASA video provides key information on the carbon cycle
117
118
Carbon Cycle Game
Fossil Fuels
bull created when large numbers of organisms die and are buried in sediment lacking oxygen
bull In absence of oxygen at high pressures and after very long periods of time organic remains are ultimately transformed into coal oil and natural gas
bull burning coal oil and natural gas releases large amounts of carbon dioxide
bull increases average CO2 concentration in the atmosphere
bull current level of CO2 in the atmosphere is the highest it has been in almost half a million years
119
Global CO2 levels are rising in
general but they also exhibit a
sharp rise and fall within each
year ndash why
120
121
The Nitrogen Cycle
122
The Nitrogen Cycle
Fertilizers
bull Because it is necessary for the production of every plant
protein and because all nitrogen must first be made
usable by bacteria plant growth is often limited by
nitrogen levels in the soil
bull For this reason most fertilizers contain nitrogen in a
form usable by plants
123
124
125
126
127
Oxygen reduction downstream of a source of
organic pollution
128
Algal growth and eutrophication in an Australian
outback waterway
129
Sulfur Cycle
bull component of protein
bull cycles in both a gas and sedimentary cycle
bull source earths crust
bull enters the atmosphere as hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
during fossil fuel combustion volcanic eruptions
gas exchange at ocean surfaces decomposition
130
Sulfur Cycle
bull H2S is immediately oxidized to sulfur dioxide (SO2)
bull SO2 + water vapor H2SO4 (falls to earth in rain)
bull sulfur in soluble form is taken up by plant roots
incorporated into amino acids such as cysteine
bull travels through food chain
bull eventually released through decomposition
131
How is carbon recycled back to the
atmosphere in the carbon cycle
1 It is ldquofixedrdquo by bacteria
2 It is a product of cellular respiration
3 Burning of fossil fuels
4 2 and 3
5 All of the above
132
Why do commercial fertilizers usually
contain usable forms of nitrogen and
phosphorous
1 These chemicals are not efficiently recycled in
the soil
2 Nitrogen and phosphorous need to be ldquofixedrdquo
by bacteria or the plant
3 Nitrogen and phosphorous are found at high
levels in the atmosphere but not in the soil
4 Nitrogen and phosphorous only enter the soil
through erosion
133
Take-home message
bull Chemicals essential to lifemdashincluding carbon nitrogen and phosphorusmdashcycle through ecosystems
bull They are usually captured from the atmosphere soil or water by growing organisms passed from one trophic level to the next as organisms eat other organisms and returned to the environment through respiration decomposition and erosion
bull These cycles can be disrupted as human activities significantly increase the amounts of the chemicals utilized or released to the environment
134
Symbiotic Relationships
bull Symbiosis close relationship between organisms of
two different species
bull At least one participant gains some sort of benefit
(usually nutritional)
bull Types of symbiosis
bull Parasitism
bull Commensalism
bull Mutualism
bull Predation
135
Symbiotic Relationships in the
Ocean
bull Click here for an explanation of the
relationships of marine animals
including sharks rays and various
fishes
136
Parasitism bull Parasite derives nutrition from the host
bull This harms the host but a true parasite does
not usually kill its host (directly)
137
Ectoparasites
Remain outside the host
Ticks fleas leeches
138
Endoparasites
Live inside the hostrsquos body
Tapeworms malarial parasites
139
Parasite Transmission
bull Many parasites live on or in a single organism
bull Some will alternate between 2 or more host species
bull Vertical transmission ndash from mother offspring
bull Horizontal transmission ndash between members of a
population
bull Direct contact (head lice)
bull Vectors (mosquitos)
140
141
Commensalism
bull Neither species is totally dependent on the other
bull One benefits ndash no effect on the other
bull Feeding or protection
bull Porcelain anemone crabs and anemones
142
Mutualism
bull Both species benefit
bull Food or shelter
bull Examples
bull Plants and microbes (rhizobium in root nodules)
bull Plants and fungi (orchids and mycorrhizae)
bull Protists and fungi (lichen)
bull Plants and insects (pollination)
bull Animals and bacteria (ruminants)
bull Animals and other animals (crocodiles and
plover birds)
143
Mutualism shrimp and moray
Cleaner shrimp cleaning a zebra moray eel Mutualistic
relationships such as these promote the well-being of the
host fishes and provide food for those that do the cleaning 144
Rhizobium
Rhizobium in root nodules of certain plants convert
nitrogen in soil to usable form
145
Orchid Mycorrhizae
Fungi aid the plant in the uptake of nutrients
Fungi ingest some of the food from plant
photosynthesis 146
Lichen
Most of the lichen is composed of fungal filaments
but living among the filaments are algal cells
usually from a green alga or a cyanobacterium
The lichen fungus provides its partner(s) a benefit
(protection) and gains nutrients in return 147
Ruminants
Ruminants are characterized by their four-chambered
stomach and cud-chewing behavior Cud is a food bolus
that is regurgitated rechewed and reswallowed The
rumen is a large fermentation vat containing billions of
microorganisms including bacteria and protozoa which
allow ruminants to digest fibrous feeds such as grass and
hay that other animals cannot efficiently utilize 148
Crocodiles amp
Plover Birds
The bird gets into the crocodiles mouth and picks out
the tiny bits of food stuck in his teeth then eats it (the
tiny bits)
This cleans the crocodiles teeth and keeps his mouth
fresh and free from infections 149
Predation
bull Consumption of one living organism by
another
bull Predators must have offensive strategies
bull ways of finding catching and eating
their prey
bull Prey organisms must have defensive
strategies
bull ways of avoiding or discouraging this
activity
150
Predation
bull Encompasses all levels within an
ecological food chainweb
bull plant-herbivore systems
bull herbivore-carnivore systems
bull three-way interactions of
interdependent plant-herbivore-
carnivore systems
151
This goshawk is the tertiary consumer in his ecosystem
and the mouse in his beak is the secondary consumer
Beneath the mouse on the ecological pyramid lies his
foodsource likely a worm which fed on the primary
producer leafy plants 152
Ecosystem of Life in Floridas
Springs
bull Click here for a close-up look of life
in Floridas springs and the various
predator-prey interactions there
153
4
5
What is an Ecosystem
bull The biotic environment consists of all the living
organisms within an area and is often referred to as
a community
bull The abiotic (aka non-living or physical) environment
often referred to as the organismsrsquo habitat consists of
bull the chemical resources of the soil water and air
such as carbon nitrogen and phosphorus
bull the physical conditions such as the temperature
salinity (salt level) moisture humidity and energy
sources
6
7
Soil erosion on a
trail in the
Adirondack
mountains
Which scenario below exemplifies an
ecosystem
1 A group of organisms of the same species living in the same place at the same time
2 Different species interacting together at the same place and time
3 Different species interacting with each other at the same time in a desert
4 A smaller species living on a larger species in a mutually beneficial relationship
8
Take-Home Message
bull An ecosystem is all of the living organisms in a habitat
as well as the physical environment
bull Ecosystems are found not just in obvious places such as
ponds deserts and tropical rainforests but also in some
unexpected places like the digestive tracts of organisms
or the shell of a beetle
9
Challenge Question
bull An ecosystem is made of two components the biotic
environment or community consisting of the living
organisms within an area and the physical environment
or the habitat in which these organisms live
bull A habitat consists of its chemical resources of the soil
water and air as well as its physical conditions
bull List some of the aspects that make up the physical
conditions of a habitat
10
Ecosystems have living and non-
living components
A variety of biomes occur around the
world each determined by temperature
and rainfall
11
A variety of biomes occur around the world
each determined by temperature and
rainfall
bull What is the average temperature
bull What is the average rainfall (or other precipitation)
bull Is the temperature relatively constant or does it vary
seasonally
bull Is the rainfall relatively constant or does it vary
seasonally
12
13
14
15
Tropical Rain Forest
bull forest of tall trees in a region of year-round warmth
bull ~ 125 to 660 cm yearly rainfall
bull temperature ranges from 20 degC - 34 degC
bull average humidity 77 - 88
bull rainfall gt 250 cmyear (may be a brief dry season)
bull almost all rain forests lie near the equator
16
Tropical Rain Forest
bull lt 6 of Earths land surface
bull gt 50 of all the worlds plant and animal species live in
tropical rain forests
bull produce ~40 of Earths oxygen
bull ~70 of the plants in the rainforest are trees
bull ~25 of all the medicines we use come from rainforest
plants
17
Tropical Rain Forest
18
Indicator Species
bull any biological species that defines a trait
or characteristic of the environment
bull may delineate an ecoregion
bull could indicate an environmental condition such as
a disease outbreak pollution species competition
or climate change
bull can be among most sensitive species in a region
sometimes act as early warning to monitoring biologists
19
Tropical Rain Forest ndash Indicator Plant Species
20
Tropical Rain Forest ndash Indicator Animal Species Gorilla
Gorilla gorilla
Orangutan (Pongo pygmaeus)
Spider Monkey
Ateles geoffreyi
21
Tropical Rain Forest ndash Indicator Animal Species 2-toed sloth
Cholepus
hoffmanni
Three-toed Sloth (Bradypus
variegatus) with baby - Costa Rica 22
Tropical Rain Forest ndash Indicator Animal Species
Collared Aracari
Pteroglossus torquatus
23
Grasslands (Prairie)
bull 2 different types
bull tall-grass humid amp very wet
bull short-grass dry hotter summers and colder winters
than the tall-grass prairie
bull found in middle latitudes in the interiors of continents
bull either moist continental climates or dry subtropical
climates
bull Argentina ndash grasslands are known as pampas
bull Russia ndash steppes
bull grasslands in southern hemisphere tend to get more
precipitation than those in the northern hemisphere
24
Grasslands (Prairie)
25
Grasslands (Prairie)
bull temperatures range from -40deg F 70deg F
bull growing season and a dormant season
bull growing season is when there is no frost and plants
can grow (which lasts from 100 to 175 days)
bull tropical and subtropical grasslands the length of
the growing season is determined by how long the
rainy season lasts
bull temperate grasslands the length of the growing
season is determined by temperature (ge 50deg F)
bull dormant (not growing) season nothing can grow
because its too cold
26
Grasslands (Prairie)
bull average rainfall per year ranges from 10 - 30 inches
bull tropical and sub-tropical grasslands average rainfall
per year ranges from 25 - 60 inches
bull amount of rainfall is very important in determining which
areas are grasslands
bull hard for trees to compete with grasses in places
where the uppers layers of soil are moist during part
of the year but where deeper layer of soil are always
dry
27
Grasslands (Prairie)
28
Grasslandsndash Indicator Plant Species Old Field Habitat Ohio
Grassland North Dakota
Ironweed
(Vernonia sp) with
Hedge Bindweed
Vine (Calystegia sepium) 29
Grasslandsndash Indicator Plant Species
Ironweed (Vernonia sp)
Joe Pye Weed
Eupatorium purpureum
30
Grasslands ndash Indicator Plant Species
Common Teasel
Dipsacus fullonum Queen Annes Lace (Daucus carota)
31
Grasslands ndash Indicator Animal Species
Bison (Bison bison) on the range
Theodore Roosevelt National Park North
Dakota
32
Grasslands ndash Indicator Animal Species
Przewalskis horse (Equus caballus
przewalskii) The Wilds Ohio
33
Grasslands ndash Indicator Animal Species
34
Taiga
bull Russian word for forest
bull largest biome in the world
bull Eurasia North America
bull located just below the tundra biome
bull many coniferous trees
bull aka boreal forest Boreal was the Greek goddess of the
North Wind
35
Taiga
bull winter temperature range is -54 to -1deg C (-65 to 30deg F)
bull summer -7deg C (20deg F) to 21deg C (70deg F)
bull summers are very short (50 - 100 frost free days)
bull average yearly precipitation 30 - 85 cm (12 - 33 in)
bull main seasons are winter and summer
bull spring and autumn are very short
bull weather is either hot and humid or very cold
36
Taiga
37
Taiga ndash Indicator Plant Species
Balsam Fir
Abies balsamea
Black Spruce
Picea mariana
38
Taiga ndash Indicator Plant Species
Jack Pine
Pinus banksiana
Paper Birch
Betula papyrifera
White Poplar
Populus alba
39
Taiga ndash Indicator Animal Species
American Black Bear
Ursus americanus
Bald Eagle
Haliaeetus leucocephalus 40
Taiga ndash Indicator Animal Species
Long-eared Owl
Aiso otus
Snowshoe Rabbit
Lepus americanus
41
Desert
bull cover about one fifth of Earths land surface
bull hot and dry near Tropic of CancerTropic of
Capricorn
bull cold near the Arctic
bull temperature
bull hot amp dry ~ 25deg C to ~ 49deg C
bull cold -2 to 4deg C (winter) 21 to 26deg C (summer)
bull precipitation
bull hot amp dry very little rainfall andor concentrated
rainfall in short periods between long rainless periods
(lt 15 cmyear)
bull cold 15 - 26 cmyear 42
Desert
43
Desert ndash Indicator Plant Species
44
Desert ndash Indicator Plant Species
Saguaro Cactus
Carnegiea gigantea
Fishhook Cactus
Mammillaria microcarpa
45
Desert ndash Indicator Plant Species
Trichomes
46
Desert ndash Indicator Animal Species
Zebratail Lizard - Callisaurus draconides
47
Desert ndash Indicator Animal Species
Rock hyrax (Procavia capensis) 48
Desert ndash Indicator Animal Species
Bactrian Camel Camelus bactrianus
49
Temperate Deciduous Forest
bull temperature 0 - 20 C
bull precipitation ~ 50 ndash 200 cmyear
50
Temperate Deciduous Forest
51
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Plant Species
Oaks (Quercus sp)
Dutchmans-Breeches
Dicentra cucullaria 52
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Plant Species
Sassafras
Sassafras albidum
Redbud
Cercis canadensis
53
Temperate Deciduous Forest ndash Succession
bull orderly succession of communities to a climax
community (biome)
bull two main types of succession
bull primary succession begins with bare rock exposed
by geologic activity
bull secondary succession begins on soil from which
previous community has been removed (by fire
agriculture etc)
bull secondary succession can proceed much faster
because the soil has been prepared by the
previous community
54
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
American Toad
Bufo americanus
Box Turtle
55
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
Eastern Chipmunk
Tamias striatus
Eastern Gray Squirrel
Sciurus carolinensis
56
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
Yellow-breasted chat
Icteria virens 57
Tundra
bull annual average temperature lt 5 C
bull precipitation (mostly in the form of snow) lt 100 mmyear
bull summer is brief
bull temperatures above freezing last only a few weeks at
most
bull warm summer coincides with periods of almost 24
hour daylight so plant growth can be explosive
58
Tundra
Anaktuvuk Pass Alaska
59
Tundra ndash Indicator Plant Species
Arctic Tundra Wildflowers - Alaska
60
Tundra ndash Indicator Plant Species
Lichen
Polytrichum Moss
(photographed in Ohio not on the
Tundra)
61
Tundra ndash Indicator Animal Species
Reindeer
Rangifer tarandus
62
Tundra ndash Indicator Animal Species
Caribou On Autumn Tundra Denali National Park Alaska
63
Savanna
bull rolling grassland scattered with shrubs and isolated trees
bull found between a tropical rainforest and desert biome
bull not enough rain falls on a savanna to support forests
bull found in a wide band on either side of the equator on
the edges of tropical rainforests
bull warm temperature year round
bull very long dry season (winter) ~ 10 cm rain none at all
from Dec - Feb
bull very wet season (summer) ~ 35-65 cm rain
64
Savanna
65
Savanna ndash Indicator Plant Species
Baobab
Adansonia digitata Umbrella Thorn Acacia
Acacia tortillis
66
Savanna ndash Indicator Animal Species
Savanna Elephant
Loxodonta africana
Black Mamba
Dendroaspis polylepis
Lion
Panthera leo
67
Chaparral
bull winter mild and moist but not rainy
bull summer very hot and dry
bull annual temperature range between -1deg and 38deg C
bull annual precipitation ~ 25-45 cm mostly in the winter
68
Chaparral
69
Chaparral ndash Indicator Plant Species
Blue Oak
Quercus douglasii
Common Sagebrush
Artemisia tridentata
Olive Tree
Olea europaea
70
Chaparral ndash Indicator Animal Species
Black-tailed Jackrabbit
Lepus californicus Golden Jackal
Canis aureus
Spotted Skunk
Spilogale gracilis
71
The Freshwater Biome
bull low salt concentration mdash usually less than 1
bull plants and animals in freshwater regions are adjusted to
the low salt content and would not be able to survive in
areas of high salt concentration (ie ocean)
bull 3 different types of freshwater regions
bull ponds and lakes
bull streams and rivers
bull wetlands
72
The Freshwater Biome ndash Ponds and Lakes
From left a view across Manzanita Lake toward Mt Lassen California a
forest pond near Donnelly Idaho a Great Blue Heron Paranagat Lake
southeastern Nevada
73
The Freshwater Biome ndash Streams and
Rivers
From left McArthur-Burney Falls State Park California trout Green
River Utah Brooks River Alaska
74
The Freshwater Biome - Wetlands
From left Pescadero Marsh California coastal marsh at Umpqua
Dunes Oregon trees and bogs on Esther Island Alaska
75
The Marine Biome
bull cover about three-fourths of the Earths surface
bull marine algae supply much of the worlds oxygen supply
and take in a huge amount of atmospheric carbon
dioxide
bull evaporation of the seawater provides rainwater for the
land
bull 3 different types of marine regions
bull oceans
bull coral reefs
bull estuaries
76
The Marine Biome - Oceans
From left mussels worms and a spider crab at a hydrocarbon seep
community in the Gulf of Mexico a sea fan and brain coral in the Florida
Keys National Marine Sanctuary a school of Atlantic amberjack off North
Carolina
77
The Marine Biome ndash Coral Reefs
From left reef life in the Gulf of Aqaba Red Sea a reef at Fanning
Island atoll in the central Pacific a reef in the Florida Keys National
Marine Sanctuary
78
The Marine Biome - Estuaries
From left Mangrove roots south Florida wetlands and tidal streams
in the Ashe Island area ACE Basin National Estuarine Research
Reserve South Carolina a salt marsh in Winyah Bay National
Estuarine Research Reserve South Carolina
79
Ecological Notes
These are the biomes in order of their productivity (highest
first)
1 estuaries and tropical rain forest (highest)
2 temperate forest
3 agricultural land
4 temperate grassland
5 lakes and streams
6 coastal zone
7 tundra
8 open ocean
9 desert (lowest)
80
Ecological Notes
In order to be productive and have a lot of living material
standing around (biomass) an ecosystem has to have 4
basic necessities for plant life to thrive (if there are
enough plants the ecosystem will also support a lot of
animals) The four things are
1 Sunlight
2 Nutrients
3 Warm temperatures
4 Water
81
Biomes Video
82
Take-Home Message
bull Biomes are the major ecological communities of earth
characterized mostly by the vegetation present
bull Different biomes result from differences in temperature
and precipitation and the extent to which they vary from
season to season
83
Challenge Question
bull Terrestrial biomes are determined by the temperature
and precipitation amounts as well as whether those
factors are constant or vary by season
bull By contrast how are aquatic biomes determined
84
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy flows from producers to
consumers
85
86
87
First Stop Primary Producers
bull ecosystem producers or consumers
bull primary producers plants algae (some) bacteria
bull convert light energy from sun into chemical energy
through photosynthesis
bull chemical energy = food
bull consumers eat or absorb their food
bull energy stored in chemical bonds of carbohydrate
protein and lipid molecules is captured and
harnessed for consumersrsquo own movement
reproduction and growth
88
Food Chain
89
Food Web
90
Food Web
91
Food Chains amp Food Webs
bull A change in one link in a food chain will affect the other
links
bull The table on the next slide gives one example of a food
chain and the trophic levels represented in it
92
Food Chains amp Food Webs
93
GRASS
GRASSHOPPER
TOAD
SNAKE
HAWK
BACTERIA
IN GENERAL
AUTOTROPHS
(PRODUCERS)
HERBIVORES
(PRIMARY
CONSUMERS)
CARNIVORES
(2 3 ETC)
DECOMPOSERS
94
Chain Reaction Game
95
Energy Flows through a Food Web
bull Losses at every ldquosteprdquo in a food chain
bull Inefficiency of energy transfers
96
Energy flow through a food chain
Energy flow refers to the way that energy is transformed through
a food chain (pictured here) containing a series of levels
including plants consumers predators and decomposers 97
Amount of energy available at each of the
four levels of an ecosystem
Ecological pyramids illustrate the amount of energy
available at each of the four levels of an ecosystem 98
Ecological Pyramid
99
A grasshopper eats a plant A mouse eats the
grasshopper A snake eats the mouse A hawk
could eat the snake or the mouse In this food
web how would we categorize the hawk
1 Producer
2 Primary consumer
3 Secondary consumer
4 Tertiary consumer
5 Quaternary consumer
6 4 and 5
100
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps
bull First it is converted to chemical energy in
photosynthesis
bull Herbivores then consume the primary producers the
herbivores are consumed by carnivores and the
carnivores in turn may be consumed by top carnivores
101
Take-home message
bull Detritivores and decomposers extract energy from
organic waste and the remains of organisms that have
died
bull At each step in a food chain some usable energy is lost
as heat
102
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy pyramids reveal the inefficiency of
food chains
103
Biomass
bull biomass total weight of all living organisms in a given
area
bull only about 10 of the plants in an ecosystem is
converted into biomass
bull Food Energy Pyramid
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
bull African savannas and grasslands sustain more species
of higher-order carnivores than any other terrestrial
ecosystem
104
105
Food Energy Pyramids
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
106
107
108
You go out to eat at a fancy restaurant You
have a salad salmon and for dessert ice
cream Which part of the meal was the most
energy efficient food for you to eat
1 Salad
2 Salmon
3 Ice cream
4 2 and 3
109
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps known as trophic levels
bull Energy pyramids reveal that the biomass of primary
producers in an ecosystem tends to be far greater than
the biomass of herbivores
bull The biomass transferred at each step along the food chain tends to be only about 10 of the biomass of the organisms being consumed due to energy lost in cellular respiration
bull As a consequence of this inefficiency food chains rarely exceed four levels
110
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Essential chemicals cycle through
ecosystems
111
Chemical Reservoirs
bull Each chemical is stored in a non-living part of the environment
bull Organisms acquire the chemical from the reservoir a non-living part of the environment
bull The chemical cycles through the food chain (biogeochemical cycles)
bull Eventually the chemical is returned to the reservoir
112
Hydrologic Cycle and the Florida Springs
bull Click here for a description of how falling rain feeds underground aquifers in Florida and forms springs
113
The Most Important Chemical Cycles
1) Carbon
2) Nitrogen
3) Phosphorus
4) Sulfur
114
115
The
Carbon
Cycle
116
The Carbon Cycle
Keeping Up With Carbon
NASA video provides key information on the carbon cycle
117
118
Carbon Cycle Game
Fossil Fuels
bull created when large numbers of organisms die and are buried in sediment lacking oxygen
bull In absence of oxygen at high pressures and after very long periods of time organic remains are ultimately transformed into coal oil and natural gas
bull burning coal oil and natural gas releases large amounts of carbon dioxide
bull increases average CO2 concentration in the atmosphere
bull current level of CO2 in the atmosphere is the highest it has been in almost half a million years
119
Global CO2 levels are rising in
general but they also exhibit a
sharp rise and fall within each
year ndash why
120
121
The Nitrogen Cycle
122
The Nitrogen Cycle
Fertilizers
bull Because it is necessary for the production of every plant
protein and because all nitrogen must first be made
usable by bacteria plant growth is often limited by
nitrogen levels in the soil
bull For this reason most fertilizers contain nitrogen in a
form usable by plants
123
124
125
126
127
Oxygen reduction downstream of a source of
organic pollution
128
Algal growth and eutrophication in an Australian
outback waterway
129
Sulfur Cycle
bull component of protein
bull cycles in both a gas and sedimentary cycle
bull source earths crust
bull enters the atmosphere as hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
during fossil fuel combustion volcanic eruptions
gas exchange at ocean surfaces decomposition
130
Sulfur Cycle
bull H2S is immediately oxidized to sulfur dioxide (SO2)
bull SO2 + water vapor H2SO4 (falls to earth in rain)
bull sulfur in soluble form is taken up by plant roots
incorporated into amino acids such as cysteine
bull travels through food chain
bull eventually released through decomposition
131
How is carbon recycled back to the
atmosphere in the carbon cycle
1 It is ldquofixedrdquo by bacteria
2 It is a product of cellular respiration
3 Burning of fossil fuels
4 2 and 3
5 All of the above
132
Why do commercial fertilizers usually
contain usable forms of nitrogen and
phosphorous
1 These chemicals are not efficiently recycled in
the soil
2 Nitrogen and phosphorous need to be ldquofixedrdquo
by bacteria or the plant
3 Nitrogen and phosphorous are found at high
levels in the atmosphere but not in the soil
4 Nitrogen and phosphorous only enter the soil
through erosion
133
Take-home message
bull Chemicals essential to lifemdashincluding carbon nitrogen and phosphorusmdashcycle through ecosystems
bull They are usually captured from the atmosphere soil or water by growing organisms passed from one trophic level to the next as organisms eat other organisms and returned to the environment through respiration decomposition and erosion
bull These cycles can be disrupted as human activities significantly increase the amounts of the chemicals utilized or released to the environment
134
Symbiotic Relationships
bull Symbiosis close relationship between organisms of
two different species
bull At least one participant gains some sort of benefit
(usually nutritional)
bull Types of symbiosis
bull Parasitism
bull Commensalism
bull Mutualism
bull Predation
135
Symbiotic Relationships in the
Ocean
bull Click here for an explanation of the
relationships of marine animals
including sharks rays and various
fishes
136
Parasitism bull Parasite derives nutrition from the host
bull This harms the host but a true parasite does
not usually kill its host (directly)
137
Ectoparasites
Remain outside the host
Ticks fleas leeches
138
Endoparasites
Live inside the hostrsquos body
Tapeworms malarial parasites
139
Parasite Transmission
bull Many parasites live on or in a single organism
bull Some will alternate between 2 or more host species
bull Vertical transmission ndash from mother offspring
bull Horizontal transmission ndash between members of a
population
bull Direct contact (head lice)
bull Vectors (mosquitos)
140
141
Commensalism
bull Neither species is totally dependent on the other
bull One benefits ndash no effect on the other
bull Feeding or protection
bull Porcelain anemone crabs and anemones
142
Mutualism
bull Both species benefit
bull Food or shelter
bull Examples
bull Plants and microbes (rhizobium in root nodules)
bull Plants and fungi (orchids and mycorrhizae)
bull Protists and fungi (lichen)
bull Plants and insects (pollination)
bull Animals and bacteria (ruminants)
bull Animals and other animals (crocodiles and
plover birds)
143
Mutualism shrimp and moray
Cleaner shrimp cleaning a zebra moray eel Mutualistic
relationships such as these promote the well-being of the
host fishes and provide food for those that do the cleaning 144
Rhizobium
Rhizobium in root nodules of certain plants convert
nitrogen in soil to usable form
145
Orchid Mycorrhizae
Fungi aid the plant in the uptake of nutrients
Fungi ingest some of the food from plant
photosynthesis 146
Lichen
Most of the lichen is composed of fungal filaments
but living among the filaments are algal cells
usually from a green alga or a cyanobacterium
The lichen fungus provides its partner(s) a benefit
(protection) and gains nutrients in return 147
Ruminants
Ruminants are characterized by their four-chambered
stomach and cud-chewing behavior Cud is a food bolus
that is regurgitated rechewed and reswallowed The
rumen is a large fermentation vat containing billions of
microorganisms including bacteria and protozoa which
allow ruminants to digest fibrous feeds such as grass and
hay that other animals cannot efficiently utilize 148
Crocodiles amp
Plover Birds
The bird gets into the crocodiles mouth and picks out
the tiny bits of food stuck in his teeth then eats it (the
tiny bits)
This cleans the crocodiles teeth and keeps his mouth
fresh and free from infections 149
Predation
bull Consumption of one living organism by
another
bull Predators must have offensive strategies
bull ways of finding catching and eating
their prey
bull Prey organisms must have defensive
strategies
bull ways of avoiding or discouraging this
activity
150
Predation
bull Encompasses all levels within an
ecological food chainweb
bull plant-herbivore systems
bull herbivore-carnivore systems
bull three-way interactions of
interdependent plant-herbivore-
carnivore systems
151
This goshawk is the tertiary consumer in his ecosystem
and the mouse in his beak is the secondary consumer
Beneath the mouse on the ecological pyramid lies his
foodsource likely a worm which fed on the primary
producer leafy plants 152
Ecosystem of Life in Floridas
Springs
bull Click here for a close-up look of life
in Floridas springs and the various
predator-prey interactions there
153
5
What is an Ecosystem
bull The biotic environment consists of all the living
organisms within an area and is often referred to as
a community
bull The abiotic (aka non-living or physical) environment
often referred to as the organismsrsquo habitat consists of
bull the chemical resources of the soil water and air
such as carbon nitrogen and phosphorus
bull the physical conditions such as the temperature
salinity (salt level) moisture humidity and energy
sources
6
7
Soil erosion on a
trail in the
Adirondack
mountains
Which scenario below exemplifies an
ecosystem
1 A group of organisms of the same species living in the same place at the same time
2 Different species interacting together at the same place and time
3 Different species interacting with each other at the same time in a desert
4 A smaller species living on a larger species in a mutually beneficial relationship
8
Take-Home Message
bull An ecosystem is all of the living organisms in a habitat
as well as the physical environment
bull Ecosystems are found not just in obvious places such as
ponds deserts and tropical rainforests but also in some
unexpected places like the digestive tracts of organisms
or the shell of a beetle
9
Challenge Question
bull An ecosystem is made of two components the biotic
environment or community consisting of the living
organisms within an area and the physical environment
or the habitat in which these organisms live
bull A habitat consists of its chemical resources of the soil
water and air as well as its physical conditions
bull List some of the aspects that make up the physical
conditions of a habitat
10
Ecosystems have living and non-
living components
A variety of biomes occur around the
world each determined by temperature
and rainfall
11
A variety of biomes occur around the world
each determined by temperature and
rainfall
bull What is the average temperature
bull What is the average rainfall (or other precipitation)
bull Is the temperature relatively constant or does it vary
seasonally
bull Is the rainfall relatively constant or does it vary
seasonally
12
13
14
15
Tropical Rain Forest
bull forest of tall trees in a region of year-round warmth
bull ~ 125 to 660 cm yearly rainfall
bull temperature ranges from 20 degC - 34 degC
bull average humidity 77 - 88
bull rainfall gt 250 cmyear (may be a brief dry season)
bull almost all rain forests lie near the equator
16
Tropical Rain Forest
bull lt 6 of Earths land surface
bull gt 50 of all the worlds plant and animal species live in
tropical rain forests
bull produce ~40 of Earths oxygen
bull ~70 of the plants in the rainforest are trees
bull ~25 of all the medicines we use come from rainforest
plants
17
Tropical Rain Forest
18
Indicator Species
bull any biological species that defines a trait
or characteristic of the environment
bull may delineate an ecoregion
bull could indicate an environmental condition such as
a disease outbreak pollution species competition
or climate change
bull can be among most sensitive species in a region
sometimes act as early warning to monitoring biologists
19
Tropical Rain Forest ndash Indicator Plant Species
20
Tropical Rain Forest ndash Indicator Animal Species Gorilla
Gorilla gorilla
Orangutan (Pongo pygmaeus)
Spider Monkey
Ateles geoffreyi
21
Tropical Rain Forest ndash Indicator Animal Species 2-toed sloth
Cholepus
hoffmanni
Three-toed Sloth (Bradypus
variegatus) with baby - Costa Rica 22
Tropical Rain Forest ndash Indicator Animal Species
Collared Aracari
Pteroglossus torquatus
23
Grasslands (Prairie)
bull 2 different types
bull tall-grass humid amp very wet
bull short-grass dry hotter summers and colder winters
than the tall-grass prairie
bull found in middle latitudes in the interiors of continents
bull either moist continental climates or dry subtropical
climates
bull Argentina ndash grasslands are known as pampas
bull Russia ndash steppes
bull grasslands in southern hemisphere tend to get more
precipitation than those in the northern hemisphere
24
Grasslands (Prairie)
25
Grasslands (Prairie)
bull temperatures range from -40deg F 70deg F
bull growing season and a dormant season
bull growing season is when there is no frost and plants
can grow (which lasts from 100 to 175 days)
bull tropical and subtropical grasslands the length of
the growing season is determined by how long the
rainy season lasts
bull temperate grasslands the length of the growing
season is determined by temperature (ge 50deg F)
bull dormant (not growing) season nothing can grow
because its too cold
26
Grasslands (Prairie)
bull average rainfall per year ranges from 10 - 30 inches
bull tropical and sub-tropical grasslands average rainfall
per year ranges from 25 - 60 inches
bull amount of rainfall is very important in determining which
areas are grasslands
bull hard for trees to compete with grasses in places
where the uppers layers of soil are moist during part
of the year but where deeper layer of soil are always
dry
27
Grasslands (Prairie)
28
Grasslandsndash Indicator Plant Species Old Field Habitat Ohio
Grassland North Dakota
Ironweed
(Vernonia sp) with
Hedge Bindweed
Vine (Calystegia sepium) 29
Grasslandsndash Indicator Plant Species
Ironweed (Vernonia sp)
Joe Pye Weed
Eupatorium purpureum
30
Grasslands ndash Indicator Plant Species
Common Teasel
Dipsacus fullonum Queen Annes Lace (Daucus carota)
31
Grasslands ndash Indicator Animal Species
Bison (Bison bison) on the range
Theodore Roosevelt National Park North
Dakota
32
Grasslands ndash Indicator Animal Species
Przewalskis horse (Equus caballus
przewalskii) The Wilds Ohio
33
Grasslands ndash Indicator Animal Species
34
Taiga
bull Russian word for forest
bull largest biome in the world
bull Eurasia North America
bull located just below the tundra biome
bull many coniferous trees
bull aka boreal forest Boreal was the Greek goddess of the
North Wind
35
Taiga
bull winter temperature range is -54 to -1deg C (-65 to 30deg F)
bull summer -7deg C (20deg F) to 21deg C (70deg F)
bull summers are very short (50 - 100 frost free days)
bull average yearly precipitation 30 - 85 cm (12 - 33 in)
bull main seasons are winter and summer
bull spring and autumn are very short
bull weather is either hot and humid or very cold
36
Taiga
37
Taiga ndash Indicator Plant Species
Balsam Fir
Abies balsamea
Black Spruce
Picea mariana
38
Taiga ndash Indicator Plant Species
Jack Pine
Pinus banksiana
Paper Birch
Betula papyrifera
White Poplar
Populus alba
39
Taiga ndash Indicator Animal Species
American Black Bear
Ursus americanus
Bald Eagle
Haliaeetus leucocephalus 40
Taiga ndash Indicator Animal Species
Long-eared Owl
Aiso otus
Snowshoe Rabbit
Lepus americanus
41
Desert
bull cover about one fifth of Earths land surface
bull hot and dry near Tropic of CancerTropic of
Capricorn
bull cold near the Arctic
bull temperature
bull hot amp dry ~ 25deg C to ~ 49deg C
bull cold -2 to 4deg C (winter) 21 to 26deg C (summer)
bull precipitation
bull hot amp dry very little rainfall andor concentrated
rainfall in short periods between long rainless periods
(lt 15 cmyear)
bull cold 15 - 26 cmyear 42
Desert
43
Desert ndash Indicator Plant Species
44
Desert ndash Indicator Plant Species
Saguaro Cactus
Carnegiea gigantea
Fishhook Cactus
Mammillaria microcarpa
45
Desert ndash Indicator Plant Species
Trichomes
46
Desert ndash Indicator Animal Species
Zebratail Lizard - Callisaurus draconides
47
Desert ndash Indicator Animal Species
Rock hyrax (Procavia capensis) 48
Desert ndash Indicator Animal Species
Bactrian Camel Camelus bactrianus
49
Temperate Deciduous Forest
bull temperature 0 - 20 C
bull precipitation ~ 50 ndash 200 cmyear
50
Temperate Deciduous Forest
51
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Plant Species
Oaks (Quercus sp)
Dutchmans-Breeches
Dicentra cucullaria 52
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Plant Species
Sassafras
Sassafras albidum
Redbud
Cercis canadensis
53
Temperate Deciduous Forest ndash Succession
bull orderly succession of communities to a climax
community (biome)
bull two main types of succession
bull primary succession begins with bare rock exposed
by geologic activity
bull secondary succession begins on soil from which
previous community has been removed (by fire
agriculture etc)
bull secondary succession can proceed much faster
because the soil has been prepared by the
previous community
54
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
American Toad
Bufo americanus
Box Turtle
55
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
Eastern Chipmunk
Tamias striatus
Eastern Gray Squirrel
Sciurus carolinensis
56
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
Yellow-breasted chat
Icteria virens 57
Tundra
bull annual average temperature lt 5 C
bull precipitation (mostly in the form of snow) lt 100 mmyear
bull summer is brief
bull temperatures above freezing last only a few weeks at
most
bull warm summer coincides with periods of almost 24
hour daylight so plant growth can be explosive
58
Tundra
Anaktuvuk Pass Alaska
59
Tundra ndash Indicator Plant Species
Arctic Tundra Wildflowers - Alaska
60
Tundra ndash Indicator Plant Species
Lichen
Polytrichum Moss
(photographed in Ohio not on the
Tundra)
61
Tundra ndash Indicator Animal Species
Reindeer
Rangifer tarandus
62
Tundra ndash Indicator Animal Species
Caribou On Autumn Tundra Denali National Park Alaska
63
Savanna
bull rolling grassland scattered with shrubs and isolated trees
bull found between a tropical rainforest and desert biome
bull not enough rain falls on a savanna to support forests
bull found in a wide band on either side of the equator on
the edges of tropical rainforests
bull warm temperature year round
bull very long dry season (winter) ~ 10 cm rain none at all
from Dec - Feb
bull very wet season (summer) ~ 35-65 cm rain
64
Savanna
65
Savanna ndash Indicator Plant Species
Baobab
Adansonia digitata Umbrella Thorn Acacia
Acacia tortillis
66
Savanna ndash Indicator Animal Species
Savanna Elephant
Loxodonta africana
Black Mamba
Dendroaspis polylepis
Lion
Panthera leo
67
Chaparral
bull winter mild and moist but not rainy
bull summer very hot and dry
bull annual temperature range between -1deg and 38deg C
bull annual precipitation ~ 25-45 cm mostly in the winter
68
Chaparral
69
Chaparral ndash Indicator Plant Species
Blue Oak
Quercus douglasii
Common Sagebrush
Artemisia tridentata
Olive Tree
Olea europaea
70
Chaparral ndash Indicator Animal Species
Black-tailed Jackrabbit
Lepus californicus Golden Jackal
Canis aureus
Spotted Skunk
Spilogale gracilis
71
The Freshwater Biome
bull low salt concentration mdash usually less than 1
bull plants and animals in freshwater regions are adjusted to
the low salt content and would not be able to survive in
areas of high salt concentration (ie ocean)
bull 3 different types of freshwater regions
bull ponds and lakes
bull streams and rivers
bull wetlands
72
The Freshwater Biome ndash Ponds and Lakes
From left a view across Manzanita Lake toward Mt Lassen California a
forest pond near Donnelly Idaho a Great Blue Heron Paranagat Lake
southeastern Nevada
73
The Freshwater Biome ndash Streams and
Rivers
From left McArthur-Burney Falls State Park California trout Green
River Utah Brooks River Alaska
74
The Freshwater Biome - Wetlands
From left Pescadero Marsh California coastal marsh at Umpqua
Dunes Oregon trees and bogs on Esther Island Alaska
75
The Marine Biome
bull cover about three-fourths of the Earths surface
bull marine algae supply much of the worlds oxygen supply
and take in a huge amount of atmospheric carbon
dioxide
bull evaporation of the seawater provides rainwater for the
land
bull 3 different types of marine regions
bull oceans
bull coral reefs
bull estuaries
76
The Marine Biome - Oceans
From left mussels worms and a spider crab at a hydrocarbon seep
community in the Gulf of Mexico a sea fan and brain coral in the Florida
Keys National Marine Sanctuary a school of Atlantic amberjack off North
Carolina
77
The Marine Biome ndash Coral Reefs
From left reef life in the Gulf of Aqaba Red Sea a reef at Fanning
Island atoll in the central Pacific a reef in the Florida Keys National
Marine Sanctuary
78
The Marine Biome - Estuaries
From left Mangrove roots south Florida wetlands and tidal streams
in the Ashe Island area ACE Basin National Estuarine Research
Reserve South Carolina a salt marsh in Winyah Bay National
Estuarine Research Reserve South Carolina
79
Ecological Notes
These are the biomes in order of their productivity (highest
first)
1 estuaries and tropical rain forest (highest)
2 temperate forest
3 agricultural land
4 temperate grassland
5 lakes and streams
6 coastal zone
7 tundra
8 open ocean
9 desert (lowest)
80
Ecological Notes
In order to be productive and have a lot of living material
standing around (biomass) an ecosystem has to have 4
basic necessities for plant life to thrive (if there are
enough plants the ecosystem will also support a lot of
animals) The four things are
1 Sunlight
2 Nutrients
3 Warm temperatures
4 Water
81
Biomes Video
82
Take-Home Message
bull Biomes are the major ecological communities of earth
characterized mostly by the vegetation present
bull Different biomes result from differences in temperature
and precipitation and the extent to which they vary from
season to season
83
Challenge Question
bull Terrestrial biomes are determined by the temperature
and precipitation amounts as well as whether those
factors are constant or vary by season
bull By contrast how are aquatic biomes determined
84
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy flows from producers to
consumers
85
86
87
First Stop Primary Producers
bull ecosystem producers or consumers
bull primary producers plants algae (some) bacteria
bull convert light energy from sun into chemical energy
through photosynthesis
bull chemical energy = food
bull consumers eat or absorb their food
bull energy stored in chemical bonds of carbohydrate
protein and lipid molecules is captured and
harnessed for consumersrsquo own movement
reproduction and growth
88
Food Chain
89
Food Web
90
Food Web
91
Food Chains amp Food Webs
bull A change in one link in a food chain will affect the other
links
bull The table on the next slide gives one example of a food
chain and the trophic levels represented in it
92
Food Chains amp Food Webs
93
GRASS
GRASSHOPPER
TOAD
SNAKE
HAWK
BACTERIA
IN GENERAL
AUTOTROPHS
(PRODUCERS)
HERBIVORES
(PRIMARY
CONSUMERS)
CARNIVORES
(2 3 ETC)
DECOMPOSERS
94
Chain Reaction Game
95
Energy Flows through a Food Web
bull Losses at every ldquosteprdquo in a food chain
bull Inefficiency of energy transfers
96
Energy flow through a food chain
Energy flow refers to the way that energy is transformed through
a food chain (pictured here) containing a series of levels
including plants consumers predators and decomposers 97
Amount of energy available at each of the
four levels of an ecosystem
Ecological pyramids illustrate the amount of energy
available at each of the four levels of an ecosystem 98
Ecological Pyramid
99
A grasshopper eats a plant A mouse eats the
grasshopper A snake eats the mouse A hawk
could eat the snake or the mouse In this food
web how would we categorize the hawk
1 Producer
2 Primary consumer
3 Secondary consumer
4 Tertiary consumer
5 Quaternary consumer
6 4 and 5
100
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps
bull First it is converted to chemical energy in
photosynthesis
bull Herbivores then consume the primary producers the
herbivores are consumed by carnivores and the
carnivores in turn may be consumed by top carnivores
101
Take-home message
bull Detritivores and decomposers extract energy from
organic waste and the remains of organisms that have
died
bull At each step in a food chain some usable energy is lost
as heat
102
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy pyramids reveal the inefficiency of
food chains
103
Biomass
bull biomass total weight of all living organisms in a given
area
bull only about 10 of the plants in an ecosystem is
converted into biomass
bull Food Energy Pyramid
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
bull African savannas and grasslands sustain more species
of higher-order carnivores than any other terrestrial
ecosystem
104
105
Food Energy Pyramids
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
106
107
108
You go out to eat at a fancy restaurant You
have a salad salmon and for dessert ice
cream Which part of the meal was the most
energy efficient food for you to eat
1 Salad
2 Salmon
3 Ice cream
4 2 and 3
109
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps known as trophic levels
bull Energy pyramids reveal that the biomass of primary
producers in an ecosystem tends to be far greater than
the biomass of herbivores
bull The biomass transferred at each step along the food chain tends to be only about 10 of the biomass of the organisms being consumed due to energy lost in cellular respiration
bull As a consequence of this inefficiency food chains rarely exceed four levels
110
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Essential chemicals cycle through
ecosystems
111
Chemical Reservoirs
bull Each chemical is stored in a non-living part of the environment
bull Organisms acquire the chemical from the reservoir a non-living part of the environment
bull The chemical cycles through the food chain (biogeochemical cycles)
bull Eventually the chemical is returned to the reservoir
112
Hydrologic Cycle and the Florida Springs
bull Click here for a description of how falling rain feeds underground aquifers in Florida and forms springs
113
The Most Important Chemical Cycles
1) Carbon
2) Nitrogen
3) Phosphorus
4) Sulfur
114
115
The
Carbon
Cycle
116
The Carbon Cycle
Keeping Up With Carbon
NASA video provides key information on the carbon cycle
117
118
Carbon Cycle Game
Fossil Fuels
bull created when large numbers of organisms die and are buried in sediment lacking oxygen
bull In absence of oxygen at high pressures and after very long periods of time organic remains are ultimately transformed into coal oil and natural gas
bull burning coal oil and natural gas releases large amounts of carbon dioxide
bull increases average CO2 concentration in the atmosphere
bull current level of CO2 in the atmosphere is the highest it has been in almost half a million years
119
Global CO2 levels are rising in
general but they also exhibit a
sharp rise and fall within each
year ndash why
120
121
The Nitrogen Cycle
122
The Nitrogen Cycle
Fertilizers
bull Because it is necessary for the production of every plant
protein and because all nitrogen must first be made
usable by bacteria plant growth is often limited by
nitrogen levels in the soil
bull For this reason most fertilizers contain nitrogen in a
form usable by plants
123
124
125
126
127
Oxygen reduction downstream of a source of
organic pollution
128
Algal growth and eutrophication in an Australian
outback waterway
129
Sulfur Cycle
bull component of protein
bull cycles in both a gas and sedimentary cycle
bull source earths crust
bull enters the atmosphere as hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
during fossil fuel combustion volcanic eruptions
gas exchange at ocean surfaces decomposition
130
Sulfur Cycle
bull H2S is immediately oxidized to sulfur dioxide (SO2)
bull SO2 + water vapor H2SO4 (falls to earth in rain)
bull sulfur in soluble form is taken up by plant roots
incorporated into amino acids such as cysteine
bull travels through food chain
bull eventually released through decomposition
131
How is carbon recycled back to the
atmosphere in the carbon cycle
1 It is ldquofixedrdquo by bacteria
2 It is a product of cellular respiration
3 Burning of fossil fuels
4 2 and 3
5 All of the above
132
Why do commercial fertilizers usually
contain usable forms of nitrogen and
phosphorous
1 These chemicals are not efficiently recycled in
the soil
2 Nitrogen and phosphorous need to be ldquofixedrdquo
by bacteria or the plant
3 Nitrogen and phosphorous are found at high
levels in the atmosphere but not in the soil
4 Nitrogen and phosphorous only enter the soil
through erosion
133
Take-home message
bull Chemicals essential to lifemdashincluding carbon nitrogen and phosphorusmdashcycle through ecosystems
bull They are usually captured from the atmosphere soil or water by growing organisms passed from one trophic level to the next as organisms eat other organisms and returned to the environment through respiration decomposition and erosion
bull These cycles can be disrupted as human activities significantly increase the amounts of the chemicals utilized or released to the environment
134
Symbiotic Relationships
bull Symbiosis close relationship between organisms of
two different species
bull At least one participant gains some sort of benefit
(usually nutritional)
bull Types of symbiosis
bull Parasitism
bull Commensalism
bull Mutualism
bull Predation
135
Symbiotic Relationships in the
Ocean
bull Click here for an explanation of the
relationships of marine animals
including sharks rays and various
fishes
136
Parasitism bull Parasite derives nutrition from the host
bull This harms the host but a true parasite does
not usually kill its host (directly)
137
Ectoparasites
Remain outside the host
Ticks fleas leeches
138
Endoparasites
Live inside the hostrsquos body
Tapeworms malarial parasites
139
Parasite Transmission
bull Many parasites live on or in a single organism
bull Some will alternate between 2 or more host species
bull Vertical transmission ndash from mother offspring
bull Horizontal transmission ndash between members of a
population
bull Direct contact (head lice)
bull Vectors (mosquitos)
140
141
Commensalism
bull Neither species is totally dependent on the other
bull One benefits ndash no effect on the other
bull Feeding or protection
bull Porcelain anemone crabs and anemones
142
Mutualism
bull Both species benefit
bull Food or shelter
bull Examples
bull Plants and microbes (rhizobium in root nodules)
bull Plants and fungi (orchids and mycorrhizae)
bull Protists and fungi (lichen)
bull Plants and insects (pollination)
bull Animals and bacteria (ruminants)
bull Animals and other animals (crocodiles and
plover birds)
143
Mutualism shrimp and moray
Cleaner shrimp cleaning a zebra moray eel Mutualistic
relationships such as these promote the well-being of the
host fishes and provide food for those that do the cleaning 144
Rhizobium
Rhizobium in root nodules of certain plants convert
nitrogen in soil to usable form
145
Orchid Mycorrhizae
Fungi aid the plant in the uptake of nutrients
Fungi ingest some of the food from plant
photosynthesis 146
Lichen
Most of the lichen is composed of fungal filaments
but living among the filaments are algal cells
usually from a green alga or a cyanobacterium
The lichen fungus provides its partner(s) a benefit
(protection) and gains nutrients in return 147
Ruminants
Ruminants are characterized by their four-chambered
stomach and cud-chewing behavior Cud is a food bolus
that is regurgitated rechewed and reswallowed The
rumen is a large fermentation vat containing billions of
microorganisms including bacteria and protozoa which
allow ruminants to digest fibrous feeds such as grass and
hay that other animals cannot efficiently utilize 148
Crocodiles amp
Plover Birds
The bird gets into the crocodiles mouth and picks out
the tiny bits of food stuck in his teeth then eats it (the
tiny bits)
This cleans the crocodiles teeth and keeps his mouth
fresh and free from infections 149
Predation
bull Consumption of one living organism by
another
bull Predators must have offensive strategies
bull ways of finding catching and eating
their prey
bull Prey organisms must have defensive
strategies
bull ways of avoiding or discouraging this
activity
150
Predation
bull Encompasses all levels within an
ecological food chainweb
bull plant-herbivore systems
bull herbivore-carnivore systems
bull three-way interactions of
interdependent plant-herbivore-
carnivore systems
151
This goshawk is the tertiary consumer in his ecosystem
and the mouse in his beak is the secondary consumer
Beneath the mouse on the ecological pyramid lies his
foodsource likely a worm which fed on the primary
producer leafy plants 152
Ecosystem of Life in Floridas
Springs
bull Click here for a close-up look of life
in Floridas springs and the various
predator-prey interactions there
153
What is an Ecosystem
bull The biotic environment consists of all the living
organisms within an area and is often referred to as
a community
bull The abiotic (aka non-living or physical) environment
often referred to as the organismsrsquo habitat consists of
bull the chemical resources of the soil water and air
such as carbon nitrogen and phosphorus
bull the physical conditions such as the temperature
salinity (salt level) moisture humidity and energy
sources
6
7
Soil erosion on a
trail in the
Adirondack
mountains
Which scenario below exemplifies an
ecosystem
1 A group of organisms of the same species living in the same place at the same time
2 Different species interacting together at the same place and time
3 Different species interacting with each other at the same time in a desert
4 A smaller species living on a larger species in a mutually beneficial relationship
8
Take-Home Message
bull An ecosystem is all of the living organisms in a habitat
as well as the physical environment
bull Ecosystems are found not just in obvious places such as
ponds deserts and tropical rainforests but also in some
unexpected places like the digestive tracts of organisms
or the shell of a beetle
9
Challenge Question
bull An ecosystem is made of two components the biotic
environment or community consisting of the living
organisms within an area and the physical environment
or the habitat in which these organisms live
bull A habitat consists of its chemical resources of the soil
water and air as well as its physical conditions
bull List some of the aspects that make up the physical
conditions of a habitat
10
Ecosystems have living and non-
living components
A variety of biomes occur around the
world each determined by temperature
and rainfall
11
A variety of biomes occur around the world
each determined by temperature and
rainfall
bull What is the average temperature
bull What is the average rainfall (or other precipitation)
bull Is the temperature relatively constant or does it vary
seasonally
bull Is the rainfall relatively constant or does it vary
seasonally
12
13
14
15
Tropical Rain Forest
bull forest of tall trees in a region of year-round warmth
bull ~ 125 to 660 cm yearly rainfall
bull temperature ranges from 20 degC - 34 degC
bull average humidity 77 - 88
bull rainfall gt 250 cmyear (may be a brief dry season)
bull almost all rain forests lie near the equator
16
Tropical Rain Forest
bull lt 6 of Earths land surface
bull gt 50 of all the worlds plant and animal species live in
tropical rain forests
bull produce ~40 of Earths oxygen
bull ~70 of the plants in the rainforest are trees
bull ~25 of all the medicines we use come from rainforest
plants
17
Tropical Rain Forest
18
Indicator Species
bull any biological species that defines a trait
or characteristic of the environment
bull may delineate an ecoregion
bull could indicate an environmental condition such as
a disease outbreak pollution species competition
or climate change
bull can be among most sensitive species in a region
sometimes act as early warning to monitoring biologists
19
Tropical Rain Forest ndash Indicator Plant Species
20
Tropical Rain Forest ndash Indicator Animal Species Gorilla
Gorilla gorilla
Orangutan (Pongo pygmaeus)
Spider Monkey
Ateles geoffreyi
21
Tropical Rain Forest ndash Indicator Animal Species 2-toed sloth
Cholepus
hoffmanni
Three-toed Sloth (Bradypus
variegatus) with baby - Costa Rica 22
Tropical Rain Forest ndash Indicator Animal Species
Collared Aracari
Pteroglossus torquatus
23
Grasslands (Prairie)
bull 2 different types
bull tall-grass humid amp very wet
bull short-grass dry hotter summers and colder winters
than the tall-grass prairie
bull found in middle latitudes in the interiors of continents
bull either moist continental climates or dry subtropical
climates
bull Argentina ndash grasslands are known as pampas
bull Russia ndash steppes
bull grasslands in southern hemisphere tend to get more
precipitation than those in the northern hemisphere
24
Grasslands (Prairie)
25
Grasslands (Prairie)
bull temperatures range from -40deg F 70deg F
bull growing season and a dormant season
bull growing season is when there is no frost and plants
can grow (which lasts from 100 to 175 days)
bull tropical and subtropical grasslands the length of
the growing season is determined by how long the
rainy season lasts
bull temperate grasslands the length of the growing
season is determined by temperature (ge 50deg F)
bull dormant (not growing) season nothing can grow
because its too cold
26
Grasslands (Prairie)
bull average rainfall per year ranges from 10 - 30 inches
bull tropical and sub-tropical grasslands average rainfall
per year ranges from 25 - 60 inches
bull amount of rainfall is very important in determining which
areas are grasslands
bull hard for trees to compete with grasses in places
where the uppers layers of soil are moist during part
of the year but where deeper layer of soil are always
dry
27
Grasslands (Prairie)
28
Grasslandsndash Indicator Plant Species Old Field Habitat Ohio
Grassland North Dakota
Ironweed
(Vernonia sp) with
Hedge Bindweed
Vine (Calystegia sepium) 29
Grasslandsndash Indicator Plant Species
Ironweed (Vernonia sp)
Joe Pye Weed
Eupatorium purpureum
30
Grasslands ndash Indicator Plant Species
Common Teasel
Dipsacus fullonum Queen Annes Lace (Daucus carota)
31
Grasslands ndash Indicator Animal Species
Bison (Bison bison) on the range
Theodore Roosevelt National Park North
Dakota
32
Grasslands ndash Indicator Animal Species
Przewalskis horse (Equus caballus
przewalskii) The Wilds Ohio
33
Grasslands ndash Indicator Animal Species
34
Taiga
bull Russian word for forest
bull largest biome in the world
bull Eurasia North America
bull located just below the tundra biome
bull many coniferous trees
bull aka boreal forest Boreal was the Greek goddess of the
North Wind
35
Taiga
bull winter temperature range is -54 to -1deg C (-65 to 30deg F)
bull summer -7deg C (20deg F) to 21deg C (70deg F)
bull summers are very short (50 - 100 frost free days)
bull average yearly precipitation 30 - 85 cm (12 - 33 in)
bull main seasons are winter and summer
bull spring and autumn are very short
bull weather is either hot and humid or very cold
36
Taiga
37
Taiga ndash Indicator Plant Species
Balsam Fir
Abies balsamea
Black Spruce
Picea mariana
38
Taiga ndash Indicator Plant Species
Jack Pine
Pinus banksiana
Paper Birch
Betula papyrifera
White Poplar
Populus alba
39
Taiga ndash Indicator Animal Species
American Black Bear
Ursus americanus
Bald Eagle
Haliaeetus leucocephalus 40
Taiga ndash Indicator Animal Species
Long-eared Owl
Aiso otus
Snowshoe Rabbit
Lepus americanus
41
Desert
bull cover about one fifth of Earths land surface
bull hot and dry near Tropic of CancerTropic of
Capricorn
bull cold near the Arctic
bull temperature
bull hot amp dry ~ 25deg C to ~ 49deg C
bull cold -2 to 4deg C (winter) 21 to 26deg C (summer)
bull precipitation
bull hot amp dry very little rainfall andor concentrated
rainfall in short periods between long rainless periods
(lt 15 cmyear)
bull cold 15 - 26 cmyear 42
Desert
43
Desert ndash Indicator Plant Species
44
Desert ndash Indicator Plant Species
Saguaro Cactus
Carnegiea gigantea
Fishhook Cactus
Mammillaria microcarpa
45
Desert ndash Indicator Plant Species
Trichomes
46
Desert ndash Indicator Animal Species
Zebratail Lizard - Callisaurus draconides
47
Desert ndash Indicator Animal Species
Rock hyrax (Procavia capensis) 48
Desert ndash Indicator Animal Species
Bactrian Camel Camelus bactrianus
49
Temperate Deciduous Forest
bull temperature 0 - 20 C
bull precipitation ~ 50 ndash 200 cmyear
50
Temperate Deciduous Forest
51
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Plant Species
Oaks (Quercus sp)
Dutchmans-Breeches
Dicentra cucullaria 52
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Plant Species
Sassafras
Sassafras albidum
Redbud
Cercis canadensis
53
Temperate Deciduous Forest ndash Succession
bull orderly succession of communities to a climax
community (biome)
bull two main types of succession
bull primary succession begins with bare rock exposed
by geologic activity
bull secondary succession begins on soil from which
previous community has been removed (by fire
agriculture etc)
bull secondary succession can proceed much faster
because the soil has been prepared by the
previous community
54
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
American Toad
Bufo americanus
Box Turtle
55
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
Eastern Chipmunk
Tamias striatus
Eastern Gray Squirrel
Sciurus carolinensis
56
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
Yellow-breasted chat
Icteria virens 57
Tundra
bull annual average temperature lt 5 C
bull precipitation (mostly in the form of snow) lt 100 mmyear
bull summer is brief
bull temperatures above freezing last only a few weeks at
most
bull warm summer coincides with periods of almost 24
hour daylight so plant growth can be explosive
58
Tundra
Anaktuvuk Pass Alaska
59
Tundra ndash Indicator Plant Species
Arctic Tundra Wildflowers - Alaska
60
Tundra ndash Indicator Plant Species
Lichen
Polytrichum Moss
(photographed in Ohio not on the
Tundra)
61
Tundra ndash Indicator Animal Species
Reindeer
Rangifer tarandus
62
Tundra ndash Indicator Animal Species
Caribou On Autumn Tundra Denali National Park Alaska
63
Savanna
bull rolling grassland scattered with shrubs and isolated trees
bull found between a tropical rainforest and desert biome
bull not enough rain falls on a savanna to support forests
bull found in a wide band on either side of the equator on
the edges of tropical rainforests
bull warm temperature year round
bull very long dry season (winter) ~ 10 cm rain none at all
from Dec - Feb
bull very wet season (summer) ~ 35-65 cm rain
64
Savanna
65
Savanna ndash Indicator Plant Species
Baobab
Adansonia digitata Umbrella Thorn Acacia
Acacia tortillis
66
Savanna ndash Indicator Animal Species
Savanna Elephant
Loxodonta africana
Black Mamba
Dendroaspis polylepis
Lion
Panthera leo
67
Chaparral
bull winter mild and moist but not rainy
bull summer very hot and dry
bull annual temperature range between -1deg and 38deg C
bull annual precipitation ~ 25-45 cm mostly in the winter
68
Chaparral
69
Chaparral ndash Indicator Plant Species
Blue Oak
Quercus douglasii
Common Sagebrush
Artemisia tridentata
Olive Tree
Olea europaea
70
Chaparral ndash Indicator Animal Species
Black-tailed Jackrabbit
Lepus californicus Golden Jackal
Canis aureus
Spotted Skunk
Spilogale gracilis
71
The Freshwater Biome
bull low salt concentration mdash usually less than 1
bull plants and animals in freshwater regions are adjusted to
the low salt content and would not be able to survive in
areas of high salt concentration (ie ocean)
bull 3 different types of freshwater regions
bull ponds and lakes
bull streams and rivers
bull wetlands
72
The Freshwater Biome ndash Ponds and Lakes
From left a view across Manzanita Lake toward Mt Lassen California a
forest pond near Donnelly Idaho a Great Blue Heron Paranagat Lake
southeastern Nevada
73
The Freshwater Biome ndash Streams and
Rivers
From left McArthur-Burney Falls State Park California trout Green
River Utah Brooks River Alaska
74
The Freshwater Biome - Wetlands
From left Pescadero Marsh California coastal marsh at Umpqua
Dunes Oregon trees and bogs on Esther Island Alaska
75
The Marine Biome
bull cover about three-fourths of the Earths surface
bull marine algae supply much of the worlds oxygen supply
and take in a huge amount of atmospheric carbon
dioxide
bull evaporation of the seawater provides rainwater for the
land
bull 3 different types of marine regions
bull oceans
bull coral reefs
bull estuaries
76
The Marine Biome - Oceans
From left mussels worms and a spider crab at a hydrocarbon seep
community in the Gulf of Mexico a sea fan and brain coral in the Florida
Keys National Marine Sanctuary a school of Atlantic amberjack off North
Carolina
77
The Marine Biome ndash Coral Reefs
From left reef life in the Gulf of Aqaba Red Sea a reef at Fanning
Island atoll in the central Pacific a reef in the Florida Keys National
Marine Sanctuary
78
The Marine Biome - Estuaries
From left Mangrove roots south Florida wetlands and tidal streams
in the Ashe Island area ACE Basin National Estuarine Research
Reserve South Carolina a salt marsh in Winyah Bay National
Estuarine Research Reserve South Carolina
79
Ecological Notes
These are the biomes in order of their productivity (highest
first)
1 estuaries and tropical rain forest (highest)
2 temperate forest
3 agricultural land
4 temperate grassland
5 lakes and streams
6 coastal zone
7 tundra
8 open ocean
9 desert (lowest)
80
Ecological Notes
In order to be productive and have a lot of living material
standing around (biomass) an ecosystem has to have 4
basic necessities for plant life to thrive (if there are
enough plants the ecosystem will also support a lot of
animals) The four things are
1 Sunlight
2 Nutrients
3 Warm temperatures
4 Water
81
Biomes Video
82
Take-Home Message
bull Biomes are the major ecological communities of earth
characterized mostly by the vegetation present
bull Different biomes result from differences in temperature
and precipitation and the extent to which they vary from
season to season
83
Challenge Question
bull Terrestrial biomes are determined by the temperature
and precipitation amounts as well as whether those
factors are constant or vary by season
bull By contrast how are aquatic biomes determined
84
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy flows from producers to
consumers
85
86
87
First Stop Primary Producers
bull ecosystem producers or consumers
bull primary producers plants algae (some) bacteria
bull convert light energy from sun into chemical energy
through photosynthesis
bull chemical energy = food
bull consumers eat or absorb their food
bull energy stored in chemical bonds of carbohydrate
protein and lipid molecules is captured and
harnessed for consumersrsquo own movement
reproduction and growth
88
Food Chain
89
Food Web
90
Food Web
91
Food Chains amp Food Webs
bull A change in one link in a food chain will affect the other
links
bull The table on the next slide gives one example of a food
chain and the trophic levels represented in it
92
Food Chains amp Food Webs
93
GRASS
GRASSHOPPER
TOAD
SNAKE
HAWK
BACTERIA
IN GENERAL
AUTOTROPHS
(PRODUCERS)
HERBIVORES
(PRIMARY
CONSUMERS)
CARNIVORES
(2 3 ETC)
DECOMPOSERS
94
Chain Reaction Game
95
Energy Flows through a Food Web
bull Losses at every ldquosteprdquo in a food chain
bull Inefficiency of energy transfers
96
Energy flow through a food chain
Energy flow refers to the way that energy is transformed through
a food chain (pictured here) containing a series of levels
including plants consumers predators and decomposers 97
Amount of energy available at each of the
four levels of an ecosystem
Ecological pyramids illustrate the amount of energy
available at each of the four levels of an ecosystem 98
Ecological Pyramid
99
A grasshopper eats a plant A mouse eats the
grasshopper A snake eats the mouse A hawk
could eat the snake or the mouse In this food
web how would we categorize the hawk
1 Producer
2 Primary consumer
3 Secondary consumer
4 Tertiary consumer
5 Quaternary consumer
6 4 and 5
100
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps
bull First it is converted to chemical energy in
photosynthesis
bull Herbivores then consume the primary producers the
herbivores are consumed by carnivores and the
carnivores in turn may be consumed by top carnivores
101
Take-home message
bull Detritivores and decomposers extract energy from
organic waste and the remains of organisms that have
died
bull At each step in a food chain some usable energy is lost
as heat
102
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy pyramids reveal the inefficiency of
food chains
103
Biomass
bull biomass total weight of all living organisms in a given
area
bull only about 10 of the plants in an ecosystem is
converted into biomass
bull Food Energy Pyramid
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
bull African savannas and grasslands sustain more species
of higher-order carnivores than any other terrestrial
ecosystem
104
105
Food Energy Pyramids
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
106
107
108
You go out to eat at a fancy restaurant You
have a salad salmon and for dessert ice
cream Which part of the meal was the most
energy efficient food for you to eat
1 Salad
2 Salmon
3 Ice cream
4 2 and 3
109
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps known as trophic levels
bull Energy pyramids reveal that the biomass of primary
producers in an ecosystem tends to be far greater than
the biomass of herbivores
bull The biomass transferred at each step along the food chain tends to be only about 10 of the biomass of the organisms being consumed due to energy lost in cellular respiration
bull As a consequence of this inefficiency food chains rarely exceed four levels
110
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Essential chemicals cycle through
ecosystems
111
Chemical Reservoirs
bull Each chemical is stored in a non-living part of the environment
bull Organisms acquire the chemical from the reservoir a non-living part of the environment
bull The chemical cycles through the food chain (biogeochemical cycles)
bull Eventually the chemical is returned to the reservoir
112
Hydrologic Cycle and the Florida Springs
bull Click here for a description of how falling rain feeds underground aquifers in Florida and forms springs
113
The Most Important Chemical Cycles
1) Carbon
2) Nitrogen
3) Phosphorus
4) Sulfur
114
115
The
Carbon
Cycle
116
The Carbon Cycle
Keeping Up With Carbon
NASA video provides key information on the carbon cycle
117
118
Carbon Cycle Game
Fossil Fuels
bull created when large numbers of organisms die and are buried in sediment lacking oxygen
bull In absence of oxygen at high pressures and after very long periods of time organic remains are ultimately transformed into coal oil and natural gas
bull burning coal oil and natural gas releases large amounts of carbon dioxide
bull increases average CO2 concentration in the atmosphere
bull current level of CO2 in the atmosphere is the highest it has been in almost half a million years
119
Global CO2 levels are rising in
general but they also exhibit a
sharp rise and fall within each
year ndash why
120
121
The Nitrogen Cycle
122
The Nitrogen Cycle
Fertilizers
bull Because it is necessary for the production of every plant
protein and because all nitrogen must first be made
usable by bacteria plant growth is often limited by
nitrogen levels in the soil
bull For this reason most fertilizers contain nitrogen in a
form usable by plants
123
124
125
126
127
Oxygen reduction downstream of a source of
organic pollution
128
Algal growth and eutrophication in an Australian
outback waterway
129
Sulfur Cycle
bull component of protein
bull cycles in both a gas and sedimentary cycle
bull source earths crust
bull enters the atmosphere as hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
during fossil fuel combustion volcanic eruptions
gas exchange at ocean surfaces decomposition
130
Sulfur Cycle
bull H2S is immediately oxidized to sulfur dioxide (SO2)
bull SO2 + water vapor H2SO4 (falls to earth in rain)
bull sulfur in soluble form is taken up by plant roots
incorporated into amino acids such as cysteine
bull travels through food chain
bull eventually released through decomposition
131
How is carbon recycled back to the
atmosphere in the carbon cycle
1 It is ldquofixedrdquo by bacteria
2 It is a product of cellular respiration
3 Burning of fossil fuels
4 2 and 3
5 All of the above
132
Why do commercial fertilizers usually
contain usable forms of nitrogen and
phosphorous
1 These chemicals are not efficiently recycled in
the soil
2 Nitrogen and phosphorous need to be ldquofixedrdquo
by bacteria or the plant
3 Nitrogen and phosphorous are found at high
levels in the atmosphere but not in the soil
4 Nitrogen and phosphorous only enter the soil
through erosion
133
Take-home message
bull Chemicals essential to lifemdashincluding carbon nitrogen and phosphorusmdashcycle through ecosystems
bull They are usually captured from the atmosphere soil or water by growing organisms passed from one trophic level to the next as organisms eat other organisms and returned to the environment through respiration decomposition and erosion
bull These cycles can be disrupted as human activities significantly increase the amounts of the chemicals utilized or released to the environment
134
Symbiotic Relationships
bull Symbiosis close relationship between organisms of
two different species
bull At least one participant gains some sort of benefit
(usually nutritional)
bull Types of symbiosis
bull Parasitism
bull Commensalism
bull Mutualism
bull Predation
135
Symbiotic Relationships in the
Ocean
bull Click here for an explanation of the
relationships of marine animals
including sharks rays and various
fishes
136
Parasitism bull Parasite derives nutrition from the host
bull This harms the host but a true parasite does
not usually kill its host (directly)
137
Ectoparasites
Remain outside the host
Ticks fleas leeches
138
Endoparasites
Live inside the hostrsquos body
Tapeworms malarial parasites
139
Parasite Transmission
bull Many parasites live on or in a single organism
bull Some will alternate between 2 or more host species
bull Vertical transmission ndash from mother offspring
bull Horizontal transmission ndash between members of a
population
bull Direct contact (head lice)
bull Vectors (mosquitos)
140
141
Commensalism
bull Neither species is totally dependent on the other
bull One benefits ndash no effect on the other
bull Feeding or protection
bull Porcelain anemone crabs and anemones
142
Mutualism
bull Both species benefit
bull Food or shelter
bull Examples
bull Plants and microbes (rhizobium in root nodules)
bull Plants and fungi (orchids and mycorrhizae)
bull Protists and fungi (lichen)
bull Plants and insects (pollination)
bull Animals and bacteria (ruminants)
bull Animals and other animals (crocodiles and
plover birds)
143
Mutualism shrimp and moray
Cleaner shrimp cleaning a zebra moray eel Mutualistic
relationships such as these promote the well-being of the
host fishes and provide food for those that do the cleaning 144
Rhizobium
Rhizobium in root nodules of certain plants convert
nitrogen in soil to usable form
145
Orchid Mycorrhizae
Fungi aid the plant in the uptake of nutrients
Fungi ingest some of the food from plant
photosynthesis 146
Lichen
Most of the lichen is composed of fungal filaments
but living among the filaments are algal cells
usually from a green alga or a cyanobacterium
The lichen fungus provides its partner(s) a benefit
(protection) and gains nutrients in return 147
Ruminants
Ruminants are characterized by their four-chambered
stomach and cud-chewing behavior Cud is a food bolus
that is regurgitated rechewed and reswallowed The
rumen is a large fermentation vat containing billions of
microorganisms including bacteria and protozoa which
allow ruminants to digest fibrous feeds such as grass and
hay that other animals cannot efficiently utilize 148
Crocodiles amp
Plover Birds
The bird gets into the crocodiles mouth and picks out
the tiny bits of food stuck in his teeth then eats it (the
tiny bits)
This cleans the crocodiles teeth and keeps his mouth
fresh and free from infections 149
Predation
bull Consumption of one living organism by
another
bull Predators must have offensive strategies
bull ways of finding catching and eating
their prey
bull Prey organisms must have defensive
strategies
bull ways of avoiding or discouraging this
activity
150
Predation
bull Encompasses all levels within an
ecological food chainweb
bull plant-herbivore systems
bull herbivore-carnivore systems
bull three-way interactions of
interdependent plant-herbivore-
carnivore systems
151
This goshawk is the tertiary consumer in his ecosystem
and the mouse in his beak is the secondary consumer
Beneath the mouse on the ecological pyramid lies his
foodsource likely a worm which fed on the primary
producer leafy plants 152
Ecosystem of Life in Floridas
Springs
bull Click here for a close-up look of life
in Floridas springs and the various
predator-prey interactions there
153
7
Soil erosion on a
trail in the
Adirondack
mountains
Which scenario below exemplifies an
ecosystem
1 A group of organisms of the same species living in the same place at the same time
2 Different species interacting together at the same place and time
3 Different species interacting with each other at the same time in a desert
4 A smaller species living on a larger species in a mutually beneficial relationship
8
Take-Home Message
bull An ecosystem is all of the living organisms in a habitat
as well as the physical environment
bull Ecosystems are found not just in obvious places such as
ponds deserts and tropical rainforests but also in some
unexpected places like the digestive tracts of organisms
or the shell of a beetle
9
Challenge Question
bull An ecosystem is made of two components the biotic
environment or community consisting of the living
organisms within an area and the physical environment
or the habitat in which these organisms live
bull A habitat consists of its chemical resources of the soil
water and air as well as its physical conditions
bull List some of the aspects that make up the physical
conditions of a habitat
10
Ecosystems have living and non-
living components
A variety of biomes occur around the
world each determined by temperature
and rainfall
11
A variety of biomes occur around the world
each determined by temperature and
rainfall
bull What is the average temperature
bull What is the average rainfall (or other precipitation)
bull Is the temperature relatively constant or does it vary
seasonally
bull Is the rainfall relatively constant or does it vary
seasonally
12
13
14
15
Tropical Rain Forest
bull forest of tall trees in a region of year-round warmth
bull ~ 125 to 660 cm yearly rainfall
bull temperature ranges from 20 degC - 34 degC
bull average humidity 77 - 88
bull rainfall gt 250 cmyear (may be a brief dry season)
bull almost all rain forests lie near the equator
16
Tropical Rain Forest
bull lt 6 of Earths land surface
bull gt 50 of all the worlds plant and animal species live in
tropical rain forests
bull produce ~40 of Earths oxygen
bull ~70 of the plants in the rainforest are trees
bull ~25 of all the medicines we use come from rainforest
plants
17
Tropical Rain Forest
18
Indicator Species
bull any biological species that defines a trait
or characteristic of the environment
bull may delineate an ecoregion
bull could indicate an environmental condition such as
a disease outbreak pollution species competition
or climate change
bull can be among most sensitive species in a region
sometimes act as early warning to monitoring biologists
19
Tropical Rain Forest ndash Indicator Plant Species
20
Tropical Rain Forest ndash Indicator Animal Species Gorilla
Gorilla gorilla
Orangutan (Pongo pygmaeus)
Spider Monkey
Ateles geoffreyi
21
Tropical Rain Forest ndash Indicator Animal Species 2-toed sloth
Cholepus
hoffmanni
Three-toed Sloth (Bradypus
variegatus) with baby - Costa Rica 22
Tropical Rain Forest ndash Indicator Animal Species
Collared Aracari
Pteroglossus torquatus
23
Grasslands (Prairie)
bull 2 different types
bull tall-grass humid amp very wet
bull short-grass dry hotter summers and colder winters
than the tall-grass prairie
bull found in middle latitudes in the interiors of continents
bull either moist continental climates or dry subtropical
climates
bull Argentina ndash grasslands are known as pampas
bull Russia ndash steppes
bull grasslands in southern hemisphere tend to get more
precipitation than those in the northern hemisphere
24
Grasslands (Prairie)
25
Grasslands (Prairie)
bull temperatures range from -40deg F 70deg F
bull growing season and a dormant season
bull growing season is when there is no frost and plants
can grow (which lasts from 100 to 175 days)
bull tropical and subtropical grasslands the length of
the growing season is determined by how long the
rainy season lasts
bull temperate grasslands the length of the growing
season is determined by temperature (ge 50deg F)
bull dormant (not growing) season nothing can grow
because its too cold
26
Grasslands (Prairie)
bull average rainfall per year ranges from 10 - 30 inches
bull tropical and sub-tropical grasslands average rainfall
per year ranges from 25 - 60 inches
bull amount of rainfall is very important in determining which
areas are grasslands
bull hard for trees to compete with grasses in places
where the uppers layers of soil are moist during part
of the year but where deeper layer of soil are always
dry
27
Grasslands (Prairie)
28
Grasslandsndash Indicator Plant Species Old Field Habitat Ohio
Grassland North Dakota
Ironweed
(Vernonia sp) with
Hedge Bindweed
Vine (Calystegia sepium) 29
Grasslandsndash Indicator Plant Species
Ironweed (Vernonia sp)
Joe Pye Weed
Eupatorium purpureum
30
Grasslands ndash Indicator Plant Species
Common Teasel
Dipsacus fullonum Queen Annes Lace (Daucus carota)
31
Grasslands ndash Indicator Animal Species
Bison (Bison bison) on the range
Theodore Roosevelt National Park North
Dakota
32
Grasslands ndash Indicator Animal Species
Przewalskis horse (Equus caballus
przewalskii) The Wilds Ohio
33
Grasslands ndash Indicator Animal Species
34
Taiga
bull Russian word for forest
bull largest biome in the world
bull Eurasia North America
bull located just below the tundra biome
bull many coniferous trees
bull aka boreal forest Boreal was the Greek goddess of the
North Wind
35
Taiga
bull winter temperature range is -54 to -1deg C (-65 to 30deg F)
bull summer -7deg C (20deg F) to 21deg C (70deg F)
bull summers are very short (50 - 100 frost free days)
bull average yearly precipitation 30 - 85 cm (12 - 33 in)
bull main seasons are winter and summer
bull spring and autumn are very short
bull weather is either hot and humid or very cold
36
Taiga
37
Taiga ndash Indicator Plant Species
Balsam Fir
Abies balsamea
Black Spruce
Picea mariana
38
Taiga ndash Indicator Plant Species
Jack Pine
Pinus banksiana
Paper Birch
Betula papyrifera
White Poplar
Populus alba
39
Taiga ndash Indicator Animal Species
American Black Bear
Ursus americanus
Bald Eagle
Haliaeetus leucocephalus 40
Taiga ndash Indicator Animal Species
Long-eared Owl
Aiso otus
Snowshoe Rabbit
Lepus americanus
41
Desert
bull cover about one fifth of Earths land surface
bull hot and dry near Tropic of CancerTropic of
Capricorn
bull cold near the Arctic
bull temperature
bull hot amp dry ~ 25deg C to ~ 49deg C
bull cold -2 to 4deg C (winter) 21 to 26deg C (summer)
bull precipitation
bull hot amp dry very little rainfall andor concentrated
rainfall in short periods between long rainless periods
(lt 15 cmyear)
bull cold 15 - 26 cmyear 42
Desert
43
Desert ndash Indicator Plant Species
44
Desert ndash Indicator Plant Species
Saguaro Cactus
Carnegiea gigantea
Fishhook Cactus
Mammillaria microcarpa
45
Desert ndash Indicator Plant Species
Trichomes
46
Desert ndash Indicator Animal Species
Zebratail Lizard - Callisaurus draconides
47
Desert ndash Indicator Animal Species
Rock hyrax (Procavia capensis) 48
Desert ndash Indicator Animal Species
Bactrian Camel Camelus bactrianus
49
Temperate Deciduous Forest
bull temperature 0 - 20 C
bull precipitation ~ 50 ndash 200 cmyear
50
Temperate Deciduous Forest
51
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Plant Species
Oaks (Quercus sp)
Dutchmans-Breeches
Dicentra cucullaria 52
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Plant Species
Sassafras
Sassafras albidum
Redbud
Cercis canadensis
53
Temperate Deciduous Forest ndash Succession
bull orderly succession of communities to a climax
community (biome)
bull two main types of succession
bull primary succession begins with bare rock exposed
by geologic activity
bull secondary succession begins on soil from which
previous community has been removed (by fire
agriculture etc)
bull secondary succession can proceed much faster
because the soil has been prepared by the
previous community
54
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
American Toad
Bufo americanus
Box Turtle
55
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
Eastern Chipmunk
Tamias striatus
Eastern Gray Squirrel
Sciurus carolinensis
56
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
Yellow-breasted chat
Icteria virens 57
Tundra
bull annual average temperature lt 5 C
bull precipitation (mostly in the form of snow) lt 100 mmyear
bull summer is brief
bull temperatures above freezing last only a few weeks at
most
bull warm summer coincides with periods of almost 24
hour daylight so plant growth can be explosive
58
Tundra
Anaktuvuk Pass Alaska
59
Tundra ndash Indicator Plant Species
Arctic Tundra Wildflowers - Alaska
60
Tundra ndash Indicator Plant Species
Lichen
Polytrichum Moss
(photographed in Ohio not on the
Tundra)
61
Tundra ndash Indicator Animal Species
Reindeer
Rangifer tarandus
62
Tundra ndash Indicator Animal Species
Caribou On Autumn Tundra Denali National Park Alaska
63
Savanna
bull rolling grassland scattered with shrubs and isolated trees
bull found between a tropical rainforest and desert biome
bull not enough rain falls on a savanna to support forests
bull found in a wide band on either side of the equator on
the edges of tropical rainforests
bull warm temperature year round
bull very long dry season (winter) ~ 10 cm rain none at all
from Dec - Feb
bull very wet season (summer) ~ 35-65 cm rain
64
Savanna
65
Savanna ndash Indicator Plant Species
Baobab
Adansonia digitata Umbrella Thorn Acacia
Acacia tortillis
66
Savanna ndash Indicator Animal Species
Savanna Elephant
Loxodonta africana
Black Mamba
Dendroaspis polylepis
Lion
Panthera leo
67
Chaparral
bull winter mild and moist but not rainy
bull summer very hot and dry
bull annual temperature range between -1deg and 38deg C
bull annual precipitation ~ 25-45 cm mostly in the winter
68
Chaparral
69
Chaparral ndash Indicator Plant Species
Blue Oak
Quercus douglasii
Common Sagebrush
Artemisia tridentata
Olive Tree
Olea europaea
70
Chaparral ndash Indicator Animal Species
Black-tailed Jackrabbit
Lepus californicus Golden Jackal
Canis aureus
Spotted Skunk
Spilogale gracilis
71
The Freshwater Biome
bull low salt concentration mdash usually less than 1
bull plants and animals in freshwater regions are adjusted to
the low salt content and would not be able to survive in
areas of high salt concentration (ie ocean)
bull 3 different types of freshwater regions
bull ponds and lakes
bull streams and rivers
bull wetlands
72
The Freshwater Biome ndash Ponds and Lakes
From left a view across Manzanita Lake toward Mt Lassen California a
forest pond near Donnelly Idaho a Great Blue Heron Paranagat Lake
southeastern Nevada
73
The Freshwater Biome ndash Streams and
Rivers
From left McArthur-Burney Falls State Park California trout Green
River Utah Brooks River Alaska
74
The Freshwater Biome - Wetlands
From left Pescadero Marsh California coastal marsh at Umpqua
Dunes Oregon trees and bogs on Esther Island Alaska
75
The Marine Biome
bull cover about three-fourths of the Earths surface
bull marine algae supply much of the worlds oxygen supply
and take in a huge amount of atmospheric carbon
dioxide
bull evaporation of the seawater provides rainwater for the
land
bull 3 different types of marine regions
bull oceans
bull coral reefs
bull estuaries
76
The Marine Biome - Oceans
From left mussels worms and a spider crab at a hydrocarbon seep
community in the Gulf of Mexico a sea fan and brain coral in the Florida
Keys National Marine Sanctuary a school of Atlantic amberjack off North
Carolina
77
The Marine Biome ndash Coral Reefs
From left reef life in the Gulf of Aqaba Red Sea a reef at Fanning
Island atoll in the central Pacific a reef in the Florida Keys National
Marine Sanctuary
78
The Marine Biome - Estuaries
From left Mangrove roots south Florida wetlands and tidal streams
in the Ashe Island area ACE Basin National Estuarine Research
Reserve South Carolina a salt marsh in Winyah Bay National
Estuarine Research Reserve South Carolina
79
Ecological Notes
These are the biomes in order of their productivity (highest
first)
1 estuaries and tropical rain forest (highest)
2 temperate forest
3 agricultural land
4 temperate grassland
5 lakes and streams
6 coastal zone
7 tundra
8 open ocean
9 desert (lowest)
80
Ecological Notes
In order to be productive and have a lot of living material
standing around (biomass) an ecosystem has to have 4
basic necessities for plant life to thrive (if there are
enough plants the ecosystem will also support a lot of
animals) The four things are
1 Sunlight
2 Nutrients
3 Warm temperatures
4 Water
81
Biomes Video
82
Take-Home Message
bull Biomes are the major ecological communities of earth
characterized mostly by the vegetation present
bull Different biomes result from differences in temperature
and precipitation and the extent to which they vary from
season to season
83
Challenge Question
bull Terrestrial biomes are determined by the temperature
and precipitation amounts as well as whether those
factors are constant or vary by season
bull By contrast how are aquatic biomes determined
84
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy flows from producers to
consumers
85
86
87
First Stop Primary Producers
bull ecosystem producers or consumers
bull primary producers plants algae (some) bacteria
bull convert light energy from sun into chemical energy
through photosynthesis
bull chemical energy = food
bull consumers eat or absorb their food
bull energy stored in chemical bonds of carbohydrate
protein and lipid molecules is captured and
harnessed for consumersrsquo own movement
reproduction and growth
88
Food Chain
89
Food Web
90
Food Web
91
Food Chains amp Food Webs
bull A change in one link in a food chain will affect the other
links
bull The table on the next slide gives one example of a food
chain and the trophic levels represented in it
92
Food Chains amp Food Webs
93
GRASS
GRASSHOPPER
TOAD
SNAKE
HAWK
BACTERIA
IN GENERAL
AUTOTROPHS
(PRODUCERS)
HERBIVORES
(PRIMARY
CONSUMERS)
CARNIVORES
(2 3 ETC)
DECOMPOSERS
94
Chain Reaction Game
95
Energy Flows through a Food Web
bull Losses at every ldquosteprdquo in a food chain
bull Inefficiency of energy transfers
96
Energy flow through a food chain
Energy flow refers to the way that energy is transformed through
a food chain (pictured here) containing a series of levels
including plants consumers predators and decomposers 97
Amount of energy available at each of the
four levels of an ecosystem
Ecological pyramids illustrate the amount of energy
available at each of the four levels of an ecosystem 98
Ecological Pyramid
99
A grasshopper eats a plant A mouse eats the
grasshopper A snake eats the mouse A hawk
could eat the snake or the mouse In this food
web how would we categorize the hawk
1 Producer
2 Primary consumer
3 Secondary consumer
4 Tertiary consumer
5 Quaternary consumer
6 4 and 5
100
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps
bull First it is converted to chemical energy in
photosynthesis
bull Herbivores then consume the primary producers the
herbivores are consumed by carnivores and the
carnivores in turn may be consumed by top carnivores
101
Take-home message
bull Detritivores and decomposers extract energy from
organic waste and the remains of organisms that have
died
bull At each step in a food chain some usable energy is lost
as heat
102
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy pyramids reveal the inefficiency of
food chains
103
Biomass
bull biomass total weight of all living organisms in a given
area
bull only about 10 of the plants in an ecosystem is
converted into biomass
bull Food Energy Pyramid
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
bull African savannas and grasslands sustain more species
of higher-order carnivores than any other terrestrial
ecosystem
104
105
Food Energy Pyramids
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
106
107
108
You go out to eat at a fancy restaurant You
have a salad salmon and for dessert ice
cream Which part of the meal was the most
energy efficient food for you to eat
1 Salad
2 Salmon
3 Ice cream
4 2 and 3
109
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps known as trophic levels
bull Energy pyramids reveal that the biomass of primary
producers in an ecosystem tends to be far greater than
the biomass of herbivores
bull The biomass transferred at each step along the food chain tends to be only about 10 of the biomass of the organisms being consumed due to energy lost in cellular respiration
bull As a consequence of this inefficiency food chains rarely exceed four levels
110
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Essential chemicals cycle through
ecosystems
111
Chemical Reservoirs
bull Each chemical is stored in a non-living part of the environment
bull Organisms acquire the chemical from the reservoir a non-living part of the environment
bull The chemical cycles through the food chain (biogeochemical cycles)
bull Eventually the chemical is returned to the reservoir
112
Hydrologic Cycle and the Florida Springs
bull Click here for a description of how falling rain feeds underground aquifers in Florida and forms springs
113
The Most Important Chemical Cycles
1) Carbon
2) Nitrogen
3) Phosphorus
4) Sulfur
114
115
The
Carbon
Cycle
116
The Carbon Cycle
Keeping Up With Carbon
NASA video provides key information on the carbon cycle
117
118
Carbon Cycle Game
Fossil Fuels
bull created when large numbers of organisms die and are buried in sediment lacking oxygen
bull In absence of oxygen at high pressures and after very long periods of time organic remains are ultimately transformed into coal oil and natural gas
bull burning coal oil and natural gas releases large amounts of carbon dioxide
bull increases average CO2 concentration in the atmosphere
bull current level of CO2 in the atmosphere is the highest it has been in almost half a million years
119
Global CO2 levels are rising in
general but they also exhibit a
sharp rise and fall within each
year ndash why
120
121
The Nitrogen Cycle
122
The Nitrogen Cycle
Fertilizers
bull Because it is necessary for the production of every plant
protein and because all nitrogen must first be made
usable by bacteria plant growth is often limited by
nitrogen levels in the soil
bull For this reason most fertilizers contain nitrogen in a
form usable by plants
123
124
125
126
127
Oxygen reduction downstream of a source of
organic pollution
128
Algal growth and eutrophication in an Australian
outback waterway
129
Sulfur Cycle
bull component of protein
bull cycles in both a gas and sedimentary cycle
bull source earths crust
bull enters the atmosphere as hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
during fossil fuel combustion volcanic eruptions
gas exchange at ocean surfaces decomposition
130
Sulfur Cycle
bull H2S is immediately oxidized to sulfur dioxide (SO2)
bull SO2 + water vapor H2SO4 (falls to earth in rain)
bull sulfur in soluble form is taken up by plant roots
incorporated into amino acids such as cysteine
bull travels through food chain
bull eventually released through decomposition
131
How is carbon recycled back to the
atmosphere in the carbon cycle
1 It is ldquofixedrdquo by bacteria
2 It is a product of cellular respiration
3 Burning of fossil fuels
4 2 and 3
5 All of the above
132
Why do commercial fertilizers usually
contain usable forms of nitrogen and
phosphorous
1 These chemicals are not efficiently recycled in
the soil
2 Nitrogen and phosphorous need to be ldquofixedrdquo
by bacteria or the plant
3 Nitrogen and phosphorous are found at high
levels in the atmosphere but not in the soil
4 Nitrogen and phosphorous only enter the soil
through erosion
133
Take-home message
bull Chemicals essential to lifemdashincluding carbon nitrogen and phosphorusmdashcycle through ecosystems
bull They are usually captured from the atmosphere soil or water by growing organisms passed from one trophic level to the next as organisms eat other organisms and returned to the environment through respiration decomposition and erosion
bull These cycles can be disrupted as human activities significantly increase the amounts of the chemicals utilized or released to the environment
134
Symbiotic Relationships
bull Symbiosis close relationship between organisms of
two different species
bull At least one participant gains some sort of benefit
(usually nutritional)
bull Types of symbiosis
bull Parasitism
bull Commensalism
bull Mutualism
bull Predation
135
Symbiotic Relationships in the
Ocean
bull Click here for an explanation of the
relationships of marine animals
including sharks rays and various
fishes
136
Parasitism bull Parasite derives nutrition from the host
bull This harms the host but a true parasite does
not usually kill its host (directly)
137
Ectoparasites
Remain outside the host
Ticks fleas leeches
138
Endoparasites
Live inside the hostrsquos body
Tapeworms malarial parasites
139
Parasite Transmission
bull Many parasites live on or in a single organism
bull Some will alternate between 2 or more host species
bull Vertical transmission ndash from mother offspring
bull Horizontal transmission ndash between members of a
population
bull Direct contact (head lice)
bull Vectors (mosquitos)
140
141
Commensalism
bull Neither species is totally dependent on the other
bull One benefits ndash no effect on the other
bull Feeding or protection
bull Porcelain anemone crabs and anemones
142
Mutualism
bull Both species benefit
bull Food or shelter
bull Examples
bull Plants and microbes (rhizobium in root nodules)
bull Plants and fungi (orchids and mycorrhizae)
bull Protists and fungi (lichen)
bull Plants and insects (pollination)
bull Animals and bacteria (ruminants)
bull Animals and other animals (crocodiles and
plover birds)
143
Mutualism shrimp and moray
Cleaner shrimp cleaning a zebra moray eel Mutualistic
relationships such as these promote the well-being of the
host fishes and provide food for those that do the cleaning 144
Rhizobium
Rhizobium in root nodules of certain plants convert
nitrogen in soil to usable form
145
Orchid Mycorrhizae
Fungi aid the plant in the uptake of nutrients
Fungi ingest some of the food from plant
photosynthesis 146
Lichen
Most of the lichen is composed of fungal filaments
but living among the filaments are algal cells
usually from a green alga or a cyanobacterium
The lichen fungus provides its partner(s) a benefit
(protection) and gains nutrients in return 147
Ruminants
Ruminants are characterized by their four-chambered
stomach and cud-chewing behavior Cud is a food bolus
that is regurgitated rechewed and reswallowed The
rumen is a large fermentation vat containing billions of
microorganisms including bacteria and protozoa which
allow ruminants to digest fibrous feeds such as grass and
hay that other animals cannot efficiently utilize 148
Crocodiles amp
Plover Birds
The bird gets into the crocodiles mouth and picks out
the tiny bits of food stuck in his teeth then eats it (the
tiny bits)
This cleans the crocodiles teeth and keeps his mouth
fresh and free from infections 149
Predation
bull Consumption of one living organism by
another
bull Predators must have offensive strategies
bull ways of finding catching and eating
their prey
bull Prey organisms must have defensive
strategies
bull ways of avoiding or discouraging this
activity
150
Predation
bull Encompasses all levels within an
ecological food chainweb
bull plant-herbivore systems
bull herbivore-carnivore systems
bull three-way interactions of
interdependent plant-herbivore-
carnivore systems
151
This goshawk is the tertiary consumer in his ecosystem
and the mouse in his beak is the secondary consumer
Beneath the mouse on the ecological pyramid lies his
foodsource likely a worm which fed on the primary
producer leafy plants 152
Ecosystem of Life in Floridas
Springs
bull Click here for a close-up look of life
in Floridas springs and the various
predator-prey interactions there
153
Which scenario below exemplifies an
ecosystem
1 A group of organisms of the same species living in the same place at the same time
2 Different species interacting together at the same place and time
3 Different species interacting with each other at the same time in a desert
4 A smaller species living on a larger species in a mutually beneficial relationship
8
Take-Home Message
bull An ecosystem is all of the living organisms in a habitat
as well as the physical environment
bull Ecosystems are found not just in obvious places such as
ponds deserts and tropical rainforests but also in some
unexpected places like the digestive tracts of organisms
or the shell of a beetle
9
Challenge Question
bull An ecosystem is made of two components the biotic
environment or community consisting of the living
organisms within an area and the physical environment
or the habitat in which these organisms live
bull A habitat consists of its chemical resources of the soil
water and air as well as its physical conditions
bull List some of the aspects that make up the physical
conditions of a habitat
10
Ecosystems have living and non-
living components
A variety of biomes occur around the
world each determined by temperature
and rainfall
11
A variety of biomes occur around the world
each determined by temperature and
rainfall
bull What is the average temperature
bull What is the average rainfall (or other precipitation)
bull Is the temperature relatively constant or does it vary
seasonally
bull Is the rainfall relatively constant or does it vary
seasonally
12
13
14
15
Tropical Rain Forest
bull forest of tall trees in a region of year-round warmth
bull ~ 125 to 660 cm yearly rainfall
bull temperature ranges from 20 degC - 34 degC
bull average humidity 77 - 88
bull rainfall gt 250 cmyear (may be a brief dry season)
bull almost all rain forests lie near the equator
16
Tropical Rain Forest
bull lt 6 of Earths land surface
bull gt 50 of all the worlds plant and animal species live in
tropical rain forests
bull produce ~40 of Earths oxygen
bull ~70 of the plants in the rainforest are trees
bull ~25 of all the medicines we use come from rainforest
plants
17
Tropical Rain Forest
18
Indicator Species
bull any biological species that defines a trait
or characteristic of the environment
bull may delineate an ecoregion
bull could indicate an environmental condition such as
a disease outbreak pollution species competition
or climate change
bull can be among most sensitive species in a region
sometimes act as early warning to monitoring biologists
19
Tropical Rain Forest ndash Indicator Plant Species
20
Tropical Rain Forest ndash Indicator Animal Species Gorilla
Gorilla gorilla
Orangutan (Pongo pygmaeus)
Spider Monkey
Ateles geoffreyi
21
Tropical Rain Forest ndash Indicator Animal Species 2-toed sloth
Cholepus
hoffmanni
Three-toed Sloth (Bradypus
variegatus) with baby - Costa Rica 22
Tropical Rain Forest ndash Indicator Animal Species
Collared Aracari
Pteroglossus torquatus
23
Grasslands (Prairie)
bull 2 different types
bull tall-grass humid amp very wet
bull short-grass dry hotter summers and colder winters
than the tall-grass prairie
bull found in middle latitudes in the interiors of continents
bull either moist continental climates or dry subtropical
climates
bull Argentina ndash grasslands are known as pampas
bull Russia ndash steppes
bull grasslands in southern hemisphere tend to get more
precipitation than those in the northern hemisphere
24
Grasslands (Prairie)
25
Grasslands (Prairie)
bull temperatures range from -40deg F 70deg F
bull growing season and a dormant season
bull growing season is when there is no frost and plants
can grow (which lasts from 100 to 175 days)
bull tropical and subtropical grasslands the length of
the growing season is determined by how long the
rainy season lasts
bull temperate grasslands the length of the growing
season is determined by temperature (ge 50deg F)
bull dormant (not growing) season nothing can grow
because its too cold
26
Grasslands (Prairie)
bull average rainfall per year ranges from 10 - 30 inches
bull tropical and sub-tropical grasslands average rainfall
per year ranges from 25 - 60 inches
bull amount of rainfall is very important in determining which
areas are grasslands
bull hard for trees to compete with grasses in places
where the uppers layers of soil are moist during part
of the year but where deeper layer of soil are always
dry
27
Grasslands (Prairie)
28
Grasslandsndash Indicator Plant Species Old Field Habitat Ohio
Grassland North Dakota
Ironweed
(Vernonia sp) with
Hedge Bindweed
Vine (Calystegia sepium) 29
Grasslandsndash Indicator Plant Species
Ironweed (Vernonia sp)
Joe Pye Weed
Eupatorium purpureum
30
Grasslands ndash Indicator Plant Species
Common Teasel
Dipsacus fullonum Queen Annes Lace (Daucus carota)
31
Grasslands ndash Indicator Animal Species
Bison (Bison bison) on the range
Theodore Roosevelt National Park North
Dakota
32
Grasslands ndash Indicator Animal Species
Przewalskis horse (Equus caballus
przewalskii) The Wilds Ohio
33
Grasslands ndash Indicator Animal Species
34
Taiga
bull Russian word for forest
bull largest biome in the world
bull Eurasia North America
bull located just below the tundra biome
bull many coniferous trees
bull aka boreal forest Boreal was the Greek goddess of the
North Wind
35
Taiga
bull winter temperature range is -54 to -1deg C (-65 to 30deg F)
bull summer -7deg C (20deg F) to 21deg C (70deg F)
bull summers are very short (50 - 100 frost free days)
bull average yearly precipitation 30 - 85 cm (12 - 33 in)
bull main seasons are winter and summer
bull spring and autumn are very short
bull weather is either hot and humid or very cold
36
Taiga
37
Taiga ndash Indicator Plant Species
Balsam Fir
Abies balsamea
Black Spruce
Picea mariana
38
Taiga ndash Indicator Plant Species
Jack Pine
Pinus banksiana
Paper Birch
Betula papyrifera
White Poplar
Populus alba
39
Taiga ndash Indicator Animal Species
American Black Bear
Ursus americanus
Bald Eagle
Haliaeetus leucocephalus 40
Taiga ndash Indicator Animal Species
Long-eared Owl
Aiso otus
Snowshoe Rabbit
Lepus americanus
41
Desert
bull cover about one fifth of Earths land surface
bull hot and dry near Tropic of CancerTropic of
Capricorn
bull cold near the Arctic
bull temperature
bull hot amp dry ~ 25deg C to ~ 49deg C
bull cold -2 to 4deg C (winter) 21 to 26deg C (summer)
bull precipitation
bull hot amp dry very little rainfall andor concentrated
rainfall in short periods between long rainless periods
(lt 15 cmyear)
bull cold 15 - 26 cmyear 42
Desert
43
Desert ndash Indicator Plant Species
44
Desert ndash Indicator Plant Species
Saguaro Cactus
Carnegiea gigantea
Fishhook Cactus
Mammillaria microcarpa
45
Desert ndash Indicator Plant Species
Trichomes
46
Desert ndash Indicator Animal Species
Zebratail Lizard - Callisaurus draconides
47
Desert ndash Indicator Animal Species
Rock hyrax (Procavia capensis) 48
Desert ndash Indicator Animal Species
Bactrian Camel Camelus bactrianus
49
Temperate Deciduous Forest
bull temperature 0 - 20 C
bull precipitation ~ 50 ndash 200 cmyear
50
Temperate Deciduous Forest
51
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Plant Species
Oaks (Quercus sp)
Dutchmans-Breeches
Dicentra cucullaria 52
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Plant Species
Sassafras
Sassafras albidum
Redbud
Cercis canadensis
53
Temperate Deciduous Forest ndash Succession
bull orderly succession of communities to a climax
community (biome)
bull two main types of succession
bull primary succession begins with bare rock exposed
by geologic activity
bull secondary succession begins on soil from which
previous community has been removed (by fire
agriculture etc)
bull secondary succession can proceed much faster
because the soil has been prepared by the
previous community
54
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
American Toad
Bufo americanus
Box Turtle
55
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
Eastern Chipmunk
Tamias striatus
Eastern Gray Squirrel
Sciurus carolinensis
56
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
Yellow-breasted chat
Icteria virens 57
Tundra
bull annual average temperature lt 5 C
bull precipitation (mostly in the form of snow) lt 100 mmyear
bull summer is brief
bull temperatures above freezing last only a few weeks at
most
bull warm summer coincides with periods of almost 24
hour daylight so plant growth can be explosive
58
Tundra
Anaktuvuk Pass Alaska
59
Tundra ndash Indicator Plant Species
Arctic Tundra Wildflowers - Alaska
60
Tundra ndash Indicator Plant Species
Lichen
Polytrichum Moss
(photographed in Ohio not on the
Tundra)
61
Tundra ndash Indicator Animal Species
Reindeer
Rangifer tarandus
62
Tundra ndash Indicator Animal Species
Caribou On Autumn Tundra Denali National Park Alaska
63
Savanna
bull rolling grassland scattered with shrubs and isolated trees
bull found between a tropical rainforest and desert biome
bull not enough rain falls on a savanna to support forests
bull found in a wide band on either side of the equator on
the edges of tropical rainforests
bull warm temperature year round
bull very long dry season (winter) ~ 10 cm rain none at all
from Dec - Feb
bull very wet season (summer) ~ 35-65 cm rain
64
Savanna
65
Savanna ndash Indicator Plant Species
Baobab
Adansonia digitata Umbrella Thorn Acacia
Acacia tortillis
66
Savanna ndash Indicator Animal Species
Savanna Elephant
Loxodonta africana
Black Mamba
Dendroaspis polylepis
Lion
Panthera leo
67
Chaparral
bull winter mild and moist but not rainy
bull summer very hot and dry
bull annual temperature range between -1deg and 38deg C
bull annual precipitation ~ 25-45 cm mostly in the winter
68
Chaparral
69
Chaparral ndash Indicator Plant Species
Blue Oak
Quercus douglasii
Common Sagebrush
Artemisia tridentata
Olive Tree
Olea europaea
70
Chaparral ndash Indicator Animal Species
Black-tailed Jackrabbit
Lepus californicus Golden Jackal
Canis aureus
Spotted Skunk
Spilogale gracilis
71
The Freshwater Biome
bull low salt concentration mdash usually less than 1
bull plants and animals in freshwater regions are adjusted to
the low salt content and would not be able to survive in
areas of high salt concentration (ie ocean)
bull 3 different types of freshwater regions
bull ponds and lakes
bull streams and rivers
bull wetlands
72
The Freshwater Biome ndash Ponds and Lakes
From left a view across Manzanita Lake toward Mt Lassen California a
forest pond near Donnelly Idaho a Great Blue Heron Paranagat Lake
southeastern Nevada
73
The Freshwater Biome ndash Streams and
Rivers
From left McArthur-Burney Falls State Park California trout Green
River Utah Brooks River Alaska
74
The Freshwater Biome - Wetlands
From left Pescadero Marsh California coastal marsh at Umpqua
Dunes Oregon trees and bogs on Esther Island Alaska
75
The Marine Biome
bull cover about three-fourths of the Earths surface
bull marine algae supply much of the worlds oxygen supply
and take in a huge amount of atmospheric carbon
dioxide
bull evaporation of the seawater provides rainwater for the
land
bull 3 different types of marine regions
bull oceans
bull coral reefs
bull estuaries
76
The Marine Biome - Oceans
From left mussels worms and a spider crab at a hydrocarbon seep
community in the Gulf of Mexico a sea fan and brain coral in the Florida
Keys National Marine Sanctuary a school of Atlantic amberjack off North
Carolina
77
The Marine Biome ndash Coral Reefs
From left reef life in the Gulf of Aqaba Red Sea a reef at Fanning
Island atoll in the central Pacific a reef in the Florida Keys National
Marine Sanctuary
78
The Marine Biome - Estuaries
From left Mangrove roots south Florida wetlands and tidal streams
in the Ashe Island area ACE Basin National Estuarine Research
Reserve South Carolina a salt marsh in Winyah Bay National
Estuarine Research Reserve South Carolina
79
Ecological Notes
These are the biomes in order of their productivity (highest
first)
1 estuaries and tropical rain forest (highest)
2 temperate forest
3 agricultural land
4 temperate grassland
5 lakes and streams
6 coastal zone
7 tundra
8 open ocean
9 desert (lowest)
80
Ecological Notes
In order to be productive and have a lot of living material
standing around (biomass) an ecosystem has to have 4
basic necessities for plant life to thrive (if there are
enough plants the ecosystem will also support a lot of
animals) The four things are
1 Sunlight
2 Nutrients
3 Warm temperatures
4 Water
81
Biomes Video
82
Take-Home Message
bull Biomes are the major ecological communities of earth
characterized mostly by the vegetation present
bull Different biomes result from differences in temperature
and precipitation and the extent to which they vary from
season to season
83
Challenge Question
bull Terrestrial biomes are determined by the temperature
and precipitation amounts as well as whether those
factors are constant or vary by season
bull By contrast how are aquatic biomes determined
84
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy flows from producers to
consumers
85
86
87
First Stop Primary Producers
bull ecosystem producers or consumers
bull primary producers plants algae (some) bacteria
bull convert light energy from sun into chemical energy
through photosynthesis
bull chemical energy = food
bull consumers eat or absorb their food
bull energy stored in chemical bonds of carbohydrate
protein and lipid molecules is captured and
harnessed for consumersrsquo own movement
reproduction and growth
88
Food Chain
89
Food Web
90
Food Web
91
Food Chains amp Food Webs
bull A change in one link in a food chain will affect the other
links
bull The table on the next slide gives one example of a food
chain and the trophic levels represented in it
92
Food Chains amp Food Webs
93
GRASS
GRASSHOPPER
TOAD
SNAKE
HAWK
BACTERIA
IN GENERAL
AUTOTROPHS
(PRODUCERS)
HERBIVORES
(PRIMARY
CONSUMERS)
CARNIVORES
(2 3 ETC)
DECOMPOSERS
94
Chain Reaction Game
95
Energy Flows through a Food Web
bull Losses at every ldquosteprdquo in a food chain
bull Inefficiency of energy transfers
96
Energy flow through a food chain
Energy flow refers to the way that energy is transformed through
a food chain (pictured here) containing a series of levels
including plants consumers predators and decomposers 97
Amount of energy available at each of the
four levels of an ecosystem
Ecological pyramids illustrate the amount of energy
available at each of the four levels of an ecosystem 98
Ecological Pyramid
99
A grasshopper eats a plant A mouse eats the
grasshopper A snake eats the mouse A hawk
could eat the snake or the mouse In this food
web how would we categorize the hawk
1 Producer
2 Primary consumer
3 Secondary consumer
4 Tertiary consumer
5 Quaternary consumer
6 4 and 5
100
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps
bull First it is converted to chemical energy in
photosynthesis
bull Herbivores then consume the primary producers the
herbivores are consumed by carnivores and the
carnivores in turn may be consumed by top carnivores
101
Take-home message
bull Detritivores and decomposers extract energy from
organic waste and the remains of organisms that have
died
bull At each step in a food chain some usable energy is lost
as heat
102
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy pyramids reveal the inefficiency of
food chains
103
Biomass
bull biomass total weight of all living organisms in a given
area
bull only about 10 of the plants in an ecosystem is
converted into biomass
bull Food Energy Pyramid
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
bull African savannas and grasslands sustain more species
of higher-order carnivores than any other terrestrial
ecosystem
104
105
Food Energy Pyramids
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
106
107
108
You go out to eat at a fancy restaurant You
have a salad salmon and for dessert ice
cream Which part of the meal was the most
energy efficient food for you to eat
1 Salad
2 Salmon
3 Ice cream
4 2 and 3
109
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps known as trophic levels
bull Energy pyramids reveal that the biomass of primary
producers in an ecosystem tends to be far greater than
the biomass of herbivores
bull The biomass transferred at each step along the food chain tends to be only about 10 of the biomass of the organisms being consumed due to energy lost in cellular respiration
bull As a consequence of this inefficiency food chains rarely exceed four levels
110
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Essential chemicals cycle through
ecosystems
111
Chemical Reservoirs
bull Each chemical is stored in a non-living part of the environment
bull Organisms acquire the chemical from the reservoir a non-living part of the environment
bull The chemical cycles through the food chain (biogeochemical cycles)
bull Eventually the chemical is returned to the reservoir
112
Hydrologic Cycle and the Florida Springs
bull Click here for a description of how falling rain feeds underground aquifers in Florida and forms springs
113
The Most Important Chemical Cycles
1) Carbon
2) Nitrogen
3) Phosphorus
4) Sulfur
114
115
The
Carbon
Cycle
116
The Carbon Cycle
Keeping Up With Carbon
NASA video provides key information on the carbon cycle
117
118
Carbon Cycle Game
Fossil Fuels
bull created when large numbers of organisms die and are buried in sediment lacking oxygen
bull In absence of oxygen at high pressures and after very long periods of time organic remains are ultimately transformed into coal oil and natural gas
bull burning coal oil and natural gas releases large amounts of carbon dioxide
bull increases average CO2 concentration in the atmosphere
bull current level of CO2 in the atmosphere is the highest it has been in almost half a million years
119
Global CO2 levels are rising in
general but they also exhibit a
sharp rise and fall within each
year ndash why
120
121
The Nitrogen Cycle
122
The Nitrogen Cycle
Fertilizers
bull Because it is necessary for the production of every plant
protein and because all nitrogen must first be made
usable by bacteria plant growth is often limited by
nitrogen levels in the soil
bull For this reason most fertilizers contain nitrogen in a
form usable by plants
123
124
125
126
127
Oxygen reduction downstream of a source of
organic pollution
128
Algal growth and eutrophication in an Australian
outback waterway
129
Sulfur Cycle
bull component of protein
bull cycles in both a gas and sedimentary cycle
bull source earths crust
bull enters the atmosphere as hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
during fossil fuel combustion volcanic eruptions
gas exchange at ocean surfaces decomposition
130
Sulfur Cycle
bull H2S is immediately oxidized to sulfur dioxide (SO2)
bull SO2 + water vapor H2SO4 (falls to earth in rain)
bull sulfur in soluble form is taken up by plant roots
incorporated into amino acids such as cysteine
bull travels through food chain
bull eventually released through decomposition
131
How is carbon recycled back to the
atmosphere in the carbon cycle
1 It is ldquofixedrdquo by bacteria
2 It is a product of cellular respiration
3 Burning of fossil fuels
4 2 and 3
5 All of the above
132
Why do commercial fertilizers usually
contain usable forms of nitrogen and
phosphorous
1 These chemicals are not efficiently recycled in
the soil
2 Nitrogen and phosphorous need to be ldquofixedrdquo
by bacteria or the plant
3 Nitrogen and phosphorous are found at high
levels in the atmosphere but not in the soil
4 Nitrogen and phosphorous only enter the soil
through erosion
133
Take-home message
bull Chemicals essential to lifemdashincluding carbon nitrogen and phosphorusmdashcycle through ecosystems
bull They are usually captured from the atmosphere soil or water by growing organisms passed from one trophic level to the next as organisms eat other organisms and returned to the environment through respiration decomposition and erosion
bull These cycles can be disrupted as human activities significantly increase the amounts of the chemicals utilized or released to the environment
134
Symbiotic Relationships
bull Symbiosis close relationship between organisms of
two different species
bull At least one participant gains some sort of benefit
(usually nutritional)
bull Types of symbiosis
bull Parasitism
bull Commensalism
bull Mutualism
bull Predation
135
Symbiotic Relationships in the
Ocean
bull Click here for an explanation of the
relationships of marine animals
including sharks rays and various
fishes
136
Parasitism bull Parasite derives nutrition from the host
bull This harms the host but a true parasite does
not usually kill its host (directly)
137
Ectoparasites
Remain outside the host
Ticks fleas leeches
138
Endoparasites
Live inside the hostrsquos body
Tapeworms malarial parasites
139
Parasite Transmission
bull Many parasites live on or in a single organism
bull Some will alternate between 2 or more host species
bull Vertical transmission ndash from mother offspring
bull Horizontal transmission ndash between members of a
population
bull Direct contact (head lice)
bull Vectors (mosquitos)
140
141
Commensalism
bull Neither species is totally dependent on the other
bull One benefits ndash no effect on the other
bull Feeding or protection
bull Porcelain anemone crabs and anemones
142
Mutualism
bull Both species benefit
bull Food or shelter
bull Examples
bull Plants and microbes (rhizobium in root nodules)
bull Plants and fungi (orchids and mycorrhizae)
bull Protists and fungi (lichen)
bull Plants and insects (pollination)
bull Animals and bacteria (ruminants)
bull Animals and other animals (crocodiles and
plover birds)
143
Mutualism shrimp and moray
Cleaner shrimp cleaning a zebra moray eel Mutualistic
relationships such as these promote the well-being of the
host fishes and provide food for those that do the cleaning 144
Rhizobium
Rhizobium in root nodules of certain plants convert
nitrogen in soil to usable form
145
Orchid Mycorrhizae
Fungi aid the plant in the uptake of nutrients
Fungi ingest some of the food from plant
photosynthesis 146
Lichen
Most of the lichen is composed of fungal filaments
but living among the filaments are algal cells
usually from a green alga or a cyanobacterium
The lichen fungus provides its partner(s) a benefit
(protection) and gains nutrients in return 147
Ruminants
Ruminants are characterized by their four-chambered
stomach and cud-chewing behavior Cud is a food bolus
that is regurgitated rechewed and reswallowed The
rumen is a large fermentation vat containing billions of
microorganisms including bacteria and protozoa which
allow ruminants to digest fibrous feeds such as grass and
hay that other animals cannot efficiently utilize 148
Crocodiles amp
Plover Birds
The bird gets into the crocodiles mouth and picks out
the tiny bits of food stuck in his teeth then eats it (the
tiny bits)
This cleans the crocodiles teeth and keeps his mouth
fresh and free from infections 149
Predation
bull Consumption of one living organism by
another
bull Predators must have offensive strategies
bull ways of finding catching and eating
their prey
bull Prey organisms must have defensive
strategies
bull ways of avoiding or discouraging this
activity
150
Predation
bull Encompasses all levels within an
ecological food chainweb
bull plant-herbivore systems
bull herbivore-carnivore systems
bull three-way interactions of
interdependent plant-herbivore-
carnivore systems
151
This goshawk is the tertiary consumer in his ecosystem
and the mouse in his beak is the secondary consumer
Beneath the mouse on the ecological pyramid lies his
foodsource likely a worm which fed on the primary
producer leafy plants 152
Ecosystem of Life in Floridas
Springs
bull Click here for a close-up look of life
in Floridas springs and the various
predator-prey interactions there
153
Take-Home Message
bull An ecosystem is all of the living organisms in a habitat
as well as the physical environment
bull Ecosystems are found not just in obvious places such as
ponds deserts and tropical rainforests but also in some
unexpected places like the digestive tracts of organisms
or the shell of a beetle
9
Challenge Question
bull An ecosystem is made of two components the biotic
environment or community consisting of the living
organisms within an area and the physical environment
or the habitat in which these organisms live
bull A habitat consists of its chemical resources of the soil
water and air as well as its physical conditions
bull List some of the aspects that make up the physical
conditions of a habitat
10
Ecosystems have living and non-
living components
A variety of biomes occur around the
world each determined by temperature
and rainfall
11
A variety of biomes occur around the world
each determined by temperature and
rainfall
bull What is the average temperature
bull What is the average rainfall (or other precipitation)
bull Is the temperature relatively constant or does it vary
seasonally
bull Is the rainfall relatively constant or does it vary
seasonally
12
13
14
15
Tropical Rain Forest
bull forest of tall trees in a region of year-round warmth
bull ~ 125 to 660 cm yearly rainfall
bull temperature ranges from 20 degC - 34 degC
bull average humidity 77 - 88
bull rainfall gt 250 cmyear (may be a brief dry season)
bull almost all rain forests lie near the equator
16
Tropical Rain Forest
bull lt 6 of Earths land surface
bull gt 50 of all the worlds plant and animal species live in
tropical rain forests
bull produce ~40 of Earths oxygen
bull ~70 of the plants in the rainforest are trees
bull ~25 of all the medicines we use come from rainforest
plants
17
Tropical Rain Forest
18
Indicator Species
bull any biological species that defines a trait
or characteristic of the environment
bull may delineate an ecoregion
bull could indicate an environmental condition such as
a disease outbreak pollution species competition
or climate change
bull can be among most sensitive species in a region
sometimes act as early warning to monitoring biologists
19
Tropical Rain Forest ndash Indicator Plant Species
20
Tropical Rain Forest ndash Indicator Animal Species Gorilla
Gorilla gorilla
Orangutan (Pongo pygmaeus)
Spider Monkey
Ateles geoffreyi
21
Tropical Rain Forest ndash Indicator Animal Species 2-toed sloth
Cholepus
hoffmanni
Three-toed Sloth (Bradypus
variegatus) with baby - Costa Rica 22
Tropical Rain Forest ndash Indicator Animal Species
Collared Aracari
Pteroglossus torquatus
23
Grasslands (Prairie)
bull 2 different types
bull tall-grass humid amp very wet
bull short-grass dry hotter summers and colder winters
than the tall-grass prairie
bull found in middle latitudes in the interiors of continents
bull either moist continental climates or dry subtropical
climates
bull Argentina ndash grasslands are known as pampas
bull Russia ndash steppes
bull grasslands in southern hemisphere tend to get more
precipitation than those in the northern hemisphere
24
Grasslands (Prairie)
25
Grasslands (Prairie)
bull temperatures range from -40deg F 70deg F
bull growing season and a dormant season
bull growing season is when there is no frost and plants
can grow (which lasts from 100 to 175 days)
bull tropical and subtropical grasslands the length of
the growing season is determined by how long the
rainy season lasts
bull temperate grasslands the length of the growing
season is determined by temperature (ge 50deg F)
bull dormant (not growing) season nothing can grow
because its too cold
26
Grasslands (Prairie)
bull average rainfall per year ranges from 10 - 30 inches
bull tropical and sub-tropical grasslands average rainfall
per year ranges from 25 - 60 inches
bull amount of rainfall is very important in determining which
areas are grasslands
bull hard for trees to compete with grasses in places
where the uppers layers of soil are moist during part
of the year but where deeper layer of soil are always
dry
27
Grasslands (Prairie)
28
Grasslandsndash Indicator Plant Species Old Field Habitat Ohio
Grassland North Dakota
Ironweed
(Vernonia sp) with
Hedge Bindweed
Vine (Calystegia sepium) 29
Grasslandsndash Indicator Plant Species
Ironweed (Vernonia sp)
Joe Pye Weed
Eupatorium purpureum
30
Grasslands ndash Indicator Plant Species
Common Teasel
Dipsacus fullonum Queen Annes Lace (Daucus carota)
31
Grasslands ndash Indicator Animal Species
Bison (Bison bison) on the range
Theodore Roosevelt National Park North
Dakota
32
Grasslands ndash Indicator Animal Species
Przewalskis horse (Equus caballus
przewalskii) The Wilds Ohio
33
Grasslands ndash Indicator Animal Species
34
Taiga
bull Russian word for forest
bull largest biome in the world
bull Eurasia North America
bull located just below the tundra biome
bull many coniferous trees
bull aka boreal forest Boreal was the Greek goddess of the
North Wind
35
Taiga
bull winter temperature range is -54 to -1deg C (-65 to 30deg F)
bull summer -7deg C (20deg F) to 21deg C (70deg F)
bull summers are very short (50 - 100 frost free days)
bull average yearly precipitation 30 - 85 cm (12 - 33 in)
bull main seasons are winter and summer
bull spring and autumn are very short
bull weather is either hot and humid or very cold
36
Taiga
37
Taiga ndash Indicator Plant Species
Balsam Fir
Abies balsamea
Black Spruce
Picea mariana
38
Taiga ndash Indicator Plant Species
Jack Pine
Pinus banksiana
Paper Birch
Betula papyrifera
White Poplar
Populus alba
39
Taiga ndash Indicator Animal Species
American Black Bear
Ursus americanus
Bald Eagle
Haliaeetus leucocephalus 40
Taiga ndash Indicator Animal Species
Long-eared Owl
Aiso otus
Snowshoe Rabbit
Lepus americanus
41
Desert
bull cover about one fifth of Earths land surface
bull hot and dry near Tropic of CancerTropic of
Capricorn
bull cold near the Arctic
bull temperature
bull hot amp dry ~ 25deg C to ~ 49deg C
bull cold -2 to 4deg C (winter) 21 to 26deg C (summer)
bull precipitation
bull hot amp dry very little rainfall andor concentrated
rainfall in short periods between long rainless periods
(lt 15 cmyear)
bull cold 15 - 26 cmyear 42
Desert
43
Desert ndash Indicator Plant Species
44
Desert ndash Indicator Plant Species
Saguaro Cactus
Carnegiea gigantea
Fishhook Cactus
Mammillaria microcarpa
45
Desert ndash Indicator Plant Species
Trichomes
46
Desert ndash Indicator Animal Species
Zebratail Lizard - Callisaurus draconides
47
Desert ndash Indicator Animal Species
Rock hyrax (Procavia capensis) 48
Desert ndash Indicator Animal Species
Bactrian Camel Camelus bactrianus
49
Temperate Deciduous Forest
bull temperature 0 - 20 C
bull precipitation ~ 50 ndash 200 cmyear
50
Temperate Deciduous Forest
51
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Plant Species
Oaks (Quercus sp)
Dutchmans-Breeches
Dicentra cucullaria 52
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Plant Species
Sassafras
Sassafras albidum
Redbud
Cercis canadensis
53
Temperate Deciduous Forest ndash Succession
bull orderly succession of communities to a climax
community (biome)
bull two main types of succession
bull primary succession begins with bare rock exposed
by geologic activity
bull secondary succession begins on soil from which
previous community has been removed (by fire
agriculture etc)
bull secondary succession can proceed much faster
because the soil has been prepared by the
previous community
54
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
American Toad
Bufo americanus
Box Turtle
55
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
Eastern Chipmunk
Tamias striatus
Eastern Gray Squirrel
Sciurus carolinensis
56
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
Yellow-breasted chat
Icteria virens 57
Tundra
bull annual average temperature lt 5 C
bull precipitation (mostly in the form of snow) lt 100 mmyear
bull summer is brief
bull temperatures above freezing last only a few weeks at
most
bull warm summer coincides with periods of almost 24
hour daylight so plant growth can be explosive
58
Tundra
Anaktuvuk Pass Alaska
59
Tundra ndash Indicator Plant Species
Arctic Tundra Wildflowers - Alaska
60
Tundra ndash Indicator Plant Species
Lichen
Polytrichum Moss
(photographed in Ohio not on the
Tundra)
61
Tundra ndash Indicator Animal Species
Reindeer
Rangifer tarandus
62
Tundra ndash Indicator Animal Species
Caribou On Autumn Tundra Denali National Park Alaska
63
Savanna
bull rolling grassland scattered with shrubs and isolated trees
bull found between a tropical rainforest and desert biome
bull not enough rain falls on a savanna to support forests
bull found in a wide band on either side of the equator on
the edges of tropical rainforests
bull warm temperature year round
bull very long dry season (winter) ~ 10 cm rain none at all
from Dec - Feb
bull very wet season (summer) ~ 35-65 cm rain
64
Savanna
65
Savanna ndash Indicator Plant Species
Baobab
Adansonia digitata Umbrella Thorn Acacia
Acacia tortillis
66
Savanna ndash Indicator Animal Species
Savanna Elephant
Loxodonta africana
Black Mamba
Dendroaspis polylepis
Lion
Panthera leo
67
Chaparral
bull winter mild and moist but not rainy
bull summer very hot and dry
bull annual temperature range between -1deg and 38deg C
bull annual precipitation ~ 25-45 cm mostly in the winter
68
Chaparral
69
Chaparral ndash Indicator Plant Species
Blue Oak
Quercus douglasii
Common Sagebrush
Artemisia tridentata
Olive Tree
Olea europaea
70
Chaparral ndash Indicator Animal Species
Black-tailed Jackrabbit
Lepus californicus Golden Jackal
Canis aureus
Spotted Skunk
Spilogale gracilis
71
The Freshwater Biome
bull low salt concentration mdash usually less than 1
bull plants and animals in freshwater regions are adjusted to
the low salt content and would not be able to survive in
areas of high salt concentration (ie ocean)
bull 3 different types of freshwater regions
bull ponds and lakes
bull streams and rivers
bull wetlands
72
The Freshwater Biome ndash Ponds and Lakes
From left a view across Manzanita Lake toward Mt Lassen California a
forest pond near Donnelly Idaho a Great Blue Heron Paranagat Lake
southeastern Nevada
73
The Freshwater Biome ndash Streams and
Rivers
From left McArthur-Burney Falls State Park California trout Green
River Utah Brooks River Alaska
74
The Freshwater Biome - Wetlands
From left Pescadero Marsh California coastal marsh at Umpqua
Dunes Oregon trees and bogs on Esther Island Alaska
75
The Marine Biome
bull cover about three-fourths of the Earths surface
bull marine algae supply much of the worlds oxygen supply
and take in a huge amount of atmospheric carbon
dioxide
bull evaporation of the seawater provides rainwater for the
land
bull 3 different types of marine regions
bull oceans
bull coral reefs
bull estuaries
76
The Marine Biome - Oceans
From left mussels worms and a spider crab at a hydrocarbon seep
community in the Gulf of Mexico a sea fan and brain coral in the Florida
Keys National Marine Sanctuary a school of Atlantic amberjack off North
Carolina
77
The Marine Biome ndash Coral Reefs
From left reef life in the Gulf of Aqaba Red Sea a reef at Fanning
Island atoll in the central Pacific a reef in the Florida Keys National
Marine Sanctuary
78
The Marine Biome - Estuaries
From left Mangrove roots south Florida wetlands and tidal streams
in the Ashe Island area ACE Basin National Estuarine Research
Reserve South Carolina a salt marsh in Winyah Bay National
Estuarine Research Reserve South Carolina
79
Ecological Notes
These are the biomes in order of their productivity (highest
first)
1 estuaries and tropical rain forest (highest)
2 temperate forest
3 agricultural land
4 temperate grassland
5 lakes and streams
6 coastal zone
7 tundra
8 open ocean
9 desert (lowest)
80
Ecological Notes
In order to be productive and have a lot of living material
standing around (biomass) an ecosystem has to have 4
basic necessities for plant life to thrive (if there are
enough plants the ecosystem will also support a lot of
animals) The four things are
1 Sunlight
2 Nutrients
3 Warm temperatures
4 Water
81
Biomes Video
82
Take-Home Message
bull Biomes are the major ecological communities of earth
characterized mostly by the vegetation present
bull Different biomes result from differences in temperature
and precipitation and the extent to which they vary from
season to season
83
Challenge Question
bull Terrestrial biomes are determined by the temperature
and precipitation amounts as well as whether those
factors are constant or vary by season
bull By contrast how are aquatic biomes determined
84
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy flows from producers to
consumers
85
86
87
First Stop Primary Producers
bull ecosystem producers or consumers
bull primary producers plants algae (some) bacteria
bull convert light energy from sun into chemical energy
through photosynthesis
bull chemical energy = food
bull consumers eat or absorb their food
bull energy stored in chemical bonds of carbohydrate
protein and lipid molecules is captured and
harnessed for consumersrsquo own movement
reproduction and growth
88
Food Chain
89
Food Web
90
Food Web
91
Food Chains amp Food Webs
bull A change in one link in a food chain will affect the other
links
bull The table on the next slide gives one example of a food
chain and the trophic levels represented in it
92
Food Chains amp Food Webs
93
GRASS
GRASSHOPPER
TOAD
SNAKE
HAWK
BACTERIA
IN GENERAL
AUTOTROPHS
(PRODUCERS)
HERBIVORES
(PRIMARY
CONSUMERS)
CARNIVORES
(2 3 ETC)
DECOMPOSERS
94
Chain Reaction Game
95
Energy Flows through a Food Web
bull Losses at every ldquosteprdquo in a food chain
bull Inefficiency of energy transfers
96
Energy flow through a food chain
Energy flow refers to the way that energy is transformed through
a food chain (pictured here) containing a series of levels
including plants consumers predators and decomposers 97
Amount of energy available at each of the
four levels of an ecosystem
Ecological pyramids illustrate the amount of energy
available at each of the four levels of an ecosystem 98
Ecological Pyramid
99
A grasshopper eats a plant A mouse eats the
grasshopper A snake eats the mouse A hawk
could eat the snake or the mouse In this food
web how would we categorize the hawk
1 Producer
2 Primary consumer
3 Secondary consumer
4 Tertiary consumer
5 Quaternary consumer
6 4 and 5
100
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps
bull First it is converted to chemical energy in
photosynthesis
bull Herbivores then consume the primary producers the
herbivores are consumed by carnivores and the
carnivores in turn may be consumed by top carnivores
101
Take-home message
bull Detritivores and decomposers extract energy from
organic waste and the remains of organisms that have
died
bull At each step in a food chain some usable energy is lost
as heat
102
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy pyramids reveal the inefficiency of
food chains
103
Biomass
bull biomass total weight of all living organisms in a given
area
bull only about 10 of the plants in an ecosystem is
converted into biomass
bull Food Energy Pyramid
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
bull African savannas and grasslands sustain more species
of higher-order carnivores than any other terrestrial
ecosystem
104
105
Food Energy Pyramids
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
106
107
108
You go out to eat at a fancy restaurant You
have a salad salmon and for dessert ice
cream Which part of the meal was the most
energy efficient food for you to eat
1 Salad
2 Salmon
3 Ice cream
4 2 and 3
109
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps known as trophic levels
bull Energy pyramids reveal that the biomass of primary
producers in an ecosystem tends to be far greater than
the biomass of herbivores
bull The biomass transferred at each step along the food chain tends to be only about 10 of the biomass of the organisms being consumed due to energy lost in cellular respiration
bull As a consequence of this inefficiency food chains rarely exceed four levels
110
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Essential chemicals cycle through
ecosystems
111
Chemical Reservoirs
bull Each chemical is stored in a non-living part of the environment
bull Organisms acquire the chemical from the reservoir a non-living part of the environment
bull The chemical cycles through the food chain (biogeochemical cycles)
bull Eventually the chemical is returned to the reservoir
112
Hydrologic Cycle and the Florida Springs
bull Click here for a description of how falling rain feeds underground aquifers in Florida and forms springs
113
The Most Important Chemical Cycles
1) Carbon
2) Nitrogen
3) Phosphorus
4) Sulfur
114
115
The
Carbon
Cycle
116
The Carbon Cycle
Keeping Up With Carbon
NASA video provides key information on the carbon cycle
117
118
Carbon Cycle Game
Fossil Fuels
bull created when large numbers of organisms die and are buried in sediment lacking oxygen
bull In absence of oxygen at high pressures and after very long periods of time organic remains are ultimately transformed into coal oil and natural gas
bull burning coal oil and natural gas releases large amounts of carbon dioxide
bull increases average CO2 concentration in the atmosphere
bull current level of CO2 in the atmosphere is the highest it has been in almost half a million years
119
Global CO2 levels are rising in
general but they also exhibit a
sharp rise and fall within each
year ndash why
120
121
The Nitrogen Cycle
122
The Nitrogen Cycle
Fertilizers
bull Because it is necessary for the production of every plant
protein and because all nitrogen must first be made
usable by bacteria plant growth is often limited by
nitrogen levels in the soil
bull For this reason most fertilizers contain nitrogen in a
form usable by plants
123
124
125
126
127
Oxygen reduction downstream of a source of
organic pollution
128
Algal growth and eutrophication in an Australian
outback waterway
129
Sulfur Cycle
bull component of protein
bull cycles in both a gas and sedimentary cycle
bull source earths crust
bull enters the atmosphere as hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
during fossil fuel combustion volcanic eruptions
gas exchange at ocean surfaces decomposition
130
Sulfur Cycle
bull H2S is immediately oxidized to sulfur dioxide (SO2)
bull SO2 + water vapor H2SO4 (falls to earth in rain)
bull sulfur in soluble form is taken up by plant roots
incorporated into amino acids such as cysteine
bull travels through food chain
bull eventually released through decomposition
131
How is carbon recycled back to the
atmosphere in the carbon cycle
1 It is ldquofixedrdquo by bacteria
2 It is a product of cellular respiration
3 Burning of fossil fuels
4 2 and 3
5 All of the above
132
Why do commercial fertilizers usually
contain usable forms of nitrogen and
phosphorous
1 These chemicals are not efficiently recycled in
the soil
2 Nitrogen and phosphorous need to be ldquofixedrdquo
by bacteria or the plant
3 Nitrogen and phosphorous are found at high
levels in the atmosphere but not in the soil
4 Nitrogen and phosphorous only enter the soil
through erosion
133
Take-home message
bull Chemicals essential to lifemdashincluding carbon nitrogen and phosphorusmdashcycle through ecosystems
bull They are usually captured from the atmosphere soil or water by growing organisms passed from one trophic level to the next as organisms eat other organisms and returned to the environment through respiration decomposition and erosion
bull These cycles can be disrupted as human activities significantly increase the amounts of the chemicals utilized or released to the environment
134
Symbiotic Relationships
bull Symbiosis close relationship between organisms of
two different species
bull At least one participant gains some sort of benefit
(usually nutritional)
bull Types of symbiosis
bull Parasitism
bull Commensalism
bull Mutualism
bull Predation
135
Symbiotic Relationships in the
Ocean
bull Click here for an explanation of the
relationships of marine animals
including sharks rays and various
fishes
136
Parasitism bull Parasite derives nutrition from the host
bull This harms the host but a true parasite does
not usually kill its host (directly)
137
Ectoparasites
Remain outside the host
Ticks fleas leeches
138
Endoparasites
Live inside the hostrsquos body
Tapeworms malarial parasites
139
Parasite Transmission
bull Many parasites live on or in a single organism
bull Some will alternate between 2 or more host species
bull Vertical transmission ndash from mother offspring
bull Horizontal transmission ndash between members of a
population
bull Direct contact (head lice)
bull Vectors (mosquitos)
140
141
Commensalism
bull Neither species is totally dependent on the other
bull One benefits ndash no effect on the other
bull Feeding or protection
bull Porcelain anemone crabs and anemones
142
Mutualism
bull Both species benefit
bull Food or shelter
bull Examples
bull Plants and microbes (rhizobium in root nodules)
bull Plants and fungi (orchids and mycorrhizae)
bull Protists and fungi (lichen)
bull Plants and insects (pollination)
bull Animals and bacteria (ruminants)
bull Animals and other animals (crocodiles and
plover birds)
143
Mutualism shrimp and moray
Cleaner shrimp cleaning a zebra moray eel Mutualistic
relationships such as these promote the well-being of the
host fishes and provide food for those that do the cleaning 144
Rhizobium
Rhizobium in root nodules of certain plants convert
nitrogen in soil to usable form
145
Orchid Mycorrhizae
Fungi aid the plant in the uptake of nutrients
Fungi ingest some of the food from plant
photosynthesis 146
Lichen
Most of the lichen is composed of fungal filaments
but living among the filaments are algal cells
usually from a green alga or a cyanobacterium
The lichen fungus provides its partner(s) a benefit
(protection) and gains nutrients in return 147
Ruminants
Ruminants are characterized by their four-chambered
stomach and cud-chewing behavior Cud is a food bolus
that is regurgitated rechewed and reswallowed The
rumen is a large fermentation vat containing billions of
microorganisms including bacteria and protozoa which
allow ruminants to digest fibrous feeds such as grass and
hay that other animals cannot efficiently utilize 148
Crocodiles amp
Plover Birds
The bird gets into the crocodiles mouth and picks out
the tiny bits of food stuck in his teeth then eats it (the
tiny bits)
This cleans the crocodiles teeth and keeps his mouth
fresh and free from infections 149
Predation
bull Consumption of one living organism by
another
bull Predators must have offensive strategies
bull ways of finding catching and eating
their prey
bull Prey organisms must have defensive
strategies
bull ways of avoiding or discouraging this
activity
150
Predation
bull Encompasses all levels within an
ecological food chainweb
bull plant-herbivore systems
bull herbivore-carnivore systems
bull three-way interactions of
interdependent plant-herbivore-
carnivore systems
151
This goshawk is the tertiary consumer in his ecosystem
and the mouse in his beak is the secondary consumer
Beneath the mouse on the ecological pyramid lies his
foodsource likely a worm which fed on the primary
producer leafy plants 152
Ecosystem of Life in Floridas
Springs
bull Click here for a close-up look of life
in Floridas springs and the various
predator-prey interactions there
153
Challenge Question
bull An ecosystem is made of two components the biotic
environment or community consisting of the living
organisms within an area and the physical environment
or the habitat in which these organisms live
bull A habitat consists of its chemical resources of the soil
water and air as well as its physical conditions
bull List some of the aspects that make up the physical
conditions of a habitat
10
Ecosystems have living and non-
living components
A variety of biomes occur around the
world each determined by temperature
and rainfall
11
A variety of biomes occur around the world
each determined by temperature and
rainfall
bull What is the average temperature
bull What is the average rainfall (or other precipitation)
bull Is the temperature relatively constant or does it vary
seasonally
bull Is the rainfall relatively constant or does it vary
seasonally
12
13
14
15
Tropical Rain Forest
bull forest of tall trees in a region of year-round warmth
bull ~ 125 to 660 cm yearly rainfall
bull temperature ranges from 20 degC - 34 degC
bull average humidity 77 - 88
bull rainfall gt 250 cmyear (may be a brief dry season)
bull almost all rain forests lie near the equator
16
Tropical Rain Forest
bull lt 6 of Earths land surface
bull gt 50 of all the worlds plant and animal species live in
tropical rain forests
bull produce ~40 of Earths oxygen
bull ~70 of the plants in the rainforest are trees
bull ~25 of all the medicines we use come from rainforest
plants
17
Tropical Rain Forest
18
Indicator Species
bull any biological species that defines a trait
or characteristic of the environment
bull may delineate an ecoregion
bull could indicate an environmental condition such as
a disease outbreak pollution species competition
or climate change
bull can be among most sensitive species in a region
sometimes act as early warning to monitoring biologists
19
Tropical Rain Forest ndash Indicator Plant Species
20
Tropical Rain Forest ndash Indicator Animal Species Gorilla
Gorilla gorilla
Orangutan (Pongo pygmaeus)
Spider Monkey
Ateles geoffreyi
21
Tropical Rain Forest ndash Indicator Animal Species 2-toed sloth
Cholepus
hoffmanni
Three-toed Sloth (Bradypus
variegatus) with baby - Costa Rica 22
Tropical Rain Forest ndash Indicator Animal Species
Collared Aracari
Pteroglossus torquatus
23
Grasslands (Prairie)
bull 2 different types
bull tall-grass humid amp very wet
bull short-grass dry hotter summers and colder winters
than the tall-grass prairie
bull found in middle latitudes in the interiors of continents
bull either moist continental climates or dry subtropical
climates
bull Argentina ndash grasslands are known as pampas
bull Russia ndash steppes
bull grasslands in southern hemisphere tend to get more
precipitation than those in the northern hemisphere
24
Grasslands (Prairie)
25
Grasslands (Prairie)
bull temperatures range from -40deg F 70deg F
bull growing season and a dormant season
bull growing season is when there is no frost and plants
can grow (which lasts from 100 to 175 days)
bull tropical and subtropical grasslands the length of
the growing season is determined by how long the
rainy season lasts
bull temperate grasslands the length of the growing
season is determined by temperature (ge 50deg F)
bull dormant (not growing) season nothing can grow
because its too cold
26
Grasslands (Prairie)
bull average rainfall per year ranges from 10 - 30 inches
bull tropical and sub-tropical grasslands average rainfall
per year ranges from 25 - 60 inches
bull amount of rainfall is very important in determining which
areas are grasslands
bull hard for trees to compete with grasses in places
where the uppers layers of soil are moist during part
of the year but where deeper layer of soil are always
dry
27
Grasslands (Prairie)
28
Grasslandsndash Indicator Plant Species Old Field Habitat Ohio
Grassland North Dakota
Ironweed
(Vernonia sp) with
Hedge Bindweed
Vine (Calystegia sepium) 29
Grasslandsndash Indicator Plant Species
Ironweed (Vernonia sp)
Joe Pye Weed
Eupatorium purpureum
30
Grasslands ndash Indicator Plant Species
Common Teasel
Dipsacus fullonum Queen Annes Lace (Daucus carota)
31
Grasslands ndash Indicator Animal Species
Bison (Bison bison) on the range
Theodore Roosevelt National Park North
Dakota
32
Grasslands ndash Indicator Animal Species
Przewalskis horse (Equus caballus
przewalskii) The Wilds Ohio
33
Grasslands ndash Indicator Animal Species
34
Taiga
bull Russian word for forest
bull largest biome in the world
bull Eurasia North America
bull located just below the tundra biome
bull many coniferous trees
bull aka boreal forest Boreal was the Greek goddess of the
North Wind
35
Taiga
bull winter temperature range is -54 to -1deg C (-65 to 30deg F)
bull summer -7deg C (20deg F) to 21deg C (70deg F)
bull summers are very short (50 - 100 frost free days)
bull average yearly precipitation 30 - 85 cm (12 - 33 in)
bull main seasons are winter and summer
bull spring and autumn are very short
bull weather is either hot and humid or very cold
36
Taiga
37
Taiga ndash Indicator Plant Species
Balsam Fir
Abies balsamea
Black Spruce
Picea mariana
38
Taiga ndash Indicator Plant Species
Jack Pine
Pinus banksiana
Paper Birch
Betula papyrifera
White Poplar
Populus alba
39
Taiga ndash Indicator Animal Species
American Black Bear
Ursus americanus
Bald Eagle
Haliaeetus leucocephalus 40
Taiga ndash Indicator Animal Species
Long-eared Owl
Aiso otus
Snowshoe Rabbit
Lepus americanus
41
Desert
bull cover about one fifth of Earths land surface
bull hot and dry near Tropic of CancerTropic of
Capricorn
bull cold near the Arctic
bull temperature
bull hot amp dry ~ 25deg C to ~ 49deg C
bull cold -2 to 4deg C (winter) 21 to 26deg C (summer)
bull precipitation
bull hot amp dry very little rainfall andor concentrated
rainfall in short periods between long rainless periods
(lt 15 cmyear)
bull cold 15 - 26 cmyear 42
Desert
43
Desert ndash Indicator Plant Species
44
Desert ndash Indicator Plant Species
Saguaro Cactus
Carnegiea gigantea
Fishhook Cactus
Mammillaria microcarpa
45
Desert ndash Indicator Plant Species
Trichomes
46
Desert ndash Indicator Animal Species
Zebratail Lizard - Callisaurus draconides
47
Desert ndash Indicator Animal Species
Rock hyrax (Procavia capensis) 48
Desert ndash Indicator Animal Species
Bactrian Camel Camelus bactrianus
49
Temperate Deciduous Forest
bull temperature 0 - 20 C
bull precipitation ~ 50 ndash 200 cmyear
50
Temperate Deciduous Forest
51
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Plant Species
Oaks (Quercus sp)
Dutchmans-Breeches
Dicentra cucullaria 52
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Plant Species
Sassafras
Sassafras albidum
Redbud
Cercis canadensis
53
Temperate Deciduous Forest ndash Succession
bull orderly succession of communities to a climax
community (biome)
bull two main types of succession
bull primary succession begins with bare rock exposed
by geologic activity
bull secondary succession begins on soil from which
previous community has been removed (by fire
agriculture etc)
bull secondary succession can proceed much faster
because the soil has been prepared by the
previous community
54
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
American Toad
Bufo americanus
Box Turtle
55
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
Eastern Chipmunk
Tamias striatus
Eastern Gray Squirrel
Sciurus carolinensis
56
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
Yellow-breasted chat
Icteria virens 57
Tundra
bull annual average temperature lt 5 C
bull precipitation (mostly in the form of snow) lt 100 mmyear
bull summer is brief
bull temperatures above freezing last only a few weeks at
most
bull warm summer coincides with periods of almost 24
hour daylight so plant growth can be explosive
58
Tundra
Anaktuvuk Pass Alaska
59
Tundra ndash Indicator Plant Species
Arctic Tundra Wildflowers - Alaska
60
Tundra ndash Indicator Plant Species
Lichen
Polytrichum Moss
(photographed in Ohio not on the
Tundra)
61
Tundra ndash Indicator Animal Species
Reindeer
Rangifer tarandus
62
Tundra ndash Indicator Animal Species
Caribou On Autumn Tundra Denali National Park Alaska
63
Savanna
bull rolling grassland scattered with shrubs and isolated trees
bull found between a tropical rainforest and desert biome
bull not enough rain falls on a savanna to support forests
bull found in a wide band on either side of the equator on
the edges of tropical rainforests
bull warm temperature year round
bull very long dry season (winter) ~ 10 cm rain none at all
from Dec - Feb
bull very wet season (summer) ~ 35-65 cm rain
64
Savanna
65
Savanna ndash Indicator Plant Species
Baobab
Adansonia digitata Umbrella Thorn Acacia
Acacia tortillis
66
Savanna ndash Indicator Animal Species
Savanna Elephant
Loxodonta africana
Black Mamba
Dendroaspis polylepis
Lion
Panthera leo
67
Chaparral
bull winter mild and moist but not rainy
bull summer very hot and dry
bull annual temperature range between -1deg and 38deg C
bull annual precipitation ~ 25-45 cm mostly in the winter
68
Chaparral
69
Chaparral ndash Indicator Plant Species
Blue Oak
Quercus douglasii
Common Sagebrush
Artemisia tridentata
Olive Tree
Olea europaea
70
Chaparral ndash Indicator Animal Species
Black-tailed Jackrabbit
Lepus californicus Golden Jackal
Canis aureus
Spotted Skunk
Spilogale gracilis
71
The Freshwater Biome
bull low salt concentration mdash usually less than 1
bull plants and animals in freshwater regions are adjusted to
the low salt content and would not be able to survive in
areas of high salt concentration (ie ocean)
bull 3 different types of freshwater regions
bull ponds and lakes
bull streams and rivers
bull wetlands
72
The Freshwater Biome ndash Ponds and Lakes
From left a view across Manzanita Lake toward Mt Lassen California a
forest pond near Donnelly Idaho a Great Blue Heron Paranagat Lake
southeastern Nevada
73
The Freshwater Biome ndash Streams and
Rivers
From left McArthur-Burney Falls State Park California trout Green
River Utah Brooks River Alaska
74
The Freshwater Biome - Wetlands
From left Pescadero Marsh California coastal marsh at Umpqua
Dunes Oregon trees and bogs on Esther Island Alaska
75
The Marine Biome
bull cover about three-fourths of the Earths surface
bull marine algae supply much of the worlds oxygen supply
and take in a huge amount of atmospheric carbon
dioxide
bull evaporation of the seawater provides rainwater for the
land
bull 3 different types of marine regions
bull oceans
bull coral reefs
bull estuaries
76
The Marine Biome - Oceans
From left mussels worms and a spider crab at a hydrocarbon seep
community in the Gulf of Mexico a sea fan and brain coral in the Florida
Keys National Marine Sanctuary a school of Atlantic amberjack off North
Carolina
77
The Marine Biome ndash Coral Reefs
From left reef life in the Gulf of Aqaba Red Sea a reef at Fanning
Island atoll in the central Pacific a reef in the Florida Keys National
Marine Sanctuary
78
The Marine Biome - Estuaries
From left Mangrove roots south Florida wetlands and tidal streams
in the Ashe Island area ACE Basin National Estuarine Research
Reserve South Carolina a salt marsh in Winyah Bay National
Estuarine Research Reserve South Carolina
79
Ecological Notes
These are the biomes in order of their productivity (highest
first)
1 estuaries and tropical rain forest (highest)
2 temperate forest
3 agricultural land
4 temperate grassland
5 lakes and streams
6 coastal zone
7 tundra
8 open ocean
9 desert (lowest)
80
Ecological Notes
In order to be productive and have a lot of living material
standing around (biomass) an ecosystem has to have 4
basic necessities for plant life to thrive (if there are
enough plants the ecosystem will also support a lot of
animals) The four things are
1 Sunlight
2 Nutrients
3 Warm temperatures
4 Water
81
Biomes Video
82
Take-Home Message
bull Biomes are the major ecological communities of earth
characterized mostly by the vegetation present
bull Different biomes result from differences in temperature
and precipitation and the extent to which they vary from
season to season
83
Challenge Question
bull Terrestrial biomes are determined by the temperature
and precipitation amounts as well as whether those
factors are constant or vary by season
bull By contrast how are aquatic biomes determined
84
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy flows from producers to
consumers
85
86
87
First Stop Primary Producers
bull ecosystem producers or consumers
bull primary producers plants algae (some) bacteria
bull convert light energy from sun into chemical energy
through photosynthesis
bull chemical energy = food
bull consumers eat or absorb their food
bull energy stored in chemical bonds of carbohydrate
protein and lipid molecules is captured and
harnessed for consumersrsquo own movement
reproduction and growth
88
Food Chain
89
Food Web
90
Food Web
91
Food Chains amp Food Webs
bull A change in one link in a food chain will affect the other
links
bull The table on the next slide gives one example of a food
chain and the trophic levels represented in it
92
Food Chains amp Food Webs
93
GRASS
GRASSHOPPER
TOAD
SNAKE
HAWK
BACTERIA
IN GENERAL
AUTOTROPHS
(PRODUCERS)
HERBIVORES
(PRIMARY
CONSUMERS)
CARNIVORES
(2 3 ETC)
DECOMPOSERS
94
Chain Reaction Game
95
Energy Flows through a Food Web
bull Losses at every ldquosteprdquo in a food chain
bull Inefficiency of energy transfers
96
Energy flow through a food chain
Energy flow refers to the way that energy is transformed through
a food chain (pictured here) containing a series of levels
including plants consumers predators and decomposers 97
Amount of energy available at each of the
four levels of an ecosystem
Ecological pyramids illustrate the amount of energy
available at each of the four levels of an ecosystem 98
Ecological Pyramid
99
A grasshopper eats a plant A mouse eats the
grasshopper A snake eats the mouse A hawk
could eat the snake or the mouse In this food
web how would we categorize the hawk
1 Producer
2 Primary consumer
3 Secondary consumer
4 Tertiary consumer
5 Quaternary consumer
6 4 and 5
100
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps
bull First it is converted to chemical energy in
photosynthesis
bull Herbivores then consume the primary producers the
herbivores are consumed by carnivores and the
carnivores in turn may be consumed by top carnivores
101
Take-home message
bull Detritivores and decomposers extract energy from
organic waste and the remains of organisms that have
died
bull At each step in a food chain some usable energy is lost
as heat
102
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy pyramids reveal the inefficiency of
food chains
103
Biomass
bull biomass total weight of all living organisms in a given
area
bull only about 10 of the plants in an ecosystem is
converted into biomass
bull Food Energy Pyramid
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
bull African savannas and grasslands sustain more species
of higher-order carnivores than any other terrestrial
ecosystem
104
105
Food Energy Pyramids
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
106
107
108
You go out to eat at a fancy restaurant You
have a salad salmon and for dessert ice
cream Which part of the meal was the most
energy efficient food for you to eat
1 Salad
2 Salmon
3 Ice cream
4 2 and 3
109
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps known as trophic levels
bull Energy pyramids reveal that the biomass of primary
producers in an ecosystem tends to be far greater than
the biomass of herbivores
bull The biomass transferred at each step along the food chain tends to be only about 10 of the biomass of the organisms being consumed due to energy lost in cellular respiration
bull As a consequence of this inefficiency food chains rarely exceed four levels
110
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Essential chemicals cycle through
ecosystems
111
Chemical Reservoirs
bull Each chemical is stored in a non-living part of the environment
bull Organisms acquire the chemical from the reservoir a non-living part of the environment
bull The chemical cycles through the food chain (biogeochemical cycles)
bull Eventually the chemical is returned to the reservoir
112
Hydrologic Cycle and the Florida Springs
bull Click here for a description of how falling rain feeds underground aquifers in Florida and forms springs
113
The Most Important Chemical Cycles
1) Carbon
2) Nitrogen
3) Phosphorus
4) Sulfur
114
115
The
Carbon
Cycle
116
The Carbon Cycle
Keeping Up With Carbon
NASA video provides key information on the carbon cycle
117
118
Carbon Cycle Game
Fossil Fuels
bull created when large numbers of organisms die and are buried in sediment lacking oxygen
bull In absence of oxygen at high pressures and after very long periods of time organic remains are ultimately transformed into coal oil and natural gas
bull burning coal oil and natural gas releases large amounts of carbon dioxide
bull increases average CO2 concentration in the atmosphere
bull current level of CO2 in the atmosphere is the highest it has been in almost half a million years
119
Global CO2 levels are rising in
general but they also exhibit a
sharp rise and fall within each
year ndash why
120
121
The Nitrogen Cycle
122
The Nitrogen Cycle
Fertilizers
bull Because it is necessary for the production of every plant
protein and because all nitrogen must first be made
usable by bacteria plant growth is often limited by
nitrogen levels in the soil
bull For this reason most fertilizers contain nitrogen in a
form usable by plants
123
124
125
126
127
Oxygen reduction downstream of a source of
organic pollution
128
Algal growth and eutrophication in an Australian
outback waterway
129
Sulfur Cycle
bull component of protein
bull cycles in both a gas and sedimentary cycle
bull source earths crust
bull enters the atmosphere as hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
during fossil fuel combustion volcanic eruptions
gas exchange at ocean surfaces decomposition
130
Sulfur Cycle
bull H2S is immediately oxidized to sulfur dioxide (SO2)
bull SO2 + water vapor H2SO4 (falls to earth in rain)
bull sulfur in soluble form is taken up by plant roots
incorporated into amino acids such as cysteine
bull travels through food chain
bull eventually released through decomposition
131
How is carbon recycled back to the
atmosphere in the carbon cycle
1 It is ldquofixedrdquo by bacteria
2 It is a product of cellular respiration
3 Burning of fossil fuels
4 2 and 3
5 All of the above
132
Why do commercial fertilizers usually
contain usable forms of nitrogen and
phosphorous
1 These chemicals are not efficiently recycled in
the soil
2 Nitrogen and phosphorous need to be ldquofixedrdquo
by bacteria or the plant
3 Nitrogen and phosphorous are found at high
levels in the atmosphere but not in the soil
4 Nitrogen and phosphorous only enter the soil
through erosion
133
Take-home message
bull Chemicals essential to lifemdashincluding carbon nitrogen and phosphorusmdashcycle through ecosystems
bull They are usually captured from the atmosphere soil or water by growing organisms passed from one trophic level to the next as organisms eat other organisms and returned to the environment through respiration decomposition and erosion
bull These cycles can be disrupted as human activities significantly increase the amounts of the chemicals utilized or released to the environment
134
Symbiotic Relationships
bull Symbiosis close relationship between organisms of
two different species
bull At least one participant gains some sort of benefit
(usually nutritional)
bull Types of symbiosis
bull Parasitism
bull Commensalism
bull Mutualism
bull Predation
135
Symbiotic Relationships in the
Ocean
bull Click here for an explanation of the
relationships of marine animals
including sharks rays and various
fishes
136
Parasitism bull Parasite derives nutrition from the host
bull This harms the host but a true parasite does
not usually kill its host (directly)
137
Ectoparasites
Remain outside the host
Ticks fleas leeches
138
Endoparasites
Live inside the hostrsquos body
Tapeworms malarial parasites
139
Parasite Transmission
bull Many parasites live on or in a single organism
bull Some will alternate between 2 or more host species
bull Vertical transmission ndash from mother offspring
bull Horizontal transmission ndash between members of a
population
bull Direct contact (head lice)
bull Vectors (mosquitos)
140
141
Commensalism
bull Neither species is totally dependent on the other
bull One benefits ndash no effect on the other
bull Feeding or protection
bull Porcelain anemone crabs and anemones
142
Mutualism
bull Both species benefit
bull Food or shelter
bull Examples
bull Plants and microbes (rhizobium in root nodules)
bull Plants and fungi (orchids and mycorrhizae)
bull Protists and fungi (lichen)
bull Plants and insects (pollination)
bull Animals and bacteria (ruminants)
bull Animals and other animals (crocodiles and
plover birds)
143
Mutualism shrimp and moray
Cleaner shrimp cleaning a zebra moray eel Mutualistic
relationships such as these promote the well-being of the
host fishes and provide food for those that do the cleaning 144
Rhizobium
Rhizobium in root nodules of certain plants convert
nitrogen in soil to usable form
145
Orchid Mycorrhizae
Fungi aid the plant in the uptake of nutrients
Fungi ingest some of the food from plant
photosynthesis 146
Lichen
Most of the lichen is composed of fungal filaments
but living among the filaments are algal cells
usually from a green alga or a cyanobacterium
The lichen fungus provides its partner(s) a benefit
(protection) and gains nutrients in return 147
Ruminants
Ruminants are characterized by their four-chambered
stomach and cud-chewing behavior Cud is a food bolus
that is regurgitated rechewed and reswallowed The
rumen is a large fermentation vat containing billions of
microorganisms including bacteria and protozoa which
allow ruminants to digest fibrous feeds such as grass and
hay that other animals cannot efficiently utilize 148
Crocodiles amp
Plover Birds
The bird gets into the crocodiles mouth and picks out
the tiny bits of food stuck in his teeth then eats it (the
tiny bits)
This cleans the crocodiles teeth and keeps his mouth
fresh and free from infections 149
Predation
bull Consumption of one living organism by
another
bull Predators must have offensive strategies
bull ways of finding catching and eating
their prey
bull Prey organisms must have defensive
strategies
bull ways of avoiding or discouraging this
activity
150
Predation
bull Encompasses all levels within an
ecological food chainweb
bull plant-herbivore systems
bull herbivore-carnivore systems
bull three-way interactions of
interdependent plant-herbivore-
carnivore systems
151
This goshawk is the tertiary consumer in his ecosystem
and the mouse in his beak is the secondary consumer
Beneath the mouse on the ecological pyramid lies his
foodsource likely a worm which fed on the primary
producer leafy plants 152
Ecosystem of Life in Floridas
Springs
bull Click here for a close-up look of life
in Floridas springs and the various
predator-prey interactions there
153
Ecosystems have living and non-
living components
A variety of biomes occur around the
world each determined by temperature
and rainfall
11
A variety of biomes occur around the world
each determined by temperature and
rainfall
bull What is the average temperature
bull What is the average rainfall (or other precipitation)
bull Is the temperature relatively constant or does it vary
seasonally
bull Is the rainfall relatively constant or does it vary
seasonally
12
13
14
15
Tropical Rain Forest
bull forest of tall trees in a region of year-round warmth
bull ~ 125 to 660 cm yearly rainfall
bull temperature ranges from 20 degC - 34 degC
bull average humidity 77 - 88
bull rainfall gt 250 cmyear (may be a brief dry season)
bull almost all rain forests lie near the equator
16
Tropical Rain Forest
bull lt 6 of Earths land surface
bull gt 50 of all the worlds plant and animal species live in
tropical rain forests
bull produce ~40 of Earths oxygen
bull ~70 of the plants in the rainforest are trees
bull ~25 of all the medicines we use come from rainforest
plants
17
Tropical Rain Forest
18
Indicator Species
bull any biological species that defines a trait
or characteristic of the environment
bull may delineate an ecoregion
bull could indicate an environmental condition such as
a disease outbreak pollution species competition
or climate change
bull can be among most sensitive species in a region
sometimes act as early warning to monitoring biologists
19
Tropical Rain Forest ndash Indicator Plant Species
20
Tropical Rain Forest ndash Indicator Animal Species Gorilla
Gorilla gorilla
Orangutan (Pongo pygmaeus)
Spider Monkey
Ateles geoffreyi
21
Tropical Rain Forest ndash Indicator Animal Species 2-toed sloth
Cholepus
hoffmanni
Three-toed Sloth (Bradypus
variegatus) with baby - Costa Rica 22
Tropical Rain Forest ndash Indicator Animal Species
Collared Aracari
Pteroglossus torquatus
23
Grasslands (Prairie)
bull 2 different types
bull tall-grass humid amp very wet
bull short-grass dry hotter summers and colder winters
than the tall-grass prairie
bull found in middle latitudes in the interiors of continents
bull either moist continental climates or dry subtropical
climates
bull Argentina ndash grasslands are known as pampas
bull Russia ndash steppes
bull grasslands in southern hemisphere tend to get more
precipitation than those in the northern hemisphere
24
Grasslands (Prairie)
25
Grasslands (Prairie)
bull temperatures range from -40deg F 70deg F
bull growing season and a dormant season
bull growing season is when there is no frost and plants
can grow (which lasts from 100 to 175 days)
bull tropical and subtropical grasslands the length of
the growing season is determined by how long the
rainy season lasts
bull temperate grasslands the length of the growing
season is determined by temperature (ge 50deg F)
bull dormant (not growing) season nothing can grow
because its too cold
26
Grasslands (Prairie)
bull average rainfall per year ranges from 10 - 30 inches
bull tropical and sub-tropical grasslands average rainfall
per year ranges from 25 - 60 inches
bull amount of rainfall is very important in determining which
areas are grasslands
bull hard for trees to compete with grasses in places
where the uppers layers of soil are moist during part
of the year but where deeper layer of soil are always
dry
27
Grasslands (Prairie)
28
Grasslandsndash Indicator Plant Species Old Field Habitat Ohio
Grassland North Dakota
Ironweed
(Vernonia sp) with
Hedge Bindweed
Vine (Calystegia sepium) 29
Grasslandsndash Indicator Plant Species
Ironweed (Vernonia sp)
Joe Pye Weed
Eupatorium purpureum
30
Grasslands ndash Indicator Plant Species
Common Teasel
Dipsacus fullonum Queen Annes Lace (Daucus carota)
31
Grasslands ndash Indicator Animal Species
Bison (Bison bison) on the range
Theodore Roosevelt National Park North
Dakota
32
Grasslands ndash Indicator Animal Species
Przewalskis horse (Equus caballus
przewalskii) The Wilds Ohio
33
Grasslands ndash Indicator Animal Species
34
Taiga
bull Russian word for forest
bull largest biome in the world
bull Eurasia North America
bull located just below the tundra biome
bull many coniferous trees
bull aka boreal forest Boreal was the Greek goddess of the
North Wind
35
Taiga
bull winter temperature range is -54 to -1deg C (-65 to 30deg F)
bull summer -7deg C (20deg F) to 21deg C (70deg F)
bull summers are very short (50 - 100 frost free days)
bull average yearly precipitation 30 - 85 cm (12 - 33 in)
bull main seasons are winter and summer
bull spring and autumn are very short
bull weather is either hot and humid or very cold
36
Taiga
37
Taiga ndash Indicator Plant Species
Balsam Fir
Abies balsamea
Black Spruce
Picea mariana
38
Taiga ndash Indicator Plant Species
Jack Pine
Pinus banksiana
Paper Birch
Betula papyrifera
White Poplar
Populus alba
39
Taiga ndash Indicator Animal Species
American Black Bear
Ursus americanus
Bald Eagle
Haliaeetus leucocephalus 40
Taiga ndash Indicator Animal Species
Long-eared Owl
Aiso otus
Snowshoe Rabbit
Lepus americanus
41
Desert
bull cover about one fifth of Earths land surface
bull hot and dry near Tropic of CancerTropic of
Capricorn
bull cold near the Arctic
bull temperature
bull hot amp dry ~ 25deg C to ~ 49deg C
bull cold -2 to 4deg C (winter) 21 to 26deg C (summer)
bull precipitation
bull hot amp dry very little rainfall andor concentrated
rainfall in short periods between long rainless periods
(lt 15 cmyear)
bull cold 15 - 26 cmyear 42
Desert
43
Desert ndash Indicator Plant Species
44
Desert ndash Indicator Plant Species
Saguaro Cactus
Carnegiea gigantea
Fishhook Cactus
Mammillaria microcarpa
45
Desert ndash Indicator Plant Species
Trichomes
46
Desert ndash Indicator Animal Species
Zebratail Lizard - Callisaurus draconides
47
Desert ndash Indicator Animal Species
Rock hyrax (Procavia capensis) 48
Desert ndash Indicator Animal Species
Bactrian Camel Camelus bactrianus
49
Temperate Deciduous Forest
bull temperature 0 - 20 C
bull precipitation ~ 50 ndash 200 cmyear
50
Temperate Deciduous Forest
51
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Plant Species
Oaks (Quercus sp)
Dutchmans-Breeches
Dicentra cucullaria 52
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Plant Species
Sassafras
Sassafras albidum
Redbud
Cercis canadensis
53
Temperate Deciduous Forest ndash Succession
bull orderly succession of communities to a climax
community (biome)
bull two main types of succession
bull primary succession begins with bare rock exposed
by geologic activity
bull secondary succession begins on soil from which
previous community has been removed (by fire
agriculture etc)
bull secondary succession can proceed much faster
because the soil has been prepared by the
previous community
54
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
American Toad
Bufo americanus
Box Turtle
55
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
Eastern Chipmunk
Tamias striatus
Eastern Gray Squirrel
Sciurus carolinensis
56
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
Yellow-breasted chat
Icteria virens 57
Tundra
bull annual average temperature lt 5 C
bull precipitation (mostly in the form of snow) lt 100 mmyear
bull summer is brief
bull temperatures above freezing last only a few weeks at
most
bull warm summer coincides with periods of almost 24
hour daylight so plant growth can be explosive
58
Tundra
Anaktuvuk Pass Alaska
59
Tundra ndash Indicator Plant Species
Arctic Tundra Wildflowers - Alaska
60
Tundra ndash Indicator Plant Species
Lichen
Polytrichum Moss
(photographed in Ohio not on the
Tundra)
61
Tundra ndash Indicator Animal Species
Reindeer
Rangifer tarandus
62
Tundra ndash Indicator Animal Species
Caribou On Autumn Tundra Denali National Park Alaska
63
Savanna
bull rolling grassland scattered with shrubs and isolated trees
bull found between a tropical rainforest and desert biome
bull not enough rain falls on a savanna to support forests
bull found in a wide band on either side of the equator on
the edges of tropical rainforests
bull warm temperature year round
bull very long dry season (winter) ~ 10 cm rain none at all
from Dec - Feb
bull very wet season (summer) ~ 35-65 cm rain
64
Savanna
65
Savanna ndash Indicator Plant Species
Baobab
Adansonia digitata Umbrella Thorn Acacia
Acacia tortillis
66
Savanna ndash Indicator Animal Species
Savanna Elephant
Loxodonta africana
Black Mamba
Dendroaspis polylepis
Lion
Panthera leo
67
Chaparral
bull winter mild and moist but not rainy
bull summer very hot and dry
bull annual temperature range between -1deg and 38deg C
bull annual precipitation ~ 25-45 cm mostly in the winter
68
Chaparral
69
Chaparral ndash Indicator Plant Species
Blue Oak
Quercus douglasii
Common Sagebrush
Artemisia tridentata
Olive Tree
Olea europaea
70
Chaparral ndash Indicator Animal Species
Black-tailed Jackrabbit
Lepus californicus Golden Jackal
Canis aureus
Spotted Skunk
Spilogale gracilis
71
The Freshwater Biome
bull low salt concentration mdash usually less than 1
bull plants and animals in freshwater regions are adjusted to
the low salt content and would not be able to survive in
areas of high salt concentration (ie ocean)
bull 3 different types of freshwater regions
bull ponds and lakes
bull streams and rivers
bull wetlands
72
The Freshwater Biome ndash Ponds and Lakes
From left a view across Manzanita Lake toward Mt Lassen California a
forest pond near Donnelly Idaho a Great Blue Heron Paranagat Lake
southeastern Nevada
73
The Freshwater Biome ndash Streams and
Rivers
From left McArthur-Burney Falls State Park California trout Green
River Utah Brooks River Alaska
74
The Freshwater Biome - Wetlands
From left Pescadero Marsh California coastal marsh at Umpqua
Dunes Oregon trees and bogs on Esther Island Alaska
75
The Marine Biome
bull cover about three-fourths of the Earths surface
bull marine algae supply much of the worlds oxygen supply
and take in a huge amount of atmospheric carbon
dioxide
bull evaporation of the seawater provides rainwater for the
land
bull 3 different types of marine regions
bull oceans
bull coral reefs
bull estuaries
76
The Marine Biome - Oceans
From left mussels worms and a spider crab at a hydrocarbon seep
community in the Gulf of Mexico a sea fan and brain coral in the Florida
Keys National Marine Sanctuary a school of Atlantic amberjack off North
Carolina
77
The Marine Biome ndash Coral Reefs
From left reef life in the Gulf of Aqaba Red Sea a reef at Fanning
Island atoll in the central Pacific a reef in the Florida Keys National
Marine Sanctuary
78
The Marine Biome - Estuaries
From left Mangrove roots south Florida wetlands and tidal streams
in the Ashe Island area ACE Basin National Estuarine Research
Reserve South Carolina a salt marsh in Winyah Bay National
Estuarine Research Reserve South Carolina
79
Ecological Notes
These are the biomes in order of their productivity (highest
first)
1 estuaries and tropical rain forest (highest)
2 temperate forest
3 agricultural land
4 temperate grassland
5 lakes and streams
6 coastal zone
7 tundra
8 open ocean
9 desert (lowest)
80
Ecological Notes
In order to be productive and have a lot of living material
standing around (biomass) an ecosystem has to have 4
basic necessities for plant life to thrive (if there are
enough plants the ecosystem will also support a lot of
animals) The four things are
1 Sunlight
2 Nutrients
3 Warm temperatures
4 Water
81
Biomes Video
82
Take-Home Message
bull Biomes are the major ecological communities of earth
characterized mostly by the vegetation present
bull Different biomes result from differences in temperature
and precipitation and the extent to which they vary from
season to season
83
Challenge Question
bull Terrestrial biomes are determined by the temperature
and precipitation amounts as well as whether those
factors are constant or vary by season
bull By contrast how are aquatic biomes determined
84
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy flows from producers to
consumers
85
86
87
First Stop Primary Producers
bull ecosystem producers or consumers
bull primary producers plants algae (some) bacteria
bull convert light energy from sun into chemical energy
through photosynthesis
bull chemical energy = food
bull consumers eat or absorb their food
bull energy stored in chemical bonds of carbohydrate
protein and lipid molecules is captured and
harnessed for consumersrsquo own movement
reproduction and growth
88
Food Chain
89
Food Web
90
Food Web
91
Food Chains amp Food Webs
bull A change in one link in a food chain will affect the other
links
bull The table on the next slide gives one example of a food
chain and the trophic levels represented in it
92
Food Chains amp Food Webs
93
GRASS
GRASSHOPPER
TOAD
SNAKE
HAWK
BACTERIA
IN GENERAL
AUTOTROPHS
(PRODUCERS)
HERBIVORES
(PRIMARY
CONSUMERS)
CARNIVORES
(2 3 ETC)
DECOMPOSERS
94
Chain Reaction Game
95
Energy Flows through a Food Web
bull Losses at every ldquosteprdquo in a food chain
bull Inefficiency of energy transfers
96
Energy flow through a food chain
Energy flow refers to the way that energy is transformed through
a food chain (pictured here) containing a series of levels
including plants consumers predators and decomposers 97
Amount of energy available at each of the
four levels of an ecosystem
Ecological pyramids illustrate the amount of energy
available at each of the four levels of an ecosystem 98
Ecological Pyramid
99
A grasshopper eats a plant A mouse eats the
grasshopper A snake eats the mouse A hawk
could eat the snake or the mouse In this food
web how would we categorize the hawk
1 Producer
2 Primary consumer
3 Secondary consumer
4 Tertiary consumer
5 Quaternary consumer
6 4 and 5
100
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps
bull First it is converted to chemical energy in
photosynthesis
bull Herbivores then consume the primary producers the
herbivores are consumed by carnivores and the
carnivores in turn may be consumed by top carnivores
101
Take-home message
bull Detritivores and decomposers extract energy from
organic waste and the remains of organisms that have
died
bull At each step in a food chain some usable energy is lost
as heat
102
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy pyramids reveal the inefficiency of
food chains
103
Biomass
bull biomass total weight of all living organisms in a given
area
bull only about 10 of the plants in an ecosystem is
converted into biomass
bull Food Energy Pyramid
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
bull African savannas and grasslands sustain more species
of higher-order carnivores than any other terrestrial
ecosystem
104
105
Food Energy Pyramids
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
106
107
108
You go out to eat at a fancy restaurant You
have a salad salmon and for dessert ice
cream Which part of the meal was the most
energy efficient food for you to eat
1 Salad
2 Salmon
3 Ice cream
4 2 and 3
109
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps known as trophic levels
bull Energy pyramids reveal that the biomass of primary
producers in an ecosystem tends to be far greater than
the biomass of herbivores
bull The biomass transferred at each step along the food chain tends to be only about 10 of the biomass of the organisms being consumed due to energy lost in cellular respiration
bull As a consequence of this inefficiency food chains rarely exceed four levels
110
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Essential chemicals cycle through
ecosystems
111
Chemical Reservoirs
bull Each chemical is stored in a non-living part of the environment
bull Organisms acquire the chemical from the reservoir a non-living part of the environment
bull The chemical cycles through the food chain (biogeochemical cycles)
bull Eventually the chemical is returned to the reservoir
112
Hydrologic Cycle and the Florida Springs
bull Click here for a description of how falling rain feeds underground aquifers in Florida and forms springs
113
The Most Important Chemical Cycles
1) Carbon
2) Nitrogen
3) Phosphorus
4) Sulfur
114
115
The
Carbon
Cycle
116
The Carbon Cycle
Keeping Up With Carbon
NASA video provides key information on the carbon cycle
117
118
Carbon Cycle Game
Fossil Fuels
bull created when large numbers of organisms die and are buried in sediment lacking oxygen
bull In absence of oxygen at high pressures and after very long periods of time organic remains are ultimately transformed into coal oil and natural gas
bull burning coal oil and natural gas releases large amounts of carbon dioxide
bull increases average CO2 concentration in the atmosphere
bull current level of CO2 in the atmosphere is the highest it has been in almost half a million years
119
Global CO2 levels are rising in
general but they also exhibit a
sharp rise and fall within each
year ndash why
120
121
The Nitrogen Cycle
122
The Nitrogen Cycle
Fertilizers
bull Because it is necessary for the production of every plant
protein and because all nitrogen must first be made
usable by bacteria plant growth is often limited by
nitrogen levels in the soil
bull For this reason most fertilizers contain nitrogen in a
form usable by plants
123
124
125
126
127
Oxygen reduction downstream of a source of
organic pollution
128
Algal growth and eutrophication in an Australian
outback waterway
129
Sulfur Cycle
bull component of protein
bull cycles in both a gas and sedimentary cycle
bull source earths crust
bull enters the atmosphere as hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
during fossil fuel combustion volcanic eruptions
gas exchange at ocean surfaces decomposition
130
Sulfur Cycle
bull H2S is immediately oxidized to sulfur dioxide (SO2)
bull SO2 + water vapor H2SO4 (falls to earth in rain)
bull sulfur in soluble form is taken up by plant roots
incorporated into amino acids such as cysteine
bull travels through food chain
bull eventually released through decomposition
131
How is carbon recycled back to the
atmosphere in the carbon cycle
1 It is ldquofixedrdquo by bacteria
2 It is a product of cellular respiration
3 Burning of fossil fuels
4 2 and 3
5 All of the above
132
Why do commercial fertilizers usually
contain usable forms of nitrogen and
phosphorous
1 These chemicals are not efficiently recycled in
the soil
2 Nitrogen and phosphorous need to be ldquofixedrdquo
by bacteria or the plant
3 Nitrogen and phosphorous are found at high
levels in the atmosphere but not in the soil
4 Nitrogen and phosphorous only enter the soil
through erosion
133
Take-home message
bull Chemicals essential to lifemdashincluding carbon nitrogen and phosphorusmdashcycle through ecosystems
bull They are usually captured from the atmosphere soil or water by growing organisms passed from one trophic level to the next as organisms eat other organisms and returned to the environment through respiration decomposition and erosion
bull These cycles can be disrupted as human activities significantly increase the amounts of the chemicals utilized or released to the environment
134
Symbiotic Relationships
bull Symbiosis close relationship between organisms of
two different species
bull At least one participant gains some sort of benefit
(usually nutritional)
bull Types of symbiosis
bull Parasitism
bull Commensalism
bull Mutualism
bull Predation
135
Symbiotic Relationships in the
Ocean
bull Click here for an explanation of the
relationships of marine animals
including sharks rays and various
fishes
136
Parasitism bull Parasite derives nutrition from the host
bull This harms the host but a true parasite does
not usually kill its host (directly)
137
Ectoparasites
Remain outside the host
Ticks fleas leeches
138
Endoparasites
Live inside the hostrsquos body
Tapeworms malarial parasites
139
Parasite Transmission
bull Many parasites live on or in a single organism
bull Some will alternate between 2 or more host species
bull Vertical transmission ndash from mother offspring
bull Horizontal transmission ndash between members of a
population
bull Direct contact (head lice)
bull Vectors (mosquitos)
140
141
Commensalism
bull Neither species is totally dependent on the other
bull One benefits ndash no effect on the other
bull Feeding or protection
bull Porcelain anemone crabs and anemones
142
Mutualism
bull Both species benefit
bull Food or shelter
bull Examples
bull Plants and microbes (rhizobium in root nodules)
bull Plants and fungi (orchids and mycorrhizae)
bull Protists and fungi (lichen)
bull Plants and insects (pollination)
bull Animals and bacteria (ruminants)
bull Animals and other animals (crocodiles and
plover birds)
143
Mutualism shrimp and moray
Cleaner shrimp cleaning a zebra moray eel Mutualistic
relationships such as these promote the well-being of the
host fishes and provide food for those that do the cleaning 144
Rhizobium
Rhizobium in root nodules of certain plants convert
nitrogen in soil to usable form
145
Orchid Mycorrhizae
Fungi aid the plant in the uptake of nutrients
Fungi ingest some of the food from plant
photosynthesis 146
Lichen
Most of the lichen is composed of fungal filaments
but living among the filaments are algal cells
usually from a green alga or a cyanobacterium
The lichen fungus provides its partner(s) a benefit
(protection) and gains nutrients in return 147
Ruminants
Ruminants are characterized by their four-chambered
stomach and cud-chewing behavior Cud is a food bolus
that is regurgitated rechewed and reswallowed The
rumen is a large fermentation vat containing billions of
microorganisms including bacteria and protozoa which
allow ruminants to digest fibrous feeds such as grass and
hay that other animals cannot efficiently utilize 148
Crocodiles amp
Plover Birds
The bird gets into the crocodiles mouth and picks out
the tiny bits of food stuck in his teeth then eats it (the
tiny bits)
This cleans the crocodiles teeth and keeps his mouth
fresh and free from infections 149
Predation
bull Consumption of one living organism by
another
bull Predators must have offensive strategies
bull ways of finding catching and eating
their prey
bull Prey organisms must have defensive
strategies
bull ways of avoiding or discouraging this
activity
150
Predation
bull Encompasses all levels within an
ecological food chainweb
bull plant-herbivore systems
bull herbivore-carnivore systems
bull three-way interactions of
interdependent plant-herbivore-
carnivore systems
151
This goshawk is the tertiary consumer in his ecosystem
and the mouse in his beak is the secondary consumer
Beneath the mouse on the ecological pyramid lies his
foodsource likely a worm which fed on the primary
producer leafy plants 152
Ecosystem of Life in Floridas
Springs
bull Click here for a close-up look of life
in Floridas springs and the various
predator-prey interactions there
153
A variety of biomes occur around the world
each determined by temperature and
rainfall
bull What is the average temperature
bull What is the average rainfall (or other precipitation)
bull Is the temperature relatively constant or does it vary
seasonally
bull Is the rainfall relatively constant or does it vary
seasonally
12
13
14
15
Tropical Rain Forest
bull forest of tall trees in a region of year-round warmth
bull ~ 125 to 660 cm yearly rainfall
bull temperature ranges from 20 degC - 34 degC
bull average humidity 77 - 88
bull rainfall gt 250 cmyear (may be a brief dry season)
bull almost all rain forests lie near the equator
16
Tropical Rain Forest
bull lt 6 of Earths land surface
bull gt 50 of all the worlds plant and animal species live in
tropical rain forests
bull produce ~40 of Earths oxygen
bull ~70 of the plants in the rainforest are trees
bull ~25 of all the medicines we use come from rainforest
plants
17
Tropical Rain Forest
18
Indicator Species
bull any biological species that defines a trait
or characteristic of the environment
bull may delineate an ecoregion
bull could indicate an environmental condition such as
a disease outbreak pollution species competition
or climate change
bull can be among most sensitive species in a region
sometimes act as early warning to monitoring biologists
19
Tropical Rain Forest ndash Indicator Plant Species
20
Tropical Rain Forest ndash Indicator Animal Species Gorilla
Gorilla gorilla
Orangutan (Pongo pygmaeus)
Spider Monkey
Ateles geoffreyi
21
Tropical Rain Forest ndash Indicator Animal Species 2-toed sloth
Cholepus
hoffmanni
Three-toed Sloth (Bradypus
variegatus) with baby - Costa Rica 22
Tropical Rain Forest ndash Indicator Animal Species
Collared Aracari
Pteroglossus torquatus
23
Grasslands (Prairie)
bull 2 different types
bull tall-grass humid amp very wet
bull short-grass dry hotter summers and colder winters
than the tall-grass prairie
bull found in middle latitudes in the interiors of continents
bull either moist continental climates or dry subtropical
climates
bull Argentina ndash grasslands are known as pampas
bull Russia ndash steppes
bull grasslands in southern hemisphere tend to get more
precipitation than those in the northern hemisphere
24
Grasslands (Prairie)
25
Grasslands (Prairie)
bull temperatures range from -40deg F 70deg F
bull growing season and a dormant season
bull growing season is when there is no frost and plants
can grow (which lasts from 100 to 175 days)
bull tropical and subtropical grasslands the length of
the growing season is determined by how long the
rainy season lasts
bull temperate grasslands the length of the growing
season is determined by temperature (ge 50deg F)
bull dormant (not growing) season nothing can grow
because its too cold
26
Grasslands (Prairie)
bull average rainfall per year ranges from 10 - 30 inches
bull tropical and sub-tropical grasslands average rainfall
per year ranges from 25 - 60 inches
bull amount of rainfall is very important in determining which
areas are grasslands
bull hard for trees to compete with grasses in places
where the uppers layers of soil are moist during part
of the year but where deeper layer of soil are always
dry
27
Grasslands (Prairie)
28
Grasslandsndash Indicator Plant Species Old Field Habitat Ohio
Grassland North Dakota
Ironweed
(Vernonia sp) with
Hedge Bindweed
Vine (Calystegia sepium) 29
Grasslandsndash Indicator Plant Species
Ironweed (Vernonia sp)
Joe Pye Weed
Eupatorium purpureum
30
Grasslands ndash Indicator Plant Species
Common Teasel
Dipsacus fullonum Queen Annes Lace (Daucus carota)
31
Grasslands ndash Indicator Animal Species
Bison (Bison bison) on the range
Theodore Roosevelt National Park North
Dakota
32
Grasslands ndash Indicator Animal Species
Przewalskis horse (Equus caballus
przewalskii) The Wilds Ohio
33
Grasslands ndash Indicator Animal Species
34
Taiga
bull Russian word for forest
bull largest biome in the world
bull Eurasia North America
bull located just below the tundra biome
bull many coniferous trees
bull aka boreal forest Boreal was the Greek goddess of the
North Wind
35
Taiga
bull winter temperature range is -54 to -1deg C (-65 to 30deg F)
bull summer -7deg C (20deg F) to 21deg C (70deg F)
bull summers are very short (50 - 100 frost free days)
bull average yearly precipitation 30 - 85 cm (12 - 33 in)
bull main seasons are winter and summer
bull spring and autumn are very short
bull weather is either hot and humid or very cold
36
Taiga
37
Taiga ndash Indicator Plant Species
Balsam Fir
Abies balsamea
Black Spruce
Picea mariana
38
Taiga ndash Indicator Plant Species
Jack Pine
Pinus banksiana
Paper Birch
Betula papyrifera
White Poplar
Populus alba
39
Taiga ndash Indicator Animal Species
American Black Bear
Ursus americanus
Bald Eagle
Haliaeetus leucocephalus 40
Taiga ndash Indicator Animal Species
Long-eared Owl
Aiso otus
Snowshoe Rabbit
Lepus americanus
41
Desert
bull cover about one fifth of Earths land surface
bull hot and dry near Tropic of CancerTropic of
Capricorn
bull cold near the Arctic
bull temperature
bull hot amp dry ~ 25deg C to ~ 49deg C
bull cold -2 to 4deg C (winter) 21 to 26deg C (summer)
bull precipitation
bull hot amp dry very little rainfall andor concentrated
rainfall in short periods between long rainless periods
(lt 15 cmyear)
bull cold 15 - 26 cmyear 42
Desert
43
Desert ndash Indicator Plant Species
44
Desert ndash Indicator Plant Species
Saguaro Cactus
Carnegiea gigantea
Fishhook Cactus
Mammillaria microcarpa
45
Desert ndash Indicator Plant Species
Trichomes
46
Desert ndash Indicator Animal Species
Zebratail Lizard - Callisaurus draconides
47
Desert ndash Indicator Animal Species
Rock hyrax (Procavia capensis) 48
Desert ndash Indicator Animal Species
Bactrian Camel Camelus bactrianus
49
Temperate Deciduous Forest
bull temperature 0 - 20 C
bull precipitation ~ 50 ndash 200 cmyear
50
Temperate Deciduous Forest
51
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Plant Species
Oaks (Quercus sp)
Dutchmans-Breeches
Dicentra cucullaria 52
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Plant Species
Sassafras
Sassafras albidum
Redbud
Cercis canadensis
53
Temperate Deciduous Forest ndash Succession
bull orderly succession of communities to a climax
community (biome)
bull two main types of succession
bull primary succession begins with bare rock exposed
by geologic activity
bull secondary succession begins on soil from which
previous community has been removed (by fire
agriculture etc)
bull secondary succession can proceed much faster
because the soil has been prepared by the
previous community
54
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
American Toad
Bufo americanus
Box Turtle
55
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
Eastern Chipmunk
Tamias striatus
Eastern Gray Squirrel
Sciurus carolinensis
56
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
Yellow-breasted chat
Icteria virens 57
Tundra
bull annual average temperature lt 5 C
bull precipitation (mostly in the form of snow) lt 100 mmyear
bull summer is brief
bull temperatures above freezing last only a few weeks at
most
bull warm summer coincides with periods of almost 24
hour daylight so plant growth can be explosive
58
Tundra
Anaktuvuk Pass Alaska
59
Tundra ndash Indicator Plant Species
Arctic Tundra Wildflowers - Alaska
60
Tundra ndash Indicator Plant Species
Lichen
Polytrichum Moss
(photographed in Ohio not on the
Tundra)
61
Tundra ndash Indicator Animal Species
Reindeer
Rangifer tarandus
62
Tundra ndash Indicator Animal Species
Caribou On Autumn Tundra Denali National Park Alaska
63
Savanna
bull rolling grassland scattered with shrubs and isolated trees
bull found between a tropical rainforest and desert biome
bull not enough rain falls on a savanna to support forests
bull found in a wide band on either side of the equator on
the edges of tropical rainforests
bull warm temperature year round
bull very long dry season (winter) ~ 10 cm rain none at all
from Dec - Feb
bull very wet season (summer) ~ 35-65 cm rain
64
Savanna
65
Savanna ndash Indicator Plant Species
Baobab
Adansonia digitata Umbrella Thorn Acacia
Acacia tortillis
66
Savanna ndash Indicator Animal Species
Savanna Elephant
Loxodonta africana
Black Mamba
Dendroaspis polylepis
Lion
Panthera leo
67
Chaparral
bull winter mild and moist but not rainy
bull summer very hot and dry
bull annual temperature range between -1deg and 38deg C
bull annual precipitation ~ 25-45 cm mostly in the winter
68
Chaparral
69
Chaparral ndash Indicator Plant Species
Blue Oak
Quercus douglasii
Common Sagebrush
Artemisia tridentata
Olive Tree
Olea europaea
70
Chaparral ndash Indicator Animal Species
Black-tailed Jackrabbit
Lepus californicus Golden Jackal
Canis aureus
Spotted Skunk
Spilogale gracilis
71
The Freshwater Biome
bull low salt concentration mdash usually less than 1
bull plants and animals in freshwater regions are adjusted to
the low salt content and would not be able to survive in
areas of high salt concentration (ie ocean)
bull 3 different types of freshwater regions
bull ponds and lakes
bull streams and rivers
bull wetlands
72
The Freshwater Biome ndash Ponds and Lakes
From left a view across Manzanita Lake toward Mt Lassen California a
forest pond near Donnelly Idaho a Great Blue Heron Paranagat Lake
southeastern Nevada
73
The Freshwater Biome ndash Streams and
Rivers
From left McArthur-Burney Falls State Park California trout Green
River Utah Brooks River Alaska
74
The Freshwater Biome - Wetlands
From left Pescadero Marsh California coastal marsh at Umpqua
Dunes Oregon trees and bogs on Esther Island Alaska
75
The Marine Biome
bull cover about three-fourths of the Earths surface
bull marine algae supply much of the worlds oxygen supply
and take in a huge amount of atmospheric carbon
dioxide
bull evaporation of the seawater provides rainwater for the
land
bull 3 different types of marine regions
bull oceans
bull coral reefs
bull estuaries
76
The Marine Biome - Oceans
From left mussels worms and a spider crab at a hydrocarbon seep
community in the Gulf of Mexico a sea fan and brain coral in the Florida
Keys National Marine Sanctuary a school of Atlantic amberjack off North
Carolina
77
The Marine Biome ndash Coral Reefs
From left reef life in the Gulf of Aqaba Red Sea a reef at Fanning
Island atoll in the central Pacific a reef in the Florida Keys National
Marine Sanctuary
78
The Marine Biome - Estuaries
From left Mangrove roots south Florida wetlands and tidal streams
in the Ashe Island area ACE Basin National Estuarine Research
Reserve South Carolina a salt marsh in Winyah Bay National
Estuarine Research Reserve South Carolina
79
Ecological Notes
These are the biomes in order of their productivity (highest
first)
1 estuaries and tropical rain forest (highest)
2 temperate forest
3 agricultural land
4 temperate grassland
5 lakes and streams
6 coastal zone
7 tundra
8 open ocean
9 desert (lowest)
80
Ecological Notes
In order to be productive and have a lot of living material
standing around (biomass) an ecosystem has to have 4
basic necessities for plant life to thrive (if there are
enough plants the ecosystem will also support a lot of
animals) The four things are
1 Sunlight
2 Nutrients
3 Warm temperatures
4 Water
81
Biomes Video
82
Take-Home Message
bull Biomes are the major ecological communities of earth
characterized mostly by the vegetation present
bull Different biomes result from differences in temperature
and precipitation and the extent to which they vary from
season to season
83
Challenge Question
bull Terrestrial biomes are determined by the temperature
and precipitation amounts as well as whether those
factors are constant or vary by season
bull By contrast how are aquatic biomes determined
84
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy flows from producers to
consumers
85
86
87
First Stop Primary Producers
bull ecosystem producers or consumers
bull primary producers plants algae (some) bacteria
bull convert light energy from sun into chemical energy
through photosynthesis
bull chemical energy = food
bull consumers eat or absorb their food
bull energy stored in chemical bonds of carbohydrate
protein and lipid molecules is captured and
harnessed for consumersrsquo own movement
reproduction and growth
88
Food Chain
89
Food Web
90
Food Web
91
Food Chains amp Food Webs
bull A change in one link in a food chain will affect the other
links
bull The table on the next slide gives one example of a food
chain and the trophic levels represented in it
92
Food Chains amp Food Webs
93
GRASS
GRASSHOPPER
TOAD
SNAKE
HAWK
BACTERIA
IN GENERAL
AUTOTROPHS
(PRODUCERS)
HERBIVORES
(PRIMARY
CONSUMERS)
CARNIVORES
(2 3 ETC)
DECOMPOSERS
94
Chain Reaction Game
95
Energy Flows through a Food Web
bull Losses at every ldquosteprdquo in a food chain
bull Inefficiency of energy transfers
96
Energy flow through a food chain
Energy flow refers to the way that energy is transformed through
a food chain (pictured here) containing a series of levels
including plants consumers predators and decomposers 97
Amount of energy available at each of the
four levels of an ecosystem
Ecological pyramids illustrate the amount of energy
available at each of the four levels of an ecosystem 98
Ecological Pyramid
99
A grasshopper eats a plant A mouse eats the
grasshopper A snake eats the mouse A hawk
could eat the snake or the mouse In this food
web how would we categorize the hawk
1 Producer
2 Primary consumer
3 Secondary consumer
4 Tertiary consumer
5 Quaternary consumer
6 4 and 5
100
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps
bull First it is converted to chemical energy in
photosynthesis
bull Herbivores then consume the primary producers the
herbivores are consumed by carnivores and the
carnivores in turn may be consumed by top carnivores
101
Take-home message
bull Detritivores and decomposers extract energy from
organic waste and the remains of organisms that have
died
bull At each step in a food chain some usable energy is lost
as heat
102
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy pyramids reveal the inefficiency of
food chains
103
Biomass
bull biomass total weight of all living organisms in a given
area
bull only about 10 of the plants in an ecosystem is
converted into biomass
bull Food Energy Pyramid
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
bull African savannas and grasslands sustain more species
of higher-order carnivores than any other terrestrial
ecosystem
104
105
Food Energy Pyramids
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
106
107
108
You go out to eat at a fancy restaurant You
have a salad salmon and for dessert ice
cream Which part of the meal was the most
energy efficient food for you to eat
1 Salad
2 Salmon
3 Ice cream
4 2 and 3
109
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps known as trophic levels
bull Energy pyramids reveal that the biomass of primary
producers in an ecosystem tends to be far greater than
the biomass of herbivores
bull The biomass transferred at each step along the food chain tends to be only about 10 of the biomass of the organisms being consumed due to energy lost in cellular respiration
bull As a consequence of this inefficiency food chains rarely exceed four levels
110
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Essential chemicals cycle through
ecosystems
111
Chemical Reservoirs
bull Each chemical is stored in a non-living part of the environment
bull Organisms acquire the chemical from the reservoir a non-living part of the environment
bull The chemical cycles through the food chain (biogeochemical cycles)
bull Eventually the chemical is returned to the reservoir
112
Hydrologic Cycle and the Florida Springs
bull Click here for a description of how falling rain feeds underground aquifers in Florida and forms springs
113
The Most Important Chemical Cycles
1) Carbon
2) Nitrogen
3) Phosphorus
4) Sulfur
114
115
The
Carbon
Cycle
116
The Carbon Cycle
Keeping Up With Carbon
NASA video provides key information on the carbon cycle
117
118
Carbon Cycle Game
Fossil Fuels
bull created when large numbers of organisms die and are buried in sediment lacking oxygen
bull In absence of oxygen at high pressures and after very long periods of time organic remains are ultimately transformed into coal oil and natural gas
bull burning coal oil and natural gas releases large amounts of carbon dioxide
bull increases average CO2 concentration in the atmosphere
bull current level of CO2 in the atmosphere is the highest it has been in almost half a million years
119
Global CO2 levels are rising in
general but they also exhibit a
sharp rise and fall within each
year ndash why
120
121
The Nitrogen Cycle
122
The Nitrogen Cycle
Fertilizers
bull Because it is necessary for the production of every plant
protein and because all nitrogen must first be made
usable by bacteria plant growth is often limited by
nitrogen levels in the soil
bull For this reason most fertilizers contain nitrogen in a
form usable by plants
123
124
125
126
127
Oxygen reduction downstream of a source of
organic pollution
128
Algal growth and eutrophication in an Australian
outback waterway
129
Sulfur Cycle
bull component of protein
bull cycles in both a gas and sedimentary cycle
bull source earths crust
bull enters the atmosphere as hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
during fossil fuel combustion volcanic eruptions
gas exchange at ocean surfaces decomposition
130
Sulfur Cycle
bull H2S is immediately oxidized to sulfur dioxide (SO2)
bull SO2 + water vapor H2SO4 (falls to earth in rain)
bull sulfur in soluble form is taken up by plant roots
incorporated into amino acids such as cysteine
bull travels through food chain
bull eventually released through decomposition
131
How is carbon recycled back to the
atmosphere in the carbon cycle
1 It is ldquofixedrdquo by bacteria
2 It is a product of cellular respiration
3 Burning of fossil fuels
4 2 and 3
5 All of the above
132
Why do commercial fertilizers usually
contain usable forms of nitrogen and
phosphorous
1 These chemicals are not efficiently recycled in
the soil
2 Nitrogen and phosphorous need to be ldquofixedrdquo
by bacteria or the plant
3 Nitrogen and phosphorous are found at high
levels in the atmosphere but not in the soil
4 Nitrogen and phosphorous only enter the soil
through erosion
133
Take-home message
bull Chemicals essential to lifemdashincluding carbon nitrogen and phosphorusmdashcycle through ecosystems
bull They are usually captured from the atmosphere soil or water by growing organisms passed from one trophic level to the next as organisms eat other organisms and returned to the environment through respiration decomposition and erosion
bull These cycles can be disrupted as human activities significantly increase the amounts of the chemicals utilized or released to the environment
134
Symbiotic Relationships
bull Symbiosis close relationship between organisms of
two different species
bull At least one participant gains some sort of benefit
(usually nutritional)
bull Types of symbiosis
bull Parasitism
bull Commensalism
bull Mutualism
bull Predation
135
Symbiotic Relationships in the
Ocean
bull Click here for an explanation of the
relationships of marine animals
including sharks rays and various
fishes
136
Parasitism bull Parasite derives nutrition from the host
bull This harms the host but a true parasite does
not usually kill its host (directly)
137
Ectoparasites
Remain outside the host
Ticks fleas leeches
138
Endoparasites
Live inside the hostrsquos body
Tapeworms malarial parasites
139
Parasite Transmission
bull Many parasites live on or in a single organism
bull Some will alternate between 2 or more host species
bull Vertical transmission ndash from mother offspring
bull Horizontal transmission ndash between members of a
population
bull Direct contact (head lice)
bull Vectors (mosquitos)
140
141
Commensalism
bull Neither species is totally dependent on the other
bull One benefits ndash no effect on the other
bull Feeding or protection
bull Porcelain anemone crabs and anemones
142
Mutualism
bull Both species benefit
bull Food or shelter
bull Examples
bull Plants and microbes (rhizobium in root nodules)
bull Plants and fungi (orchids and mycorrhizae)
bull Protists and fungi (lichen)
bull Plants and insects (pollination)
bull Animals and bacteria (ruminants)
bull Animals and other animals (crocodiles and
plover birds)
143
Mutualism shrimp and moray
Cleaner shrimp cleaning a zebra moray eel Mutualistic
relationships such as these promote the well-being of the
host fishes and provide food for those that do the cleaning 144
Rhizobium
Rhizobium in root nodules of certain plants convert
nitrogen in soil to usable form
145
Orchid Mycorrhizae
Fungi aid the plant in the uptake of nutrients
Fungi ingest some of the food from plant
photosynthesis 146
Lichen
Most of the lichen is composed of fungal filaments
but living among the filaments are algal cells
usually from a green alga or a cyanobacterium
The lichen fungus provides its partner(s) a benefit
(protection) and gains nutrients in return 147
Ruminants
Ruminants are characterized by their four-chambered
stomach and cud-chewing behavior Cud is a food bolus
that is regurgitated rechewed and reswallowed The
rumen is a large fermentation vat containing billions of
microorganisms including bacteria and protozoa which
allow ruminants to digest fibrous feeds such as grass and
hay that other animals cannot efficiently utilize 148
Crocodiles amp
Plover Birds
The bird gets into the crocodiles mouth and picks out
the tiny bits of food stuck in his teeth then eats it (the
tiny bits)
This cleans the crocodiles teeth and keeps his mouth
fresh and free from infections 149
Predation
bull Consumption of one living organism by
another
bull Predators must have offensive strategies
bull ways of finding catching and eating
their prey
bull Prey organisms must have defensive
strategies
bull ways of avoiding or discouraging this
activity
150
Predation
bull Encompasses all levels within an
ecological food chainweb
bull plant-herbivore systems
bull herbivore-carnivore systems
bull three-way interactions of
interdependent plant-herbivore-
carnivore systems
151
This goshawk is the tertiary consumer in his ecosystem
and the mouse in his beak is the secondary consumer
Beneath the mouse on the ecological pyramid lies his
foodsource likely a worm which fed on the primary
producer leafy plants 152
Ecosystem of Life in Floridas
Springs
bull Click here for a close-up look of life
in Floridas springs and the various
predator-prey interactions there
153
13
14
15
Tropical Rain Forest
bull forest of tall trees in a region of year-round warmth
bull ~ 125 to 660 cm yearly rainfall
bull temperature ranges from 20 degC - 34 degC
bull average humidity 77 - 88
bull rainfall gt 250 cmyear (may be a brief dry season)
bull almost all rain forests lie near the equator
16
Tropical Rain Forest
bull lt 6 of Earths land surface
bull gt 50 of all the worlds plant and animal species live in
tropical rain forests
bull produce ~40 of Earths oxygen
bull ~70 of the plants in the rainforest are trees
bull ~25 of all the medicines we use come from rainforest
plants
17
Tropical Rain Forest
18
Indicator Species
bull any biological species that defines a trait
or characteristic of the environment
bull may delineate an ecoregion
bull could indicate an environmental condition such as
a disease outbreak pollution species competition
or climate change
bull can be among most sensitive species in a region
sometimes act as early warning to monitoring biologists
19
Tropical Rain Forest ndash Indicator Plant Species
20
Tropical Rain Forest ndash Indicator Animal Species Gorilla
Gorilla gorilla
Orangutan (Pongo pygmaeus)
Spider Monkey
Ateles geoffreyi
21
Tropical Rain Forest ndash Indicator Animal Species 2-toed sloth
Cholepus
hoffmanni
Three-toed Sloth (Bradypus
variegatus) with baby - Costa Rica 22
Tropical Rain Forest ndash Indicator Animal Species
Collared Aracari
Pteroglossus torquatus
23
Grasslands (Prairie)
bull 2 different types
bull tall-grass humid amp very wet
bull short-grass dry hotter summers and colder winters
than the tall-grass prairie
bull found in middle latitudes in the interiors of continents
bull either moist continental climates or dry subtropical
climates
bull Argentina ndash grasslands are known as pampas
bull Russia ndash steppes
bull grasslands in southern hemisphere tend to get more
precipitation than those in the northern hemisphere
24
Grasslands (Prairie)
25
Grasslands (Prairie)
bull temperatures range from -40deg F 70deg F
bull growing season and a dormant season
bull growing season is when there is no frost and plants
can grow (which lasts from 100 to 175 days)
bull tropical and subtropical grasslands the length of
the growing season is determined by how long the
rainy season lasts
bull temperate grasslands the length of the growing
season is determined by temperature (ge 50deg F)
bull dormant (not growing) season nothing can grow
because its too cold
26
Grasslands (Prairie)
bull average rainfall per year ranges from 10 - 30 inches
bull tropical and sub-tropical grasslands average rainfall
per year ranges from 25 - 60 inches
bull amount of rainfall is very important in determining which
areas are grasslands
bull hard for trees to compete with grasses in places
where the uppers layers of soil are moist during part
of the year but where deeper layer of soil are always
dry
27
Grasslands (Prairie)
28
Grasslandsndash Indicator Plant Species Old Field Habitat Ohio
Grassland North Dakota
Ironweed
(Vernonia sp) with
Hedge Bindweed
Vine (Calystegia sepium) 29
Grasslandsndash Indicator Plant Species
Ironweed (Vernonia sp)
Joe Pye Weed
Eupatorium purpureum
30
Grasslands ndash Indicator Plant Species
Common Teasel
Dipsacus fullonum Queen Annes Lace (Daucus carota)
31
Grasslands ndash Indicator Animal Species
Bison (Bison bison) on the range
Theodore Roosevelt National Park North
Dakota
32
Grasslands ndash Indicator Animal Species
Przewalskis horse (Equus caballus
przewalskii) The Wilds Ohio
33
Grasslands ndash Indicator Animal Species
34
Taiga
bull Russian word for forest
bull largest biome in the world
bull Eurasia North America
bull located just below the tundra biome
bull many coniferous trees
bull aka boreal forest Boreal was the Greek goddess of the
North Wind
35
Taiga
bull winter temperature range is -54 to -1deg C (-65 to 30deg F)
bull summer -7deg C (20deg F) to 21deg C (70deg F)
bull summers are very short (50 - 100 frost free days)
bull average yearly precipitation 30 - 85 cm (12 - 33 in)
bull main seasons are winter and summer
bull spring and autumn are very short
bull weather is either hot and humid or very cold
36
Taiga
37
Taiga ndash Indicator Plant Species
Balsam Fir
Abies balsamea
Black Spruce
Picea mariana
38
Taiga ndash Indicator Plant Species
Jack Pine
Pinus banksiana
Paper Birch
Betula papyrifera
White Poplar
Populus alba
39
Taiga ndash Indicator Animal Species
American Black Bear
Ursus americanus
Bald Eagle
Haliaeetus leucocephalus 40
Taiga ndash Indicator Animal Species
Long-eared Owl
Aiso otus
Snowshoe Rabbit
Lepus americanus
41
Desert
bull cover about one fifth of Earths land surface
bull hot and dry near Tropic of CancerTropic of
Capricorn
bull cold near the Arctic
bull temperature
bull hot amp dry ~ 25deg C to ~ 49deg C
bull cold -2 to 4deg C (winter) 21 to 26deg C (summer)
bull precipitation
bull hot amp dry very little rainfall andor concentrated
rainfall in short periods between long rainless periods
(lt 15 cmyear)
bull cold 15 - 26 cmyear 42
Desert
43
Desert ndash Indicator Plant Species
44
Desert ndash Indicator Plant Species
Saguaro Cactus
Carnegiea gigantea
Fishhook Cactus
Mammillaria microcarpa
45
Desert ndash Indicator Plant Species
Trichomes
46
Desert ndash Indicator Animal Species
Zebratail Lizard - Callisaurus draconides
47
Desert ndash Indicator Animal Species
Rock hyrax (Procavia capensis) 48
Desert ndash Indicator Animal Species
Bactrian Camel Camelus bactrianus
49
Temperate Deciduous Forest
bull temperature 0 - 20 C
bull precipitation ~ 50 ndash 200 cmyear
50
Temperate Deciduous Forest
51
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Plant Species
Oaks (Quercus sp)
Dutchmans-Breeches
Dicentra cucullaria 52
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Plant Species
Sassafras
Sassafras albidum
Redbud
Cercis canadensis
53
Temperate Deciduous Forest ndash Succession
bull orderly succession of communities to a climax
community (biome)
bull two main types of succession
bull primary succession begins with bare rock exposed
by geologic activity
bull secondary succession begins on soil from which
previous community has been removed (by fire
agriculture etc)
bull secondary succession can proceed much faster
because the soil has been prepared by the
previous community
54
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
American Toad
Bufo americanus
Box Turtle
55
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
Eastern Chipmunk
Tamias striatus
Eastern Gray Squirrel
Sciurus carolinensis
56
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
Yellow-breasted chat
Icteria virens 57
Tundra
bull annual average temperature lt 5 C
bull precipitation (mostly in the form of snow) lt 100 mmyear
bull summer is brief
bull temperatures above freezing last only a few weeks at
most
bull warm summer coincides with periods of almost 24
hour daylight so plant growth can be explosive
58
Tundra
Anaktuvuk Pass Alaska
59
Tundra ndash Indicator Plant Species
Arctic Tundra Wildflowers - Alaska
60
Tundra ndash Indicator Plant Species
Lichen
Polytrichum Moss
(photographed in Ohio not on the
Tundra)
61
Tundra ndash Indicator Animal Species
Reindeer
Rangifer tarandus
62
Tundra ndash Indicator Animal Species
Caribou On Autumn Tundra Denali National Park Alaska
63
Savanna
bull rolling grassland scattered with shrubs and isolated trees
bull found between a tropical rainforest and desert biome
bull not enough rain falls on a savanna to support forests
bull found in a wide band on either side of the equator on
the edges of tropical rainforests
bull warm temperature year round
bull very long dry season (winter) ~ 10 cm rain none at all
from Dec - Feb
bull very wet season (summer) ~ 35-65 cm rain
64
Savanna
65
Savanna ndash Indicator Plant Species
Baobab
Adansonia digitata Umbrella Thorn Acacia
Acacia tortillis
66
Savanna ndash Indicator Animal Species
Savanna Elephant
Loxodonta africana
Black Mamba
Dendroaspis polylepis
Lion
Panthera leo
67
Chaparral
bull winter mild and moist but not rainy
bull summer very hot and dry
bull annual temperature range between -1deg and 38deg C
bull annual precipitation ~ 25-45 cm mostly in the winter
68
Chaparral
69
Chaparral ndash Indicator Plant Species
Blue Oak
Quercus douglasii
Common Sagebrush
Artemisia tridentata
Olive Tree
Olea europaea
70
Chaparral ndash Indicator Animal Species
Black-tailed Jackrabbit
Lepus californicus Golden Jackal
Canis aureus
Spotted Skunk
Spilogale gracilis
71
The Freshwater Biome
bull low salt concentration mdash usually less than 1
bull plants and animals in freshwater regions are adjusted to
the low salt content and would not be able to survive in
areas of high salt concentration (ie ocean)
bull 3 different types of freshwater regions
bull ponds and lakes
bull streams and rivers
bull wetlands
72
The Freshwater Biome ndash Ponds and Lakes
From left a view across Manzanita Lake toward Mt Lassen California a
forest pond near Donnelly Idaho a Great Blue Heron Paranagat Lake
southeastern Nevada
73
The Freshwater Biome ndash Streams and
Rivers
From left McArthur-Burney Falls State Park California trout Green
River Utah Brooks River Alaska
74
The Freshwater Biome - Wetlands
From left Pescadero Marsh California coastal marsh at Umpqua
Dunes Oregon trees and bogs on Esther Island Alaska
75
The Marine Biome
bull cover about three-fourths of the Earths surface
bull marine algae supply much of the worlds oxygen supply
and take in a huge amount of atmospheric carbon
dioxide
bull evaporation of the seawater provides rainwater for the
land
bull 3 different types of marine regions
bull oceans
bull coral reefs
bull estuaries
76
The Marine Biome - Oceans
From left mussels worms and a spider crab at a hydrocarbon seep
community in the Gulf of Mexico a sea fan and brain coral in the Florida
Keys National Marine Sanctuary a school of Atlantic amberjack off North
Carolina
77
The Marine Biome ndash Coral Reefs
From left reef life in the Gulf of Aqaba Red Sea a reef at Fanning
Island atoll in the central Pacific a reef in the Florida Keys National
Marine Sanctuary
78
The Marine Biome - Estuaries
From left Mangrove roots south Florida wetlands and tidal streams
in the Ashe Island area ACE Basin National Estuarine Research
Reserve South Carolina a salt marsh in Winyah Bay National
Estuarine Research Reserve South Carolina
79
Ecological Notes
These are the biomes in order of their productivity (highest
first)
1 estuaries and tropical rain forest (highest)
2 temperate forest
3 agricultural land
4 temperate grassland
5 lakes and streams
6 coastal zone
7 tundra
8 open ocean
9 desert (lowest)
80
Ecological Notes
In order to be productive and have a lot of living material
standing around (biomass) an ecosystem has to have 4
basic necessities for plant life to thrive (if there are
enough plants the ecosystem will also support a lot of
animals) The four things are
1 Sunlight
2 Nutrients
3 Warm temperatures
4 Water
81
Biomes Video
82
Take-Home Message
bull Biomes are the major ecological communities of earth
characterized mostly by the vegetation present
bull Different biomes result from differences in temperature
and precipitation and the extent to which they vary from
season to season
83
Challenge Question
bull Terrestrial biomes are determined by the temperature
and precipitation amounts as well as whether those
factors are constant or vary by season
bull By contrast how are aquatic biomes determined
84
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy flows from producers to
consumers
85
86
87
First Stop Primary Producers
bull ecosystem producers or consumers
bull primary producers plants algae (some) bacteria
bull convert light energy from sun into chemical energy
through photosynthesis
bull chemical energy = food
bull consumers eat or absorb their food
bull energy stored in chemical bonds of carbohydrate
protein and lipid molecules is captured and
harnessed for consumersrsquo own movement
reproduction and growth
88
Food Chain
89
Food Web
90
Food Web
91
Food Chains amp Food Webs
bull A change in one link in a food chain will affect the other
links
bull The table on the next slide gives one example of a food
chain and the trophic levels represented in it
92
Food Chains amp Food Webs
93
GRASS
GRASSHOPPER
TOAD
SNAKE
HAWK
BACTERIA
IN GENERAL
AUTOTROPHS
(PRODUCERS)
HERBIVORES
(PRIMARY
CONSUMERS)
CARNIVORES
(2 3 ETC)
DECOMPOSERS
94
Chain Reaction Game
95
Energy Flows through a Food Web
bull Losses at every ldquosteprdquo in a food chain
bull Inefficiency of energy transfers
96
Energy flow through a food chain
Energy flow refers to the way that energy is transformed through
a food chain (pictured here) containing a series of levels
including plants consumers predators and decomposers 97
Amount of energy available at each of the
four levels of an ecosystem
Ecological pyramids illustrate the amount of energy
available at each of the four levels of an ecosystem 98
Ecological Pyramid
99
A grasshopper eats a plant A mouse eats the
grasshopper A snake eats the mouse A hawk
could eat the snake or the mouse In this food
web how would we categorize the hawk
1 Producer
2 Primary consumer
3 Secondary consumer
4 Tertiary consumer
5 Quaternary consumer
6 4 and 5
100
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps
bull First it is converted to chemical energy in
photosynthesis
bull Herbivores then consume the primary producers the
herbivores are consumed by carnivores and the
carnivores in turn may be consumed by top carnivores
101
Take-home message
bull Detritivores and decomposers extract energy from
organic waste and the remains of organisms that have
died
bull At each step in a food chain some usable energy is lost
as heat
102
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy pyramids reveal the inefficiency of
food chains
103
Biomass
bull biomass total weight of all living organisms in a given
area
bull only about 10 of the plants in an ecosystem is
converted into biomass
bull Food Energy Pyramid
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
bull African savannas and grasslands sustain more species
of higher-order carnivores than any other terrestrial
ecosystem
104
105
Food Energy Pyramids
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
106
107
108
You go out to eat at a fancy restaurant You
have a salad salmon and for dessert ice
cream Which part of the meal was the most
energy efficient food for you to eat
1 Salad
2 Salmon
3 Ice cream
4 2 and 3
109
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps known as trophic levels
bull Energy pyramids reveal that the biomass of primary
producers in an ecosystem tends to be far greater than
the biomass of herbivores
bull The biomass transferred at each step along the food chain tends to be only about 10 of the biomass of the organisms being consumed due to energy lost in cellular respiration
bull As a consequence of this inefficiency food chains rarely exceed four levels
110
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Essential chemicals cycle through
ecosystems
111
Chemical Reservoirs
bull Each chemical is stored in a non-living part of the environment
bull Organisms acquire the chemical from the reservoir a non-living part of the environment
bull The chemical cycles through the food chain (biogeochemical cycles)
bull Eventually the chemical is returned to the reservoir
112
Hydrologic Cycle and the Florida Springs
bull Click here for a description of how falling rain feeds underground aquifers in Florida and forms springs
113
The Most Important Chemical Cycles
1) Carbon
2) Nitrogen
3) Phosphorus
4) Sulfur
114
115
The
Carbon
Cycle
116
The Carbon Cycle
Keeping Up With Carbon
NASA video provides key information on the carbon cycle
117
118
Carbon Cycle Game
Fossil Fuels
bull created when large numbers of organisms die and are buried in sediment lacking oxygen
bull In absence of oxygen at high pressures and after very long periods of time organic remains are ultimately transformed into coal oil and natural gas
bull burning coal oil and natural gas releases large amounts of carbon dioxide
bull increases average CO2 concentration in the atmosphere
bull current level of CO2 in the atmosphere is the highest it has been in almost half a million years
119
Global CO2 levels are rising in
general but they also exhibit a
sharp rise and fall within each
year ndash why
120
121
The Nitrogen Cycle
122
The Nitrogen Cycle
Fertilizers
bull Because it is necessary for the production of every plant
protein and because all nitrogen must first be made
usable by bacteria plant growth is often limited by
nitrogen levels in the soil
bull For this reason most fertilizers contain nitrogen in a
form usable by plants
123
124
125
126
127
Oxygen reduction downstream of a source of
organic pollution
128
Algal growth and eutrophication in an Australian
outback waterway
129
Sulfur Cycle
bull component of protein
bull cycles in both a gas and sedimentary cycle
bull source earths crust
bull enters the atmosphere as hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
during fossil fuel combustion volcanic eruptions
gas exchange at ocean surfaces decomposition
130
Sulfur Cycle
bull H2S is immediately oxidized to sulfur dioxide (SO2)
bull SO2 + water vapor H2SO4 (falls to earth in rain)
bull sulfur in soluble form is taken up by plant roots
incorporated into amino acids such as cysteine
bull travels through food chain
bull eventually released through decomposition
131
How is carbon recycled back to the
atmosphere in the carbon cycle
1 It is ldquofixedrdquo by bacteria
2 It is a product of cellular respiration
3 Burning of fossil fuels
4 2 and 3
5 All of the above
132
Why do commercial fertilizers usually
contain usable forms of nitrogen and
phosphorous
1 These chemicals are not efficiently recycled in
the soil
2 Nitrogen and phosphorous need to be ldquofixedrdquo
by bacteria or the plant
3 Nitrogen and phosphorous are found at high
levels in the atmosphere but not in the soil
4 Nitrogen and phosphorous only enter the soil
through erosion
133
Take-home message
bull Chemicals essential to lifemdashincluding carbon nitrogen and phosphorusmdashcycle through ecosystems
bull They are usually captured from the atmosphere soil or water by growing organisms passed from one trophic level to the next as organisms eat other organisms and returned to the environment through respiration decomposition and erosion
bull These cycles can be disrupted as human activities significantly increase the amounts of the chemicals utilized or released to the environment
134
Symbiotic Relationships
bull Symbiosis close relationship between organisms of
two different species
bull At least one participant gains some sort of benefit
(usually nutritional)
bull Types of symbiosis
bull Parasitism
bull Commensalism
bull Mutualism
bull Predation
135
Symbiotic Relationships in the
Ocean
bull Click here for an explanation of the
relationships of marine animals
including sharks rays and various
fishes
136
Parasitism bull Parasite derives nutrition from the host
bull This harms the host but a true parasite does
not usually kill its host (directly)
137
Ectoparasites
Remain outside the host
Ticks fleas leeches
138
Endoparasites
Live inside the hostrsquos body
Tapeworms malarial parasites
139
Parasite Transmission
bull Many parasites live on or in a single organism
bull Some will alternate between 2 or more host species
bull Vertical transmission ndash from mother offspring
bull Horizontal transmission ndash between members of a
population
bull Direct contact (head lice)
bull Vectors (mosquitos)
140
141
Commensalism
bull Neither species is totally dependent on the other
bull One benefits ndash no effect on the other
bull Feeding or protection
bull Porcelain anemone crabs and anemones
142
Mutualism
bull Both species benefit
bull Food or shelter
bull Examples
bull Plants and microbes (rhizobium in root nodules)
bull Plants and fungi (orchids and mycorrhizae)
bull Protists and fungi (lichen)
bull Plants and insects (pollination)
bull Animals and bacteria (ruminants)
bull Animals and other animals (crocodiles and
plover birds)
143
Mutualism shrimp and moray
Cleaner shrimp cleaning a zebra moray eel Mutualistic
relationships such as these promote the well-being of the
host fishes and provide food for those that do the cleaning 144
Rhizobium
Rhizobium in root nodules of certain plants convert
nitrogen in soil to usable form
145
Orchid Mycorrhizae
Fungi aid the plant in the uptake of nutrients
Fungi ingest some of the food from plant
photosynthesis 146
Lichen
Most of the lichen is composed of fungal filaments
but living among the filaments are algal cells
usually from a green alga or a cyanobacterium
The lichen fungus provides its partner(s) a benefit
(protection) and gains nutrients in return 147
Ruminants
Ruminants are characterized by their four-chambered
stomach and cud-chewing behavior Cud is a food bolus
that is regurgitated rechewed and reswallowed The
rumen is a large fermentation vat containing billions of
microorganisms including bacteria and protozoa which
allow ruminants to digest fibrous feeds such as grass and
hay that other animals cannot efficiently utilize 148
Crocodiles amp
Plover Birds
The bird gets into the crocodiles mouth and picks out
the tiny bits of food stuck in his teeth then eats it (the
tiny bits)
This cleans the crocodiles teeth and keeps his mouth
fresh and free from infections 149
Predation
bull Consumption of one living organism by
another
bull Predators must have offensive strategies
bull ways of finding catching and eating
their prey
bull Prey organisms must have defensive
strategies
bull ways of avoiding or discouraging this
activity
150
Predation
bull Encompasses all levels within an
ecological food chainweb
bull plant-herbivore systems
bull herbivore-carnivore systems
bull three-way interactions of
interdependent plant-herbivore-
carnivore systems
151
This goshawk is the tertiary consumer in his ecosystem
and the mouse in his beak is the secondary consumer
Beneath the mouse on the ecological pyramid lies his
foodsource likely a worm which fed on the primary
producer leafy plants 152
Ecosystem of Life in Floridas
Springs
bull Click here for a close-up look of life
in Floridas springs and the various
predator-prey interactions there
153
14
15
Tropical Rain Forest
bull forest of tall trees in a region of year-round warmth
bull ~ 125 to 660 cm yearly rainfall
bull temperature ranges from 20 degC - 34 degC
bull average humidity 77 - 88
bull rainfall gt 250 cmyear (may be a brief dry season)
bull almost all rain forests lie near the equator
16
Tropical Rain Forest
bull lt 6 of Earths land surface
bull gt 50 of all the worlds plant and animal species live in
tropical rain forests
bull produce ~40 of Earths oxygen
bull ~70 of the plants in the rainforest are trees
bull ~25 of all the medicines we use come from rainforest
plants
17
Tropical Rain Forest
18
Indicator Species
bull any biological species that defines a trait
or characteristic of the environment
bull may delineate an ecoregion
bull could indicate an environmental condition such as
a disease outbreak pollution species competition
or climate change
bull can be among most sensitive species in a region
sometimes act as early warning to monitoring biologists
19
Tropical Rain Forest ndash Indicator Plant Species
20
Tropical Rain Forest ndash Indicator Animal Species Gorilla
Gorilla gorilla
Orangutan (Pongo pygmaeus)
Spider Monkey
Ateles geoffreyi
21
Tropical Rain Forest ndash Indicator Animal Species 2-toed sloth
Cholepus
hoffmanni
Three-toed Sloth (Bradypus
variegatus) with baby - Costa Rica 22
Tropical Rain Forest ndash Indicator Animal Species
Collared Aracari
Pteroglossus torquatus
23
Grasslands (Prairie)
bull 2 different types
bull tall-grass humid amp very wet
bull short-grass dry hotter summers and colder winters
than the tall-grass prairie
bull found in middle latitudes in the interiors of continents
bull either moist continental climates or dry subtropical
climates
bull Argentina ndash grasslands are known as pampas
bull Russia ndash steppes
bull grasslands in southern hemisphere tend to get more
precipitation than those in the northern hemisphere
24
Grasslands (Prairie)
25
Grasslands (Prairie)
bull temperatures range from -40deg F 70deg F
bull growing season and a dormant season
bull growing season is when there is no frost and plants
can grow (which lasts from 100 to 175 days)
bull tropical and subtropical grasslands the length of
the growing season is determined by how long the
rainy season lasts
bull temperate grasslands the length of the growing
season is determined by temperature (ge 50deg F)
bull dormant (not growing) season nothing can grow
because its too cold
26
Grasslands (Prairie)
bull average rainfall per year ranges from 10 - 30 inches
bull tropical and sub-tropical grasslands average rainfall
per year ranges from 25 - 60 inches
bull amount of rainfall is very important in determining which
areas are grasslands
bull hard for trees to compete with grasses in places
where the uppers layers of soil are moist during part
of the year but where deeper layer of soil are always
dry
27
Grasslands (Prairie)
28
Grasslandsndash Indicator Plant Species Old Field Habitat Ohio
Grassland North Dakota
Ironweed
(Vernonia sp) with
Hedge Bindweed
Vine (Calystegia sepium) 29
Grasslandsndash Indicator Plant Species
Ironweed (Vernonia sp)
Joe Pye Weed
Eupatorium purpureum
30
Grasslands ndash Indicator Plant Species
Common Teasel
Dipsacus fullonum Queen Annes Lace (Daucus carota)
31
Grasslands ndash Indicator Animal Species
Bison (Bison bison) on the range
Theodore Roosevelt National Park North
Dakota
32
Grasslands ndash Indicator Animal Species
Przewalskis horse (Equus caballus
przewalskii) The Wilds Ohio
33
Grasslands ndash Indicator Animal Species
34
Taiga
bull Russian word for forest
bull largest biome in the world
bull Eurasia North America
bull located just below the tundra biome
bull many coniferous trees
bull aka boreal forest Boreal was the Greek goddess of the
North Wind
35
Taiga
bull winter temperature range is -54 to -1deg C (-65 to 30deg F)
bull summer -7deg C (20deg F) to 21deg C (70deg F)
bull summers are very short (50 - 100 frost free days)
bull average yearly precipitation 30 - 85 cm (12 - 33 in)
bull main seasons are winter and summer
bull spring and autumn are very short
bull weather is either hot and humid or very cold
36
Taiga
37
Taiga ndash Indicator Plant Species
Balsam Fir
Abies balsamea
Black Spruce
Picea mariana
38
Taiga ndash Indicator Plant Species
Jack Pine
Pinus banksiana
Paper Birch
Betula papyrifera
White Poplar
Populus alba
39
Taiga ndash Indicator Animal Species
American Black Bear
Ursus americanus
Bald Eagle
Haliaeetus leucocephalus 40
Taiga ndash Indicator Animal Species
Long-eared Owl
Aiso otus
Snowshoe Rabbit
Lepus americanus
41
Desert
bull cover about one fifth of Earths land surface
bull hot and dry near Tropic of CancerTropic of
Capricorn
bull cold near the Arctic
bull temperature
bull hot amp dry ~ 25deg C to ~ 49deg C
bull cold -2 to 4deg C (winter) 21 to 26deg C (summer)
bull precipitation
bull hot amp dry very little rainfall andor concentrated
rainfall in short periods between long rainless periods
(lt 15 cmyear)
bull cold 15 - 26 cmyear 42
Desert
43
Desert ndash Indicator Plant Species
44
Desert ndash Indicator Plant Species
Saguaro Cactus
Carnegiea gigantea
Fishhook Cactus
Mammillaria microcarpa
45
Desert ndash Indicator Plant Species
Trichomes
46
Desert ndash Indicator Animal Species
Zebratail Lizard - Callisaurus draconides
47
Desert ndash Indicator Animal Species
Rock hyrax (Procavia capensis) 48
Desert ndash Indicator Animal Species
Bactrian Camel Camelus bactrianus
49
Temperate Deciduous Forest
bull temperature 0 - 20 C
bull precipitation ~ 50 ndash 200 cmyear
50
Temperate Deciduous Forest
51
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Plant Species
Oaks (Quercus sp)
Dutchmans-Breeches
Dicentra cucullaria 52
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Plant Species
Sassafras
Sassafras albidum
Redbud
Cercis canadensis
53
Temperate Deciduous Forest ndash Succession
bull orderly succession of communities to a climax
community (biome)
bull two main types of succession
bull primary succession begins with bare rock exposed
by geologic activity
bull secondary succession begins on soil from which
previous community has been removed (by fire
agriculture etc)
bull secondary succession can proceed much faster
because the soil has been prepared by the
previous community
54
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
American Toad
Bufo americanus
Box Turtle
55
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
Eastern Chipmunk
Tamias striatus
Eastern Gray Squirrel
Sciurus carolinensis
56
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
Yellow-breasted chat
Icteria virens 57
Tundra
bull annual average temperature lt 5 C
bull precipitation (mostly in the form of snow) lt 100 mmyear
bull summer is brief
bull temperatures above freezing last only a few weeks at
most
bull warm summer coincides with periods of almost 24
hour daylight so plant growth can be explosive
58
Tundra
Anaktuvuk Pass Alaska
59
Tundra ndash Indicator Plant Species
Arctic Tundra Wildflowers - Alaska
60
Tundra ndash Indicator Plant Species
Lichen
Polytrichum Moss
(photographed in Ohio not on the
Tundra)
61
Tundra ndash Indicator Animal Species
Reindeer
Rangifer tarandus
62
Tundra ndash Indicator Animal Species
Caribou On Autumn Tundra Denali National Park Alaska
63
Savanna
bull rolling grassland scattered with shrubs and isolated trees
bull found between a tropical rainforest and desert biome
bull not enough rain falls on a savanna to support forests
bull found in a wide band on either side of the equator on
the edges of tropical rainforests
bull warm temperature year round
bull very long dry season (winter) ~ 10 cm rain none at all
from Dec - Feb
bull very wet season (summer) ~ 35-65 cm rain
64
Savanna
65
Savanna ndash Indicator Plant Species
Baobab
Adansonia digitata Umbrella Thorn Acacia
Acacia tortillis
66
Savanna ndash Indicator Animal Species
Savanna Elephant
Loxodonta africana
Black Mamba
Dendroaspis polylepis
Lion
Panthera leo
67
Chaparral
bull winter mild and moist but not rainy
bull summer very hot and dry
bull annual temperature range between -1deg and 38deg C
bull annual precipitation ~ 25-45 cm mostly in the winter
68
Chaparral
69
Chaparral ndash Indicator Plant Species
Blue Oak
Quercus douglasii
Common Sagebrush
Artemisia tridentata
Olive Tree
Olea europaea
70
Chaparral ndash Indicator Animal Species
Black-tailed Jackrabbit
Lepus californicus Golden Jackal
Canis aureus
Spotted Skunk
Spilogale gracilis
71
The Freshwater Biome
bull low salt concentration mdash usually less than 1
bull plants and animals in freshwater regions are adjusted to
the low salt content and would not be able to survive in
areas of high salt concentration (ie ocean)
bull 3 different types of freshwater regions
bull ponds and lakes
bull streams and rivers
bull wetlands
72
The Freshwater Biome ndash Ponds and Lakes
From left a view across Manzanita Lake toward Mt Lassen California a
forest pond near Donnelly Idaho a Great Blue Heron Paranagat Lake
southeastern Nevada
73
The Freshwater Biome ndash Streams and
Rivers
From left McArthur-Burney Falls State Park California trout Green
River Utah Brooks River Alaska
74
The Freshwater Biome - Wetlands
From left Pescadero Marsh California coastal marsh at Umpqua
Dunes Oregon trees and bogs on Esther Island Alaska
75
The Marine Biome
bull cover about three-fourths of the Earths surface
bull marine algae supply much of the worlds oxygen supply
and take in a huge amount of atmospheric carbon
dioxide
bull evaporation of the seawater provides rainwater for the
land
bull 3 different types of marine regions
bull oceans
bull coral reefs
bull estuaries
76
The Marine Biome - Oceans
From left mussels worms and a spider crab at a hydrocarbon seep
community in the Gulf of Mexico a sea fan and brain coral in the Florida
Keys National Marine Sanctuary a school of Atlantic amberjack off North
Carolina
77
The Marine Biome ndash Coral Reefs
From left reef life in the Gulf of Aqaba Red Sea a reef at Fanning
Island atoll in the central Pacific a reef in the Florida Keys National
Marine Sanctuary
78
The Marine Biome - Estuaries
From left Mangrove roots south Florida wetlands and tidal streams
in the Ashe Island area ACE Basin National Estuarine Research
Reserve South Carolina a salt marsh in Winyah Bay National
Estuarine Research Reserve South Carolina
79
Ecological Notes
These are the biomes in order of their productivity (highest
first)
1 estuaries and tropical rain forest (highest)
2 temperate forest
3 agricultural land
4 temperate grassland
5 lakes and streams
6 coastal zone
7 tundra
8 open ocean
9 desert (lowest)
80
Ecological Notes
In order to be productive and have a lot of living material
standing around (biomass) an ecosystem has to have 4
basic necessities for plant life to thrive (if there are
enough plants the ecosystem will also support a lot of
animals) The four things are
1 Sunlight
2 Nutrients
3 Warm temperatures
4 Water
81
Biomes Video
82
Take-Home Message
bull Biomes are the major ecological communities of earth
characterized mostly by the vegetation present
bull Different biomes result from differences in temperature
and precipitation and the extent to which they vary from
season to season
83
Challenge Question
bull Terrestrial biomes are determined by the temperature
and precipitation amounts as well as whether those
factors are constant or vary by season
bull By contrast how are aquatic biomes determined
84
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy flows from producers to
consumers
85
86
87
First Stop Primary Producers
bull ecosystem producers or consumers
bull primary producers plants algae (some) bacteria
bull convert light energy from sun into chemical energy
through photosynthesis
bull chemical energy = food
bull consumers eat or absorb their food
bull energy stored in chemical bonds of carbohydrate
protein and lipid molecules is captured and
harnessed for consumersrsquo own movement
reproduction and growth
88
Food Chain
89
Food Web
90
Food Web
91
Food Chains amp Food Webs
bull A change in one link in a food chain will affect the other
links
bull The table on the next slide gives one example of a food
chain and the trophic levels represented in it
92
Food Chains amp Food Webs
93
GRASS
GRASSHOPPER
TOAD
SNAKE
HAWK
BACTERIA
IN GENERAL
AUTOTROPHS
(PRODUCERS)
HERBIVORES
(PRIMARY
CONSUMERS)
CARNIVORES
(2 3 ETC)
DECOMPOSERS
94
Chain Reaction Game
95
Energy Flows through a Food Web
bull Losses at every ldquosteprdquo in a food chain
bull Inefficiency of energy transfers
96
Energy flow through a food chain
Energy flow refers to the way that energy is transformed through
a food chain (pictured here) containing a series of levels
including plants consumers predators and decomposers 97
Amount of energy available at each of the
four levels of an ecosystem
Ecological pyramids illustrate the amount of energy
available at each of the four levels of an ecosystem 98
Ecological Pyramid
99
A grasshopper eats a plant A mouse eats the
grasshopper A snake eats the mouse A hawk
could eat the snake or the mouse In this food
web how would we categorize the hawk
1 Producer
2 Primary consumer
3 Secondary consumer
4 Tertiary consumer
5 Quaternary consumer
6 4 and 5
100
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps
bull First it is converted to chemical energy in
photosynthesis
bull Herbivores then consume the primary producers the
herbivores are consumed by carnivores and the
carnivores in turn may be consumed by top carnivores
101
Take-home message
bull Detritivores and decomposers extract energy from
organic waste and the remains of organisms that have
died
bull At each step in a food chain some usable energy is lost
as heat
102
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy pyramids reveal the inefficiency of
food chains
103
Biomass
bull biomass total weight of all living organisms in a given
area
bull only about 10 of the plants in an ecosystem is
converted into biomass
bull Food Energy Pyramid
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
bull African savannas and grasslands sustain more species
of higher-order carnivores than any other terrestrial
ecosystem
104
105
Food Energy Pyramids
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
106
107
108
You go out to eat at a fancy restaurant You
have a salad salmon and for dessert ice
cream Which part of the meal was the most
energy efficient food for you to eat
1 Salad
2 Salmon
3 Ice cream
4 2 and 3
109
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps known as trophic levels
bull Energy pyramids reveal that the biomass of primary
producers in an ecosystem tends to be far greater than
the biomass of herbivores
bull The biomass transferred at each step along the food chain tends to be only about 10 of the biomass of the organisms being consumed due to energy lost in cellular respiration
bull As a consequence of this inefficiency food chains rarely exceed four levels
110
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Essential chemicals cycle through
ecosystems
111
Chemical Reservoirs
bull Each chemical is stored in a non-living part of the environment
bull Organisms acquire the chemical from the reservoir a non-living part of the environment
bull The chemical cycles through the food chain (biogeochemical cycles)
bull Eventually the chemical is returned to the reservoir
112
Hydrologic Cycle and the Florida Springs
bull Click here for a description of how falling rain feeds underground aquifers in Florida and forms springs
113
The Most Important Chemical Cycles
1) Carbon
2) Nitrogen
3) Phosphorus
4) Sulfur
114
115
The
Carbon
Cycle
116
The Carbon Cycle
Keeping Up With Carbon
NASA video provides key information on the carbon cycle
117
118
Carbon Cycle Game
Fossil Fuels
bull created when large numbers of organisms die and are buried in sediment lacking oxygen
bull In absence of oxygen at high pressures and after very long periods of time organic remains are ultimately transformed into coal oil and natural gas
bull burning coal oil and natural gas releases large amounts of carbon dioxide
bull increases average CO2 concentration in the atmosphere
bull current level of CO2 in the atmosphere is the highest it has been in almost half a million years
119
Global CO2 levels are rising in
general but they also exhibit a
sharp rise and fall within each
year ndash why
120
121
The Nitrogen Cycle
122
The Nitrogen Cycle
Fertilizers
bull Because it is necessary for the production of every plant
protein and because all nitrogen must first be made
usable by bacteria plant growth is often limited by
nitrogen levels in the soil
bull For this reason most fertilizers contain nitrogen in a
form usable by plants
123
124
125
126
127
Oxygen reduction downstream of a source of
organic pollution
128
Algal growth and eutrophication in an Australian
outback waterway
129
Sulfur Cycle
bull component of protein
bull cycles in both a gas and sedimentary cycle
bull source earths crust
bull enters the atmosphere as hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
during fossil fuel combustion volcanic eruptions
gas exchange at ocean surfaces decomposition
130
Sulfur Cycle
bull H2S is immediately oxidized to sulfur dioxide (SO2)
bull SO2 + water vapor H2SO4 (falls to earth in rain)
bull sulfur in soluble form is taken up by plant roots
incorporated into amino acids such as cysteine
bull travels through food chain
bull eventually released through decomposition
131
How is carbon recycled back to the
atmosphere in the carbon cycle
1 It is ldquofixedrdquo by bacteria
2 It is a product of cellular respiration
3 Burning of fossil fuels
4 2 and 3
5 All of the above
132
Why do commercial fertilizers usually
contain usable forms of nitrogen and
phosphorous
1 These chemicals are not efficiently recycled in
the soil
2 Nitrogen and phosphorous need to be ldquofixedrdquo
by bacteria or the plant
3 Nitrogen and phosphorous are found at high
levels in the atmosphere but not in the soil
4 Nitrogen and phosphorous only enter the soil
through erosion
133
Take-home message
bull Chemicals essential to lifemdashincluding carbon nitrogen and phosphorusmdashcycle through ecosystems
bull They are usually captured from the atmosphere soil or water by growing organisms passed from one trophic level to the next as organisms eat other organisms and returned to the environment through respiration decomposition and erosion
bull These cycles can be disrupted as human activities significantly increase the amounts of the chemicals utilized or released to the environment
134
Symbiotic Relationships
bull Symbiosis close relationship between organisms of
two different species
bull At least one participant gains some sort of benefit
(usually nutritional)
bull Types of symbiosis
bull Parasitism
bull Commensalism
bull Mutualism
bull Predation
135
Symbiotic Relationships in the
Ocean
bull Click here for an explanation of the
relationships of marine animals
including sharks rays and various
fishes
136
Parasitism bull Parasite derives nutrition from the host
bull This harms the host but a true parasite does
not usually kill its host (directly)
137
Ectoparasites
Remain outside the host
Ticks fleas leeches
138
Endoparasites
Live inside the hostrsquos body
Tapeworms malarial parasites
139
Parasite Transmission
bull Many parasites live on or in a single organism
bull Some will alternate between 2 or more host species
bull Vertical transmission ndash from mother offspring
bull Horizontal transmission ndash between members of a
population
bull Direct contact (head lice)
bull Vectors (mosquitos)
140
141
Commensalism
bull Neither species is totally dependent on the other
bull One benefits ndash no effect on the other
bull Feeding or protection
bull Porcelain anemone crabs and anemones
142
Mutualism
bull Both species benefit
bull Food or shelter
bull Examples
bull Plants and microbes (rhizobium in root nodules)
bull Plants and fungi (orchids and mycorrhizae)
bull Protists and fungi (lichen)
bull Plants and insects (pollination)
bull Animals and bacteria (ruminants)
bull Animals and other animals (crocodiles and
plover birds)
143
Mutualism shrimp and moray
Cleaner shrimp cleaning a zebra moray eel Mutualistic
relationships such as these promote the well-being of the
host fishes and provide food for those that do the cleaning 144
Rhizobium
Rhizobium in root nodules of certain plants convert
nitrogen in soil to usable form
145
Orchid Mycorrhizae
Fungi aid the plant in the uptake of nutrients
Fungi ingest some of the food from plant
photosynthesis 146
Lichen
Most of the lichen is composed of fungal filaments
but living among the filaments are algal cells
usually from a green alga or a cyanobacterium
The lichen fungus provides its partner(s) a benefit
(protection) and gains nutrients in return 147
Ruminants
Ruminants are characterized by their four-chambered
stomach and cud-chewing behavior Cud is a food bolus
that is regurgitated rechewed and reswallowed The
rumen is a large fermentation vat containing billions of
microorganisms including bacteria and protozoa which
allow ruminants to digest fibrous feeds such as grass and
hay that other animals cannot efficiently utilize 148
Crocodiles amp
Plover Birds
The bird gets into the crocodiles mouth and picks out
the tiny bits of food stuck in his teeth then eats it (the
tiny bits)
This cleans the crocodiles teeth and keeps his mouth
fresh and free from infections 149
Predation
bull Consumption of one living organism by
another
bull Predators must have offensive strategies
bull ways of finding catching and eating
their prey
bull Prey organisms must have defensive
strategies
bull ways of avoiding or discouraging this
activity
150
Predation
bull Encompasses all levels within an
ecological food chainweb
bull plant-herbivore systems
bull herbivore-carnivore systems
bull three-way interactions of
interdependent plant-herbivore-
carnivore systems
151
This goshawk is the tertiary consumer in his ecosystem
and the mouse in his beak is the secondary consumer
Beneath the mouse on the ecological pyramid lies his
foodsource likely a worm which fed on the primary
producer leafy plants 152
Ecosystem of Life in Floridas
Springs
bull Click here for a close-up look of life
in Floridas springs and the various
predator-prey interactions there
153
15
Tropical Rain Forest
bull forest of tall trees in a region of year-round warmth
bull ~ 125 to 660 cm yearly rainfall
bull temperature ranges from 20 degC - 34 degC
bull average humidity 77 - 88
bull rainfall gt 250 cmyear (may be a brief dry season)
bull almost all rain forests lie near the equator
16
Tropical Rain Forest
bull lt 6 of Earths land surface
bull gt 50 of all the worlds plant and animal species live in
tropical rain forests
bull produce ~40 of Earths oxygen
bull ~70 of the plants in the rainforest are trees
bull ~25 of all the medicines we use come from rainforest
plants
17
Tropical Rain Forest
18
Indicator Species
bull any biological species that defines a trait
or characteristic of the environment
bull may delineate an ecoregion
bull could indicate an environmental condition such as
a disease outbreak pollution species competition
or climate change
bull can be among most sensitive species in a region
sometimes act as early warning to monitoring biologists
19
Tropical Rain Forest ndash Indicator Plant Species
20
Tropical Rain Forest ndash Indicator Animal Species Gorilla
Gorilla gorilla
Orangutan (Pongo pygmaeus)
Spider Monkey
Ateles geoffreyi
21
Tropical Rain Forest ndash Indicator Animal Species 2-toed sloth
Cholepus
hoffmanni
Three-toed Sloth (Bradypus
variegatus) with baby - Costa Rica 22
Tropical Rain Forest ndash Indicator Animal Species
Collared Aracari
Pteroglossus torquatus
23
Grasslands (Prairie)
bull 2 different types
bull tall-grass humid amp very wet
bull short-grass dry hotter summers and colder winters
than the tall-grass prairie
bull found in middle latitudes in the interiors of continents
bull either moist continental climates or dry subtropical
climates
bull Argentina ndash grasslands are known as pampas
bull Russia ndash steppes
bull grasslands in southern hemisphere tend to get more
precipitation than those in the northern hemisphere
24
Grasslands (Prairie)
25
Grasslands (Prairie)
bull temperatures range from -40deg F 70deg F
bull growing season and a dormant season
bull growing season is when there is no frost and plants
can grow (which lasts from 100 to 175 days)
bull tropical and subtropical grasslands the length of
the growing season is determined by how long the
rainy season lasts
bull temperate grasslands the length of the growing
season is determined by temperature (ge 50deg F)
bull dormant (not growing) season nothing can grow
because its too cold
26
Grasslands (Prairie)
bull average rainfall per year ranges from 10 - 30 inches
bull tropical and sub-tropical grasslands average rainfall
per year ranges from 25 - 60 inches
bull amount of rainfall is very important in determining which
areas are grasslands
bull hard for trees to compete with grasses in places
where the uppers layers of soil are moist during part
of the year but where deeper layer of soil are always
dry
27
Grasslands (Prairie)
28
Grasslandsndash Indicator Plant Species Old Field Habitat Ohio
Grassland North Dakota
Ironweed
(Vernonia sp) with
Hedge Bindweed
Vine (Calystegia sepium) 29
Grasslandsndash Indicator Plant Species
Ironweed (Vernonia sp)
Joe Pye Weed
Eupatorium purpureum
30
Grasslands ndash Indicator Plant Species
Common Teasel
Dipsacus fullonum Queen Annes Lace (Daucus carota)
31
Grasslands ndash Indicator Animal Species
Bison (Bison bison) on the range
Theodore Roosevelt National Park North
Dakota
32
Grasslands ndash Indicator Animal Species
Przewalskis horse (Equus caballus
przewalskii) The Wilds Ohio
33
Grasslands ndash Indicator Animal Species
34
Taiga
bull Russian word for forest
bull largest biome in the world
bull Eurasia North America
bull located just below the tundra biome
bull many coniferous trees
bull aka boreal forest Boreal was the Greek goddess of the
North Wind
35
Taiga
bull winter temperature range is -54 to -1deg C (-65 to 30deg F)
bull summer -7deg C (20deg F) to 21deg C (70deg F)
bull summers are very short (50 - 100 frost free days)
bull average yearly precipitation 30 - 85 cm (12 - 33 in)
bull main seasons are winter and summer
bull spring and autumn are very short
bull weather is either hot and humid or very cold
36
Taiga
37
Taiga ndash Indicator Plant Species
Balsam Fir
Abies balsamea
Black Spruce
Picea mariana
38
Taiga ndash Indicator Plant Species
Jack Pine
Pinus banksiana
Paper Birch
Betula papyrifera
White Poplar
Populus alba
39
Taiga ndash Indicator Animal Species
American Black Bear
Ursus americanus
Bald Eagle
Haliaeetus leucocephalus 40
Taiga ndash Indicator Animal Species
Long-eared Owl
Aiso otus
Snowshoe Rabbit
Lepus americanus
41
Desert
bull cover about one fifth of Earths land surface
bull hot and dry near Tropic of CancerTropic of
Capricorn
bull cold near the Arctic
bull temperature
bull hot amp dry ~ 25deg C to ~ 49deg C
bull cold -2 to 4deg C (winter) 21 to 26deg C (summer)
bull precipitation
bull hot amp dry very little rainfall andor concentrated
rainfall in short periods between long rainless periods
(lt 15 cmyear)
bull cold 15 - 26 cmyear 42
Desert
43
Desert ndash Indicator Plant Species
44
Desert ndash Indicator Plant Species
Saguaro Cactus
Carnegiea gigantea
Fishhook Cactus
Mammillaria microcarpa
45
Desert ndash Indicator Plant Species
Trichomes
46
Desert ndash Indicator Animal Species
Zebratail Lizard - Callisaurus draconides
47
Desert ndash Indicator Animal Species
Rock hyrax (Procavia capensis) 48
Desert ndash Indicator Animal Species
Bactrian Camel Camelus bactrianus
49
Temperate Deciduous Forest
bull temperature 0 - 20 C
bull precipitation ~ 50 ndash 200 cmyear
50
Temperate Deciduous Forest
51
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Plant Species
Oaks (Quercus sp)
Dutchmans-Breeches
Dicentra cucullaria 52
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Plant Species
Sassafras
Sassafras albidum
Redbud
Cercis canadensis
53
Temperate Deciduous Forest ndash Succession
bull orderly succession of communities to a climax
community (biome)
bull two main types of succession
bull primary succession begins with bare rock exposed
by geologic activity
bull secondary succession begins on soil from which
previous community has been removed (by fire
agriculture etc)
bull secondary succession can proceed much faster
because the soil has been prepared by the
previous community
54
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
American Toad
Bufo americanus
Box Turtle
55
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
Eastern Chipmunk
Tamias striatus
Eastern Gray Squirrel
Sciurus carolinensis
56
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
Yellow-breasted chat
Icteria virens 57
Tundra
bull annual average temperature lt 5 C
bull precipitation (mostly in the form of snow) lt 100 mmyear
bull summer is brief
bull temperatures above freezing last only a few weeks at
most
bull warm summer coincides with periods of almost 24
hour daylight so plant growth can be explosive
58
Tundra
Anaktuvuk Pass Alaska
59
Tundra ndash Indicator Plant Species
Arctic Tundra Wildflowers - Alaska
60
Tundra ndash Indicator Plant Species
Lichen
Polytrichum Moss
(photographed in Ohio not on the
Tundra)
61
Tundra ndash Indicator Animal Species
Reindeer
Rangifer tarandus
62
Tundra ndash Indicator Animal Species
Caribou On Autumn Tundra Denali National Park Alaska
63
Savanna
bull rolling grassland scattered with shrubs and isolated trees
bull found between a tropical rainforest and desert biome
bull not enough rain falls on a savanna to support forests
bull found in a wide band on either side of the equator on
the edges of tropical rainforests
bull warm temperature year round
bull very long dry season (winter) ~ 10 cm rain none at all
from Dec - Feb
bull very wet season (summer) ~ 35-65 cm rain
64
Savanna
65
Savanna ndash Indicator Plant Species
Baobab
Adansonia digitata Umbrella Thorn Acacia
Acacia tortillis
66
Savanna ndash Indicator Animal Species
Savanna Elephant
Loxodonta africana
Black Mamba
Dendroaspis polylepis
Lion
Panthera leo
67
Chaparral
bull winter mild and moist but not rainy
bull summer very hot and dry
bull annual temperature range between -1deg and 38deg C
bull annual precipitation ~ 25-45 cm mostly in the winter
68
Chaparral
69
Chaparral ndash Indicator Plant Species
Blue Oak
Quercus douglasii
Common Sagebrush
Artemisia tridentata
Olive Tree
Olea europaea
70
Chaparral ndash Indicator Animal Species
Black-tailed Jackrabbit
Lepus californicus Golden Jackal
Canis aureus
Spotted Skunk
Spilogale gracilis
71
The Freshwater Biome
bull low salt concentration mdash usually less than 1
bull plants and animals in freshwater regions are adjusted to
the low salt content and would not be able to survive in
areas of high salt concentration (ie ocean)
bull 3 different types of freshwater regions
bull ponds and lakes
bull streams and rivers
bull wetlands
72
The Freshwater Biome ndash Ponds and Lakes
From left a view across Manzanita Lake toward Mt Lassen California a
forest pond near Donnelly Idaho a Great Blue Heron Paranagat Lake
southeastern Nevada
73
The Freshwater Biome ndash Streams and
Rivers
From left McArthur-Burney Falls State Park California trout Green
River Utah Brooks River Alaska
74
The Freshwater Biome - Wetlands
From left Pescadero Marsh California coastal marsh at Umpqua
Dunes Oregon trees and bogs on Esther Island Alaska
75
The Marine Biome
bull cover about three-fourths of the Earths surface
bull marine algae supply much of the worlds oxygen supply
and take in a huge amount of atmospheric carbon
dioxide
bull evaporation of the seawater provides rainwater for the
land
bull 3 different types of marine regions
bull oceans
bull coral reefs
bull estuaries
76
The Marine Biome - Oceans
From left mussels worms and a spider crab at a hydrocarbon seep
community in the Gulf of Mexico a sea fan and brain coral in the Florida
Keys National Marine Sanctuary a school of Atlantic amberjack off North
Carolina
77
The Marine Biome ndash Coral Reefs
From left reef life in the Gulf of Aqaba Red Sea a reef at Fanning
Island atoll in the central Pacific a reef in the Florida Keys National
Marine Sanctuary
78
The Marine Biome - Estuaries
From left Mangrove roots south Florida wetlands and tidal streams
in the Ashe Island area ACE Basin National Estuarine Research
Reserve South Carolina a salt marsh in Winyah Bay National
Estuarine Research Reserve South Carolina
79
Ecological Notes
These are the biomes in order of their productivity (highest
first)
1 estuaries and tropical rain forest (highest)
2 temperate forest
3 agricultural land
4 temperate grassland
5 lakes and streams
6 coastal zone
7 tundra
8 open ocean
9 desert (lowest)
80
Ecological Notes
In order to be productive and have a lot of living material
standing around (biomass) an ecosystem has to have 4
basic necessities for plant life to thrive (if there are
enough plants the ecosystem will also support a lot of
animals) The four things are
1 Sunlight
2 Nutrients
3 Warm temperatures
4 Water
81
Biomes Video
82
Take-Home Message
bull Biomes are the major ecological communities of earth
characterized mostly by the vegetation present
bull Different biomes result from differences in temperature
and precipitation and the extent to which they vary from
season to season
83
Challenge Question
bull Terrestrial biomes are determined by the temperature
and precipitation amounts as well as whether those
factors are constant or vary by season
bull By contrast how are aquatic biomes determined
84
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy flows from producers to
consumers
85
86
87
First Stop Primary Producers
bull ecosystem producers or consumers
bull primary producers plants algae (some) bacteria
bull convert light energy from sun into chemical energy
through photosynthesis
bull chemical energy = food
bull consumers eat or absorb their food
bull energy stored in chemical bonds of carbohydrate
protein and lipid molecules is captured and
harnessed for consumersrsquo own movement
reproduction and growth
88
Food Chain
89
Food Web
90
Food Web
91
Food Chains amp Food Webs
bull A change in one link in a food chain will affect the other
links
bull The table on the next slide gives one example of a food
chain and the trophic levels represented in it
92
Food Chains amp Food Webs
93
GRASS
GRASSHOPPER
TOAD
SNAKE
HAWK
BACTERIA
IN GENERAL
AUTOTROPHS
(PRODUCERS)
HERBIVORES
(PRIMARY
CONSUMERS)
CARNIVORES
(2 3 ETC)
DECOMPOSERS
94
Chain Reaction Game
95
Energy Flows through a Food Web
bull Losses at every ldquosteprdquo in a food chain
bull Inefficiency of energy transfers
96
Energy flow through a food chain
Energy flow refers to the way that energy is transformed through
a food chain (pictured here) containing a series of levels
including plants consumers predators and decomposers 97
Amount of energy available at each of the
four levels of an ecosystem
Ecological pyramids illustrate the amount of energy
available at each of the four levels of an ecosystem 98
Ecological Pyramid
99
A grasshopper eats a plant A mouse eats the
grasshopper A snake eats the mouse A hawk
could eat the snake or the mouse In this food
web how would we categorize the hawk
1 Producer
2 Primary consumer
3 Secondary consumer
4 Tertiary consumer
5 Quaternary consumer
6 4 and 5
100
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps
bull First it is converted to chemical energy in
photosynthesis
bull Herbivores then consume the primary producers the
herbivores are consumed by carnivores and the
carnivores in turn may be consumed by top carnivores
101
Take-home message
bull Detritivores and decomposers extract energy from
organic waste and the remains of organisms that have
died
bull At each step in a food chain some usable energy is lost
as heat
102
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy pyramids reveal the inefficiency of
food chains
103
Biomass
bull biomass total weight of all living organisms in a given
area
bull only about 10 of the plants in an ecosystem is
converted into biomass
bull Food Energy Pyramid
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
bull African savannas and grasslands sustain more species
of higher-order carnivores than any other terrestrial
ecosystem
104
105
Food Energy Pyramids
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
106
107
108
You go out to eat at a fancy restaurant You
have a salad salmon and for dessert ice
cream Which part of the meal was the most
energy efficient food for you to eat
1 Salad
2 Salmon
3 Ice cream
4 2 and 3
109
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps known as trophic levels
bull Energy pyramids reveal that the biomass of primary
producers in an ecosystem tends to be far greater than
the biomass of herbivores
bull The biomass transferred at each step along the food chain tends to be only about 10 of the biomass of the organisms being consumed due to energy lost in cellular respiration
bull As a consequence of this inefficiency food chains rarely exceed four levels
110
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Essential chemicals cycle through
ecosystems
111
Chemical Reservoirs
bull Each chemical is stored in a non-living part of the environment
bull Organisms acquire the chemical from the reservoir a non-living part of the environment
bull The chemical cycles through the food chain (biogeochemical cycles)
bull Eventually the chemical is returned to the reservoir
112
Hydrologic Cycle and the Florida Springs
bull Click here for a description of how falling rain feeds underground aquifers in Florida and forms springs
113
The Most Important Chemical Cycles
1) Carbon
2) Nitrogen
3) Phosphorus
4) Sulfur
114
115
The
Carbon
Cycle
116
The Carbon Cycle
Keeping Up With Carbon
NASA video provides key information on the carbon cycle
117
118
Carbon Cycle Game
Fossil Fuels
bull created when large numbers of organisms die and are buried in sediment lacking oxygen
bull In absence of oxygen at high pressures and after very long periods of time organic remains are ultimately transformed into coal oil and natural gas
bull burning coal oil and natural gas releases large amounts of carbon dioxide
bull increases average CO2 concentration in the atmosphere
bull current level of CO2 in the atmosphere is the highest it has been in almost half a million years
119
Global CO2 levels are rising in
general but they also exhibit a
sharp rise and fall within each
year ndash why
120
121
The Nitrogen Cycle
122
The Nitrogen Cycle
Fertilizers
bull Because it is necessary for the production of every plant
protein and because all nitrogen must first be made
usable by bacteria plant growth is often limited by
nitrogen levels in the soil
bull For this reason most fertilizers contain nitrogen in a
form usable by plants
123
124
125
126
127
Oxygen reduction downstream of a source of
organic pollution
128
Algal growth and eutrophication in an Australian
outback waterway
129
Sulfur Cycle
bull component of protein
bull cycles in both a gas and sedimentary cycle
bull source earths crust
bull enters the atmosphere as hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
during fossil fuel combustion volcanic eruptions
gas exchange at ocean surfaces decomposition
130
Sulfur Cycle
bull H2S is immediately oxidized to sulfur dioxide (SO2)
bull SO2 + water vapor H2SO4 (falls to earth in rain)
bull sulfur in soluble form is taken up by plant roots
incorporated into amino acids such as cysteine
bull travels through food chain
bull eventually released through decomposition
131
How is carbon recycled back to the
atmosphere in the carbon cycle
1 It is ldquofixedrdquo by bacteria
2 It is a product of cellular respiration
3 Burning of fossil fuels
4 2 and 3
5 All of the above
132
Why do commercial fertilizers usually
contain usable forms of nitrogen and
phosphorous
1 These chemicals are not efficiently recycled in
the soil
2 Nitrogen and phosphorous need to be ldquofixedrdquo
by bacteria or the plant
3 Nitrogen and phosphorous are found at high
levels in the atmosphere but not in the soil
4 Nitrogen and phosphorous only enter the soil
through erosion
133
Take-home message
bull Chemicals essential to lifemdashincluding carbon nitrogen and phosphorusmdashcycle through ecosystems
bull They are usually captured from the atmosphere soil or water by growing organisms passed from one trophic level to the next as organisms eat other organisms and returned to the environment through respiration decomposition and erosion
bull These cycles can be disrupted as human activities significantly increase the amounts of the chemicals utilized or released to the environment
134
Symbiotic Relationships
bull Symbiosis close relationship between organisms of
two different species
bull At least one participant gains some sort of benefit
(usually nutritional)
bull Types of symbiosis
bull Parasitism
bull Commensalism
bull Mutualism
bull Predation
135
Symbiotic Relationships in the
Ocean
bull Click here for an explanation of the
relationships of marine animals
including sharks rays and various
fishes
136
Parasitism bull Parasite derives nutrition from the host
bull This harms the host but a true parasite does
not usually kill its host (directly)
137
Ectoparasites
Remain outside the host
Ticks fleas leeches
138
Endoparasites
Live inside the hostrsquos body
Tapeworms malarial parasites
139
Parasite Transmission
bull Many parasites live on or in a single organism
bull Some will alternate between 2 or more host species
bull Vertical transmission ndash from mother offspring
bull Horizontal transmission ndash between members of a
population
bull Direct contact (head lice)
bull Vectors (mosquitos)
140
141
Commensalism
bull Neither species is totally dependent on the other
bull One benefits ndash no effect on the other
bull Feeding or protection
bull Porcelain anemone crabs and anemones
142
Mutualism
bull Both species benefit
bull Food or shelter
bull Examples
bull Plants and microbes (rhizobium in root nodules)
bull Plants and fungi (orchids and mycorrhizae)
bull Protists and fungi (lichen)
bull Plants and insects (pollination)
bull Animals and bacteria (ruminants)
bull Animals and other animals (crocodiles and
plover birds)
143
Mutualism shrimp and moray
Cleaner shrimp cleaning a zebra moray eel Mutualistic
relationships such as these promote the well-being of the
host fishes and provide food for those that do the cleaning 144
Rhizobium
Rhizobium in root nodules of certain plants convert
nitrogen in soil to usable form
145
Orchid Mycorrhizae
Fungi aid the plant in the uptake of nutrients
Fungi ingest some of the food from plant
photosynthesis 146
Lichen
Most of the lichen is composed of fungal filaments
but living among the filaments are algal cells
usually from a green alga or a cyanobacterium
The lichen fungus provides its partner(s) a benefit
(protection) and gains nutrients in return 147
Ruminants
Ruminants are characterized by their four-chambered
stomach and cud-chewing behavior Cud is a food bolus
that is regurgitated rechewed and reswallowed The
rumen is a large fermentation vat containing billions of
microorganisms including bacteria and protozoa which
allow ruminants to digest fibrous feeds such as grass and
hay that other animals cannot efficiently utilize 148
Crocodiles amp
Plover Birds
The bird gets into the crocodiles mouth and picks out
the tiny bits of food stuck in his teeth then eats it (the
tiny bits)
This cleans the crocodiles teeth and keeps his mouth
fresh and free from infections 149
Predation
bull Consumption of one living organism by
another
bull Predators must have offensive strategies
bull ways of finding catching and eating
their prey
bull Prey organisms must have defensive
strategies
bull ways of avoiding or discouraging this
activity
150
Predation
bull Encompasses all levels within an
ecological food chainweb
bull plant-herbivore systems
bull herbivore-carnivore systems
bull three-way interactions of
interdependent plant-herbivore-
carnivore systems
151
This goshawk is the tertiary consumer in his ecosystem
and the mouse in his beak is the secondary consumer
Beneath the mouse on the ecological pyramid lies his
foodsource likely a worm which fed on the primary
producer leafy plants 152
Ecosystem of Life in Floridas
Springs
bull Click here for a close-up look of life
in Floridas springs and the various
predator-prey interactions there
153
Tropical Rain Forest
bull forest of tall trees in a region of year-round warmth
bull ~ 125 to 660 cm yearly rainfall
bull temperature ranges from 20 degC - 34 degC
bull average humidity 77 - 88
bull rainfall gt 250 cmyear (may be a brief dry season)
bull almost all rain forests lie near the equator
16
Tropical Rain Forest
bull lt 6 of Earths land surface
bull gt 50 of all the worlds plant and animal species live in
tropical rain forests
bull produce ~40 of Earths oxygen
bull ~70 of the plants in the rainforest are trees
bull ~25 of all the medicines we use come from rainforest
plants
17
Tropical Rain Forest
18
Indicator Species
bull any biological species that defines a trait
or characteristic of the environment
bull may delineate an ecoregion
bull could indicate an environmental condition such as
a disease outbreak pollution species competition
or climate change
bull can be among most sensitive species in a region
sometimes act as early warning to monitoring biologists
19
Tropical Rain Forest ndash Indicator Plant Species
20
Tropical Rain Forest ndash Indicator Animal Species Gorilla
Gorilla gorilla
Orangutan (Pongo pygmaeus)
Spider Monkey
Ateles geoffreyi
21
Tropical Rain Forest ndash Indicator Animal Species 2-toed sloth
Cholepus
hoffmanni
Three-toed Sloth (Bradypus
variegatus) with baby - Costa Rica 22
Tropical Rain Forest ndash Indicator Animal Species
Collared Aracari
Pteroglossus torquatus
23
Grasslands (Prairie)
bull 2 different types
bull tall-grass humid amp very wet
bull short-grass dry hotter summers and colder winters
than the tall-grass prairie
bull found in middle latitudes in the interiors of continents
bull either moist continental climates or dry subtropical
climates
bull Argentina ndash grasslands are known as pampas
bull Russia ndash steppes
bull grasslands in southern hemisphere tend to get more
precipitation than those in the northern hemisphere
24
Grasslands (Prairie)
25
Grasslands (Prairie)
bull temperatures range from -40deg F 70deg F
bull growing season and a dormant season
bull growing season is when there is no frost and plants
can grow (which lasts from 100 to 175 days)
bull tropical and subtropical grasslands the length of
the growing season is determined by how long the
rainy season lasts
bull temperate grasslands the length of the growing
season is determined by temperature (ge 50deg F)
bull dormant (not growing) season nothing can grow
because its too cold
26
Grasslands (Prairie)
bull average rainfall per year ranges from 10 - 30 inches
bull tropical and sub-tropical grasslands average rainfall
per year ranges from 25 - 60 inches
bull amount of rainfall is very important in determining which
areas are grasslands
bull hard for trees to compete with grasses in places
where the uppers layers of soil are moist during part
of the year but where deeper layer of soil are always
dry
27
Grasslands (Prairie)
28
Grasslandsndash Indicator Plant Species Old Field Habitat Ohio
Grassland North Dakota
Ironweed
(Vernonia sp) with
Hedge Bindweed
Vine (Calystegia sepium) 29
Grasslandsndash Indicator Plant Species
Ironweed (Vernonia sp)
Joe Pye Weed
Eupatorium purpureum
30
Grasslands ndash Indicator Plant Species
Common Teasel
Dipsacus fullonum Queen Annes Lace (Daucus carota)
31
Grasslands ndash Indicator Animal Species
Bison (Bison bison) on the range
Theodore Roosevelt National Park North
Dakota
32
Grasslands ndash Indicator Animal Species
Przewalskis horse (Equus caballus
przewalskii) The Wilds Ohio
33
Grasslands ndash Indicator Animal Species
34
Taiga
bull Russian word for forest
bull largest biome in the world
bull Eurasia North America
bull located just below the tundra biome
bull many coniferous trees
bull aka boreal forest Boreal was the Greek goddess of the
North Wind
35
Taiga
bull winter temperature range is -54 to -1deg C (-65 to 30deg F)
bull summer -7deg C (20deg F) to 21deg C (70deg F)
bull summers are very short (50 - 100 frost free days)
bull average yearly precipitation 30 - 85 cm (12 - 33 in)
bull main seasons are winter and summer
bull spring and autumn are very short
bull weather is either hot and humid or very cold
36
Taiga
37
Taiga ndash Indicator Plant Species
Balsam Fir
Abies balsamea
Black Spruce
Picea mariana
38
Taiga ndash Indicator Plant Species
Jack Pine
Pinus banksiana
Paper Birch
Betula papyrifera
White Poplar
Populus alba
39
Taiga ndash Indicator Animal Species
American Black Bear
Ursus americanus
Bald Eagle
Haliaeetus leucocephalus 40
Taiga ndash Indicator Animal Species
Long-eared Owl
Aiso otus
Snowshoe Rabbit
Lepus americanus
41
Desert
bull cover about one fifth of Earths land surface
bull hot and dry near Tropic of CancerTropic of
Capricorn
bull cold near the Arctic
bull temperature
bull hot amp dry ~ 25deg C to ~ 49deg C
bull cold -2 to 4deg C (winter) 21 to 26deg C (summer)
bull precipitation
bull hot amp dry very little rainfall andor concentrated
rainfall in short periods between long rainless periods
(lt 15 cmyear)
bull cold 15 - 26 cmyear 42
Desert
43
Desert ndash Indicator Plant Species
44
Desert ndash Indicator Plant Species
Saguaro Cactus
Carnegiea gigantea
Fishhook Cactus
Mammillaria microcarpa
45
Desert ndash Indicator Plant Species
Trichomes
46
Desert ndash Indicator Animal Species
Zebratail Lizard - Callisaurus draconides
47
Desert ndash Indicator Animal Species
Rock hyrax (Procavia capensis) 48
Desert ndash Indicator Animal Species
Bactrian Camel Camelus bactrianus
49
Temperate Deciduous Forest
bull temperature 0 - 20 C
bull precipitation ~ 50 ndash 200 cmyear
50
Temperate Deciduous Forest
51
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Plant Species
Oaks (Quercus sp)
Dutchmans-Breeches
Dicentra cucullaria 52
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Plant Species
Sassafras
Sassafras albidum
Redbud
Cercis canadensis
53
Temperate Deciduous Forest ndash Succession
bull orderly succession of communities to a climax
community (biome)
bull two main types of succession
bull primary succession begins with bare rock exposed
by geologic activity
bull secondary succession begins on soil from which
previous community has been removed (by fire
agriculture etc)
bull secondary succession can proceed much faster
because the soil has been prepared by the
previous community
54
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
American Toad
Bufo americanus
Box Turtle
55
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
Eastern Chipmunk
Tamias striatus
Eastern Gray Squirrel
Sciurus carolinensis
56
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
Yellow-breasted chat
Icteria virens 57
Tundra
bull annual average temperature lt 5 C
bull precipitation (mostly in the form of snow) lt 100 mmyear
bull summer is brief
bull temperatures above freezing last only a few weeks at
most
bull warm summer coincides with periods of almost 24
hour daylight so plant growth can be explosive
58
Tundra
Anaktuvuk Pass Alaska
59
Tundra ndash Indicator Plant Species
Arctic Tundra Wildflowers - Alaska
60
Tundra ndash Indicator Plant Species
Lichen
Polytrichum Moss
(photographed in Ohio not on the
Tundra)
61
Tundra ndash Indicator Animal Species
Reindeer
Rangifer tarandus
62
Tundra ndash Indicator Animal Species
Caribou On Autumn Tundra Denali National Park Alaska
63
Savanna
bull rolling grassland scattered with shrubs and isolated trees
bull found between a tropical rainforest and desert biome
bull not enough rain falls on a savanna to support forests
bull found in a wide band on either side of the equator on
the edges of tropical rainforests
bull warm temperature year round
bull very long dry season (winter) ~ 10 cm rain none at all
from Dec - Feb
bull very wet season (summer) ~ 35-65 cm rain
64
Savanna
65
Savanna ndash Indicator Plant Species
Baobab
Adansonia digitata Umbrella Thorn Acacia
Acacia tortillis
66
Savanna ndash Indicator Animal Species
Savanna Elephant
Loxodonta africana
Black Mamba
Dendroaspis polylepis
Lion
Panthera leo
67
Chaparral
bull winter mild and moist but not rainy
bull summer very hot and dry
bull annual temperature range between -1deg and 38deg C
bull annual precipitation ~ 25-45 cm mostly in the winter
68
Chaparral
69
Chaparral ndash Indicator Plant Species
Blue Oak
Quercus douglasii
Common Sagebrush
Artemisia tridentata
Olive Tree
Olea europaea
70
Chaparral ndash Indicator Animal Species
Black-tailed Jackrabbit
Lepus californicus Golden Jackal
Canis aureus
Spotted Skunk
Spilogale gracilis
71
The Freshwater Biome
bull low salt concentration mdash usually less than 1
bull plants and animals in freshwater regions are adjusted to
the low salt content and would not be able to survive in
areas of high salt concentration (ie ocean)
bull 3 different types of freshwater regions
bull ponds and lakes
bull streams and rivers
bull wetlands
72
The Freshwater Biome ndash Ponds and Lakes
From left a view across Manzanita Lake toward Mt Lassen California a
forest pond near Donnelly Idaho a Great Blue Heron Paranagat Lake
southeastern Nevada
73
The Freshwater Biome ndash Streams and
Rivers
From left McArthur-Burney Falls State Park California trout Green
River Utah Brooks River Alaska
74
The Freshwater Biome - Wetlands
From left Pescadero Marsh California coastal marsh at Umpqua
Dunes Oregon trees and bogs on Esther Island Alaska
75
The Marine Biome
bull cover about three-fourths of the Earths surface
bull marine algae supply much of the worlds oxygen supply
and take in a huge amount of atmospheric carbon
dioxide
bull evaporation of the seawater provides rainwater for the
land
bull 3 different types of marine regions
bull oceans
bull coral reefs
bull estuaries
76
The Marine Biome - Oceans
From left mussels worms and a spider crab at a hydrocarbon seep
community in the Gulf of Mexico a sea fan and brain coral in the Florida
Keys National Marine Sanctuary a school of Atlantic amberjack off North
Carolina
77
The Marine Biome ndash Coral Reefs
From left reef life in the Gulf of Aqaba Red Sea a reef at Fanning
Island atoll in the central Pacific a reef in the Florida Keys National
Marine Sanctuary
78
The Marine Biome - Estuaries
From left Mangrove roots south Florida wetlands and tidal streams
in the Ashe Island area ACE Basin National Estuarine Research
Reserve South Carolina a salt marsh in Winyah Bay National
Estuarine Research Reserve South Carolina
79
Ecological Notes
These are the biomes in order of their productivity (highest
first)
1 estuaries and tropical rain forest (highest)
2 temperate forest
3 agricultural land
4 temperate grassland
5 lakes and streams
6 coastal zone
7 tundra
8 open ocean
9 desert (lowest)
80
Ecological Notes
In order to be productive and have a lot of living material
standing around (biomass) an ecosystem has to have 4
basic necessities for plant life to thrive (if there are
enough plants the ecosystem will also support a lot of
animals) The four things are
1 Sunlight
2 Nutrients
3 Warm temperatures
4 Water
81
Biomes Video
82
Take-Home Message
bull Biomes are the major ecological communities of earth
characterized mostly by the vegetation present
bull Different biomes result from differences in temperature
and precipitation and the extent to which they vary from
season to season
83
Challenge Question
bull Terrestrial biomes are determined by the temperature
and precipitation amounts as well as whether those
factors are constant or vary by season
bull By contrast how are aquatic biomes determined
84
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy flows from producers to
consumers
85
86
87
First Stop Primary Producers
bull ecosystem producers or consumers
bull primary producers plants algae (some) bacteria
bull convert light energy from sun into chemical energy
through photosynthesis
bull chemical energy = food
bull consumers eat or absorb their food
bull energy stored in chemical bonds of carbohydrate
protein and lipid molecules is captured and
harnessed for consumersrsquo own movement
reproduction and growth
88
Food Chain
89
Food Web
90
Food Web
91
Food Chains amp Food Webs
bull A change in one link in a food chain will affect the other
links
bull The table on the next slide gives one example of a food
chain and the trophic levels represented in it
92
Food Chains amp Food Webs
93
GRASS
GRASSHOPPER
TOAD
SNAKE
HAWK
BACTERIA
IN GENERAL
AUTOTROPHS
(PRODUCERS)
HERBIVORES
(PRIMARY
CONSUMERS)
CARNIVORES
(2 3 ETC)
DECOMPOSERS
94
Chain Reaction Game
95
Energy Flows through a Food Web
bull Losses at every ldquosteprdquo in a food chain
bull Inefficiency of energy transfers
96
Energy flow through a food chain
Energy flow refers to the way that energy is transformed through
a food chain (pictured here) containing a series of levels
including plants consumers predators and decomposers 97
Amount of energy available at each of the
four levels of an ecosystem
Ecological pyramids illustrate the amount of energy
available at each of the four levels of an ecosystem 98
Ecological Pyramid
99
A grasshopper eats a plant A mouse eats the
grasshopper A snake eats the mouse A hawk
could eat the snake or the mouse In this food
web how would we categorize the hawk
1 Producer
2 Primary consumer
3 Secondary consumer
4 Tertiary consumer
5 Quaternary consumer
6 4 and 5
100
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps
bull First it is converted to chemical energy in
photosynthesis
bull Herbivores then consume the primary producers the
herbivores are consumed by carnivores and the
carnivores in turn may be consumed by top carnivores
101
Take-home message
bull Detritivores and decomposers extract energy from
organic waste and the remains of organisms that have
died
bull At each step in a food chain some usable energy is lost
as heat
102
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy pyramids reveal the inefficiency of
food chains
103
Biomass
bull biomass total weight of all living organisms in a given
area
bull only about 10 of the plants in an ecosystem is
converted into biomass
bull Food Energy Pyramid
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
bull African savannas and grasslands sustain more species
of higher-order carnivores than any other terrestrial
ecosystem
104
105
Food Energy Pyramids
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
106
107
108
You go out to eat at a fancy restaurant You
have a salad salmon and for dessert ice
cream Which part of the meal was the most
energy efficient food for you to eat
1 Salad
2 Salmon
3 Ice cream
4 2 and 3
109
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps known as trophic levels
bull Energy pyramids reveal that the biomass of primary
producers in an ecosystem tends to be far greater than
the biomass of herbivores
bull The biomass transferred at each step along the food chain tends to be only about 10 of the biomass of the organisms being consumed due to energy lost in cellular respiration
bull As a consequence of this inefficiency food chains rarely exceed four levels
110
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Essential chemicals cycle through
ecosystems
111
Chemical Reservoirs
bull Each chemical is stored in a non-living part of the environment
bull Organisms acquire the chemical from the reservoir a non-living part of the environment
bull The chemical cycles through the food chain (biogeochemical cycles)
bull Eventually the chemical is returned to the reservoir
112
Hydrologic Cycle and the Florida Springs
bull Click here for a description of how falling rain feeds underground aquifers in Florida and forms springs
113
The Most Important Chemical Cycles
1) Carbon
2) Nitrogen
3) Phosphorus
4) Sulfur
114
115
The
Carbon
Cycle
116
The Carbon Cycle
Keeping Up With Carbon
NASA video provides key information on the carbon cycle
117
118
Carbon Cycle Game
Fossil Fuels
bull created when large numbers of organisms die and are buried in sediment lacking oxygen
bull In absence of oxygen at high pressures and after very long periods of time organic remains are ultimately transformed into coal oil and natural gas
bull burning coal oil and natural gas releases large amounts of carbon dioxide
bull increases average CO2 concentration in the atmosphere
bull current level of CO2 in the atmosphere is the highest it has been in almost half a million years
119
Global CO2 levels are rising in
general but they also exhibit a
sharp rise and fall within each
year ndash why
120
121
The Nitrogen Cycle
122
The Nitrogen Cycle
Fertilizers
bull Because it is necessary for the production of every plant
protein and because all nitrogen must first be made
usable by bacteria plant growth is often limited by
nitrogen levels in the soil
bull For this reason most fertilizers contain nitrogen in a
form usable by plants
123
124
125
126
127
Oxygen reduction downstream of a source of
organic pollution
128
Algal growth and eutrophication in an Australian
outback waterway
129
Sulfur Cycle
bull component of protein
bull cycles in both a gas and sedimentary cycle
bull source earths crust
bull enters the atmosphere as hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
during fossil fuel combustion volcanic eruptions
gas exchange at ocean surfaces decomposition
130
Sulfur Cycle
bull H2S is immediately oxidized to sulfur dioxide (SO2)
bull SO2 + water vapor H2SO4 (falls to earth in rain)
bull sulfur in soluble form is taken up by plant roots
incorporated into amino acids such as cysteine
bull travels through food chain
bull eventually released through decomposition
131
How is carbon recycled back to the
atmosphere in the carbon cycle
1 It is ldquofixedrdquo by bacteria
2 It is a product of cellular respiration
3 Burning of fossil fuels
4 2 and 3
5 All of the above
132
Why do commercial fertilizers usually
contain usable forms of nitrogen and
phosphorous
1 These chemicals are not efficiently recycled in
the soil
2 Nitrogen and phosphorous need to be ldquofixedrdquo
by bacteria or the plant
3 Nitrogen and phosphorous are found at high
levels in the atmosphere but not in the soil
4 Nitrogen and phosphorous only enter the soil
through erosion
133
Take-home message
bull Chemicals essential to lifemdashincluding carbon nitrogen and phosphorusmdashcycle through ecosystems
bull They are usually captured from the atmosphere soil or water by growing organisms passed from one trophic level to the next as organisms eat other organisms and returned to the environment through respiration decomposition and erosion
bull These cycles can be disrupted as human activities significantly increase the amounts of the chemicals utilized or released to the environment
134
Symbiotic Relationships
bull Symbiosis close relationship between organisms of
two different species
bull At least one participant gains some sort of benefit
(usually nutritional)
bull Types of symbiosis
bull Parasitism
bull Commensalism
bull Mutualism
bull Predation
135
Symbiotic Relationships in the
Ocean
bull Click here for an explanation of the
relationships of marine animals
including sharks rays and various
fishes
136
Parasitism bull Parasite derives nutrition from the host
bull This harms the host but a true parasite does
not usually kill its host (directly)
137
Ectoparasites
Remain outside the host
Ticks fleas leeches
138
Endoparasites
Live inside the hostrsquos body
Tapeworms malarial parasites
139
Parasite Transmission
bull Many parasites live on or in a single organism
bull Some will alternate between 2 or more host species
bull Vertical transmission ndash from mother offspring
bull Horizontal transmission ndash between members of a
population
bull Direct contact (head lice)
bull Vectors (mosquitos)
140
141
Commensalism
bull Neither species is totally dependent on the other
bull One benefits ndash no effect on the other
bull Feeding or protection
bull Porcelain anemone crabs and anemones
142
Mutualism
bull Both species benefit
bull Food or shelter
bull Examples
bull Plants and microbes (rhizobium in root nodules)
bull Plants and fungi (orchids and mycorrhizae)
bull Protists and fungi (lichen)
bull Plants and insects (pollination)
bull Animals and bacteria (ruminants)
bull Animals and other animals (crocodiles and
plover birds)
143
Mutualism shrimp and moray
Cleaner shrimp cleaning a zebra moray eel Mutualistic
relationships such as these promote the well-being of the
host fishes and provide food for those that do the cleaning 144
Rhizobium
Rhizobium in root nodules of certain plants convert
nitrogen in soil to usable form
145
Orchid Mycorrhizae
Fungi aid the plant in the uptake of nutrients
Fungi ingest some of the food from plant
photosynthesis 146
Lichen
Most of the lichen is composed of fungal filaments
but living among the filaments are algal cells
usually from a green alga or a cyanobacterium
The lichen fungus provides its partner(s) a benefit
(protection) and gains nutrients in return 147
Ruminants
Ruminants are characterized by their four-chambered
stomach and cud-chewing behavior Cud is a food bolus
that is regurgitated rechewed and reswallowed The
rumen is a large fermentation vat containing billions of
microorganisms including bacteria and protozoa which
allow ruminants to digest fibrous feeds such as grass and
hay that other animals cannot efficiently utilize 148
Crocodiles amp
Plover Birds
The bird gets into the crocodiles mouth and picks out
the tiny bits of food stuck in his teeth then eats it (the
tiny bits)
This cleans the crocodiles teeth and keeps his mouth
fresh and free from infections 149
Predation
bull Consumption of one living organism by
another
bull Predators must have offensive strategies
bull ways of finding catching and eating
their prey
bull Prey organisms must have defensive
strategies
bull ways of avoiding or discouraging this
activity
150
Predation
bull Encompasses all levels within an
ecological food chainweb
bull plant-herbivore systems
bull herbivore-carnivore systems
bull three-way interactions of
interdependent plant-herbivore-
carnivore systems
151
This goshawk is the tertiary consumer in his ecosystem
and the mouse in his beak is the secondary consumer
Beneath the mouse on the ecological pyramid lies his
foodsource likely a worm which fed on the primary
producer leafy plants 152
Ecosystem of Life in Floridas
Springs
bull Click here for a close-up look of life
in Floridas springs and the various
predator-prey interactions there
153
Tropical Rain Forest
bull lt 6 of Earths land surface
bull gt 50 of all the worlds plant and animal species live in
tropical rain forests
bull produce ~40 of Earths oxygen
bull ~70 of the plants in the rainforest are trees
bull ~25 of all the medicines we use come from rainforest
plants
17
Tropical Rain Forest
18
Indicator Species
bull any biological species that defines a trait
or characteristic of the environment
bull may delineate an ecoregion
bull could indicate an environmental condition such as
a disease outbreak pollution species competition
or climate change
bull can be among most sensitive species in a region
sometimes act as early warning to monitoring biologists
19
Tropical Rain Forest ndash Indicator Plant Species
20
Tropical Rain Forest ndash Indicator Animal Species Gorilla
Gorilla gorilla
Orangutan (Pongo pygmaeus)
Spider Monkey
Ateles geoffreyi
21
Tropical Rain Forest ndash Indicator Animal Species 2-toed sloth
Cholepus
hoffmanni
Three-toed Sloth (Bradypus
variegatus) with baby - Costa Rica 22
Tropical Rain Forest ndash Indicator Animal Species
Collared Aracari
Pteroglossus torquatus
23
Grasslands (Prairie)
bull 2 different types
bull tall-grass humid amp very wet
bull short-grass dry hotter summers and colder winters
than the tall-grass prairie
bull found in middle latitudes in the interiors of continents
bull either moist continental climates or dry subtropical
climates
bull Argentina ndash grasslands are known as pampas
bull Russia ndash steppes
bull grasslands in southern hemisphere tend to get more
precipitation than those in the northern hemisphere
24
Grasslands (Prairie)
25
Grasslands (Prairie)
bull temperatures range from -40deg F 70deg F
bull growing season and a dormant season
bull growing season is when there is no frost and plants
can grow (which lasts from 100 to 175 days)
bull tropical and subtropical grasslands the length of
the growing season is determined by how long the
rainy season lasts
bull temperate grasslands the length of the growing
season is determined by temperature (ge 50deg F)
bull dormant (not growing) season nothing can grow
because its too cold
26
Grasslands (Prairie)
bull average rainfall per year ranges from 10 - 30 inches
bull tropical and sub-tropical grasslands average rainfall
per year ranges from 25 - 60 inches
bull amount of rainfall is very important in determining which
areas are grasslands
bull hard for trees to compete with grasses in places
where the uppers layers of soil are moist during part
of the year but where deeper layer of soil are always
dry
27
Grasslands (Prairie)
28
Grasslandsndash Indicator Plant Species Old Field Habitat Ohio
Grassland North Dakota
Ironweed
(Vernonia sp) with
Hedge Bindweed
Vine (Calystegia sepium) 29
Grasslandsndash Indicator Plant Species
Ironweed (Vernonia sp)
Joe Pye Weed
Eupatorium purpureum
30
Grasslands ndash Indicator Plant Species
Common Teasel
Dipsacus fullonum Queen Annes Lace (Daucus carota)
31
Grasslands ndash Indicator Animal Species
Bison (Bison bison) on the range
Theodore Roosevelt National Park North
Dakota
32
Grasslands ndash Indicator Animal Species
Przewalskis horse (Equus caballus
przewalskii) The Wilds Ohio
33
Grasslands ndash Indicator Animal Species
34
Taiga
bull Russian word for forest
bull largest biome in the world
bull Eurasia North America
bull located just below the tundra biome
bull many coniferous trees
bull aka boreal forest Boreal was the Greek goddess of the
North Wind
35
Taiga
bull winter temperature range is -54 to -1deg C (-65 to 30deg F)
bull summer -7deg C (20deg F) to 21deg C (70deg F)
bull summers are very short (50 - 100 frost free days)
bull average yearly precipitation 30 - 85 cm (12 - 33 in)
bull main seasons are winter and summer
bull spring and autumn are very short
bull weather is either hot and humid or very cold
36
Taiga
37
Taiga ndash Indicator Plant Species
Balsam Fir
Abies balsamea
Black Spruce
Picea mariana
38
Taiga ndash Indicator Plant Species
Jack Pine
Pinus banksiana
Paper Birch
Betula papyrifera
White Poplar
Populus alba
39
Taiga ndash Indicator Animal Species
American Black Bear
Ursus americanus
Bald Eagle
Haliaeetus leucocephalus 40
Taiga ndash Indicator Animal Species
Long-eared Owl
Aiso otus
Snowshoe Rabbit
Lepus americanus
41
Desert
bull cover about one fifth of Earths land surface
bull hot and dry near Tropic of CancerTropic of
Capricorn
bull cold near the Arctic
bull temperature
bull hot amp dry ~ 25deg C to ~ 49deg C
bull cold -2 to 4deg C (winter) 21 to 26deg C (summer)
bull precipitation
bull hot amp dry very little rainfall andor concentrated
rainfall in short periods between long rainless periods
(lt 15 cmyear)
bull cold 15 - 26 cmyear 42
Desert
43
Desert ndash Indicator Plant Species
44
Desert ndash Indicator Plant Species
Saguaro Cactus
Carnegiea gigantea
Fishhook Cactus
Mammillaria microcarpa
45
Desert ndash Indicator Plant Species
Trichomes
46
Desert ndash Indicator Animal Species
Zebratail Lizard - Callisaurus draconides
47
Desert ndash Indicator Animal Species
Rock hyrax (Procavia capensis) 48
Desert ndash Indicator Animal Species
Bactrian Camel Camelus bactrianus
49
Temperate Deciduous Forest
bull temperature 0 - 20 C
bull precipitation ~ 50 ndash 200 cmyear
50
Temperate Deciduous Forest
51
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Plant Species
Oaks (Quercus sp)
Dutchmans-Breeches
Dicentra cucullaria 52
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Plant Species
Sassafras
Sassafras albidum
Redbud
Cercis canadensis
53
Temperate Deciduous Forest ndash Succession
bull orderly succession of communities to a climax
community (biome)
bull two main types of succession
bull primary succession begins with bare rock exposed
by geologic activity
bull secondary succession begins on soil from which
previous community has been removed (by fire
agriculture etc)
bull secondary succession can proceed much faster
because the soil has been prepared by the
previous community
54
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
American Toad
Bufo americanus
Box Turtle
55
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
Eastern Chipmunk
Tamias striatus
Eastern Gray Squirrel
Sciurus carolinensis
56
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
Yellow-breasted chat
Icteria virens 57
Tundra
bull annual average temperature lt 5 C
bull precipitation (mostly in the form of snow) lt 100 mmyear
bull summer is brief
bull temperatures above freezing last only a few weeks at
most
bull warm summer coincides with periods of almost 24
hour daylight so plant growth can be explosive
58
Tundra
Anaktuvuk Pass Alaska
59
Tundra ndash Indicator Plant Species
Arctic Tundra Wildflowers - Alaska
60
Tundra ndash Indicator Plant Species
Lichen
Polytrichum Moss
(photographed in Ohio not on the
Tundra)
61
Tundra ndash Indicator Animal Species
Reindeer
Rangifer tarandus
62
Tundra ndash Indicator Animal Species
Caribou On Autumn Tundra Denali National Park Alaska
63
Savanna
bull rolling grassland scattered with shrubs and isolated trees
bull found between a tropical rainforest and desert biome
bull not enough rain falls on a savanna to support forests
bull found in a wide band on either side of the equator on
the edges of tropical rainforests
bull warm temperature year round
bull very long dry season (winter) ~ 10 cm rain none at all
from Dec - Feb
bull very wet season (summer) ~ 35-65 cm rain
64
Savanna
65
Savanna ndash Indicator Plant Species
Baobab
Adansonia digitata Umbrella Thorn Acacia
Acacia tortillis
66
Savanna ndash Indicator Animal Species
Savanna Elephant
Loxodonta africana
Black Mamba
Dendroaspis polylepis
Lion
Panthera leo
67
Chaparral
bull winter mild and moist but not rainy
bull summer very hot and dry
bull annual temperature range between -1deg and 38deg C
bull annual precipitation ~ 25-45 cm mostly in the winter
68
Chaparral
69
Chaparral ndash Indicator Plant Species
Blue Oak
Quercus douglasii
Common Sagebrush
Artemisia tridentata
Olive Tree
Olea europaea
70
Chaparral ndash Indicator Animal Species
Black-tailed Jackrabbit
Lepus californicus Golden Jackal
Canis aureus
Spotted Skunk
Spilogale gracilis
71
The Freshwater Biome
bull low salt concentration mdash usually less than 1
bull plants and animals in freshwater regions are adjusted to
the low salt content and would not be able to survive in
areas of high salt concentration (ie ocean)
bull 3 different types of freshwater regions
bull ponds and lakes
bull streams and rivers
bull wetlands
72
The Freshwater Biome ndash Ponds and Lakes
From left a view across Manzanita Lake toward Mt Lassen California a
forest pond near Donnelly Idaho a Great Blue Heron Paranagat Lake
southeastern Nevada
73
The Freshwater Biome ndash Streams and
Rivers
From left McArthur-Burney Falls State Park California trout Green
River Utah Brooks River Alaska
74
The Freshwater Biome - Wetlands
From left Pescadero Marsh California coastal marsh at Umpqua
Dunes Oregon trees and bogs on Esther Island Alaska
75
The Marine Biome
bull cover about three-fourths of the Earths surface
bull marine algae supply much of the worlds oxygen supply
and take in a huge amount of atmospheric carbon
dioxide
bull evaporation of the seawater provides rainwater for the
land
bull 3 different types of marine regions
bull oceans
bull coral reefs
bull estuaries
76
The Marine Biome - Oceans
From left mussels worms and a spider crab at a hydrocarbon seep
community in the Gulf of Mexico a sea fan and brain coral in the Florida
Keys National Marine Sanctuary a school of Atlantic amberjack off North
Carolina
77
The Marine Biome ndash Coral Reefs
From left reef life in the Gulf of Aqaba Red Sea a reef at Fanning
Island atoll in the central Pacific a reef in the Florida Keys National
Marine Sanctuary
78
The Marine Biome - Estuaries
From left Mangrove roots south Florida wetlands and tidal streams
in the Ashe Island area ACE Basin National Estuarine Research
Reserve South Carolina a salt marsh in Winyah Bay National
Estuarine Research Reserve South Carolina
79
Ecological Notes
These are the biomes in order of their productivity (highest
first)
1 estuaries and tropical rain forest (highest)
2 temperate forest
3 agricultural land
4 temperate grassland
5 lakes and streams
6 coastal zone
7 tundra
8 open ocean
9 desert (lowest)
80
Ecological Notes
In order to be productive and have a lot of living material
standing around (biomass) an ecosystem has to have 4
basic necessities for plant life to thrive (if there are
enough plants the ecosystem will also support a lot of
animals) The four things are
1 Sunlight
2 Nutrients
3 Warm temperatures
4 Water
81
Biomes Video
82
Take-Home Message
bull Biomes are the major ecological communities of earth
characterized mostly by the vegetation present
bull Different biomes result from differences in temperature
and precipitation and the extent to which they vary from
season to season
83
Challenge Question
bull Terrestrial biomes are determined by the temperature
and precipitation amounts as well as whether those
factors are constant or vary by season
bull By contrast how are aquatic biomes determined
84
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy flows from producers to
consumers
85
86
87
First Stop Primary Producers
bull ecosystem producers or consumers
bull primary producers plants algae (some) bacteria
bull convert light energy from sun into chemical energy
through photosynthesis
bull chemical energy = food
bull consumers eat or absorb their food
bull energy stored in chemical bonds of carbohydrate
protein and lipid molecules is captured and
harnessed for consumersrsquo own movement
reproduction and growth
88
Food Chain
89
Food Web
90
Food Web
91
Food Chains amp Food Webs
bull A change in one link in a food chain will affect the other
links
bull The table on the next slide gives one example of a food
chain and the trophic levels represented in it
92
Food Chains amp Food Webs
93
GRASS
GRASSHOPPER
TOAD
SNAKE
HAWK
BACTERIA
IN GENERAL
AUTOTROPHS
(PRODUCERS)
HERBIVORES
(PRIMARY
CONSUMERS)
CARNIVORES
(2 3 ETC)
DECOMPOSERS
94
Chain Reaction Game
95
Energy Flows through a Food Web
bull Losses at every ldquosteprdquo in a food chain
bull Inefficiency of energy transfers
96
Energy flow through a food chain
Energy flow refers to the way that energy is transformed through
a food chain (pictured here) containing a series of levels
including plants consumers predators and decomposers 97
Amount of energy available at each of the
four levels of an ecosystem
Ecological pyramids illustrate the amount of energy
available at each of the four levels of an ecosystem 98
Ecological Pyramid
99
A grasshopper eats a plant A mouse eats the
grasshopper A snake eats the mouse A hawk
could eat the snake or the mouse In this food
web how would we categorize the hawk
1 Producer
2 Primary consumer
3 Secondary consumer
4 Tertiary consumer
5 Quaternary consumer
6 4 and 5
100
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps
bull First it is converted to chemical energy in
photosynthesis
bull Herbivores then consume the primary producers the
herbivores are consumed by carnivores and the
carnivores in turn may be consumed by top carnivores
101
Take-home message
bull Detritivores and decomposers extract energy from
organic waste and the remains of organisms that have
died
bull At each step in a food chain some usable energy is lost
as heat
102
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy pyramids reveal the inefficiency of
food chains
103
Biomass
bull biomass total weight of all living organisms in a given
area
bull only about 10 of the plants in an ecosystem is
converted into biomass
bull Food Energy Pyramid
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
bull African savannas and grasslands sustain more species
of higher-order carnivores than any other terrestrial
ecosystem
104
105
Food Energy Pyramids
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
106
107
108
You go out to eat at a fancy restaurant You
have a salad salmon and for dessert ice
cream Which part of the meal was the most
energy efficient food for you to eat
1 Salad
2 Salmon
3 Ice cream
4 2 and 3
109
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps known as trophic levels
bull Energy pyramids reveal that the biomass of primary
producers in an ecosystem tends to be far greater than
the biomass of herbivores
bull The biomass transferred at each step along the food chain tends to be only about 10 of the biomass of the organisms being consumed due to energy lost in cellular respiration
bull As a consequence of this inefficiency food chains rarely exceed four levels
110
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Essential chemicals cycle through
ecosystems
111
Chemical Reservoirs
bull Each chemical is stored in a non-living part of the environment
bull Organisms acquire the chemical from the reservoir a non-living part of the environment
bull The chemical cycles through the food chain (biogeochemical cycles)
bull Eventually the chemical is returned to the reservoir
112
Hydrologic Cycle and the Florida Springs
bull Click here for a description of how falling rain feeds underground aquifers in Florida and forms springs
113
The Most Important Chemical Cycles
1) Carbon
2) Nitrogen
3) Phosphorus
4) Sulfur
114
115
The
Carbon
Cycle
116
The Carbon Cycle
Keeping Up With Carbon
NASA video provides key information on the carbon cycle
117
118
Carbon Cycle Game
Fossil Fuels
bull created when large numbers of organisms die and are buried in sediment lacking oxygen
bull In absence of oxygen at high pressures and after very long periods of time organic remains are ultimately transformed into coal oil and natural gas
bull burning coal oil and natural gas releases large amounts of carbon dioxide
bull increases average CO2 concentration in the atmosphere
bull current level of CO2 in the atmosphere is the highest it has been in almost half a million years
119
Global CO2 levels are rising in
general but they also exhibit a
sharp rise and fall within each
year ndash why
120
121
The Nitrogen Cycle
122
The Nitrogen Cycle
Fertilizers
bull Because it is necessary for the production of every plant
protein and because all nitrogen must first be made
usable by bacteria plant growth is often limited by
nitrogen levels in the soil
bull For this reason most fertilizers contain nitrogen in a
form usable by plants
123
124
125
126
127
Oxygen reduction downstream of a source of
organic pollution
128
Algal growth and eutrophication in an Australian
outback waterway
129
Sulfur Cycle
bull component of protein
bull cycles in both a gas and sedimentary cycle
bull source earths crust
bull enters the atmosphere as hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
during fossil fuel combustion volcanic eruptions
gas exchange at ocean surfaces decomposition
130
Sulfur Cycle
bull H2S is immediately oxidized to sulfur dioxide (SO2)
bull SO2 + water vapor H2SO4 (falls to earth in rain)
bull sulfur in soluble form is taken up by plant roots
incorporated into amino acids such as cysteine
bull travels through food chain
bull eventually released through decomposition
131
How is carbon recycled back to the
atmosphere in the carbon cycle
1 It is ldquofixedrdquo by bacteria
2 It is a product of cellular respiration
3 Burning of fossil fuels
4 2 and 3
5 All of the above
132
Why do commercial fertilizers usually
contain usable forms of nitrogen and
phosphorous
1 These chemicals are not efficiently recycled in
the soil
2 Nitrogen and phosphorous need to be ldquofixedrdquo
by bacteria or the plant
3 Nitrogen and phosphorous are found at high
levels in the atmosphere but not in the soil
4 Nitrogen and phosphorous only enter the soil
through erosion
133
Take-home message
bull Chemicals essential to lifemdashincluding carbon nitrogen and phosphorusmdashcycle through ecosystems
bull They are usually captured from the atmosphere soil or water by growing organisms passed from one trophic level to the next as organisms eat other organisms and returned to the environment through respiration decomposition and erosion
bull These cycles can be disrupted as human activities significantly increase the amounts of the chemicals utilized or released to the environment
134
Symbiotic Relationships
bull Symbiosis close relationship between organisms of
two different species
bull At least one participant gains some sort of benefit
(usually nutritional)
bull Types of symbiosis
bull Parasitism
bull Commensalism
bull Mutualism
bull Predation
135
Symbiotic Relationships in the
Ocean
bull Click here for an explanation of the
relationships of marine animals
including sharks rays and various
fishes
136
Parasitism bull Parasite derives nutrition from the host
bull This harms the host but a true parasite does
not usually kill its host (directly)
137
Ectoparasites
Remain outside the host
Ticks fleas leeches
138
Endoparasites
Live inside the hostrsquos body
Tapeworms malarial parasites
139
Parasite Transmission
bull Many parasites live on or in a single organism
bull Some will alternate between 2 or more host species
bull Vertical transmission ndash from mother offspring
bull Horizontal transmission ndash between members of a
population
bull Direct contact (head lice)
bull Vectors (mosquitos)
140
141
Commensalism
bull Neither species is totally dependent on the other
bull One benefits ndash no effect on the other
bull Feeding or protection
bull Porcelain anemone crabs and anemones
142
Mutualism
bull Both species benefit
bull Food or shelter
bull Examples
bull Plants and microbes (rhizobium in root nodules)
bull Plants and fungi (orchids and mycorrhizae)
bull Protists and fungi (lichen)
bull Plants and insects (pollination)
bull Animals and bacteria (ruminants)
bull Animals and other animals (crocodiles and
plover birds)
143
Mutualism shrimp and moray
Cleaner shrimp cleaning a zebra moray eel Mutualistic
relationships such as these promote the well-being of the
host fishes and provide food for those that do the cleaning 144
Rhizobium
Rhizobium in root nodules of certain plants convert
nitrogen in soil to usable form
145
Orchid Mycorrhizae
Fungi aid the plant in the uptake of nutrients
Fungi ingest some of the food from plant
photosynthesis 146
Lichen
Most of the lichen is composed of fungal filaments
but living among the filaments are algal cells
usually from a green alga or a cyanobacterium
The lichen fungus provides its partner(s) a benefit
(protection) and gains nutrients in return 147
Ruminants
Ruminants are characterized by their four-chambered
stomach and cud-chewing behavior Cud is a food bolus
that is regurgitated rechewed and reswallowed The
rumen is a large fermentation vat containing billions of
microorganisms including bacteria and protozoa which
allow ruminants to digest fibrous feeds such as grass and
hay that other animals cannot efficiently utilize 148
Crocodiles amp
Plover Birds
The bird gets into the crocodiles mouth and picks out
the tiny bits of food stuck in his teeth then eats it (the
tiny bits)
This cleans the crocodiles teeth and keeps his mouth
fresh and free from infections 149
Predation
bull Consumption of one living organism by
another
bull Predators must have offensive strategies
bull ways of finding catching and eating
their prey
bull Prey organisms must have defensive
strategies
bull ways of avoiding or discouraging this
activity
150
Predation
bull Encompasses all levels within an
ecological food chainweb
bull plant-herbivore systems
bull herbivore-carnivore systems
bull three-way interactions of
interdependent plant-herbivore-
carnivore systems
151
This goshawk is the tertiary consumer in his ecosystem
and the mouse in his beak is the secondary consumer
Beneath the mouse on the ecological pyramid lies his
foodsource likely a worm which fed on the primary
producer leafy plants 152
Ecosystem of Life in Floridas
Springs
bull Click here for a close-up look of life
in Floridas springs and the various
predator-prey interactions there
153
Tropical Rain Forest
18
Indicator Species
bull any biological species that defines a trait
or characteristic of the environment
bull may delineate an ecoregion
bull could indicate an environmental condition such as
a disease outbreak pollution species competition
or climate change
bull can be among most sensitive species in a region
sometimes act as early warning to monitoring biologists
19
Tropical Rain Forest ndash Indicator Plant Species
20
Tropical Rain Forest ndash Indicator Animal Species Gorilla
Gorilla gorilla
Orangutan (Pongo pygmaeus)
Spider Monkey
Ateles geoffreyi
21
Tropical Rain Forest ndash Indicator Animal Species 2-toed sloth
Cholepus
hoffmanni
Three-toed Sloth (Bradypus
variegatus) with baby - Costa Rica 22
Tropical Rain Forest ndash Indicator Animal Species
Collared Aracari
Pteroglossus torquatus
23
Grasslands (Prairie)
bull 2 different types
bull tall-grass humid amp very wet
bull short-grass dry hotter summers and colder winters
than the tall-grass prairie
bull found in middle latitudes in the interiors of continents
bull either moist continental climates or dry subtropical
climates
bull Argentina ndash grasslands are known as pampas
bull Russia ndash steppes
bull grasslands in southern hemisphere tend to get more
precipitation than those in the northern hemisphere
24
Grasslands (Prairie)
25
Grasslands (Prairie)
bull temperatures range from -40deg F 70deg F
bull growing season and a dormant season
bull growing season is when there is no frost and plants
can grow (which lasts from 100 to 175 days)
bull tropical and subtropical grasslands the length of
the growing season is determined by how long the
rainy season lasts
bull temperate grasslands the length of the growing
season is determined by temperature (ge 50deg F)
bull dormant (not growing) season nothing can grow
because its too cold
26
Grasslands (Prairie)
bull average rainfall per year ranges from 10 - 30 inches
bull tropical and sub-tropical grasslands average rainfall
per year ranges from 25 - 60 inches
bull amount of rainfall is very important in determining which
areas are grasslands
bull hard for trees to compete with grasses in places
where the uppers layers of soil are moist during part
of the year but where deeper layer of soil are always
dry
27
Grasslands (Prairie)
28
Grasslandsndash Indicator Plant Species Old Field Habitat Ohio
Grassland North Dakota
Ironweed
(Vernonia sp) with
Hedge Bindweed
Vine (Calystegia sepium) 29
Grasslandsndash Indicator Plant Species
Ironweed (Vernonia sp)
Joe Pye Weed
Eupatorium purpureum
30
Grasslands ndash Indicator Plant Species
Common Teasel
Dipsacus fullonum Queen Annes Lace (Daucus carota)
31
Grasslands ndash Indicator Animal Species
Bison (Bison bison) on the range
Theodore Roosevelt National Park North
Dakota
32
Grasslands ndash Indicator Animal Species
Przewalskis horse (Equus caballus
przewalskii) The Wilds Ohio
33
Grasslands ndash Indicator Animal Species
34
Taiga
bull Russian word for forest
bull largest biome in the world
bull Eurasia North America
bull located just below the tundra biome
bull many coniferous trees
bull aka boreal forest Boreal was the Greek goddess of the
North Wind
35
Taiga
bull winter temperature range is -54 to -1deg C (-65 to 30deg F)
bull summer -7deg C (20deg F) to 21deg C (70deg F)
bull summers are very short (50 - 100 frost free days)
bull average yearly precipitation 30 - 85 cm (12 - 33 in)
bull main seasons are winter and summer
bull spring and autumn are very short
bull weather is either hot and humid or very cold
36
Taiga
37
Taiga ndash Indicator Plant Species
Balsam Fir
Abies balsamea
Black Spruce
Picea mariana
38
Taiga ndash Indicator Plant Species
Jack Pine
Pinus banksiana
Paper Birch
Betula papyrifera
White Poplar
Populus alba
39
Taiga ndash Indicator Animal Species
American Black Bear
Ursus americanus
Bald Eagle
Haliaeetus leucocephalus 40
Taiga ndash Indicator Animal Species
Long-eared Owl
Aiso otus
Snowshoe Rabbit
Lepus americanus
41
Desert
bull cover about one fifth of Earths land surface
bull hot and dry near Tropic of CancerTropic of
Capricorn
bull cold near the Arctic
bull temperature
bull hot amp dry ~ 25deg C to ~ 49deg C
bull cold -2 to 4deg C (winter) 21 to 26deg C (summer)
bull precipitation
bull hot amp dry very little rainfall andor concentrated
rainfall in short periods between long rainless periods
(lt 15 cmyear)
bull cold 15 - 26 cmyear 42
Desert
43
Desert ndash Indicator Plant Species
44
Desert ndash Indicator Plant Species
Saguaro Cactus
Carnegiea gigantea
Fishhook Cactus
Mammillaria microcarpa
45
Desert ndash Indicator Plant Species
Trichomes
46
Desert ndash Indicator Animal Species
Zebratail Lizard - Callisaurus draconides
47
Desert ndash Indicator Animal Species
Rock hyrax (Procavia capensis) 48
Desert ndash Indicator Animal Species
Bactrian Camel Camelus bactrianus
49
Temperate Deciduous Forest
bull temperature 0 - 20 C
bull precipitation ~ 50 ndash 200 cmyear
50
Temperate Deciduous Forest
51
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Plant Species
Oaks (Quercus sp)
Dutchmans-Breeches
Dicentra cucullaria 52
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Plant Species
Sassafras
Sassafras albidum
Redbud
Cercis canadensis
53
Temperate Deciduous Forest ndash Succession
bull orderly succession of communities to a climax
community (biome)
bull two main types of succession
bull primary succession begins with bare rock exposed
by geologic activity
bull secondary succession begins on soil from which
previous community has been removed (by fire
agriculture etc)
bull secondary succession can proceed much faster
because the soil has been prepared by the
previous community
54
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
American Toad
Bufo americanus
Box Turtle
55
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
Eastern Chipmunk
Tamias striatus
Eastern Gray Squirrel
Sciurus carolinensis
56
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
Yellow-breasted chat
Icteria virens 57
Tundra
bull annual average temperature lt 5 C
bull precipitation (mostly in the form of snow) lt 100 mmyear
bull summer is brief
bull temperatures above freezing last only a few weeks at
most
bull warm summer coincides with periods of almost 24
hour daylight so plant growth can be explosive
58
Tundra
Anaktuvuk Pass Alaska
59
Tundra ndash Indicator Plant Species
Arctic Tundra Wildflowers - Alaska
60
Tundra ndash Indicator Plant Species
Lichen
Polytrichum Moss
(photographed in Ohio not on the
Tundra)
61
Tundra ndash Indicator Animal Species
Reindeer
Rangifer tarandus
62
Tundra ndash Indicator Animal Species
Caribou On Autumn Tundra Denali National Park Alaska
63
Savanna
bull rolling grassland scattered with shrubs and isolated trees
bull found between a tropical rainforest and desert biome
bull not enough rain falls on a savanna to support forests
bull found in a wide band on either side of the equator on
the edges of tropical rainforests
bull warm temperature year round
bull very long dry season (winter) ~ 10 cm rain none at all
from Dec - Feb
bull very wet season (summer) ~ 35-65 cm rain
64
Savanna
65
Savanna ndash Indicator Plant Species
Baobab
Adansonia digitata Umbrella Thorn Acacia
Acacia tortillis
66
Savanna ndash Indicator Animal Species
Savanna Elephant
Loxodonta africana
Black Mamba
Dendroaspis polylepis
Lion
Panthera leo
67
Chaparral
bull winter mild and moist but not rainy
bull summer very hot and dry
bull annual temperature range between -1deg and 38deg C
bull annual precipitation ~ 25-45 cm mostly in the winter
68
Chaparral
69
Chaparral ndash Indicator Plant Species
Blue Oak
Quercus douglasii
Common Sagebrush
Artemisia tridentata
Olive Tree
Olea europaea
70
Chaparral ndash Indicator Animal Species
Black-tailed Jackrabbit
Lepus californicus Golden Jackal
Canis aureus
Spotted Skunk
Spilogale gracilis
71
The Freshwater Biome
bull low salt concentration mdash usually less than 1
bull plants and animals in freshwater regions are adjusted to
the low salt content and would not be able to survive in
areas of high salt concentration (ie ocean)
bull 3 different types of freshwater regions
bull ponds and lakes
bull streams and rivers
bull wetlands
72
The Freshwater Biome ndash Ponds and Lakes
From left a view across Manzanita Lake toward Mt Lassen California a
forest pond near Donnelly Idaho a Great Blue Heron Paranagat Lake
southeastern Nevada
73
The Freshwater Biome ndash Streams and
Rivers
From left McArthur-Burney Falls State Park California trout Green
River Utah Brooks River Alaska
74
The Freshwater Biome - Wetlands
From left Pescadero Marsh California coastal marsh at Umpqua
Dunes Oregon trees and bogs on Esther Island Alaska
75
The Marine Biome
bull cover about three-fourths of the Earths surface
bull marine algae supply much of the worlds oxygen supply
and take in a huge amount of atmospheric carbon
dioxide
bull evaporation of the seawater provides rainwater for the
land
bull 3 different types of marine regions
bull oceans
bull coral reefs
bull estuaries
76
The Marine Biome - Oceans
From left mussels worms and a spider crab at a hydrocarbon seep
community in the Gulf of Mexico a sea fan and brain coral in the Florida
Keys National Marine Sanctuary a school of Atlantic amberjack off North
Carolina
77
The Marine Biome ndash Coral Reefs
From left reef life in the Gulf of Aqaba Red Sea a reef at Fanning
Island atoll in the central Pacific a reef in the Florida Keys National
Marine Sanctuary
78
The Marine Biome - Estuaries
From left Mangrove roots south Florida wetlands and tidal streams
in the Ashe Island area ACE Basin National Estuarine Research
Reserve South Carolina a salt marsh in Winyah Bay National
Estuarine Research Reserve South Carolina
79
Ecological Notes
These are the biomes in order of their productivity (highest
first)
1 estuaries and tropical rain forest (highest)
2 temperate forest
3 agricultural land
4 temperate grassland
5 lakes and streams
6 coastal zone
7 tundra
8 open ocean
9 desert (lowest)
80
Ecological Notes
In order to be productive and have a lot of living material
standing around (biomass) an ecosystem has to have 4
basic necessities for plant life to thrive (if there are
enough plants the ecosystem will also support a lot of
animals) The four things are
1 Sunlight
2 Nutrients
3 Warm temperatures
4 Water
81
Biomes Video
82
Take-Home Message
bull Biomes are the major ecological communities of earth
characterized mostly by the vegetation present
bull Different biomes result from differences in temperature
and precipitation and the extent to which they vary from
season to season
83
Challenge Question
bull Terrestrial biomes are determined by the temperature
and precipitation amounts as well as whether those
factors are constant or vary by season
bull By contrast how are aquatic biomes determined
84
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy flows from producers to
consumers
85
86
87
First Stop Primary Producers
bull ecosystem producers or consumers
bull primary producers plants algae (some) bacteria
bull convert light energy from sun into chemical energy
through photosynthesis
bull chemical energy = food
bull consumers eat or absorb their food
bull energy stored in chemical bonds of carbohydrate
protein and lipid molecules is captured and
harnessed for consumersrsquo own movement
reproduction and growth
88
Food Chain
89
Food Web
90
Food Web
91
Food Chains amp Food Webs
bull A change in one link in a food chain will affect the other
links
bull The table on the next slide gives one example of a food
chain and the trophic levels represented in it
92
Food Chains amp Food Webs
93
GRASS
GRASSHOPPER
TOAD
SNAKE
HAWK
BACTERIA
IN GENERAL
AUTOTROPHS
(PRODUCERS)
HERBIVORES
(PRIMARY
CONSUMERS)
CARNIVORES
(2 3 ETC)
DECOMPOSERS
94
Chain Reaction Game
95
Energy Flows through a Food Web
bull Losses at every ldquosteprdquo in a food chain
bull Inefficiency of energy transfers
96
Energy flow through a food chain
Energy flow refers to the way that energy is transformed through
a food chain (pictured here) containing a series of levels
including plants consumers predators and decomposers 97
Amount of energy available at each of the
four levels of an ecosystem
Ecological pyramids illustrate the amount of energy
available at each of the four levels of an ecosystem 98
Ecological Pyramid
99
A grasshopper eats a plant A mouse eats the
grasshopper A snake eats the mouse A hawk
could eat the snake or the mouse In this food
web how would we categorize the hawk
1 Producer
2 Primary consumer
3 Secondary consumer
4 Tertiary consumer
5 Quaternary consumer
6 4 and 5
100
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps
bull First it is converted to chemical energy in
photosynthesis
bull Herbivores then consume the primary producers the
herbivores are consumed by carnivores and the
carnivores in turn may be consumed by top carnivores
101
Take-home message
bull Detritivores and decomposers extract energy from
organic waste and the remains of organisms that have
died
bull At each step in a food chain some usable energy is lost
as heat
102
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy pyramids reveal the inefficiency of
food chains
103
Biomass
bull biomass total weight of all living organisms in a given
area
bull only about 10 of the plants in an ecosystem is
converted into biomass
bull Food Energy Pyramid
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
bull African savannas and grasslands sustain more species
of higher-order carnivores than any other terrestrial
ecosystem
104
105
Food Energy Pyramids
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
106
107
108
You go out to eat at a fancy restaurant You
have a salad salmon and for dessert ice
cream Which part of the meal was the most
energy efficient food for you to eat
1 Salad
2 Salmon
3 Ice cream
4 2 and 3
109
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps known as trophic levels
bull Energy pyramids reveal that the biomass of primary
producers in an ecosystem tends to be far greater than
the biomass of herbivores
bull The biomass transferred at each step along the food chain tends to be only about 10 of the biomass of the organisms being consumed due to energy lost in cellular respiration
bull As a consequence of this inefficiency food chains rarely exceed four levels
110
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Essential chemicals cycle through
ecosystems
111
Chemical Reservoirs
bull Each chemical is stored in a non-living part of the environment
bull Organisms acquire the chemical from the reservoir a non-living part of the environment
bull The chemical cycles through the food chain (biogeochemical cycles)
bull Eventually the chemical is returned to the reservoir
112
Hydrologic Cycle and the Florida Springs
bull Click here for a description of how falling rain feeds underground aquifers in Florida and forms springs
113
The Most Important Chemical Cycles
1) Carbon
2) Nitrogen
3) Phosphorus
4) Sulfur
114
115
The
Carbon
Cycle
116
The Carbon Cycle
Keeping Up With Carbon
NASA video provides key information on the carbon cycle
117
118
Carbon Cycle Game
Fossil Fuels
bull created when large numbers of organisms die and are buried in sediment lacking oxygen
bull In absence of oxygen at high pressures and after very long periods of time organic remains are ultimately transformed into coal oil and natural gas
bull burning coal oil and natural gas releases large amounts of carbon dioxide
bull increases average CO2 concentration in the atmosphere
bull current level of CO2 in the atmosphere is the highest it has been in almost half a million years
119
Global CO2 levels are rising in
general but they also exhibit a
sharp rise and fall within each
year ndash why
120
121
The Nitrogen Cycle
122
The Nitrogen Cycle
Fertilizers
bull Because it is necessary for the production of every plant
protein and because all nitrogen must first be made
usable by bacteria plant growth is often limited by
nitrogen levels in the soil
bull For this reason most fertilizers contain nitrogen in a
form usable by plants
123
124
125
126
127
Oxygen reduction downstream of a source of
organic pollution
128
Algal growth and eutrophication in an Australian
outback waterway
129
Sulfur Cycle
bull component of protein
bull cycles in both a gas and sedimentary cycle
bull source earths crust
bull enters the atmosphere as hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
during fossil fuel combustion volcanic eruptions
gas exchange at ocean surfaces decomposition
130
Sulfur Cycle
bull H2S is immediately oxidized to sulfur dioxide (SO2)
bull SO2 + water vapor H2SO4 (falls to earth in rain)
bull sulfur in soluble form is taken up by plant roots
incorporated into amino acids such as cysteine
bull travels through food chain
bull eventually released through decomposition
131
How is carbon recycled back to the
atmosphere in the carbon cycle
1 It is ldquofixedrdquo by bacteria
2 It is a product of cellular respiration
3 Burning of fossil fuels
4 2 and 3
5 All of the above
132
Why do commercial fertilizers usually
contain usable forms of nitrogen and
phosphorous
1 These chemicals are not efficiently recycled in
the soil
2 Nitrogen and phosphorous need to be ldquofixedrdquo
by bacteria or the plant
3 Nitrogen and phosphorous are found at high
levels in the atmosphere but not in the soil
4 Nitrogen and phosphorous only enter the soil
through erosion
133
Take-home message
bull Chemicals essential to lifemdashincluding carbon nitrogen and phosphorusmdashcycle through ecosystems
bull They are usually captured from the atmosphere soil or water by growing organisms passed from one trophic level to the next as organisms eat other organisms and returned to the environment through respiration decomposition and erosion
bull These cycles can be disrupted as human activities significantly increase the amounts of the chemicals utilized or released to the environment
134
Symbiotic Relationships
bull Symbiosis close relationship between organisms of
two different species
bull At least one participant gains some sort of benefit
(usually nutritional)
bull Types of symbiosis
bull Parasitism
bull Commensalism
bull Mutualism
bull Predation
135
Symbiotic Relationships in the
Ocean
bull Click here for an explanation of the
relationships of marine animals
including sharks rays and various
fishes
136
Parasitism bull Parasite derives nutrition from the host
bull This harms the host but a true parasite does
not usually kill its host (directly)
137
Ectoparasites
Remain outside the host
Ticks fleas leeches
138
Endoparasites
Live inside the hostrsquos body
Tapeworms malarial parasites
139
Parasite Transmission
bull Many parasites live on or in a single organism
bull Some will alternate between 2 or more host species
bull Vertical transmission ndash from mother offspring
bull Horizontal transmission ndash between members of a
population
bull Direct contact (head lice)
bull Vectors (mosquitos)
140
141
Commensalism
bull Neither species is totally dependent on the other
bull One benefits ndash no effect on the other
bull Feeding or protection
bull Porcelain anemone crabs and anemones
142
Mutualism
bull Both species benefit
bull Food or shelter
bull Examples
bull Plants and microbes (rhizobium in root nodules)
bull Plants and fungi (orchids and mycorrhizae)
bull Protists and fungi (lichen)
bull Plants and insects (pollination)
bull Animals and bacteria (ruminants)
bull Animals and other animals (crocodiles and
plover birds)
143
Mutualism shrimp and moray
Cleaner shrimp cleaning a zebra moray eel Mutualistic
relationships such as these promote the well-being of the
host fishes and provide food for those that do the cleaning 144
Rhizobium
Rhizobium in root nodules of certain plants convert
nitrogen in soil to usable form
145
Orchid Mycorrhizae
Fungi aid the plant in the uptake of nutrients
Fungi ingest some of the food from plant
photosynthesis 146
Lichen
Most of the lichen is composed of fungal filaments
but living among the filaments are algal cells
usually from a green alga or a cyanobacterium
The lichen fungus provides its partner(s) a benefit
(protection) and gains nutrients in return 147
Ruminants
Ruminants are characterized by their four-chambered
stomach and cud-chewing behavior Cud is a food bolus
that is regurgitated rechewed and reswallowed The
rumen is a large fermentation vat containing billions of
microorganisms including bacteria and protozoa which
allow ruminants to digest fibrous feeds such as grass and
hay that other animals cannot efficiently utilize 148
Crocodiles amp
Plover Birds
The bird gets into the crocodiles mouth and picks out
the tiny bits of food stuck in his teeth then eats it (the
tiny bits)
This cleans the crocodiles teeth and keeps his mouth
fresh and free from infections 149
Predation
bull Consumption of one living organism by
another
bull Predators must have offensive strategies
bull ways of finding catching and eating
their prey
bull Prey organisms must have defensive
strategies
bull ways of avoiding or discouraging this
activity
150
Predation
bull Encompasses all levels within an
ecological food chainweb
bull plant-herbivore systems
bull herbivore-carnivore systems
bull three-way interactions of
interdependent plant-herbivore-
carnivore systems
151
This goshawk is the tertiary consumer in his ecosystem
and the mouse in his beak is the secondary consumer
Beneath the mouse on the ecological pyramid lies his
foodsource likely a worm which fed on the primary
producer leafy plants 152
Ecosystem of Life in Floridas
Springs
bull Click here for a close-up look of life
in Floridas springs and the various
predator-prey interactions there
153
Indicator Species
bull any biological species that defines a trait
or characteristic of the environment
bull may delineate an ecoregion
bull could indicate an environmental condition such as
a disease outbreak pollution species competition
or climate change
bull can be among most sensitive species in a region
sometimes act as early warning to monitoring biologists
19
Tropical Rain Forest ndash Indicator Plant Species
20
Tropical Rain Forest ndash Indicator Animal Species Gorilla
Gorilla gorilla
Orangutan (Pongo pygmaeus)
Spider Monkey
Ateles geoffreyi
21
Tropical Rain Forest ndash Indicator Animal Species 2-toed sloth
Cholepus
hoffmanni
Three-toed Sloth (Bradypus
variegatus) with baby - Costa Rica 22
Tropical Rain Forest ndash Indicator Animal Species
Collared Aracari
Pteroglossus torquatus
23
Grasslands (Prairie)
bull 2 different types
bull tall-grass humid amp very wet
bull short-grass dry hotter summers and colder winters
than the tall-grass prairie
bull found in middle latitudes in the interiors of continents
bull either moist continental climates or dry subtropical
climates
bull Argentina ndash grasslands are known as pampas
bull Russia ndash steppes
bull grasslands in southern hemisphere tend to get more
precipitation than those in the northern hemisphere
24
Grasslands (Prairie)
25
Grasslands (Prairie)
bull temperatures range from -40deg F 70deg F
bull growing season and a dormant season
bull growing season is when there is no frost and plants
can grow (which lasts from 100 to 175 days)
bull tropical and subtropical grasslands the length of
the growing season is determined by how long the
rainy season lasts
bull temperate grasslands the length of the growing
season is determined by temperature (ge 50deg F)
bull dormant (not growing) season nothing can grow
because its too cold
26
Grasslands (Prairie)
bull average rainfall per year ranges from 10 - 30 inches
bull tropical and sub-tropical grasslands average rainfall
per year ranges from 25 - 60 inches
bull amount of rainfall is very important in determining which
areas are grasslands
bull hard for trees to compete with grasses in places
where the uppers layers of soil are moist during part
of the year but where deeper layer of soil are always
dry
27
Grasslands (Prairie)
28
Grasslandsndash Indicator Plant Species Old Field Habitat Ohio
Grassland North Dakota
Ironweed
(Vernonia sp) with
Hedge Bindweed
Vine (Calystegia sepium) 29
Grasslandsndash Indicator Plant Species
Ironweed (Vernonia sp)
Joe Pye Weed
Eupatorium purpureum
30
Grasslands ndash Indicator Plant Species
Common Teasel
Dipsacus fullonum Queen Annes Lace (Daucus carota)
31
Grasslands ndash Indicator Animal Species
Bison (Bison bison) on the range
Theodore Roosevelt National Park North
Dakota
32
Grasslands ndash Indicator Animal Species
Przewalskis horse (Equus caballus
przewalskii) The Wilds Ohio
33
Grasslands ndash Indicator Animal Species
34
Taiga
bull Russian word for forest
bull largest biome in the world
bull Eurasia North America
bull located just below the tundra biome
bull many coniferous trees
bull aka boreal forest Boreal was the Greek goddess of the
North Wind
35
Taiga
bull winter temperature range is -54 to -1deg C (-65 to 30deg F)
bull summer -7deg C (20deg F) to 21deg C (70deg F)
bull summers are very short (50 - 100 frost free days)
bull average yearly precipitation 30 - 85 cm (12 - 33 in)
bull main seasons are winter and summer
bull spring and autumn are very short
bull weather is either hot and humid or very cold
36
Taiga
37
Taiga ndash Indicator Plant Species
Balsam Fir
Abies balsamea
Black Spruce
Picea mariana
38
Taiga ndash Indicator Plant Species
Jack Pine
Pinus banksiana
Paper Birch
Betula papyrifera
White Poplar
Populus alba
39
Taiga ndash Indicator Animal Species
American Black Bear
Ursus americanus
Bald Eagle
Haliaeetus leucocephalus 40
Taiga ndash Indicator Animal Species
Long-eared Owl
Aiso otus
Snowshoe Rabbit
Lepus americanus
41
Desert
bull cover about one fifth of Earths land surface
bull hot and dry near Tropic of CancerTropic of
Capricorn
bull cold near the Arctic
bull temperature
bull hot amp dry ~ 25deg C to ~ 49deg C
bull cold -2 to 4deg C (winter) 21 to 26deg C (summer)
bull precipitation
bull hot amp dry very little rainfall andor concentrated
rainfall in short periods between long rainless periods
(lt 15 cmyear)
bull cold 15 - 26 cmyear 42
Desert
43
Desert ndash Indicator Plant Species
44
Desert ndash Indicator Plant Species
Saguaro Cactus
Carnegiea gigantea
Fishhook Cactus
Mammillaria microcarpa
45
Desert ndash Indicator Plant Species
Trichomes
46
Desert ndash Indicator Animal Species
Zebratail Lizard - Callisaurus draconides
47
Desert ndash Indicator Animal Species
Rock hyrax (Procavia capensis) 48
Desert ndash Indicator Animal Species
Bactrian Camel Camelus bactrianus
49
Temperate Deciduous Forest
bull temperature 0 - 20 C
bull precipitation ~ 50 ndash 200 cmyear
50
Temperate Deciduous Forest
51
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Plant Species
Oaks (Quercus sp)
Dutchmans-Breeches
Dicentra cucullaria 52
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Plant Species
Sassafras
Sassafras albidum
Redbud
Cercis canadensis
53
Temperate Deciduous Forest ndash Succession
bull orderly succession of communities to a climax
community (biome)
bull two main types of succession
bull primary succession begins with bare rock exposed
by geologic activity
bull secondary succession begins on soil from which
previous community has been removed (by fire
agriculture etc)
bull secondary succession can proceed much faster
because the soil has been prepared by the
previous community
54
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
American Toad
Bufo americanus
Box Turtle
55
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
Eastern Chipmunk
Tamias striatus
Eastern Gray Squirrel
Sciurus carolinensis
56
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
Yellow-breasted chat
Icteria virens 57
Tundra
bull annual average temperature lt 5 C
bull precipitation (mostly in the form of snow) lt 100 mmyear
bull summer is brief
bull temperatures above freezing last only a few weeks at
most
bull warm summer coincides with periods of almost 24
hour daylight so plant growth can be explosive
58
Tundra
Anaktuvuk Pass Alaska
59
Tundra ndash Indicator Plant Species
Arctic Tundra Wildflowers - Alaska
60
Tundra ndash Indicator Plant Species
Lichen
Polytrichum Moss
(photographed in Ohio not on the
Tundra)
61
Tundra ndash Indicator Animal Species
Reindeer
Rangifer tarandus
62
Tundra ndash Indicator Animal Species
Caribou On Autumn Tundra Denali National Park Alaska
63
Savanna
bull rolling grassland scattered with shrubs and isolated trees
bull found between a tropical rainforest and desert biome
bull not enough rain falls on a savanna to support forests
bull found in a wide band on either side of the equator on
the edges of tropical rainforests
bull warm temperature year round
bull very long dry season (winter) ~ 10 cm rain none at all
from Dec - Feb
bull very wet season (summer) ~ 35-65 cm rain
64
Savanna
65
Savanna ndash Indicator Plant Species
Baobab
Adansonia digitata Umbrella Thorn Acacia
Acacia tortillis
66
Savanna ndash Indicator Animal Species
Savanna Elephant
Loxodonta africana
Black Mamba
Dendroaspis polylepis
Lion
Panthera leo
67
Chaparral
bull winter mild and moist but not rainy
bull summer very hot and dry
bull annual temperature range between -1deg and 38deg C
bull annual precipitation ~ 25-45 cm mostly in the winter
68
Chaparral
69
Chaparral ndash Indicator Plant Species
Blue Oak
Quercus douglasii
Common Sagebrush
Artemisia tridentata
Olive Tree
Olea europaea
70
Chaparral ndash Indicator Animal Species
Black-tailed Jackrabbit
Lepus californicus Golden Jackal
Canis aureus
Spotted Skunk
Spilogale gracilis
71
The Freshwater Biome
bull low salt concentration mdash usually less than 1
bull plants and animals in freshwater regions are adjusted to
the low salt content and would not be able to survive in
areas of high salt concentration (ie ocean)
bull 3 different types of freshwater regions
bull ponds and lakes
bull streams and rivers
bull wetlands
72
The Freshwater Biome ndash Ponds and Lakes
From left a view across Manzanita Lake toward Mt Lassen California a
forest pond near Donnelly Idaho a Great Blue Heron Paranagat Lake
southeastern Nevada
73
The Freshwater Biome ndash Streams and
Rivers
From left McArthur-Burney Falls State Park California trout Green
River Utah Brooks River Alaska
74
The Freshwater Biome - Wetlands
From left Pescadero Marsh California coastal marsh at Umpqua
Dunes Oregon trees and bogs on Esther Island Alaska
75
The Marine Biome
bull cover about three-fourths of the Earths surface
bull marine algae supply much of the worlds oxygen supply
and take in a huge amount of atmospheric carbon
dioxide
bull evaporation of the seawater provides rainwater for the
land
bull 3 different types of marine regions
bull oceans
bull coral reefs
bull estuaries
76
The Marine Biome - Oceans
From left mussels worms and a spider crab at a hydrocarbon seep
community in the Gulf of Mexico a sea fan and brain coral in the Florida
Keys National Marine Sanctuary a school of Atlantic amberjack off North
Carolina
77
The Marine Biome ndash Coral Reefs
From left reef life in the Gulf of Aqaba Red Sea a reef at Fanning
Island atoll in the central Pacific a reef in the Florida Keys National
Marine Sanctuary
78
The Marine Biome - Estuaries
From left Mangrove roots south Florida wetlands and tidal streams
in the Ashe Island area ACE Basin National Estuarine Research
Reserve South Carolina a salt marsh in Winyah Bay National
Estuarine Research Reserve South Carolina
79
Ecological Notes
These are the biomes in order of their productivity (highest
first)
1 estuaries and tropical rain forest (highest)
2 temperate forest
3 agricultural land
4 temperate grassland
5 lakes and streams
6 coastal zone
7 tundra
8 open ocean
9 desert (lowest)
80
Ecological Notes
In order to be productive and have a lot of living material
standing around (biomass) an ecosystem has to have 4
basic necessities for plant life to thrive (if there are
enough plants the ecosystem will also support a lot of
animals) The four things are
1 Sunlight
2 Nutrients
3 Warm temperatures
4 Water
81
Biomes Video
82
Take-Home Message
bull Biomes are the major ecological communities of earth
characterized mostly by the vegetation present
bull Different biomes result from differences in temperature
and precipitation and the extent to which they vary from
season to season
83
Challenge Question
bull Terrestrial biomes are determined by the temperature
and precipitation amounts as well as whether those
factors are constant or vary by season
bull By contrast how are aquatic biomes determined
84
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy flows from producers to
consumers
85
86
87
First Stop Primary Producers
bull ecosystem producers or consumers
bull primary producers plants algae (some) bacteria
bull convert light energy from sun into chemical energy
through photosynthesis
bull chemical energy = food
bull consumers eat or absorb their food
bull energy stored in chemical bonds of carbohydrate
protein and lipid molecules is captured and
harnessed for consumersrsquo own movement
reproduction and growth
88
Food Chain
89
Food Web
90
Food Web
91
Food Chains amp Food Webs
bull A change in one link in a food chain will affect the other
links
bull The table on the next slide gives one example of a food
chain and the trophic levels represented in it
92
Food Chains amp Food Webs
93
GRASS
GRASSHOPPER
TOAD
SNAKE
HAWK
BACTERIA
IN GENERAL
AUTOTROPHS
(PRODUCERS)
HERBIVORES
(PRIMARY
CONSUMERS)
CARNIVORES
(2 3 ETC)
DECOMPOSERS
94
Chain Reaction Game
95
Energy Flows through a Food Web
bull Losses at every ldquosteprdquo in a food chain
bull Inefficiency of energy transfers
96
Energy flow through a food chain
Energy flow refers to the way that energy is transformed through
a food chain (pictured here) containing a series of levels
including plants consumers predators and decomposers 97
Amount of energy available at each of the
four levels of an ecosystem
Ecological pyramids illustrate the amount of energy
available at each of the four levels of an ecosystem 98
Ecological Pyramid
99
A grasshopper eats a plant A mouse eats the
grasshopper A snake eats the mouse A hawk
could eat the snake or the mouse In this food
web how would we categorize the hawk
1 Producer
2 Primary consumer
3 Secondary consumer
4 Tertiary consumer
5 Quaternary consumer
6 4 and 5
100
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps
bull First it is converted to chemical energy in
photosynthesis
bull Herbivores then consume the primary producers the
herbivores are consumed by carnivores and the
carnivores in turn may be consumed by top carnivores
101
Take-home message
bull Detritivores and decomposers extract energy from
organic waste and the remains of organisms that have
died
bull At each step in a food chain some usable energy is lost
as heat
102
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy pyramids reveal the inefficiency of
food chains
103
Biomass
bull biomass total weight of all living organisms in a given
area
bull only about 10 of the plants in an ecosystem is
converted into biomass
bull Food Energy Pyramid
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
bull African savannas and grasslands sustain more species
of higher-order carnivores than any other terrestrial
ecosystem
104
105
Food Energy Pyramids
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
106
107
108
You go out to eat at a fancy restaurant You
have a salad salmon and for dessert ice
cream Which part of the meal was the most
energy efficient food for you to eat
1 Salad
2 Salmon
3 Ice cream
4 2 and 3
109
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps known as trophic levels
bull Energy pyramids reveal that the biomass of primary
producers in an ecosystem tends to be far greater than
the biomass of herbivores
bull The biomass transferred at each step along the food chain tends to be only about 10 of the biomass of the organisms being consumed due to energy lost in cellular respiration
bull As a consequence of this inefficiency food chains rarely exceed four levels
110
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Essential chemicals cycle through
ecosystems
111
Chemical Reservoirs
bull Each chemical is stored in a non-living part of the environment
bull Organisms acquire the chemical from the reservoir a non-living part of the environment
bull The chemical cycles through the food chain (biogeochemical cycles)
bull Eventually the chemical is returned to the reservoir
112
Hydrologic Cycle and the Florida Springs
bull Click here for a description of how falling rain feeds underground aquifers in Florida and forms springs
113
The Most Important Chemical Cycles
1) Carbon
2) Nitrogen
3) Phosphorus
4) Sulfur
114
115
The
Carbon
Cycle
116
The Carbon Cycle
Keeping Up With Carbon
NASA video provides key information on the carbon cycle
117
118
Carbon Cycle Game
Fossil Fuels
bull created when large numbers of organisms die and are buried in sediment lacking oxygen
bull In absence of oxygen at high pressures and after very long periods of time organic remains are ultimately transformed into coal oil and natural gas
bull burning coal oil and natural gas releases large amounts of carbon dioxide
bull increases average CO2 concentration in the atmosphere
bull current level of CO2 in the atmosphere is the highest it has been in almost half a million years
119
Global CO2 levels are rising in
general but they also exhibit a
sharp rise and fall within each
year ndash why
120
121
The Nitrogen Cycle
122
The Nitrogen Cycle
Fertilizers
bull Because it is necessary for the production of every plant
protein and because all nitrogen must first be made
usable by bacteria plant growth is often limited by
nitrogen levels in the soil
bull For this reason most fertilizers contain nitrogen in a
form usable by plants
123
124
125
126
127
Oxygen reduction downstream of a source of
organic pollution
128
Algal growth and eutrophication in an Australian
outback waterway
129
Sulfur Cycle
bull component of protein
bull cycles in both a gas and sedimentary cycle
bull source earths crust
bull enters the atmosphere as hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
during fossil fuel combustion volcanic eruptions
gas exchange at ocean surfaces decomposition
130
Sulfur Cycle
bull H2S is immediately oxidized to sulfur dioxide (SO2)
bull SO2 + water vapor H2SO4 (falls to earth in rain)
bull sulfur in soluble form is taken up by plant roots
incorporated into amino acids such as cysteine
bull travels through food chain
bull eventually released through decomposition
131
How is carbon recycled back to the
atmosphere in the carbon cycle
1 It is ldquofixedrdquo by bacteria
2 It is a product of cellular respiration
3 Burning of fossil fuels
4 2 and 3
5 All of the above
132
Why do commercial fertilizers usually
contain usable forms of nitrogen and
phosphorous
1 These chemicals are not efficiently recycled in
the soil
2 Nitrogen and phosphorous need to be ldquofixedrdquo
by bacteria or the plant
3 Nitrogen and phosphorous are found at high
levels in the atmosphere but not in the soil
4 Nitrogen and phosphorous only enter the soil
through erosion
133
Take-home message
bull Chemicals essential to lifemdashincluding carbon nitrogen and phosphorusmdashcycle through ecosystems
bull They are usually captured from the atmosphere soil or water by growing organisms passed from one trophic level to the next as organisms eat other organisms and returned to the environment through respiration decomposition and erosion
bull These cycles can be disrupted as human activities significantly increase the amounts of the chemicals utilized or released to the environment
134
Symbiotic Relationships
bull Symbiosis close relationship between organisms of
two different species
bull At least one participant gains some sort of benefit
(usually nutritional)
bull Types of symbiosis
bull Parasitism
bull Commensalism
bull Mutualism
bull Predation
135
Symbiotic Relationships in the
Ocean
bull Click here for an explanation of the
relationships of marine animals
including sharks rays and various
fishes
136
Parasitism bull Parasite derives nutrition from the host
bull This harms the host but a true parasite does
not usually kill its host (directly)
137
Ectoparasites
Remain outside the host
Ticks fleas leeches
138
Endoparasites
Live inside the hostrsquos body
Tapeworms malarial parasites
139
Parasite Transmission
bull Many parasites live on or in a single organism
bull Some will alternate between 2 or more host species
bull Vertical transmission ndash from mother offspring
bull Horizontal transmission ndash between members of a
population
bull Direct contact (head lice)
bull Vectors (mosquitos)
140
141
Commensalism
bull Neither species is totally dependent on the other
bull One benefits ndash no effect on the other
bull Feeding or protection
bull Porcelain anemone crabs and anemones
142
Mutualism
bull Both species benefit
bull Food or shelter
bull Examples
bull Plants and microbes (rhizobium in root nodules)
bull Plants and fungi (orchids and mycorrhizae)
bull Protists and fungi (lichen)
bull Plants and insects (pollination)
bull Animals and bacteria (ruminants)
bull Animals and other animals (crocodiles and
plover birds)
143
Mutualism shrimp and moray
Cleaner shrimp cleaning a zebra moray eel Mutualistic
relationships such as these promote the well-being of the
host fishes and provide food for those that do the cleaning 144
Rhizobium
Rhizobium in root nodules of certain plants convert
nitrogen in soil to usable form
145
Orchid Mycorrhizae
Fungi aid the plant in the uptake of nutrients
Fungi ingest some of the food from plant
photosynthesis 146
Lichen
Most of the lichen is composed of fungal filaments
but living among the filaments are algal cells
usually from a green alga or a cyanobacterium
The lichen fungus provides its partner(s) a benefit
(protection) and gains nutrients in return 147
Ruminants
Ruminants are characterized by their four-chambered
stomach and cud-chewing behavior Cud is a food bolus
that is regurgitated rechewed and reswallowed The
rumen is a large fermentation vat containing billions of
microorganisms including bacteria and protozoa which
allow ruminants to digest fibrous feeds such as grass and
hay that other animals cannot efficiently utilize 148
Crocodiles amp
Plover Birds
The bird gets into the crocodiles mouth and picks out
the tiny bits of food stuck in his teeth then eats it (the
tiny bits)
This cleans the crocodiles teeth and keeps his mouth
fresh and free from infections 149
Predation
bull Consumption of one living organism by
another
bull Predators must have offensive strategies
bull ways of finding catching and eating
their prey
bull Prey organisms must have defensive
strategies
bull ways of avoiding or discouraging this
activity
150
Predation
bull Encompasses all levels within an
ecological food chainweb
bull plant-herbivore systems
bull herbivore-carnivore systems
bull three-way interactions of
interdependent plant-herbivore-
carnivore systems
151
This goshawk is the tertiary consumer in his ecosystem
and the mouse in his beak is the secondary consumer
Beneath the mouse on the ecological pyramid lies his
foodsource likely a worm which fed on the primary
producer leafy plants 152
Ecosystem of Life in Floridas
Springs
bull Click here for a close-up look of life
in Floridas springs and the various
predator-prey interactions there
153
Tropical Rain Forest ndash Indicator Plant Species
20
Tropical Rain Forest ndash Indicator Animal Species Gorilla
Gorilla gorilla
Orangutan (Pongo pygmaeus)
Spider Monkey
Ateles geoffreyi
21
Tropical Rain Forest ndash Indicator Animal Species 2-toed sloth
Cholepus
hoffmanni
Three-toed Sloth (Bradypus
variegatus) with baby - Costa Rica 22
Tropical Rain Forest ndash Indicator Animal Species
Collared Aracari
Pteroglossus torquatus
23
Grasslands (Prairie)
bull 2 different types
bull tall-grass humid amp very wet
bull short-grass dry hotter summers and colder winters
than the tall-grass prairie
bull found in middle latitudes in the interiors of continents
bull either moist continental climates or dry subtropical
climates
bull Argentina ndash grasslands are known as pampas
bull Russia ndash steppes
bull grasslands in southern hemisphere tend to get more
precipitation than those in the northern hemisphere
24
Grasslands (Prairie)
25
Grasslands (Prairie)
bull temperatures range from -40deg F 70deg F
bull growing season and a dormant season
bull growing season is when there is no frost and plants
can grow (which lasts from 100 to 175 days)
bull tropical and subtropical grasslands the length of
the growing season is determined by how long the
rainy season lasts
bull temperate grasslands the length of the growing
season is determined by temperature (ge 50deg F)
bull dormant (not growing) season nothing can grow
because its too cold
26
Grasslands (Prairie)
bull average rainfall per year ranges from 10 - 30 inches
bull tropical and sub-tropical grasslands average rainfall
per year ranges from 25 - 60 inches
bull amount of rainfall is very important in determining which
areas are grasslands
bull hard for trees to compete with grasses in places
where the uppers layers of soil are moist during part
of the year but where deeper layer of soil are always
dry
27
Grasslands (Prairie)
28
Grasslandsndash Indicator Plant Species Old Field Habitat Ohio
Grassland North Dakota
Ironweed
(Vernonia sp) with
Hedge Bindweed
Vine (Calystegia sepium) 29
Grasslandsndash Indicator Plant Species
Ironweed (Vernonia sp)
Joe Pye Weed
Eupatorium purpureum
30
Grasslands ndash Indicator Plant Species
Common Teasel
Dipsacus fullonum Queen Annes Lace (Daucus carota)
31
Grasslands ndash Indicator Animal Species
Bison (Bison bison) on the range
Theodore Roosevelt National Park North
Dakota
32
Grasslands ndash Indicator Animal Species
Przewalskis horse (Equus caballus
przewalskii) The Wilds Ohio
33
Grasslands ndash Indicator Animal Species
34
Taiga
bull Russian word for forest
bull largest biome in the world
bull Eurasia North America
bull located just below the tundra biome
bull many coniferous trees
bull aka boreal forest Boreal was the Greek goddess of the
North Wind
35
Taiga
bull winter temperature range is -54 to -1deg C (-65 to 30deg F)
bull summer -7deg C (20deg F) to 21deg C (70deg F)
bull summers are very short (50 - 100 frost free days)
bull average yearly precipitation 30 - 85 cm (12 - 33 in)
bull main seasons are winter and summer
bull spring and autumn are very short
bull weather is either hot and humid or very cold
36
Taiga
37
Taiga ndash Indicator Plant Species
Balsam Fir
Abies balsamea
Black Spruce
Picea mariana
38
Taiga ndash Indicator Plant Species
Jack Pine
Pinus banksiana
Paper Birch
Betula papyrifera
White Poplar
Populus alba
39
Taiga ndash Indicator Animal Species
American Black Bear
Ursus americanus
Bald Eagle
Haliaeetus leucocephalus 40
Taiga ndash Indicator Animal Species
Long-eared Owl
Aiso otus
Snowshoe Rabbit
Lepus americanus
41
Desert
bull cover about one fifth of Earths land surface
bull hot and dry near Tropic of CancerTropic of
Capricorn
bull cold near the Arctic
bull temperature
bull hot amp dry ~ 25deg C to ~ 49deg C
bull cold -2 to 4deg C (winter) 21 to 26deg C (summer)
bull precipitation
bull hot amp dry very little rainfall andor concentrated
rainfall in short periods between long rainless periods
(lt 15 cmyear)
bull cold 15 - 26 cmyear 42
Desert
43
Desert ndash Indicator Plant Species
44
Desert ndash Indicator Plant Species
Saguaro Cactus
Carnegiea gigantea
Fishhook Cactus
Mammillaria microcarpa
45
Desert ndash Indicator Plant Species
Trichomes
46
Desert ndash Indicator Animal Species
Zebratail Lizard - Callisaurus draconides
47
Desert ndash Indicator Animal Species
Rock hyrax (Procavia capensis) 48
Desert ndash Indicator Animal Species
Bactrian Camel Camelus bactrianus
49
Temperate Deciduous Forest
bull temperature 0 - 20 C
bull precipitation ~ 50 ndash 200 cmyear
50
Temperate Deciduous Forest
51
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Plant Species
Oaks (Quercus sp)
Dutchmans-Breeches
Dicentra cucullaria 52
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Plant Species
Sassafras
Sassafras albidum
Redbud
Cercis canadensis
53
Temperate Deciduous Forest ndash Succession
bull orderly succession of communities to a climax
community (biome)
bull two main types of succession
bull primary succession begins with bare rock exposed
by geologic activity
bull secondary succession begins on soil from which
previous community has been removed (by fire
agriculture etc)
bull secondary succession can proceed much faster
because the soil has been prepared by the
previous community
54
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
American Toad
Bufo americanus
Box Turtle
55
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
Eastern Chipmunk
Tamias striatus
Eastern Gray Squirrel
Sciurus carolinensis
56
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
Yellow-breasted chat
Icteria virens 57
Tundra
bull annual average temperature lt 5 C
bull precipitation (mostly in the form of snow) lt 100 mmyear
bull summer is brief
bull temperatures above freezing last only a few weeks at
most
bull warm summer coincides with periods of almost 24
hour daylight so plant growth can be explosive
58
Tundra
Anaktuvuk Pass Alaska
59
Tundra ndash Indicator Plant Species
Arctic Tundra Wildflowers - Alaska
60
Tundra ndash Indicator Plant Species
Lichen
Polytrichum Moss
(photographed in Ohio not on the
Tundra)
61
Tundra ndash Indicator Animal Species
Reindeer
Rangifer tarandus
62
Tundra ndash Indicator Animal Species
Caribou On Autumn Tundra Denali National Park Alaska
63
Savanna
bull rolling grassland scattered with shrubs and isolated trees
bull found between a tropical rainforest and desert biome
bull not enough rain falls on a savanna to support forests
bull found in a wide band on either side of the equator on
the edges of tropical rainforests
bull warm temperature year round
bull very long dry season (winter) ~ 10 cm rain none at all
from Dec - Feb
bull very wet season (summer) ~ 35-65 cm rain
64
Savanna
65
Savanna ndash Indicator Plant Species
Baobab
Adansonia digitata Umbrella Thorn Acacia
Acacia tortillis
66
Savanna ndash Indicator Animal Species
Savanna Elephant
Loxodonta africana
Black Mamba
Dendroaspis polylepis
Lion
Panthera leo
67
Chaparral
bull winter mild and moist but not rainy
bull summer very hot and dry
bull annual temperature range between -1deg and 38deg C
bull annual precipitation ~ 25-45 cm mostly in the winter
68
Chaparral
69
Chaparral ndash Indicator Plant Species
Blue Oak
Quercus douglasii
Common Sagebrush
Artemisia tridentata
Olive Tree
Olea europaea
70
Chaparral ndash Indicator Animal Species
Black-tailed Jackrabbit
Lepus californicus Golden Jackal
Canis aureus
Spotted Skunk
Spilogale gracilis
71
The Freshwater Biome
bull low salt concentration mdash usually less than 1
bull plants and animals in freshwater regions are adjusted to
the low salt content and would not be able to survive in
areas of high salt concentration (ie ocean)
bull 3 different types of freshwater regions
bull ponds and lakes
bull streams and rivers
bull wetlands
72
The Freshwater Biome ndash Ponds and Lakes
From left a view across Manzanita Lake toward Mt Lassen California a
forest pond near Donnelly Idaho a Great Blue Heron Paranagat Lake
southeastern Nevada
73
The Freshwater Biome ndash Streams and
Rivers
From left McArthur-Burney Falls State Park California trout Green
River Utah Brooks River Alaska
74
The Freshwater Biome - Wetlands
From left Pescadero Marsh California coastal marsh at Umpqua
Dunes Oregon trees and bogs on Esther Island Alaska
75
The Marine Biome
bull cover about three-fourths of the Earths surface
bull marine algae supply much of the worlds oxygen supply
and take in a huge amount of atmospheric carbon
dioxide
bull evaporation of the seawater provides rainwater for the
land
bull 3 different types of marine regions
bull oceans
bull coral reefs
bull estuaries
76
The Marine Biome - Oceans
From left mussels worms and a spider crab at a hydrocarbon seep
community in the Gulf of Mexico a sea fan and brain coral in the Florida
Keys National Marine Sanctuary a school of Atlantic amberjack off North
Carolina
77
The Marine Biome ndash Coral Reefs
From left reef life in the Gulf of Aqaba Red Sea a reef at Fanning
Island atoll in the central Pacific a reef in the Florida Keys National
Marine Sanctuary
78
The Marine Biome - Estuaries
From left Mangrove roots south Florida wetlands and tidal streams
in the Ashe Island area ACE Basin National Estuarine Research
Reserve South Carolina a salt marsh in Winyah Bay National
Estuarine Research Reserve South Carolina
79
Ecological Notes
These are the biomes in order of their productivity (highest
first)
1 estuaries and tropical rain forest (highest)
2 temperate forest
3 agricultural land
4 temperate grassland
5 lakes and streams
6 coastal zone
7 tundra
8 open ocean
9 desert (lowest)
80
Ecological Notes
In order to be productive and have a lot of living material
standing around (biomass) an ecosystem has to have 4
basic necessities for plant life to thrive (if there are
enough plants the ecosystem will also support a lot of
animals) The four things are
1 Sunlight
2 Nutrients
3 Warm temperatures
4 Water
81
Biomes Video
82
Take-Home Message
bull Biomes are the major ecological communities of earth
characterized mostly by the vegetation present
bull Different biomes result from differences in temperature
and precipitation and the extent to which they vary from
season to season
83
Challenge Question
bull Terrestrial biomes are determined by the temperature
and precipitation amounts as well as whether those
factors are constant or vary by season
bull By contrast how are aquatic biomes determined
84
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy flows from producers to
consumers
85
86
87
First Stop Primary Producers
bull ecosystem producers or consumers
bull primary producers plants algae (some) bacteria
bull convert light energy from sun into chemical energy
through photosynthesis
bull chemical energy = food
bull consumers eat or absorb their food
bull energy stored in chemical bonds of carbohydrate
protein and lipid molecules is captured and
harnessed for consumersrsquo own movement
reproduction and growth
88
Food Chain
89
Food Web
90
Food Web
91
Food Chains amp Food Webs
bull A change in one link in a food chain will affect the other
links
bull The table on the next slide gives one example of a food
chain and the trophic levels represented in it
92
Food Chains amp Food Webs
93
GRASS
GRASSHOPPER
TOAD
SNAKE
HAWK
BACTERIA
IN GENERAL
AUTOTROPHS
(PRODUCERS)
HERBIVORES
(PRIMARY
CONSUMERS)
CARNIVORES
(2 3 ETC)
DECOMPOSERS
94
Chain Reaction Game
95
Energy Flows through a Food Web
bull Losses at every ldquosteprdquo in a food chain
bull Inefficiency of energy transfers
96
Energy flow through a food chain
Energy flow refers to the way that energy is transformed through
a food chain (pictured here) containing a series of levels
including plants consumers predators and decomposers 97
Amount of energy available at each of the
four levels of an ecosystem
Ecological pyramids illustrate the amount of energy
available at each of the four levels of an ecosystem 98
Ecological Pyramid
99
A grasshopper eats a plant A mouse eats the
grasshopper A snake eats the mouse A hawk
could eat the snake or the mouse In this food
web how would we categorize the hawk
1 Producer
2 Primary consumer
3 Secondary consumer
4 Tertiary consumer
5 Quaternary consumer
6 4 and 5
100
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps
bull First it is converted to chemical energy in
photosynthesis
bull Herbivores then consume the primary producers the
herbivores are consumed by carnivores and the
carnivores in turn may be consumed by top carnivores
101
Take-home message
bull Detritivores and decomposers extract energy from
organic waste and the remains of organisms that have
died
bull At each step in a food chain some usable energy is lost
as heat
102
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy pyramids reveal the inefficiency of
food chains
103
Biomass
bull biomass total weight of all living organisms in a given
area
bull only about 10 of the plants in an ecosystem is
converted into biomass
bull Food Energy Pyramid
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
bull African savannas and grasslands sustain more species
of higher-order carnivores than any other terrestrial
ecosystem
104
105
Food Energy Pyramids
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
106
107
108
You go out to eat at a fancy restaurant You
have a salad salmon and for dessert ice
cream Which part of the meal was the most
energy efficient food for you to eat
1 Salad
2 Salmon
3 Ice cream
4 2 and 3
109
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps known as trophic levels
bull Energy pyramids reveal that the biomass of primary
producers in an ecosystem tends to be far greater than
the biomass of herbivores
bull The biomass transferred at each step along the food chain tends to be only about 10 of the biomass of the organisms being consumed due to energy lost in cellular respiration
bull As a consequence of this inefficiency food chains rarely exceed four levels
110
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Essential chemicals cycle through
ecosystems
111
Chemical Reservoirs
bull Each chemical is stored in a non-living part of the environment
bull Organisms acquire the chemical from the reservoir a non-living part of the environment
bull The chemical cycles through the food chain (biogeochemical cycles)
bull Eventually the chemical is returned to the reservoir
112
Hydrologic Cycle and the Florida Springs
bull Click here for a description of how falling rain feeds underground aquifers in Florida and forms springs
113
The Most Important Chemical Cycles
1) Carbon
2) Nitrogen
3) Phosphorus
4) Sulfur
114
115
The
Carbon
Cycle
116
The Carbon Cycle
Keeping Up With Carbon
NASA video provides key information on the carbon cycle
117
118
Carbon Cycle Game
Fossil Fuels
bull created when large numbers of organisms die and are buried in sediment lacking oxygen
bull In absence of oxygen at high pressures and after very long periods of time organic remains are ultimately transformed into coal oil and natural gas
bull burning coal oil and natural gas releases large amounts of carbon dioxide
bull increases average CO2 concentration in the atmosphere
bull current level of CO2 in the atmosphere is the highest it has been in almost half a million years
119
Global CO2 levels are rising in
general but they also exhibit a
sharp rise and fall within each
year ndash why
120
121
The Nitrogen Cycle
122
The Nitrogen Cycle
Fertilizers
bull Because it is necessary for the production of every plant
protein and because all nitrogen must first be made
usable by bacteria plant growth is often limited by
nitrogen levels in the soil
bull For this reason most fertilizers contain nitrogen in a
form usable by plants
123
124
125
126
127
Oxygen reduction downstream of a source of
organic pollution
128
Algal growth and eutrophication in an Australian
outback waterway
129
Sulfur Cycle
bull component of protein
bull cycles in both a gas and sedimentary cycle
bull source earths crust
bull enters the atmosphere as hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
during fossil fuel combustion volcanic eruptions
gas exchange at ocean surfaces decomposition
130
Sulfur Cycle
bull H2S is immediately oxidized to sulfur dioxide (SO2)
bull SO2 + water vapor H2SO4 (falls to earth in rain)
bull sulfur in soluble form is taken up by plant roots
incorporated into amino acids such as cysteine
bull travels through food chain
bull eventually released through decomposition
131
How is carbon recycled back to the
atmosphere in the carbon cycle
1 It is ldquofixedrdquo by bacteria
2 It is a product of cellular respiration
3 Burning of fossil fuels
4 2 and 3
5 All of the above
132
Why do commercial fertilizers usually
contain usable forms of nitrogen and
phosphorous
1 These chemicals are not efficiently recycled in
the soil
2 Nitrogen and phosphorous need to be ldquofixedrdquo
by bacteria or the plant
3 Nitrogen and phosphorous are found at high
levels in the atmosphere but not in the soil
4 Nitrogen and phosphorous only enter the soil
through erosion
133
Take-home message
bull Chemicals essential to lifemdashincluding carbon nitrogen and phosphorusmdashcycle through ecosystems
bull They are usually captured from the atmosphere soil or water by growing organisms passed from one trophic level to the next as organisms eat other organisms and returned to the environment through respiration decomposition and erosion
bull These cycles can be disrupted as human activities significantly increase the amounts of the chemicals utilized or released to the environment
134
Symbiotic Relationships
bull Symbiosis close relationship between organisms of
two different species
bull At least one participant gains some sort of benefit
(usually nutritional)
bull Types of symbiosis
bull Parasitism
bull Commensalism
bull Mutualism
bull Predation
135
Symbiotic Relationships in the
Ocean
bull Click here for an explanation of the
relationships of marine animals
including sharks rays and various
fishes
136
Parasitism bull Parasite derives nutrition from the host
bull This harms the host but a true parasite does
not usually kill its host (directly)
137
Ectoparasites
Remain outside the host
Ticks fleas leeches
138
Endoparasites
Live inside the hostrsquos body
Tapeworms malarial parasites
139
Parasite Transmission
bull Many parasites live on or in a single organism
bull Some will alternate between 2 or more host species
bull Vertical transmission ndash from mother offspring
bull Horizontal transmission ndash between members of a
population
bull Direct contact (head lice)
bull Vectors (mosquitos)
140
141
Commensalism
bull Neither species is totally dependent on the other
bull One benefits ndash no effect on the other
bull Feeding or protection
bull Porcelain anemone crabs and anemones
142
Mutualism
bull Both species benefit
bull Food or shelter
bull Examples
bull Plants and microbes (rhizobium in root nodules)
bull Plants and fungi (orchids and mycorrhizae)
bull Protists and fungi (lichen)
bull Plants and insects (pollination)
bull Animals and bacteria (ruminants)
bull Animals and other animals (crocodiles and
plover birds)
143
Mutualism shrimp and moray
Cleaner shrimp cleaning a zebra moray eel Mutualistic
relationships such as these promote the well-being of the
host fishes and provide food for those that do the cleaning 144
Rhizobium
Rhizobium in root nodules of certain plants convert
nitrogen in soil to usable form
145
Orchid Mycorrhizae
Fungi aid the plant in the uptake of nutrients
Fungi ingest some of the food from plant
photosynthesis 146
Lichen
Most of the lichen is composed of fungal filaments
but living among the filaments are algal cells
usually from a green alga or a cyanobacterium
The lichen fungus provides its partner(s) a benefit
(protection) and gains nutrients in return 147
Ruminants
Ruminants are characterized by their four-chambered
stomach and cud-chewing behavior Cud is a food bolus
that is regurgitated rechewed and reswallowed The
rumen is a large fermentation vat containing billions of
microorganisms including bacteria and protozoa which
allow ruminants to digest fibrous feeds such as grass and
hay that other animals cannot efficiently utilize 148
Crocodiles amp
Plover Birds
The bird gets into the crocodiles mouth and picks out
the tiny bits of food stuck in his teeth then eats it (the
tiny bits)
This cleans the crocodiles teeth and keeps his mouth
fresh and free from infections 149
Predation
bull Consumption of one living organism by
another
bull Predators must have offensive strategies
bull ways of finding catching and eating
their prey
bull Prey organisms must have defensive
strategies
bull ways of avoiding or discouraging this
activity
150
Predation
bull Encompasses all levels within an
ecological food chainweb
bull plant-herbivore systems
bull herbivore-carnivore systems
bull three-way interactions of
interdependent plant-herbivore-
carnivore systems
151
This goshawk is the tertiary consumer in his ecosystem
and the mouse in his beak is the secondary consumer
Beneath the mouse on the ecological pyramid lies his
foodsource likely a worm which fed on the primary
producer leafy plants 152
Ecosystem of Life in Floridas
Springs
bull Click here for a close-up look of life
in Floridas springs and the various
predator-prey interactions there
153
Tropical Rain Forest ndash Indicator Animal Species Gorilla
Gorilla gorilla
Orangutan (Pongo pygmaeus)
Spider Monkey
Ateles geoffreyi
21
Tropical Rain Forest ndash Indicator Animal Species 2-toed sloth
Cholepus
hoffmanni
Three-toed Sloth (Bradypus
variegatus) with baby - Costa Rica 22
Tropical Rain Forest ndash Indicator Animal Species
Collared Aracari
Pteroglossus torquatus
23
Grasslands (Prairie)
bull 2 different types
bull tall-grass humid amp very wet
bull short-grass dry hotter summers and colder winters
than the tall-grass prairie
bull found in middle latitudes in the interiors of continents
bull either moist continental climates or dry subtropical
climates
bull Argentina ndash grasslands are known as pampas
bull Russia ndash steppes
bull grasslands in southern hemisphere tend to get more
precipitation than those in the northern hemisphere
24
Grasslands (Prairie)
25
Grasslands (Prairie)
bull temperatures range from -40deg F 70deg F
bull growing season and a dormant season
bull growing season is when there is no frost and plants
can grow (which lasts from 100 to 175 days)
bull tropical and subtropical grasslands the length of
the growing season is determined by how long the
rainy season lasts
bull temperate grasslands the length of the growing
season is determined by temperature (ge 50deg F)
bull dormant (not growing) season nothing can grow
because its too cold
26
Grasslands (Prairie)
bull average rainfall per year ranges from 10 - 30 inches
bull tropical and sub-tropical grasslands average rainfall
per year ranges from 25 - 60 inches
bull amount of rainfall is very important in determining which
areas are grasslands
bull hard for trees to compete with grasses in places
where the uppers layers of soil are moist during part
of the year but where deeper layer of soil are always
dry
27
Grasslands (Prairie)
28
Grasslandsndash Indicator Plant Species Old Field Habitat Ohio
Grassland North Dakota
Ironweed
(Vernonia sp) with
Hedge Bindweed
Vine (Calystegia sepium) 29
Grasslandsndash Indicator Plant Species
Ironweed (Vernonia sp)
Joe Pye Weed
Eupatorium purpureum
30
Grasslands ndash Indicator Plant Species
Common Teasel
Dipsacus fullonum Queen Annes Lace (Daucus carota)
31
Grasslands ndash Indicator Animal Species
Bison (Bison bison) on the range
Theodore Roosevelt National Park North
Dakota
32
Grasslands ndash Indicator Animal Species
Przewalskis horse (Equus caballus
przewalskii) The Wilds Ohio
33
Grasslands ndash Indicator Animal Species
34
Taiga
bull Russian word for forest
bull largest biome in the world
bull Eurasia North America
bull located just below the tundra biome
bull many coniferous trees
bull aka boreal forest Boreal was the Greek goddess of the
North Wind
35
Taiga
bull winter temperature range is -54 to -1deg C (-65 to 30deg F)
bull summer -7deg C (20deg F) to 21deg C (70deg F)
bull summers are very short (50 - 100 frost free days)
bull average yearly precipitation 30 - 85 cm (12 - 33 in)
bull main seasons are winter and summer
bull spring and autumn are very short
bull weather is either hot and humid or very cold
36
Taiga
37
Taiga ndash Indicator Plant Species
Balsam Fir
Abies balsamea
Black Spruce
Picea mariana
38
Taiga ndash Indicator Plant Species
Jack Pine
Pinus banksiana
Paper Birch
Betula papyrifera
White Poplar
Populus alba
39
Taiga ndash Indicator Animal Species
American Black Bear
Ursus americanus
Bald Eagle
Haliaeetus leucocephalus 40
Taiga ndash Indicator Animal Species
Long-eared Owl
Aiso otus
Snowshoe Rabbit
Lepus americanus
41
Desert
bull cover about one fifth of Earths land surface
bull hot and dry near Tropic of CancerTropic of
Capricorn
bull cold near the Arctic
bull temperature
bull hot amp dry ~ 25deg C to ~ 49deg C
bull cold -2 to 4deg C (winter) 21 to 26deg C (summer)
bull precipitation
bull hot amp dry very little rainfall andor concentrated
rainfall in short periods between long rainless periods
(lt 15 cmyear)
bull cold 15 - 26 cmyear 42
Desert
43
Desert ndash Indicator Plant Species
44
Desert ndash Indicator Plant Species
Saguaro Cactus
Carnegiea gigantea
Fishhook Cactus
Mammillaria microcarpa
45
Desert ndash Indicator Plant Species
Trichomes
46
Desert ndash Indicator Animal Species
Zebratail Lizard - Callisaurus draconides
47
Desert ndash Indicator Animal Species
Rock hyrax (Procavia capensis) 48
Desert ndash Indicator Animal Species
Bactrian Camel Camelus bactrianus
49
Temperate Deciduous Forest
bull temperature 0 - 20 C
bull precipitation ~ 50 ndash 200 cmyear
50
Temperate Deciduous Forest
51
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Plant Species
Oaks (Quercus sp)
Dutchmans-Breeches
Dicentra cucullaria 52
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Plant Species
Sassafras
Sassafras albidum
Redbud
Cercis canadensis
53
Temperate Deciduous Forest ndash Succession
bull orderly succession of communities to a climax
community (biome)
bull two main types of succession
bull primary succession begins with bare rock exposed
by geologic activity
bull secondary succession begins on soil from which
previous community has been removed (by fire
agriculture etc)
bull secondary succession can proceed much faster
because the soil has been prepared by the
previous community
54
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
American Toad
Bufo americanus
Box Turtle
55
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
Eastern Chipmunk
Tamias striatus
Eastern Gray Squirrel
Sciurus carolinensis
56
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
Yellow-breasted chat
Icteria virens 57
Tundra
bull annual average temperature lt 5 C
bull precipitation (mostly in the form of snow) lt 100 mmyear
bull summer is brief
bull temperatures above freezing last only a few weeks at
most
bull warm summer coincides with periods of almost 24
hour daylight so plant growth can be explosive
58
Tundra
Anaktuvuk Pass Alaska
59
Tundra ndash Indicator Plant Species
Arctic Tundra Wildflowers - Alaska
60
Tundra ndash Indicator Plant Species
Lichen
Polytrichum Moss
(photographed in Ohio not on the
Tundra)
61
Tundra ndash Indicator Animal Species
Reindeer
Rangifer tarandus
62
Tundra ndash Indicator Animal Species
Caribou On Autumn Tundra Denali National Park Alaska
63
Savanna
bull rolling grassland scattered with shrubs and isolated trees
bull found between a tropical rainforest and desert biome
bull not enough rain falls on a savanna to support forests
bull found in a wide band on either side of the equator on
the edges of tropical rainforests
bull warm temperature year round
bull very long dry season (winter) ~ 10 cm rain none at all
from Dec - Feb
bull very wet season (summer) ~ 35-65 cm rain
64
Savanna
65
Savanna ndash Indicator Plant Species
Baobab
Adansonia digitata Umbrella Thorn Acacia
Acacia tortillis
66
Savanna ndash Indicator Animal Species
Savanna Elephant
Loxodonta africana
Black Mamba
Dendroaspis polylepis
Lion
Panthera leo
67
Chaparral
bull winter mild and moist but not rainy
bull summer very hot and dry
bull annual temperature range between -1deg and 38deg C
bull annual precipitation ~ 25-45 cm mostly in the winter
68
Chaparral
69
Chaparral ndash Indicator Plant Species
Blue Oak
Quercus douglasii
Common Sagebrush
Artemisia tridentata
Olive Tree
Olea europaea
70
Chaparral ndash Indicator Animal Species
Black-tailed Jackrabbit
Lepus californicus Golden Jackal
Canis aureus
Spotted Skunk
Spilogale gracilis
71
The Freshwater Biome
bull low salt concentration mdash usually less than 1
bull plants and animals in freshwater regions are adjusted to
the low salt content and would not be able to survive in
areas of high salt concentration (ie ocean)
bull 3 different types of freshwater regions
bull ponds and lakes
bull streams and rivers
bull wetlands
72
The Freshwater Biome ndash Ponds and Lakes
From left a view across Manzanita Lake toward Mt Lassen California a
forest pond near Donnelly Idaho a Great Blue Heron Paranagat Lake
southeastern Nevada
73
The Freshwater Biome ndash Streams and
Rivers
From left McArthur-Burney Falls State Park California trout Green
River Utah Brooks River Alaska
74
The Freshwater Biome - Wetlands
From left Pescadero Marsh California coastal marsh at Umpqua
Dunes Oregon trees and bogs on Esther Island Alaska
75
The Marine Biome
bull cover about three-fourths of the Earths surface
bull marine algae supply much of the worlds oxygen supply
and take in a huge amount of atmospheric carbon
dioxide
bull evaporation of the seawater provides rainwater for the
land
bull 3 different types of marine regions
bull oceans
bull coral reefs
bull estuaries
76
The Marine Biome - Oceans
From left mussels worms and a spider crab at a hydrocarbon seep
community in the Gulf of Mexico a sea fan and brain coral in the Florida
Keys National Marine Sanctuary a school of Atlantic amberjack off North
Carolina
77
The Marine Biome ndash Coral Reefs
From left reef life in the Gulf of Aqaba Red Sea a reef at Fanning
Island atoll in the central Pacific a reef in the Florida Keys National
Marine Sanctuary
78
The Marine Biome - Estuaries
From left Mangrove roots south Florida wetlands and tidal streams
in the Ashe Island area ACE Basin National Estuarine Research
Reserve South Carolina a salt marsh in Winyah Bay National
Estuarine Research Reserve South Carolina
79
Ecological Notes
These are the biomes in order of their productivity (highest
first)
1 estuaries and tropical rain forest (highest)
2 temperate forest
3 agricultural land
4 temperate grassland
5 lakes and streams
6 coastal zone
7 tundra
8 open ocean
9 desert (lowest)
80
Ecological Notes
In order to be productive and have a lot of living material
standing around (biomass) an ecosystem has to have 4
basic necessities for plant life to thrive (if there are
enough plants the ecosystem will also support a lot of
animals) The four things are
1 Sunlight
2 Nutrients
3 Warm temperatures
4 Water
81
Biomes Video
82
Take-Home Message
bull Biomes are the major ecological communities of earth
characterized mostly by the vegetation present
bull Different biomes result from differences in temperature
and precipitation and the extent to which they vary from
season to season
83
Challenge Question
bull Terrestrial biomes are determined by the temperature
and precipitation amounts as well as whether those
factors are constant or vary by season
bull By contrast how are aquatic biomes determined
84
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy flows from producers to
consumers
85
86
87
First Stop Primary Producers
bull ecosystem producers or consumers
bull primary producers plants algae (some) bacteria
bull convert light energy from sun into chemical energy
through photosynthesis
bull chemical energy = food
bull consumers eat or absorb their food
bull energy stored in chemical bonds of carbohydrate
protein and lipid molecules is captured and
harnessed for consumersrsquo own movement
reproduction and growth
88
Food Chain
89
Food Web
90
Food Web
91
Food Chains amp Food Webs
bull A change in one link in a food chain will affect the other
links
bull The table on the next slide gives one example of a food
chain and the trophic levels represented in it
92
Food Chains amp Food Webs
93
GRASS
GRASSHOPPER
TOAD
SNAKE
HAWK
BACTERIA
IN GENERAL
AUTOTROPHS
(PRODUCERS)
HERBIVORES
(PRIMARY
CONSUMERS)
CARNIVORES
(2 3 ETC)
DECOMPOSERS
94
Chain Reaction Game
95
Energy Flows through a Food Web
bull Losses at every ldquosteprdquo in a food chain
bull Inefficiency of energy transfers
96
Energy flow through a food chain
Energy flow refers to the way that energy is transformed through
a food chain (pictured here) containing a series of levels
including plants consumers predators and decomposers 97
Amount of energy available at each of the
four levels of an ecosystem
Ecological pyramids illustrate the amount of energy
available at each of the four levels of an ecosystem 98
Ecological Pyramid
99
A grasshopper eats a plant A mouse eats the
grasshopper A snake eats the mouse A hawk
could eat the snake or the mouse In this food
web how would we categorize the hawk
1 Producer
2 Primary consumer
3 Secondary consumer
4 Tertiary consumer
5 Quaternary consumer
6 4 and 5
100
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps
bull First it is converted to chemical energy in
photosynthesis
bull Herbivores then consume the primary producers the
herbivores are consumed by carnivores and the
carnivores in turn may be consumed by top carnivores
101
Take-home message
bull Detritivores and decomposers extract energy from
organic waste and the remains of organisms that have
died
bull At each step in a food chain some usable energy is lost
as heat
102
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy pyramids reveal the inefficiency of
food chains
103
Biomass
bull biomass total weight of all living organisms in a given
area
bull only about 10 of the plants in an ecosystem is
converted into biomass
bull Food Energy Pyramid
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
bull African savannas and grasslands sustain more species
of higher-order carnivores than any other terrestrial
ecosystem
104
105
Food Energy Pyramids
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
106
107
108
You go out to eat at a fancy restaurant You
have a salad salmon and for dessert ice
cream Which part of the meal was the most
energy efficient food for you to eat
1 Salad
2 Salmon
3 Ice cream
4 2 and 3
109
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps known as trophic levels
bull Energy pyramids reveal that the biomass of primary
producers in an ecosystem tends to be far greater than
the biomass of herbivores
bull The biomass transferred at each step along the food chain tends to be only about 10 of the biomass of the organisms being consumed due to energy lost in cellular respiration
bull As a consequence of this inefficiency food chains rarely exceed four levels
110
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Essential chemicals cycle through
ecosystems
111
Chemical Reservoirs
bull Each chemical is stored in a non-living part of the environment
bull Organisms acquire the chemical from the reservoir a non-living part of the environment
bull The chemical cycles through the food chain (biogeochemical cycles)
bull Eventually the chemical is returned to the reservoir
112
Hydrologic Cycle and the Florida Springs
bull Click here for a description of how falling rain feeds underground aquifers in Florida and forms springs
113
The Most Important Chemical Cycles
1) Carbon
2) Nitrogen
3) Phosphorus
4) Sulfur
114
115
The
Carbon
Cycle
116
The Carbon Cycle
Keeping Up With Carbon
NASA video provides key information on the carbon cycle
117
118
Carbon Cycle Game
Fossil Fuels
bull created when large numbers of organisms die and are buried in sediment lacking oxygen
bull In absence of oxygen at high pressures and after very long periods of time organic remains are ultimately transformed into coal oil and natural gas
bull burning coal oil and natural gas releases large amounts of carbon dioxide
bull increases average CO2 concentration in the atmosphere
bull current level of CO2 in the atmosphere is the highest it has been in almost half a million years
119
Global CO2 levels are rising in
general but they also exhibit a
sharp rise and fall within each
year ndash why
120
121
The Nitrogen Cycle
122
The Nitrogen Cycle
Fertilizers
bull Because it is necessary for the production of every plant
protein and because all nitrogen must first be made
usable by bacteria plant growth is often limited by
nitrogen levels in the soil
bull For this reason most fertilizers contain nitrogen in a
form usable by plants
123
124
125
126
127
Oxygen reduction downstream of a source of
organic pollution
128
Algal growth and eutrophication in an Australian
outback waterway
129
Sulfur Cycle
bull component of protein
bull cycles in both a gas and sedimentary cycle
bull source earths crust
bull enters the atmosphere as hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
during fossil fuel combustion volcanic eruptions
gas exchange at ocean surfaces decomposition
130
Sulfur Cycle
bull H2S is immediately oxidized to sulfur dioxide (SO2)
bull SO2 + water vapor H2SO4 (falls to earth in rain)
bull sulfur in soluble form is taken up by plant roots
incorporated into amino acids such as cysteine
bull travels through food chain
bull eventually released through decomposition
131
How is carbon recycled back to the
atmosphere in the carbon cycle
1 It is ldquofixedrdquo by bacteria
2 It is a product of cellular respiration
3 Burning of fossil fuels
4 2 and 3
5 All of the above
132
Why do commercial fertilizers usually
contain usable forms of nitrogen and
phosphorous
1 These chemicals are not efficiently recycled in
the soil
2 Nitrogen and phosphorous need to be ldquofixedrdquo
by bacteria or the plant
3 Nitrogen and phosphorous are found at high
levels in the atmosphere but not in the soil
4 Nitrogen and phosphorous only enter the soil
through erosion
133
Take-home message
bull Chemicals essential to lifemdashincluding carbon nitrogen and phosphorusmdashcycle through ecosystems
bull They are usually captured from the atmosphere soil or water by growing organisms passed from one trophic level to the next as organisms eat other organisms and returned to the environment through respiration decomposition and erosion
bull These cycles can be disrupted as human activities significantly increase the amounts of the chemicals utilized or released to the environment
134
Symbiotic Relationships
bull Symbiosis close relationship between organisms of
two different species
bull At least one participant gains some sort of benefit
(usually nutritional)
bull Types of symbiosis
bull Parasitism
bull Commensalism
bull Mutualism
bull Predation
135
Symbiotic Relationships in the
Ocean
bull Click here for an explanation of the
relationships of marine animals
including sharks rays and various
fishes
136
Parasitism bull Parasite derives nutrition from the host
bull This harms the host but a true parasite does
not usually kill its host (directly)
137
Ectoparasites
Remain outside the host
Ticks fleas leeches
138
Endoparasites
Live inside the hostrsquos body
Tapeworms malarial parasites
139
Parasite Transmission
bull Many parasites live on or in a single organism
bull Some will alternate between 2 or more host species
bull Vertical transmission ndash from mother offspring
bull Horizontal transmission ndash between members of a
population
bull Direct contact (head lice)
bull Vectors (mosquitos)
140
141
Commensalism
bull Neither species is totally dependent on the other
bull One benefits ndash no effect on the other
bull Feeding or protection
bull Porcelain anemone crabs and anemones
142
Mutualism
bull Both species benefit
bull Food or shelter
bull Examples
bull Plants and microbes (rhizobium in root nodules)
bull Plants and fungi (orchids and mycorrhizae)
bull Protists and fungi (lichen)
bull Plants and insects (pollination)
bull Animals and bacteria (ruminants)
bull Animals and other animals (crocodiles and
plover birds)
143
Mutualism shrimp and moray
Cleaner shrimp cleaning a zebra moray eel Mutualistic
relationships such as these promote the well-being of the
host fishes and provide food for those that do the cleaning 144
Rhizobium
Rhizobium in root nodules of certain plants convert
nitrogen in soil to usable form
145
Orchid Mycorrhizae
Fungi aid the plant in the uptake of nutrients
Fungi ingest some of the food from plant
photosynthesis 146
Lichen
Most of the lichen is composed of fungal filaments
but living among the filaments are algal cells
usually from a green alga or a cyanobacterium
The lichen fungus provides its partner(s) a benefit
(protection) and gains nutrients in return 147
Ruminants
Ruminants are characterized by their four-chambered
stomach and cud-chewing behavior Cud is a food bolus
that is regurgitated rechewed and reswallowed The
rumen is a large fermentation vat containing billions of
microorganisms including bacteria and protozoa which
allow ruminants to digest fibrous feeds such as grass and
hay that other animals cannot efficiently utilize 148
Crocodiles amp
Plover Birds
The bird gets into the crocodiles mouth and picks out
the tiny bits of food stuck in his teeth then eats it (the
tiny bits)
This cleans the crocodiles teeth and keeps his mouth
fresh and free from infections 149
Predation
bull Consumption of one living organism by
another
bull Predators must have offensive strategies
bull ways of finding catching and eating
their prey
bull Prey organisms must have defensive
strategies
bull ways of avoiding or discouraging this
activity
150
Predation
bull Encompasses all levels within an
ecological food chainweb
bull plant-herbivore systems
bull herbivore-carnivore systems
bull three-way interactions of
interdependent plant-herbivore-
carnivore systems
151
This goshawk is the tertiary consumer in his ecosystem
and the mouse in his beak is the secondary consumer
Beneath the mouse on the ecological pyramid lies his
foodsource likely a worm which fed on the primary
producer leafy plants 152
Ecosystem of Life in Floridas
Springs
bull Click here for a close-up look of life
in Floridas springs and the various
predator-prey interactions there
153
Tropical Rain Forest ndash Indicator Animal Species 2-toed sloth
Cholepus
hoffmanni
Three-toed Sloth (Bradypus
variegatus) with baby - Costa Rica 22
Tropical Rain Forest ndash Indicator Animal Species
Collared Aracari
Pteroglossus torquatus
23
Grasslands (Prairie)
bull 2 different types
bull tall-grass humid amp very wet
bull short-grass dry hotter summers and colder winters
than the tall-grass prairie
bull found in middle latitudes in the interiors of continents
bull either moist continental climates or dry subtropical
climates
bull Argentina ndash grasslands are known as pampas
bull Russia ndash steppes
bull grasslands in southern hemisphere tend to get more
precipitation than those in the northern hemisphere
24
Grasslands (Prairie)
25
Grasslands (Prairie)
bull temperatures range from -40deg F 70deg F
bull growing season and a dormant season
bull growing season is when there is no frost and plants
can grow (which lasts from 100 to 175 days)
bull tropical and subtropical grasslands the length of
the growing season is determined by how long the
rainy season lasts
bull temperate grasslands the length of the growing
season is determined by temperature (ge 50deg F)
bull dormant (not growing) season nothing can grow
because its too cold
26
Grasslands (Prairie)
bull average rainfall per year ranges from 10 - 30 inches
bull tropical and sub-tropical grasslands average rainfall
per year ranges from 25 - 60 inches
bull amount of rainfall is very important in determining which
areas are grasslands
bull hard for trees to compete with grasses in places
where the uppers layers of soil are moist during part
of the year but where deeper layer of soil are always
dry
27
Grasslands (Prairie)
28
Grasslandsndash Indicator Plant Species Old Field Habitat Ohio
Grassland North Dakota
Ironweed
(Vernonia sp) with
Hedge Bindweed
Vine (Calystegia sepium) 29
Grasslandsndash Indicator Plant Species
Ironweed (Vernonia sp)
Joe Pye Weed
Eupatorium purpureum
30
Grasslands ndash Indicator Plant Species
Common Teasel
Dipsacus fullonum Queen Annes Lace (Daucus carota)
31
Grasslands ndash Indicator Animal Species
Bison (Bison bison) on the range
Theodore Roosevelt National Park North
Dakota
32
Grasslands ndash Indicator Animal Species
Przewalskis horse (Equus caballus
przewalskii) The Wilds Ohio
33
Grasslands ndash Indicator Animal Species
34
Taiga
bull Russian word for forest
bull largest biome in the world
bull Eurasia North America
bull located just below the tundra biome
bull many coniferous trees
bull aka boreal forest Boreal was the Greek goddess of the
North Wind
35
Taiga
bull winter temperature range is -54 to -1deg C (-65 to 30deg F)
bull summer -7deg C (20deg F) to 21deg C (70deg F)
bull summers are very short (50 - 100 frost free days)
bull average yearly precipitation 30 - 85 cm (12 - 33 in)
bull main seasons are winter and summer
bull spring and autumn are very short
bull weather is either hot and humid or very cold
36
Taiga
37
Taiga ndash Indicator Plant Species
Balsam Fir
Abies balsamea
Black Spruce
Picea mariana
38
Taiga ndash Indicator Plant Species
Jack Pine
Pinus banksiana
Paper Birch
Betula papyrifera
White Poplar
Populus alba
39
Taiga ndash Indicator Animal Species
American Black Bear
Ursus americanus
Bald Eagle
Haliaeetus leucocephalus 40
Taiga ndash Indicator Animal Species
Long-eared Owl
Aiso otus
Snowshoe Rabbit
Lepus americanus
41
Desert
bull cover about one fifth of Earths land surface
bull hot and dry near Tropic of CancerTropic of
Capricorn
bull cold near the Arctic
bull temperature
bull hot amp dry ~ 25deg C to ~ 49deg C
bull cold -2 to 4deg C (winter) 21 to 26deg C (summer)
bull precipitation
bull hot amp dry very little rainfall andor concentrated
rainfall in short periods between long rainless periods
(lt 15 cmyear)
bull cold 15 - 26 cmyear 42
Desert
43
Desert ndash Indicator Plant Species
44
Desert ndash Indicator Plant Species
Saguaro Cactus
Carnegiea gigantea
Fishhook Cactus
Mammillaria microcarpa
45
Desert ndash Indicator Plant Species
Trichomes
46
Desert ndash Indicator Animal Species
Zebratail Lizard - Callisaurus draconides
47
Desert ndash Indicator Animal Species
Rock hyrax (Procavia capensis) 48
Desert ndash Indicator Animal Species
Bactrian Camel Camelus bactrianus
49
Temperate Deciduous Forest
bull temperature 0 - 20 C
bull precipitation ~ 50 ndash 200 cmyear
50
Temperate Deciduous Forest
51
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Plant Species
Oaks (Quercus sp)
Dutchmans-Breeches
Dicentra cucullaria 52
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Plant Species
Sassafras
Sassafras albidum
Redbud
Cercis canadensis
53
Temperate Deciduous Forest ndash Succession
bull orderly succession of communities to a climax
community (biome)
bull two main types of succession
bull primary succession begins with bare rock exposed
by geologic activity
bull secondary succession begins on soil from which
previous community has been removed (by fire
agriculture etc)
bull secondary succession can proceed much faster
because the soil has been prepared by the
previous community
54
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
American Toad
Bufo americanus
Box Turtle
55
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
Eastern Chipmunk
Tamias striatus
Eastern Gray Squirrel
Sciurus carolinensis
56
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
Yellow-breasted chat
Icteria virens 57
Tundra
bull annual average temperature lt 5 C
bull precipitation (mostly in the form of snow) lt 100 mmyear
bull summer is brief
bull temperatures above freezing last only a few weeks at
most
bull warm summer coincides with periods of almost 24
hour daylight so plant growth can be explosive
58
Tundra
Anaktuvuk Pass Alaska
59
Tundra ndash Indicator Plant Species
Arctic Tundra Wildflowers - Alaska
60
Tundra ndash Indicator Plant Species
Lichen
Polytrichum Moss
(photographed in Ohio not on the
Tundra)
61
Tundra ndash Indicator Animal Species
Reindeer
Rangifer tarandus
62
Tundra ndash Indicator Animal Species
Caribou On Autumn Tundra Denali National Park Alaska
63
Savanna
bull rolling grassland scattered with shrubs and isolated trees
bull found between a tropical rainforest and desert biome
bull not enough rain falls on a savanna to support forests
bull found in a wide band on either side of the equator on
the edges of tropical rainforests
bull warm temperature year round
bull very long dry season (winter) ~ 10 cm rain none at all
from Dec - Feb
bull very wet season (summer) ~ 35-65 cm rain
64
Savanna
65
Savanna ndash Indicator Plant Species
Baobab
Adansonia digitata Umbrella Thorn Acacia
Acacia tortillis
66
Savanna ndash Indicator Animal Species
Savanna Elephant
Loxodonta africana
Black Mamba
Dendroaspis polylepis
Lion
Panthera leo
67
Chaparral
bull winter mild and moist but not rainy
bull summer very hot and dry
bull annual temperature range between -1deg and 38deg C
bull annual precipitation ~ 25-45 cm mostly in the winter
68
Chaparral
69
Chaparral ndash Indicator Plant Species
Blue Oak
Quercus douglasii
Common Sagebrush
Artemisia tridentata
Olive Tree
Olea europaea
70
Chaparral ndash Indicator Animal Species
Black-tailed Jackrabbit
Lepus californicus Golden Jackal
Canis aureus
Spotted Skunk
Spilogale gracilis
71
The Freshwater Biome
bull low salt concentration mdash usually less than 1
bull plants and animals in freshwater regions are adjusted to
the low salt content and would not be able to survive in
areas of high salt concentration (ie ocean)
bull 3 different types of freshwater regions
bull ponds and lakes
bull streams and rivers
bull wetlands
72
The Freshwater Biome ndash Ponds and Lakes
From left a view across Manzanita Lake toward Mt Lassen California a
forest pond near Donnelly Idaho a Great Blue Heron Paranagat Lake
southeastern Nevada
73
The Freshwater Biome ndash Streams and
Rivers
From left McArthur-Burney Falls State Park California trout Green
River Utah Brooks River Alaska
74
The Freshwater Biome - Wetlands
From left Pescadero Marsh California coastal marsh at Umpqua
Dunes Oregon trees and bogs on Esther Island Alaska
75
The Marine Biome
bull cover about three-fourths of the Earths surface
bull marine algae supply much of the worlds oxygen supply
and take in a huge amount of atmospheric carbon
dioxide
bull evaporation of the seawater provides rainwater for the
land
bull 3 different types of marine regions
bull oceans
bull coral reefs
bull estuaries
76
The Marine Biome - Oceans
From left mussels worms and a spider crab at a hydrocarbon seep
community in the Gulf of Mexico a sea fan and brain coral in the Florida
Keys National Marine Sanctuary a school of Atlantic amberjack off North
Carolina
77
The Marine Biome ndash Coral Reefs
From left reef life in the Gulf of Aqaba Red Sea a reef at Fanning
Island atoll in the central Pacific a reef in the Florida Keys National
Marine Sanctuary
78
The Marine Biome - Estuaries
From left Mangrove roots south Florida wetlands and tidal streams
in the Ashe Island area ACE Basin National Estuarine Research
Reserve South Carolina a salt marsh in Winyah Bay National
Estuarine Research Reserve South Carolina
79
Ecological Notes
These are the biomes in order of their productivity (highest
first)
1 estuaries and tropical rain forest (highest)
2 temperate forest
3 agricultural land
4 temperate grassland
5 lakes and streams
6 coastal zone
7 tundra
8 open ocean
9 desert (lowest)
80
Ecological Notes
In order to be productive and have a lot of living material
standing around (biomass) an ecosystem has to have 4
basic necessities for plant life to thrive (if there are
enough plants the ecosystem will also support a lot of
animals) The four things are
1 Sunlight
2 Nutrients
3 Warm temperatures
4 Water
81
Biomes Video
82
Take-Home Message
bull Biomes are the major ecological communities of earth
characterized mostly by the vegetation present
bull Different biomes result from differences in temperature
and precipitation and the extent to which they vary from
season to season
83
Challenge Question
bull Terrestrial biomes are determined by the temperature
and precipitation amounts as well as whether those
factors are constant or vary by season
bull By contrast how are aquatic biomes determined
84
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy flows from producers to
consumers
85
86
87
First Stop Primary Producers
bull ecosystem producers or consumers
bull primary producers plants algae (some) bacteria
bull convert light energy from sun into chemical energy
through photosynthesis
bull chemical energy = food
bull consumers eat or absorb their food
bull energy stored in chemical bonds of carbohydrate
protein and lipid molecules is captured and
harnessed for consumersrsquo own movement
reproduction and growth
88
Food Chain
89
Food Web
90
Food Web
91
Food Chains amp Food Webs
bull A change in one link in a food chain will affect the other
links
bull The table on the next slide gives one example of a food
chain and the trophic levels represented in it
92
Food Chains amp Food Webs
93
GRASS
GRASSHOPPER
TOAD
SNAKE
HAWK
BACTERIA
IN GENERAL
AUTOTROPHS
(PRODUCERS)
HERBIVORES
(PRIMARY
CONSUMERS)
CARNIVORES
(2 3 ETC)
DECOMPOSERS
94
Chain Reaction Game
95
Energy Flows through a Food Web
bull Losses at every ldquosteprdquo in a food chain
bull Inefficiency of energy transfers
96
Energy flow through a food chain
Energy flow refers to the way that energy is transformed through
a food chain (pictured here) containing a series of levels
including plants consumers predators and decomposers 97
Amount of energy available at each of the
four levels of an ecosystem
Ecological pyramids illustrate the amount of energy
available at each of the four levels of an ecosystem 98
Ecological Pyramid
99
A grasshopper eats a plant A mouse eats the
grasshopper A snake eats the mouse A hawk
could eat the snake or the mouse In this food
web how would we categorize the hawk
1 Producer
2 Primary consumer
3 Secondary consumer
4 Tertiary consumer
5 Quaternary consumer
6 4 and 5
100
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps
bull First it is converted to chemical energy in
photosynthesis
bull Herbivores then consume the primary producers the
herbivores are consumed by carnivores and the
carnivores in turn may be consumed by top carnivores
101
Take-home message
bull Detritivores and decomposers extract energy from
organic waste and the remains of organisms that have
died
bull At each step in a food chain some usable energy is lost
as heat
102
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy pyramids reveal the inefficiency of
food chains
103
Biomass
bull biomass total weight of all living organisms in a given
area
bull only about 10 of the plants in an ecosystem is
converted into biomass
bull Food Energy Pyramid
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
bull African savannas and grasslands sustain more species
of higher-order carnivores than any other terrestrial
ecosystem
104
105
Food Energy Pyramids
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
106
107
108
You go out to eat at a fancy restaurant You
have a salad salmon and for dessert ice
cream Which part of the meal was the most
energy efficient food for you to eat
1 Salad
2 Salmon
3 Ice cream
4 2 and 3
109
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps known as trophic levels
bull Energy pyramids reveal that the biomass of primary
producers in an ecosystem tends to be far greater than
the biomass of herbivores
bull The biomass transferred at each step along the food chain tends to be only about 10 of the biomass of the organisms being consumed due to energy lost in cellular respiration
bull As a consequence of this inefficiency food chains rarely exceed four levels
110
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Essential chemicals cycle through
ecosystems
111
Chemical Reservoirs
bull Each chemical is stored in a non-living part of the environment
bull Organisms acquire the chemical from the reservoir a non-living part of the environment
bull The chemical cycles through the food chain (biogeochemical cycles)
bull Eventually the chemical is returned to the reservoir
112
Hydrologic Cycle and the Florida Springs
bull Click here for a description of how falling rain feeds underground aquifers in Florida and forms springs
113
The Most Important Chemical Cycles
1) Carbon
2) Nitrogen
3) Phosphorus
4) Sulfur
114
115
The
Carbon
Cycle
116
The Carbon Cycle
Keeping Up With Carbon
NASA video provides key information on the carbon cycle
117
118
Carbon Cycle Game
Fossil Fuels
bull created when large numbers of organisms die and are buried in sediment lacking oxygen
bull In absence of oxygen at high pressures and after very long periods of time organic remains are ultimately transformed into coal oil and natural gas
bull burning coal oil and natural gas releases large amounts of carbon dioxide
bull increases average CO2 concentration in the atmosphere
bull current level of CO2 in the atmosphere is the highest it has been in almost half a million years
119
Global CO2 levels are rising in
general but they also exhibit a
sharp rise and fall within each
year ndash why
120
121
The Nitrogen Cycle
122
The Nitrogen Cycle
Fertilizers
bull Because it is necessary for the production of every plant
protein and because all nitrogen must first be made
usable by bacteria plant growth is often limited by
nitrogen levels in the soil
bull For this reason most fertilizers contain nitrogen in a
form usable by plants
123
124
125
126
127
Oxygen reduction downstream of a source of
organic pollution
128
Algal growth and eutrophication in an Australian
outback waterway
129
Sulfur Cycle
bull component of protein
bull cycles in both a gas and sedimentary cycle
bull source earths crust
bull enters the atmosphere as hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
during fossil fuel combustion volcanic eruptions
gas exchange at ocean surfaces decomposition
130
Sulfur Cycle
bull H2S is immediately oxidized to sulfur dioxide (SO2)
bull SO2 + water vapor H2SO4 (falls to earth in rain)
bull sulfur in soluble form is taken up by plant roots
incorporated into amino acids such as cysteine
bull travels through food chain
bull eventually released through decomposition
131
How is carbon recycled back to the
atmosphere in the carbon cycle
1 It is ldquofixedrdquo by bacteria
2 It is a product of cellular respiration
3 Burning of fossil fuels
4 2 and 3
5 All of the above
132
Why do commercial fertilizers usually
contain usable forms of nitrogen and
phosphorous
1 These chemicals are not efficiently recycled in
the soil
2 Nitrogen and phosphorous need to be ldquofixedrdquo
by bacteria or the plant
3 Nitrogen and phosphorous are found at high
levels in the atmosphere but not in the soil
4 Nitrogen and phosphorous only enter the soil
through erosion
133
Take-home message
bull Chemicals essential to lifemdashincluding carbon nitrogen and phosphorusmdashcycle through ecosystems
bull They are usually captured from the atmosphere soil or water by growing organisms passed from one trophic level to the next as organisms eat other organisms and returned to the environment through respiration decomposition and erosion
bull These cycles can be disrupted as human activities significantly increase the amounts of the chemicals utilized or released to the environment
134
Symbiotic Relationships
bull Symbiosis close relationship between organisms of
two different species
bull At least one participant gains some sort of benefit
(usually nutritional)
bull Types of symbiosis
bull Parasitism
bull Commensalism
bull Mutualism
bull Predation
135
Symbiotic Relationships in the
Ocean
bull Click here for an explanation of the
relationships of marine animals
including sharks rays and various
fishes
136
Parasitism bull Parasite derives nutrition from the host
bull This harms the host but a true parasite does
not usually kill its host (directly)
137
Ectoparasites
Remain outside the host
Ticks fleas leeches
138
Endoparasites
Live inside the hostrsquos body
Tapeworms malarial parasites
139
Parasite Transmission
bull Many parasites live on or in a single organism
bull Some will alternate between 2 or more host species
bull Vertical transmission ndash from mother offspring
bull Horizontal transmission ndash between members of a
population
bull Direct contact (head lice)
bull Vectors (mosquitos)
140
141
Commensalism
bull Neither species is totally dependent on the other
bull One benefits ndash no effect on the other
bull Feeding or protection
bull Porcelain anemone crabs and anemones
142
Mutualism
bull Both species benefit
bull Food or shelter
bull Examples
bull Plants and microbes (rhizobium in root nodules)
bull Plants and fungi (orchids and mycorrhizae)
bull Protists and fungi (lichen)
bull Plants and insects (pollination)
bull Animals and bacteria (ruminants)
bull Animals and other animals (crocodiles and
plover birds)
143
Mutualism shrimp and moray
Cleaner shrimp cleaning a zebra moray eel Mutualistic
relationships such as these promote the well-being of the
host fishes and provide food for those that do the cleaning 144
Rhizobium
Rhizobium in root nodules of certain plants convert
nitrogen in soil to usable form
145
Orchid Mycorrhizae
Fungi aid the plant in the uptake of nutrients
Fungi ingest some of the food from plant
photosynthesis 146
Lichen
Most of the lichen is composed of fungal filaments
but living among the filaments are algal cells
usually from a green alga or a cyanobacterium
The lichen fungus provides its partner(s) a benefit
(protection) and gains nutrients in return 147
Ruminants
Ruminants are characterized by their four-chambered
stomach and cud-chewing behavior Cud is a food bolus
that is regurgitated rechewed and reswallowed The
rumen is a large fermentation vat containing billions of
microorganisms including bacteria and protozoa which
allow ruminants to digest fibrous feeds such as grass and
hay that other animals cannot efficiently utilize 148
Crocodiles amp
Plover Birds
The bird gets into the crocodiles mouth and picks out
the tiny bits of food stuck in his teeth then eats it (the
tiny bits)
This cleans the crocodiles teeth and keeps his mouth
fresh and free from infections 149
Predation
bull Consumption of one living organism by
another
bull Predators must have offensive strategies
bull ways of finding catching and eating
their prey
bull Prey organisms must have defensive
strategies
bull ways of avoiding or discouraging this
activity
150
Predation
bull Encompasses all levels within an
ecological food chainweb
bull plant-herbivore systems
bull herbivore-carnivore systems
bull three-way interactions of
interdependent plant-herbivore-
carnivore systems
151
This goshawk is the tertiary consumer in his ecosystem
and the mouse in his beak is the secondary consumer
Beneath the mouse on the ecological pyramid lies his
foodsource likely a worm which fed on the primary
producer leafy plants 152
Ecosystem of Life in Floridas
Springs
bull Click here for a close-up look of life
in Floridas springs and the various
predator-prey interactions there
153
Tropical Rain Forest ndash Indicator Animal Species
Collared Aracari
Pteroglossus torquatus
23
Grasslands (Prairie)
bull 2 different types
bull tall-grass humid amp very wet
bull short-grass dry hotter summers and colder winters
than the tall-grass prairie
bull found in middle latitudes in the interiors of continents
bull either moist continental climates or dry subtropical
climates
bull Argentina ndash grasslands are known as pampas
bull Russia ndash steppes
bull grasslands in southern hemisphere tend to get more
precipitation than those in the northern hemisphere
24
Grasslands (Prairie)
25
Grasslands (Prairie)
bull temperatures range from -40deg F 70deg F
bull growing season and a dormant season
bull growing season is when there is no frost and plants
can grow (which lasts from 100 to 175 days)
bull tropical and subtropical grasslands the length of
the growing season is determined by how long the
rainy season lasts
bull temperate grasslands the length of the growing
season is determined by temperature (ge 50deg F)
bull dormant (not growing) season nothing can grow
because its too cold
26
Grasslands (Prairie)
bull average rainfall per year ranges from 10 - 30 inches
bull tropical and sub-tropical grasslands average rainfall
per year ranges from 25 - 60 inches
bull amount of rainfall is very important in determining which
areas are grasslands
bull hard for trees to compete with grasses in places
where the uppers layers of soil are moist during part
of the year but where deeper layer of soil are always
dry
27
Grasslands (Prairie)
28
Grasslandsndash Indicator Plant Species Old Field Habitat Ohio
Grassland North Dakota
Ironweed
(Vernonia sp) with
Hedge Bindweed
Vine (Calystegia sepium) 29
Grasslandsndash Indicator Plant Species
Ironweed (Vernonia sp)
Joe Pye Weed
Eupatorium purpureum
30
Grasslands ndash Indicator Plant Species
Common Teasel
Dipsacus fullonum Queen Annes Lace (Daucus carota)
31
Grasslands ndash Indicator Animal Species
Bison (Bison bison) on the range
Theodore Roosevelt National Park North
Dakota
32
Grasslands ndash Indicator Animal Species
Przewalskis horse (Equus caballus
przewalskii) The Wilds Ohio
33
Grasslands ndash Indicator Animal Species
34
Taiga
bull Russian word for forest
bull largest biome in the world
bull Eurasia North America
bull located just below the tundra biome
bull many coniferous trees
bull aka boreal forest Boreal was the Greek goddess of the
North Wind
35
Taiga
bull winter temperature range is -54 to -1deg C (-65 to 30deg F)
bull summer -7deg C (20deg F) to 21deg C (70deg F)
bull summers are very short (50 - 100 frost free days)
bull average yearly precipitation 30 - 85 cm (12 - 33 in)
bull main seasons are winter and summer
bull spring and autumn are very short
bull weather is either hot and humid or very cold
36
Taiga
37
Taiga ndash Indicator Plant Species
Balsam Fir
Abies balsamea
Black Spruce
Picea mariana
38
Taiga ndash Indicator Plant Species
Jack Pine
Pinus banksiana
Paper Birch
Betula papyrifera
White Poplar
Populus alba
39
Taiga ndash Indicator Animal Species
American Black Bear
Ursus americanus
Bald Eagle
Haliaeetus leucocephalus 40
Taiga ndash Indicator Animal Species
Long-eared Owl
Aiso otus
Snowshoe Rabbit
Lepus americanus
41
Desert
bull cover about one fifth of Earths land surface
bull hot and dry near Tropic of CancerTropic of
Capricorn
bull cold near the Arctic
bull temperature
bull hot amp dry ~ 25deg C to ~ 49deg C
bull cold -2 to 4deg C (winter) 21 to 26deg C (summer)
bull precipitation
bull hot amp dry very little rainfall andor concentrated
rainfall in short periods between long rainless periods
(lt 15 cmyear)
bull cold 15 - 26 cmyear 42
Desert
43
Desert ndash Indicator Plant Species
44
Desert ndash Indicator Plant Species
Saguaro Cactus
Carnegiea gigantea
Fishhook Cactus
Mammillaria microcarpa
45
Desert ndash Indicator Plant Species
Trichomes
46
Desert ndash Indicator Animal Species
Zebratail Lizard - Callisaurus draconides
47
Desert ndash Indicator Animal Species
Rock hyrax (Procavia capensis) 48
Desert ndash Indicator Animal Species
Bactrian Camel Camelus bactrianus
49
Temperate Deciduous Forest
bull temperature 0 - 20 C
bull precipitation ~ 50 ndash 200 cmyear
50
Temperate Deciduous Forest
51
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Plant Species
Oaks (Quercus sp)
Dutchmans-Breeches
Dicentra cucullaria 52
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Plant Species
Sassafras
Sassafras albidum
Redbud
Cercis canadensis
53
Temperate Deciduous Forest ndash Succession
bull orderly succession of communities to a climax
community (biome)
bull two main types of succession
bull primary succession begins with bare rock exposed
by geologic activity
bull secondary succession begins on soil from which
previous community has been removed (by fire
agriculture etc)
bull secondary succession can proceed much faster
because the soil has been prepared by the
previous community
54
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
American Toad
Bufo americanus
Box Turtle
55
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
Eastern Chipmunk
Tamias striatus
Eastern Gray Squirrel
Sciurus carolinensis
56
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
Yellow-breasted chat
Icteria virens 57
Tundra
bull annual average temperature lt 5 C
bull precipitation (mostly in the form of snow) lt 100 mmyear
bull summer is brief
bull temperatures above freezing last only a few weeks at
most
bull warm summer coincides with periods of almost 24
hour daylight so plant growth can be explosive
58
Tundra
Anaktuvuk Pass Alaska
59
Tundra ndash Indicator Plant Species
Arctic Tundra Wildflowers - Alaska
60
Tundra ndash Indicator Plant Species
Lichen
Polytrichum Moss
(photographed in Ohio not on the
Tundra)
61
Tundra ndash Indicator Animal Species
Reindeer
Rangifer tarandus
62
Tundra ndash Indicator Animal Species
Caribou On Autumn Tundra Denali National Park Alaska
63
Savanna
bull rolling grassland scattered with shrubs and isolated trees
bull found between a tropical rainforest and desert biome
bull not enough rain falls on a savanna to support forests
bull found in a wide band on either side of the equator on
the edges of tropical rainforests
bull warm temperature year round
bull very long dry season (winter) ~ 10 cm rain none at all
from Dec - Feb
bull very wet season (summer) ~ 35-65 cm rain
64
Savanna
65
Savanna ndash Indicator Plant Species
Baobab
Adansonia digitata Umbrella Thorn Acacia
Acacia tortillis
66
Savanna ndash Indicator Animal Species
Savanna Elephant
Loxodonta africana
Black Mamba
Dendroaspis polylepis
Lion
Panthera leo
67
Chaparral
bull winter mild and moist but not rainy
bull summer very hot and dry
bull annual temperature range between -1deg and 38deg C
bull annual precipitation ~ 25-45 cm mostly in the winter
68
Chaparral
69
Chaparral ndash Indicator Plant Species
Blue Oak
Quercus douglasii
Common Sagebrush
Artemisia tridentata
Olive Tree
Olea europaea
70
Chaparral ndash Indicator Animal Species
Black-tailed Jackrabbit
Lepus californicus Golden Jackal
Canis aureus
Spotted Skunk
Spilogale gracilis
71
The Freshwater Biome
bull low salt concentration mdash usually less than 1
bull plants and animals in freshwater regions are adjusted to
the low salt content and would not be able to survive in
areas of high salt concentration (ie ocean)
bull 3 different types of freshwater regions
bull ponds and lakes
bull streams and rivers
bull wetlands
72
The Freshwater Biome ndash Ponds and Lakes
From left a view across Manzanita Lake toward Mt Lassen California a
forest pond near Donnelly Idaho a Great Blue Heron Paranagat Lake
southeastern Nevada
73
The Freshwater Biome ndash Streams and
Rivers
From left McArthur-Burney Falls State Park California trout Green
River Utah Brooks River Alaska
74
The Freshwater Biome - Wetlands
From left Pescadero Marsh California coastal marsh at Umpqua
Dunes Oregon trees and bogs on Esther Island Alaska
75
The Marine Biome
bull cover about three-fourths of the Earths surface
bull marine algae supply much of the worlds oxygen supply
and take in a huge amount of atmospheric carbon
dioxide
bull evaporation of the seawater provides rainwater for the
land
bull 3 different types of marine regions
bull oceans
bull coral reefs
bull estuaries
76
The Marine Biome - Oceans
From left mussels worms and a spider crab at a hydrocarbon seep
community in the Gulf of Mexico a sea fan and brain coral in the Florida
Keys National Marine Sanctuary a school of Atlantic amberjack off North
Carolina
77
The Marine Biome ndash Coral Reefs
From left reef life in the Gulf of Aqaba Red Sea a reef at Fanning
Island atoll in the central Pacific a reef in the Florida Keys National
Marine Sanctuary
78
The Marine Biome - Estuaries
From left Mangrove roots south Florida wetlands and tidal streams
in the Ashe Island area ACE Basin National Estuarine Research
Reserve South Carolina a salt marsh in Winyah Bay National
Estuarine Research Reserve South Carolina
79
Ecological Notes
These are the biomes in order of their productivity (highest
first)
1 estuaries and tropical rain forest (highest)
2 temperate forest
3 agricultural land
4 temperate grassland
5 lakes and streams
6 coastal zone
7 tundra
8 open ocean
9 desert (lowest)
80
Ecological Notes
In order to be productive and have a lot of living material
standing around (biomass) an ecosystem has to have 4
basic necessities for plant life to thrive (if there are
enough plants the ecosystem will also support a lot of
animals) The four things are
1 Sunlight
2 Nutrients
3 Warm temperatures
4 Water
81
Biomes Video
82
Take-Home Message
bull Biomes are the major ecological communities of earth
characterized mostly by the vegetation present
bull Different biomes result from differences in temperature
and precipitation and the extent to which they vary from
season to season
83
Challenge Question
bull Terrestrial biomes are determined by the temperature
and precipitation amounts as well as whether those
factors are constant or vary by season
bull By contrast how are aquatic biomes determined
84
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy flows from producers to
consumers
85
86
87
First Stop Primary Producers
bull ecosystem producers or consumers
bull primary producers plants algae (some) bacteria
bull convert light energy from sun into chemical energy
through photosynthesis
bull chemical energy = food
bull consumers eat or absorb their food
bull energy stored in chemical bonds of carbohydrate
protein and lipid molecules is captured and
harnessed for consumersrsquo own movement
reproduction and growth
88
Food Chain
89
Food Web
90
Food Web
91
Food Chains amp Food Webs
bull A change in one link in a food chain will affect the other
links
bull The table on the next slide gives one example of a food
chain and the trophic levels represented in it
92
Food Chains amp Food Webs
93
GRASS
GRASSHOPPER
TOAD
SNAKE
HAWK
BACTERIA
IN GENERAL
AUTOTROPHS
(PRODUCERS)
HERBIVORES
(PRIMARY
CONSUMERS)
CARNIVORES
(2 3 ETC)
DECOMPOSERS
94
Chain Reaction Game
95
Energy Flows through a Food Web
bull Losses at every ldquosteprdquo in a food chain
bull Inefficiency of energy transfers
96
Energy flow through a food chain
Energy flow refers to the way that energy is transformed through
a food chain (pictured here) containing a series of levels
including plants consumers predators and decomposers 97
Amount of energy available at each of the
four levels of an ecosystem
Ecological pyramids illustrate the amount of energy
available at each of the four levels of an ecosystem 98
Ecological Pyramid
99
A grasshopper eats a plant A mouse eats the
grasshopper A snake eats the mouse A hawk
could eat the snake or the mouse In this food
web how would we categorize the hawk
1 Producer
2 Primary consumer
3 Secondary consumer
4 Tertiary consumer
5 Quaternary consumer
6 4 and 5
100
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps
bull First it is converted to chemical energy in
photosynthesis
bull Herbivores then consume the primary producers the
herbivores are consumed by carnivores and the
carnivores in turn may be consumed by top carnivores
101
Take-home message
bull Detritivores and decomposers extract energy from
organic waste and the remains of organisms that have
died
bull At each step in a food chain some usable energy is lost
as heat
102
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy pyramids reveal the inefficiency of
food chains
103
Biomass
bull biomass total weight of all living organisms in a given
area
bull only about 10 of the plants in an ecosystem is
converted into biomass
bull Food Energy Pyramid
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
bull African savannas and grasslands sustain more species
of higher-order carnivores than any other terrestrial
ecosystem
104
105
Food Energy Pyramids
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
106
107
108
You go out to eat at a fancy restaurant You
have a salad salmon and for dessert ice
cream Which part of the meal was the most
energy efficient food for you to eat
1 Salad
2 Salmon
3 Ice cream
4 2 and 3
109
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps known as trophic levels
bull Energy pyramids reveal that the biomass of primary
producers in an ecosystem tends to be far greater than
the biomass of herbivores
bull The biomass transferred at each step along the food chain tends to be only about 10 of the biomass of the organisms being consumed due to energy lost in cellular respiration
bull As a consequence of this inefficiency food chains rarely exceed four levels
110
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Essential chemicals cycle through
ecosystems
111
Chemical Reservoirs
bull Each chemical is stored in a non-living part of the environment
bull Organisms acquire the chemical from the reservoir a non-living part of the environment
bull The chemical cycles through the food chain (biogeochemical cycles)
bull Eventually the chemical is returned to the reservoir
112
Hydrologic Cycle and the Florida Springs
bull Click here for a description of how falling rain feeds underground aquifers in Florida and forms springs
113
The Most Important Chemical Cycles
1) Carbon
2) Nitrogen
3) Phosphorus
4) Sulfur
114
115
The
Carbon
Cycle
116
The Carbon Cycle
Keeping Up With Carbon
NASA video provides key information on the carbon cycle
117
118
Carbon Cycle Game
Fossil Fuels
bull created when large numbers of organisms die and are buried in sediment lacking oxygen
bull In absence of oxygen at high pressures and after very long periods of time organic remains are ultimately transformed into coal oil and natural gas
bull burning coal oil and natural gas releases large amounts of carbon dioxide
bull increases average CO2 concentration in the atmosphere
bull current level of CO2 in the atmosphere is the highest it has been in almost half a million years
119
Global CO2 levels are rising in
general but they also exhibit a
sharp rise and fall within each
year ndash why
120
121
The Nitrogen Cycle
122
The Nitrogen Cycle
Fertilizers
bull Because it is necessary for the production of every plant
protein and because all nitrogen must first be made
usable by bacteria plant growth is often limited by
nitrogen levels in the soil
bull For this reason most fertilizers contain nitrogen in a
form usable by plants
123
124
125
126
127
Oxygen reduction downstream of a source of
organic pollution
128
Algal growth and eutrophication in an Australian
outback waterway
129
Sulfur Cycle
bull component of protein
bull cycles in both a gas and sedimentary cycle
bull source earths crust
bull enters the atmosphere as hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
during fossil fuel combustion volcanic eruptions
gas exchange at ocean surfaces decomposition
130
Sulfur Cycle
bull H2S is immediately oxidized to sulfur dioxide (SO2)
bull SO2 + water vapor H2SO4 (falls to earth in rain)
bull sulfur in soluble form is taken up by plant roots
incorporated into amino acids such as cysteine
bull travels through food chain
bull eventually released through decomposition
131
How is carbon recycled back to the
atmosphere in the carbon cycle
1 It is ldquofixedrdquo by bacteria
2 It is a product of cellular respiration
3 Burning of fossil fuels
4 2 and 3
5 All of the above
132
Why do commercial fertilizers usually
contain usable forms of nitrogen and
phosphorous
1 These chemicals are not efficiently recycled in
the soil
2 Nitrogen and phosphorous need to be ldquofixedrdquo
by bacteria or the plant
3 Nitrogen and phosphorous are found at high
levels in the atmosphere but not in the soil
4 Nitrogen and phosphorous only enter the soil
through erosion
133
Take-home message
bull Chemicals essential to lifemdashincluding carbon nitrogen and phosphorusmdashcycle through ecosystems
bull They are usually captured from the atmosphere soil or water by growing organisms passed from one trophic level to the next as organisms eat other organisms and returned to the environment through respiration decomposition and erosion
bull These cycles can be disrupted as human activities significantly increase the amounts of the chemicals utilized or released to the environment
134
Symbiotic Relationships
bull Symbiosis close relationship between organisms of
two different species
bull At least one participant gains some sort of benefit
(usually nutritional)
bull Types of symbiosis
bull Parasitism
bull Commensalism
bull Mutualism
bull Predation
135
Symbiotic Relationships in the
Ocean
bull Click here for an explanation of the
relationships of marine animals
including sharks rays and various
fishes
136
Parasitism bull Parasite derives nutrition from the host
bull This harms the host but a true parasite does
not usually kill its host (directly)
137
Ectoparasites
Remain outside the host
Ticks fleas leeches
138
Endoparasites
Live inside the hostrsquos body
Tapeworms malarial parasites
139
Parasite Transmission
bull Many parasites live on or in a single organism
bull Some will alternate between 2 or more host species
bull Vertical transmission ndash from mother offspring
bull Horizontal transmission ndash between members of a
population
bull Direct contact (head lice)
bull Vectors (mosquitos)
140
141
Commensalism
bull Neither species is totally dependent on the other
bull One benefits ndash no effect on the other
bull Feeding or protection
bull Porcelain anemone crabs and anemones
142
Mutualism
bull Both species benefit
bull Food or shelter
bull Examples
bull Plants and microbes (rhizobium in root nodules)
bull Plants and fungi (orchids and mycorrhizae)
bull Protists and fungi (lichen)
bull Plants and insects (pollination)
bull Animals and bacteria (ruminants)
bull Animals and other animals (crocodiles and
plover birds)
143
Mutualism shrimp and moray
Cleaner shrimp cleaning a zebra moray eel Mutualistic
relationships such as these promote the well-being of the
host fishes and provide food for those that do the cleaning 144
Rhizobium
Rhizobium in root nodules of certain plants convert
nitrogen in soil to usable form
145
Orchid Mycorrhizae
Fungi aid the plant in the uptake of nutrients
Fungi ingest some of the food from plant
photosynthesis 146
Lichen
Most of the lichen is composed of fungal filaments
but living among the filaments are algal cells
usually from a green alga or a cyanobacterium
The lichen fungus provides its partner(s) a benefit
(protection) and gains nutrients in return 147
Ruminants
Ruminants are characterized by their four-chambered
stomach and cud-chewing behavior Cud is a food bolus
that is regurgitated rechewed and reswallowed The
rumen is a large fermentation vat containing billions of
microorganisms including bacteria and protozoa which
allow ruminants to digest fibrous feeds such as grass and
hay that other animals cannot efficiently utilize 148
Crocodiles amp
Plover Birds
The bird gets into the crocodiles mouth and picks out
the tiny bits of food stuck in his teeth then eats it (the
tiny bits)
This cleans the crocodiles teeth and keeps his mouth
fresh and free from infections 149
Predation
bull Consumption of one living organism by
another
bull Predators must have offensive strategies
bull ways of finding catching and eating
their prey
bull Prey organisms must have defensive
strategies
bull ways of avoiding or discouraging this
activity
150
Predation
bull Encompasses all levels within an
ecological food chainweb
bull plant-herbivore systems
bull herbivore-carnivore systems
bull three-way interactions of
interdependent plant-herbivore-
carnivore systems
151
This goshawk is the tertiary consumer in his ecosystem
and the mouse in his beak is the secondary consumer
Beneath the mouse on the ecological pyramid lies his
foodsource likely a worm which fed on the primary
producer leafy plants 152
Ecosystem of Life in Floridas
Springs
bull Click here for a close-up look of life
in Floridas springs and the various
predator-prey interactions there
153
Grasslands (Prairie)
bull 2 different types
bull tall-grass humid amp very wet
bull short-grass dry hotter summers and colder winters
than the tall-grass prairie
bull found in middle latitudes in the interiors of continents
bull either moist continental climates or dry subtropical
climates
bull Argentina ndash grasslands are known as pampas
bull Russia ndash steppes
bull grasslands in southern hemisphere tend to get more
precipitation than those in the northern hemisphere
24
Grasslands (Prairie)
25
Grasslands (Prairie)
bull temperatures range from -40deg F 70deg F
bull growing season and a dormant season
bull growing season is when there is no frost and plants
can grow (which lasts from 100 to 175 days)
bull tropical and subtropical grasslands the length of
the growing season is determined by how long the
rainy season lasts
bull temperate grasslands the length of the growing
season is determined by temperature (ge 50deg F)
bull dormant (not growing) season nothing can grow
because its too cold
26
Grasslands (Prairie)
bull average rainfall per year ranges from 10 - 30 inches
bull tropical and sub-tropical grasslands average rainfall
per year ranges from 25 - 60 inches
bull amount of rainfall is very important in determining which
areas are grasslands
bull hard for trees to compete with grasses in places
where the uppers layers of soil are moist during part
of the year but where deeper layer of soil are always
dry
27
Grasslands (Prairie)
28
Grasslandsndash Indicator Plant Species Old Field Habitat Ohio
Grassland North Dakota
Ironweed
(Vernonia sp) with
Hedge Bindweed
Vine (Calystegia sepium) 29
Grasslandsndash Indicator Plant Species
Ironweed (Vernonia sp)
Joe Pye Weed
Eupatorium purpureum
30
Grasslands ndash Indicator Plant Species
Common Teasel
Dipsacus fullonum Queen Annes Lace (Daucus carota)
31
Grasslands ndash Indicator Animal Species
Bison (Bison bison) on the range
Theodore Roosevelt National Park North
Dakota
32
Grasslands ndash Indicator Animal Species
Przewalskis horse (Equus caballus
przewalskii) The Wilds Ohio
33
Grasslands ndash Indicator Animal Species
34
Taiga
bull Russian word for forest
bull largest biome in the world
bull Eurasia North America
bull located just below the tundra biome
bull many coniferous trees
bull aka boreal forest Boreal was the Greek goddess of the
North Wind
35
Taiga
bull winter temperature range is -54 to -1deg C (-65 to 30deg F)
bull summer -7deg C (20deg F) to 21deg C (70deg F)
bull summers are very short (50 - 100 frost free days)
bull average yearly precipitation 30 - 85 cm (12 - 33 in)
bull main seasons are winter and summer
bull spring and autumn are very short
bull weather is either hot and humid or very cold
36
Taiga
37
Taiga ndash Indicator Plant Species
Balsam Fir
Abies balsamea
Black Spruce
Picea mariana
38
Taiga ndash Indicator Plant Species
Jack Pine
Pinus banksiana
Paper Birch
Betula papyrifera
White Poplar
Populus alba
39
Taiga ndash Indicator Animal Species
American Black Bear
Ursus americanus
Bald Eagle
Haliaeetus leucocephalus 40
Taiga ndash Indicator Animal Species
Long-eared Owl
Aiso otus
Snowshoe Rabbit
Lepus americanus
41
Desert
bull cover about one fifth of Earths land surface
bull hot and dry near Tropic of CancerTropic of
Capricorn
bull cold near the Arctic
bull temperature
bull hot amp dry ~ 25deg C to ~ 49deg C
bull cold -2 to 4deg C (winter) 21 to 26deg C (summer)
bull precipitation
bull hot amp dry very little rainfall andor concentrated
rainfall in short periods between long rainless periods
(lt 15 cmyear)
bull cold 15 - 26 cmyear 42
Desert
43
Desert ndash Indicator Plant Species
44
Desert ndash Indicator Plant Species
Saguaro Cactus
Carnegiea gigantea
Fishhook Cactus
Mammillaria microcarpa
45
Desert ndash Indicator Plant Species
Trichomes
46
Desert ndash Indicator Animal Species
Zebratail Lizard - Callisaurus draconides
47
Desert ndash Indicator Animal Species
Rock hyrax (Procavia capensis) 48
Desert ndash Indicator Animal Species
Bactrian Camel Camelus bactrianus
49
Temperate Deciduous Forest
bull temperature 0 - 20 C
bull precipitation ~ 50 ndash 200 cmyear
50
Temperate Deciduous Forest
51
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Plant Species
Oaks (Quercus sp)
Dutchmans-Breeches
Dicentra cucullaria 52
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Plant Species
Sassafras
Sassafras albidum
Redbud
Cercis canadensis
53
Temperate Deciduous Forest ndash Succession
bull orderly succession of communities to a climax
community (biome)
bull two main types of succession
bull primary succession begins with bare rock exposed
by geologic activity
bull secondary succession begins on soil from which
previous community has been removed (by fire
agriculture etc)
bull secondary succession can proceed much faster
because the soil has been prepared by the
previous community
54
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
American Toad
Bufo americanus
Box Turtle
55
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
Eastern Chipmunk
Tamias striatus
Eastern Gray Squirrel
Sciurus carolinensis
56
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
Yellow-breasted chat
Icteria virens 57
Tundra
bull annual average temperature lt 5 C
bull precipitation (mostly in the form of snow) lt 100 mmyear
bull summer is brief
bull temperatures above freezing last only a few weeks at
most
bull warm summer coincides with periods of almost 24
hour daylight so plant growth can be explosive
58
Tundra
Anaktuvuk Pass Alaska
59
Tundra ndash Indicator Plant Species
Arctic Tundra Wildflowers - Alaska
60
Tundra ndash Indicator Plant Species
Lichen
Polytrichum Moss
(photographed in Ohio not on the
Tundra)
61
Tundra ndash Indicator Animal Species
Reindeer
Rangifer tarandus
62
Tundra ndash Indicator Animal Species
Caribou On Autumn Tundra Denali National Park Alaska
63
Savanna
bull rolling grassland scattered with shrubs and isolated trees
bull found between a tropical rainforest and desert biome
bull not enough rain falls on a savanna to support forests
bull found in a wide band on either side of the equator on
the edges of tropical rainforests
bull warm temperature year round
bull very long dry season (winter) ~ 10 cm rain none at all
from Dec - Feb
bull very wet season (summer) ~ 35-65 cm rain
64
Savanna
65
Savanna ndash Indicator Plant Species
Baobab
Adansonia digitata Umbrella Thorn Acacia
Acacia tortillis
66
Savanna ndash Indicator Animal Species
Savanna Elephant
Loxodonta africana
Black Mamba
Dendroaspis polylepis
Lion
Panthera leo
67
Chaparral
bull winter mild and moist but not rainy
bull summer very hot and dry
bull annual temperature range between -1deg and 38deg C
bull annual precipitation ~ 25-45 cm mostly in the winter
68
Chaparral
69
Chaparral ndash Indicator Plant Species
Blue Oak
Quercus douglasii
Common Sagebrush
Artemisia tridentata
Olive Tree
Olea europaea
70
Chaparral ndash Indicator Animal Species
Black-tailed Jackrabbit
Lepus californicus Golden Jackal
Canis aureus
Spotted Skunk
Spilogale gracilis
71
The Freshwater Biome
bull low salt concentration mdash usually less than 1
bull plants and animals in freshwater regions are adjusted to
the low salt content and would not be able to survive in
areas of high salt concentration (ie ocean)
bull 3 different types of freshwater regions
bull ponds and lakes
bull streams and rivers
bull wetlands
72
The Freshwater Biome ndash Ponds and Lakes
From left a view across Manzanita Lake toward Mt Lassen California a
forest pond near Donnelly Idaho a Great Blue Heron Paranagat Lake
southeastern Nevada
73
The Freshwater Biome ndash Streams and
Rivers
From left McArthur-Burney Falls State Park California trout Green
River Utah Brooks River Alaska
74
The Freshwater Biome - Wetlands
From left Pescadero Marsh California coastal marsh at Umpqua
Dunes Oregon trees and bogs on Esther Island Alaska
75
The Marine Biome
bull cover about three-fourths of the Earths surface
bull marine algae supply much of the worlds oxygen supply
and take in a huge amount of atmospheric carbon
dioxide
bull evaporation of the seawater provides rainwater for the
land
bull 3 different types of marine regions
bull oceans
bull coral reefs
bull estuaries
76
The Marine Biome - Oceans
From left mussels worms and a spider crab at a hydrocarbon seep
community in the Gulf of Mexico a sea fan and brain coral in the Florida
Keys National Marine Sanctuary a school of Atlantic amberjack off North
Carolina
77
The Marine Biome ndash Coral Reefs
From left reef life in the Gulf of Aqaba Red Sea a reef at Fanning
Island atoll in the central Pacific a reef in the Florida Keys National
Marine Sanctuary
78
The Marine Biome - Estuaries
From left Mangrove roots south Florida wetlands and tidal streams
in the Ashe Island area ACE Basin National Estuarine Research
Reserve South Carolina a salt marsh in Winyah Bay National
Estuarine Research Reserve South Carolina
79
Ecological Notes
These are the biomes in order of their productivity (highest
first)
1 estuaries and tropical rain forest (highest)
2 temperate forest
3 agricultural land
4 temperate grassland
5 lakes and streams
6 coastal zone
7 tundra
8 open ocean
9 desert (lowest)
80
Ecological Notes
In order to be productive and have a lot of living material
standing around (biomass) an ecosystem has to have 4
basic necessities for plant life to thrive (if there are
enough plants the ecosystem will also support a lot of
animals) The four things are
1 Sunlight
2 Nutrients
3 Warm temperatures
4 Water
81
Biomes Video
82
Take-Home Message
bull Biomes are the major ecological communities of earth
characterized mostly by the vegetation present
bull Different biomes result from differences in temperature
and precipitation and the extent to which they vary from
season to season
83
Challenge Question
bull Terrestrial biomes are determined by the temperature
and precipitation amounts as well as whether those
factors are constant or vary by season
bull By contrast how are aquatic biomes determined
84
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy flows from producers to
consumers
85
86
87
First Stop Primary Producers
bull ecosystem producers or consumers
bull primary producers plants algae (some) bacteria
bull convert light energy from sun into chemical energy
through photosynthesis
bull chemical energy = food
bull consumers eat or absorb their food
bull energy stored in chemical bonds of carbohydrate
protein and lipid molecules is captured and
harnessed for consumersrsquo own movement
reproduction and growth
88
Food Chain
89
Food Web
90
Food Web
91
Food Chains amp Food Webs
bull A change in one link in a food chain will affect the other
links
bull The table on the next slide gives one example of a food
chain and the trophic levels represented in it
92
Food Chains amp Food Webs
93
GRASS
GRASSHOPPER
TOAD
SNAKE
HAWK
BACTERIA
IN GENERAL
AUTOTROPHS
(PRODUCERS)
HERBIVORES
(PRIMARY
CONSUMERS)
CARNIVORES
(2 3 ETC)
DECOMPOSERS
94
Chain Reaction Game
95
Energy Flows through a Food Web
bull Losses at every ldquosteprdquo in a food chain
bull Inefficiency of energy transfers
96
Energy flow through a food chain
Energy flow refers to the way that energy is transformed through
a food chain (pictured here) containing a series of levels
including plants consumers predators and decomposers 97
Amount of energy available at each of the
four levels of an ecosystem
Ecological pyramids illustrate the amount of energy
available at each of the four levels of an ecosystem 98
Ecological Pyramid
99
A grasshopper eats a plant A mouse eats the
grasshopper A snake eats the mouse A hawk
could eat the snake or the mouse In this food
web how would we categorize the hawk
1 Producer
2 Primary consumer
3 Secondary consumer
4 Tertiary consumer
5 Quaternary consumer
6 4 and 5
100
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps
bull First it is converted to chemical energy in
photosynthesis
bull Herbivores then consume the primary producers the
herbivores are consumed by carnivores and the
carnivores in turn may be consumed by top carnivores
101
Take-home message
bull Detritivores and decomposers extract energy from
organic waste and the remains of organisms that have
died
bull At each step in a food chain some usable energy is lost
as heat
102
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy pyramids reveal the inefficiency of
food chains
103
Biomass
bull biomass total weight of all living organisms in a given
area
bull only about 10 of the plants in an ecosystem is
converted into biomass
bull Food Energy Pyramid
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
bull African savannas and grasslands sustain more species
of higher-order carnivores than any other terrestrial
ecosystem
104
105
Food Energy Pyramids
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
106
107
108
You go out to eat at a fancy restaurant You
have a salad salmon and for dessert ice
cream Which part of the meal was the most
energy efficient food for you to eat
1 Salad
2 Salmon
3 Ice cream
4 2 and 3
109
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps known as trophic levels
bull Energy pyramids reveal that the biomass of primary
producers in an ecosystem tends to be far greater than
the biomass of herbivores
bull The biomass transferred at each step along the food chain tends to be only about 10 of the biomass of the organisms being consumed due to energy lost in cellular respiration
bull As a consequence of this inefficiency food chains rarely exceed four levels
110
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Essential chemicals cycle through
ecosystems
111
Chemical Reservoirs
bull Each chemical is stored in a non-living part of the environment
bull Organisms acquire the chemical from the reservoir a non-living part of the environment
bull The chemical cycles through the food chain (biogeochemical cycles)
bull Eventually the chemical is returned to the reservoir
112
Hydrologic Cycle and the Florida Springs
bull Click here for a description of how falling rain feeds underground aquifers in Florida and forms springs
113
The Most Important Chemical Cycles
1) Carbon
2) Nitrogen
3) Phosphorus
4) Sulfur
114
115
The
Carbon
Cycle
116
The Carbon Cycle
Keeping Up With Carbon
NASA video provides key information on the carbon cycle
117
118
Carbon Cycle Game
Fossil Fuels
bull created when large numbers of organisms die and are buried in sediment lacking oxygen
bull In absence of oxygen at high pressures and after very long periods of time organic remains are ultimately transformed into coal oil and natural gas
bull burning coal oil and natural gas releases large amounts of carbon dioxide
bull increases average CO2 concentration in the atmosphere
bull current level of CO2 in the atmosphere is the highest it has been in almost half a million years
119
Global CO2 levels are rising in
general but they also exhibit a
sharp rise and fall within each
year ndash why
120
121
The Nitrogen Cycle
122
The Nitrogen Cycle
Fertilizers
bull Because it is necessary for the production of every plant
protein and because all nitrogen must first be made
usable by bacteria plant growth is often limited by
nitrogen levels in the soil
bull For this reason most fertilizers contain nitrogen in a
form usable by plants
123
124
125
126
127
Oxygen reduction downstream of a source of
organic pollution
128
Algal growth and eutrophication in an Australian
outback waterway
129
Sulfur Cycle
bull component of protein
bull cycles in both a gas and sedimentary cycle
bull source earths crust
bull enters the atmosphere as hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
during fossil fuel combustion volcanic eruptions
gas exchange at ocean surfaces decomposition
130
Sulfur Cycle
bull H2S is immediately oxidized to sulfur dioxide (SO2)
bull SO2 + water vapor H2SO4 (falls to earth in rain)
bull sulfur in soluble form is taken up by plant roots
incorporated into amino acids such as cysteine
bull travels through food chain
bull eventually released through decomposition
131
How is carbon recycled back to the
atmosphere in the carbon cycle
1 It is ldquofixedrdquo by bacteria
2 It is a product of cellular respiration
3 Burning of fossil fuels
4 2 and 3
5 All of the above
132
Why do commercial fertilizers usually
contain usable forms of nitrogen and
phosphorous
1 These chemicals are not efficiently recycled in
the soil
2 Nitrogen and phosphorous need to be ldquofixedrdquo
by bacteria or the plant
3 Nitrogen and phosphorous are found at high
levels in the atmosphere but not in the soil
4 Nitrogen and phosphorous only enter the soil
through erosion
133
Take-home message
bull Chemicals essential to lifemdashincluding carbon nitrogen and phosphorusmdashcycle through ecosystems
bull They are usually captured from the atmosphere soil or water by growing organisms passed from one trophic level to the next as organisms eat other organisms and returned to the environment through respiration decomposition and erosion
bull These cycles can be disrupted as human activities significantly increase the amounts of the chemicals utilized or released to the environment
134
Symbiotic Relationships
bull Symbiosis close relationship between organisms of
two different species
bull At least one participant gains some sort of benefit
(usually nutritional)
bull Types of symbiosis
bull Parasitism
bull Commensalism
bull Mutualism
bull Predation
135
Symbiotic Relationships in the
Ocean
bull Click here for an explanation of the
relationships of marine animals
including sharks rays and various
fishes
136
Parasitism bull Parasite derives nutrition from the host
bull This harms the host but a true parasite does
not usually kill its host (directly)
137
Ectoparasites
Remain outside the host
Ticks fleas leeches
138
Endoparasites
Live inside the hostrsquos body
Tapeworms malarial parasites
139
Parasite Transmission
bull Many parasites live on or in a single organism
bull Some will alternate between 2 or more host species
bull Vertical transmission ndash from mother offspring
bull Horizontal transmission ndash between members of a
population
bull Direct contact (head lice)
bull Vectors (mosquitos)
140
141
Commensalism
bull Neither species is totally dependent on the other
bull One benefits ndash no effect on the other
bull Feeding or protection
bull Porcelain anemone crabs and anemones
142
Mutualism
bull Both species benefit
bull Food or shelter
bull Examples
bull Plants and microbes (rhizobium in root nodules)
bull Plants and fungi (orchids and mycorrhizae)
bull Protists and fungi (lichen)
bull Plants and insects (pollination)
bull Animals and bacteria (ruminants)
bull Animals and other animals (crocodiles and
plover birds)
143
Mutualism shrimp and moray
Cleaner shrimp cleaning a zebra moray eel Mutualistic
relationships such as these promote the well-being of the
host fishes and provide food for those that do the cleaning 144
Rhizobium
Rhizobium in root nodules of certain plants convert
nitrogen in soil to usable form
145
Orchid Mycorrhizae
Fungi aid the plant in the uptake of nutrients
Fungi ingest some of the food from plant
photosynthesis 146
Lichen
Most of the lichen is composed of fungal filaments
but living among the filaments are algal cells
usually from a green alga or a cyanobacterium
The lichen fungus provides its partner(s) a benefit
(protection) and gains nutrients in return 147
Ruminants
Ruminants are characterized by their four-chambered
stomach and cud-chewing behavior Cud is a food bolus
that is regurgitated rechewed and reswallowed The
rumen is a large fermentation vat containing billions of
microorganisms including bacteria and protozoa which
allow ruminants to digest fibrous feeds such as grass and
hay that other animals cannot efficiently utilize 148
Crocodiles amp
Plover Birds
The bird gets into the crocodiles mouth and picks out
the tiny bits of food stuck in his teeth then eats it (the
tiny bits)
This cleans the crocodiles teeth and keeps his mouth
fresh and free from infections 149
Predation
bull Consumption of one living organism by
another
bull Predators must have offensive strategies
bull ways of finding catching and eating
their prey
bull Prey organisms must have defensive
strategies
bull ways of avoiding or discouraging this
activity
150
Predation
bull Encompasses all levels within an
ecological food chainweb
bull plant-herbivore systems
bull herbivore-carnivore systems
bull three-way interactions of
interdependent plant-herbivore-
carnivore systems
151
This goshawk is the tertiary consumer in his ecosystem
and the mouse in his beak is the secondary consumer
Beneath the mouse on the ecological pyramid lies his
foodsource likely a worm which fed on the primary
producer leafy plants 152
Ecosystem of Life in Floridas
Springs
bull Click here for a close-up look of life
in Floridas springs and the various
predator-prey interactions there
153
Grasslands (Prairie)
25
Grasslands (Prairie)
bull temperatures range from -40deg F 70deg F
bull growing season and a dormant season
bull growing season is when there is no frost and plants
can grow (which lasts from 100 to 175 days)
bull tropical and subtropical grasslands the length of
the growing season is determined by how long the
rainy season lasts
bull temperate grasslands the length of the growing
season is determined by temperature (ge 50deg F)
bull dormant (not growing) season nothing can grow
because its too cold
26
Grasslands (Prairie)
bull average rainfall per year ranges from 10 - 30 inches
bull tropical and sub-tropical grasslands average rainfall
per year ranges from 25 - 60 inches
bull amount of rainfall is very important in determining which
areas are grasslands
bull hard for trees to compete with grasses in places
where the uppers layers of soil are moist during part
of the year but where deeper layer of soil are always
dry
27
Grasslands (Prairie)
28
Grasslandsndash Indicator Plant Species Old Field Habitat Ohio
Grassland North Dakota
Ironweed
(Vernonia sp) with
Hedge Bindweed
Vine (Calystegia sepium) 29
Grasslandsndash Indicator Plant Species
Ironweed (Vernonia sp)
Joe Pye Weed
Eupatorium purpureum
30
Grasslands ndash Indicator Plant Species
Common Teasel
Dipsacus fullonum Queen Annes Lace (Daucus carota)
31
Grasslands ndash Indicator Animal Species
Bison (Bison bison) on the range
Theodore Roosevelt National Park North
Dakota
32
Grasslands ndash Indicator Animal Species
Przewalskis horse (Equus caballus
przewalskii) The Wilds Ohio
33
Grasslands ndash Indicator Animal Species
34
Taiga
bull Russian word for forest
bull largest biome in the world
bull Eurasia North America
bull located just below the tundra biome
bull many coniferous trees
bull aka boreal forest Boreal was the Greek goddess of the
North Wind
35
Taiga
bull winter temperature range is -54 to -1deg C (-65 to 30deg F)
bull summer -7deg C (20deg F) to 21deg C (70deg F)
bull summers are very short (50 - 100 frost free days)
bull average yearly precipitation 30 - 85 cm (12 - 33 in)
bull main seasons are winter and summer
bull spring and autumn are very short
bull weather is either hot and humid or very cold
36
Taiga
37
Taiga ndash Indicator Plant Species
Balsam Fir
Abies balsamea
Black Spruce
Picea mariana
38
Taiga ndash Indicator Plant Species
Jack Pine
Pinus banksiana
Paper Birch
Betula papyrifera
White Poplar
Populus alba
39
Taiga ndash Indicator Animal Species
American Black Bear
Ursus americanus
Bald Eagle
Haliaeetus leucocephalus 40
Taiga ndash Indicator Animal Species
Long-eared Owl
Aiso otus
Snowshoe Rabbit
Lepus americanus
41
Desert
bull cover about one fifth of Earths land surface
bull hot and dry near Tropic of CancerTropic of
Capricorn
bull cold near the Arctic
bull temperature
bull hot amp dry ~ 25deg C to ~ 49deg C
bull cold -2 to 4deg C (winter) 21 to 26deg C (summer)
bull precipitation
bull hot amp dry very little rainfall andor concentrated
rainfall in short periods between long rainless periods
(lt 15 cmyear)
bull cold 15 - 26 cmyear 42
Desert
43
Desert ndash Indicator Plant Species
44
Desert ndash Indicator Plant Species
Saguaro Cactus
Carnegiea gigantea
Fishhook Cactus
Mammillaria microcarpa
45
Desert ndash Indicator Plant Species
Trichomes
46
Desert ndash Indicator Animal Species
Zebratail Lizard - Callisaurus draconides
47
Desert ndash Indicator Animal Species
Rock hyrax (Procavia capensis) 48
Desert ndash Indicator Animal Species
Bactrian Camel Camelus bactrianus
49
Temperate Deciduous Forest
bull temperature 0 - 20 C
bull precipitation ~ 50 ndash 200 cmyear
50
Temperate Deciduous Forest
51
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Plant Species
Oaks (Quercus sp)
Dutchmans-Breeches
Dicentra cucullaria 52
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Plant Species
Sassafras
Sassafras albidum
Redbud
Cercis canadensis
53
Temperate Deciduous Forest ndash Succession
bull orderly succession of communities to a climax
community (biome)
bull two main types of succession
bull primary succession begins with bare rock exposed
by geologic activity
bull secondary succession begins on soil from which
previous community has been removed (by fire
agriculture etc)
bull secondary succession can proceed much faster
because the soil has been prepared by the
previous community
54
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
American Toad
Bufo americanus
Box Turtle
55
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
Eastern Chipmunk
Tamias striatus
Eastern Gray Squirrel
Sciurus carolinensis
56
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
Yellow-breasted chat
Icteria virens 57
Tundra
bull annual average temperature lt 5 C
bull precipitation (mostly in the form of snow) lt 100 mmyear
bull summer is brief
bull temperatures above freezing last only a few weeks at
most
bull warm summer coincides with periods of almost 24
hour daylight so plant growth can be explosive
58
Tundra
Anaktuvuk Pass Alaska
59
Tundra ndash Indicator Plant Species
Arctic Tundra Wildflowers - Alaska
60
Tundra ndash Indicator Plant Species
Lichen
Polytrichum Moss
(photographed in Ohio not on the
Tundra)
61
Tundra ndash Indicator Animal Species
Reindeer
Rangifer tarandus
62
Tundra ndash Indicator Animal Species
Caribou On Autumn Tundra Denali National Park Alaska
63
Savanna
bull rolling grassland scattered with shrubs and isolated trees
bull found between a tropical rainforest and desert biome
bull not enough rain falls on a savanna to support forests
bull found in a wide band on either side of the equator on
the edges of tropical rainforests
bull warm temperature year round
bull very long dry season (winter) ~ 10 cm rain none at all
from Dec - Feb
bull very wet season (summer) ~ 35-65 cm rain
64
Savanna
65
Savanna ndash Indicator Plant Species
Baobab
Adansonia digitata Umbrella Thorn Acacia
Acacia tortillis
66
Savanna ndash Indicator Animal Species
Savanna Elephant
Loxodonta africana
Black Mamba
Dendroaspis polylepis
Lion
Panthera leo
67
Chaparral
bull winter mild and moist but not rainy
bull summer very hot and dry
bull annual temperature range between -1deg and 38deg C
bull annual precipitation ~ 25-45 cm mostly in the winter
68
Chaparral
69
Chaparral ndash Indicator Plant Species
Blue Oak
Quercus douglasii
Common Sagebrush
Artemisia tridentata
Olive Tree
Olea europaea
70
Chaparral ndash Indicator Animal Species
Black-tailed Jackrabbit
Lepus californicus Golden Jackal
Canis aureus
Spotted Skunk
Spilogale gracilis
71
The Freshwater Biome
bull low salt concentration mdash usually less than 1
bull plants and animals in freshwater regions are adjusted to
the low salt content and would not be able to survive in
areas of high salt concentration (ie ocean)
bull 3 different types of freshwater regions
bull ponds and lakes
bull streams and rivers
bull wetlands
72
The Freshwater Biome ndash Ponds and Lakes
From left a view across Manzanita Lake toward Mt Lassen California a
forest pond near Donnelly Idaho a Great Blue Heron Paranagat Lake
southeastern Nevada
73
The Freshwater Biome ndash Streams and
Rivers
From left McArthur-Burney Falls State Park California trout Green
River Utah Brooks River Alaska
74
The Freshwater Biome - Wetlands
From left Pescadero Marsh California coastal marsh at Umpqua
Dunes Oregon trees and bogs on Esther Island Alaska
75
The Marine Biome
bull cover about three-fourths of the Earths surface
bull marine algae supply much of the worlds oxygen supply
and take in a huge amount of atmospheric carbon
dioxide
bull evaporation of the seawater provides rainwater for the
land
bull 3 different types of marine regions
bull oceans
bull coral reefs
bull estuaries
76
The Marine Biome - Oceans
From left mussels worms and a spider crab at a hydrocarbon seep
community in the Gulf of Mexico a sea fan and brain coral in the Florida
Keys National Marine Sanctuary a school of Atlantic amberjack off North
Carolina
77
The Marine Biome ndash Coral Reefs
From left reef life in the Gulf of Aqaba Red Sea a reef at Fanning
Island atoll in the central Pacific a reef in the Florida Keys National
Marine Sanctuary
78
The Marine Biome - Estuaries
From left Mangrove roots south Florida wetlands and tidal streams
in the Ashe Island area ACE Basin National Estuarine Research
Reserve South Carolina a salt marsh in Winyah Bay National
Estuarine Research Reserve South Carolina
79
Ecological Notes
These are the biomes in order of their productivity (highest
first)
1 estuaries and tropical rain forest (highest)
2 temperate forest
3 agricultural land
4 temperate grassland
5 lakes and streams
6 coastal zone
7 tundra
8 open ocean
9 desert (lowest)
80
Ecological Notes
In order to be productive and have a lot of living material
standing around (biomass) an ecosystem has to have 4
basic necessities for plant life to thrive (if there are
enough plants the ecosystem will also support a lot of
animals) The four things are
1 Sunlight
2 Nutrients
3 Warm temperatures
4 Water
81
Biomes Video
82
Take-Home Message
bull Biomes are the major ecological communities of earth
characterized mostly by the vegetation present
bull Different biomes result from differences in temperature
and precipitation and the extent to which they vary from
season to season
83
Challenge Question
bull Terrestrial biomes are determined by the temperature
and precipitation amounts as well as whether those
factors are constant or vary by season
bull By contrast how are aquatic biomes determined
84
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy flows from producers to
consumers
85
86
87
First Stop Primary Producers
bull ecosystem producers or consumers
bull primary producers plants algae (some) bacteria
bull convert light energy from sun into chemical energy
through photosynthesis
bull chemical energy = food
bull consumers eat or absorb their food
bull energy stored in chemical bonds of carbohydrate
protein and lipid molecules is captured and
harnessed for consumersrsquo own movement
reproduction and growth
88
Food Chain
89
Food Web
90
Food Web
91
Food Chains amp Food Webs
bull A change in one link in a food chain will affect the other
links
bull The table on the next slide gives one example of a food
chain and the trophic levels represented in it
92
Food Chains amp Food Webs
93
GRASS
GRASSHOPPER
TOAD
SNAKE
HAWK
BACTERIA
IN GENERAL
AUTOTROPHS
(PRODUCERS)
HERBIVORES
(PRIMARY
CONSUMERS)
CARNIVORES
(2 3 ETC)
DECOMPOSERS
94
Chain Reaction Game
95
Energy Flows through a Food Web
bull Losses at every ldquosteprdquo in a food chain
bull Inefficiency of energy transfers
96
Energy flow through a food chain
Energy flow refers to the way that energy is transformed through
a food chain (pictured here) containing a series of levels
including plants consumers predators and decomposers 97
Amount of energy available at each of the
four levels of an ecosystem
Ecological pyramids illustrate the amount of energy
available at each of the four levels of an ecosystem 98
Ecological Pyramid
99
A grasshopper eats a plant A mouse eats the
grasshopper A snake eats the mouse A hawk
could eat the snake or the mouse In this food
web how would we categorize the hawk
1 Producer
2 Primary consumer
3 Secondary consumer
4 Tertiary consumer
5 Quaternary consumer
6 4 and 5
100
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps
bull First it is converted to chemical energy in
photosynthesis
bull Herbivores then consume the primary producers the
herbivores are consumed by carnivores and the
carnivores in turn may be consumed by top carnivores
101
Take-home message
bull Detritivores and decomposers extract energy from
organic waste and the remains of organisms that have
died
bull At each step in a food chain some usable energy is lost
as heat
102
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy pyramids reveal the inefficiency of
food chains
103
Biomass
bull biomass total weight of all living organisms in a given
area
bull only about 10 of the plants in an ecosystem is
converted into biomass
bull Food Energy Pyramid
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
bull African savannas and grasslands sustain more species
of higher-order carnivores than any other terrestrial
ecosystem
104
105
Food Energy Pyramids
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
106
107
108
You go out to eat at a fancy restaurant You
have a salad salmon and for dessert ice
cream Which part of the meal was the most
energy efficient food for you to eat
1 Salad
2 Salmon
3 Ice cream
4 2 and 3
109
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps known as trophic levels
bull Energy pyramids reveal that the biomass of primary
producers in an ecosystem tends to be far greater than
the biomass of herbivores
bull The biomass transferred at each step along the food chain tends to be only about 10 of the biomass of the organisms being consumed due to energy lost in cellular respiration
bull As a consequence of this inefficiency food chains rarely exceed four levels
110
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Essential chemicals cycle through
ecosystems
111
Chemical Reservoirs
bull Each chemical is stored in a non-living part of the environment
bull Organisms acquire the chemical from the reservoir a non-living part of the environment
bull The chemical cycles through the food chain (biogeochemical cycles)
bull Eventually the chemical is returned to the reservoir
112
Hydrologic Cycle and the Florida Springs
bull Click here for a description of how falling rain feeds underground aquifers in Florida and forms springs
113
The Most Important Chemical Cycles
1) Carbon
2) Nitrogen
3) Phosphorus
4) Sulfur
114
115
The
Carbon
Cycle
116
The Carbon Cycle
Keeping Up With Carbon
NASA video provides key information on the carbon cycle
117
118
Carbon Cycle Game
Fossil Fuels
bull created when large numbers of organisms die and are buried in sediment lacking oxygen
bull In absence of oxygen at high pressures and after very long periods of time organic remains are ultimately transformed into coal oil and natural gas
bull burning coal oil and natural gas releases large amounts of carbon dioxide
bull increases average CO2 concentration in the atmosphere
bull current level of CO2 in the atmosphere is the highest it has been in almost half a million years
119
Global CO2 levels are rising in
general but they also exhibit a
sharp rise and fall within each
year ndash why
120
121
The Nitrogen Cycle
122
The Nitrogen Cycle
Fertilizers
bull Because it is necessary for the production of every plant
protein and because all nitrogen must first be made
usable by bacteria plant growth is often limited by
nitrogen levels in the soil
bull For this reason most fertilizers contain nitrogen in a
form usable by plants
123
124
125
126
127
Oxygen reduction downstream of a source of
organic pollution
128
Algal growth and eutrophication in an Australian
outback waterway
129
Sulfur Cycle
bull component of protein
bull cycles in both a gas and sedimentary cycle
bull source earths crust
bull enters the atmosphere as hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
during fossil fuel combustion volcanic eruptions
gas exchange at ocean surfaces decomposition
130
Sulfur Cycle
bull H2S is immediately oxidized to sulfur dioxide (SO2)
bull SO2 + water vapor H2SO4 (falls to earth in rain)
bull sulfur in soluble form is taken up by plant roots
incorporated into amino acids such as cysteine
bull travels through food chain
bull eventually released through decomposition
131
How is carbon recycled back to the
atmosphere in the carbon cycle
1 It is ldquofixedrdquo by bacteria
2 It is a product of cellular respiration
3 Burning of fossil fuels
4 2 and 3
5 All of the above
132
Why do commercial fertilizers usually
contain usable forms of nitrogen and
phosphorous
1 These chemicals are not efficiently recycled in
the soil
2 Nitrogen and phosphorous need to be ldquofixedrdquo
by bacteria or the plant
3 Nitrogen and phosphorous are found at high
levels in the atmosphere but not in the soil
4 Nitrogen and phosphorous only enter the soil
through erosion
133
Take-home message
bull Chemicals essential to lifemdashincluding carbon nitrogen and phosphorusmdashcycle through ecosystems
bull They are usually captured from the atmosphere soil or water by growing organisms passed from one trophic level to the next as organisms eat other organisms and returned to the environment through respiration decomposition and erosion
bull These cycles can be disrupted as human activities significantly increase the amounts of the chemicals utilized or released to the environment
134
Symbiotic Relationships
bull Symbiosis close relationship between organisms of
two different species
bull At least one participant gains some sort of benefit
(usually nutritional)
bull Types of symbiosis
bull Parasitism
bull Commensalism
bull Mutualism
bull Predation
135
Symbiotic Relationships in the
Ocean
bull Click here for an explanation of the
relationships of marine animals
including sharks rays and various
fishes
136
Parasitism bull Parasite derives nutrition from the host
bull This harms the host but a true parasite does
not usually kill its host (directly)
137
Ectoparasites
Remain outside the host
Ticks fleas leeches
138
Endoparasites
Live inside the hostrsquos body
Tapeworms malarial parasites
139
Parasite Transmission
bull Many parasites live on or in a single organism
bull Some will alternate between 2 or more host species
bull Vertical transmission ndash from mother offspring
bull Horizontal transmission ndash between members of a
population
bull Direct contact (head lice)
bull Vectors (mosquitos)
140
141
Commensalism
bull Neither species is totally dependent on the other
bull One benefits ndash no effect on the other
bull Feeding or protection
bull Porcelain anemone crabs and anemones
142
Mutualism
bull Both species benefit
bull Food or shelter
bull Examples
bull Plants and microbes (rhizobium in root nodules)
bull Plants and fungi (orchids and mycorrhizae)
bull Protists and fungi (lichen)
bull Plants and insects (pollination)
bull Animals and bacteria (ruminants)
bull Animals and other animals (crocodiles and
plover birds)
143
Mutualism shrimp and moray
Cleaner shrimp cleaning a zebra moray eel Mutualistic
relationships such as these promote the well-being of the
host fishes and provide food for those that do the cleaning 144
Rhizobium
Rhizobium in root nodules of certain plants convert
nitrogen in soil to usable form
145
Orchid Mycorrhizae
Fungi aid the plant in the uptake of nutrients
Fungi ingest some of the food from plant
photosynthesis 146
Lichen
Most of the lichen is composed of fungal filaments
but living among the filaments are algal cells
usually from a green alga or a cyanobacterium
The lichen fungus provides its partner(s) a benefit
(protection) and gains nutrients in return 147
Ruminants
Ruminants are characterized by their four-chambered
stomach and cud-chewing behavior Cud is a food bolus
that is regurgitated rechewed and reswallowed The
rumen is a large fermentation vat containing billions of
microorganisms including bacteria and protozoa which
allow ruminants to digest fibrous feeds such as grass and
hay that other animals cannot efficiently utilize 148
Crocodiles amp
Plover Birds
The bird gets into the crocodiles mouth and picks out
the tiny bits of food stuck in his teeth then eats it (the
tiny bits)
This cleans the crocodiles teeth and keeps his mouth
fresh and free from infections 149
Predation
bull Consumption of one living organism by
another
bull Predators must have offensive strategies
bull ways of finding catching and eating
their prey
bull Prey organisms must have defensive
strategies
bull ways of avoiding or discouraging this
activity
150
Predation
bull Encompasses all levels within an
ecological food chainweb
bull plant-herbivore systems
bull herbivore-carnivore systems
bull three-way interactions of
interdependent plant-herbivore-
carnivore systems
151
This goshawk is the tertiary consumer in his ecosystem
and the mouse in his beak is the secondary consumer
Beneath the mouse on the ecological pyramid lies his
foodsource likely a worm which fed on the primary
producer leafy plants 152
Ecosystem of Life in Floridas
Springs
bull Click here for a close-up look of life
in Floridas springs and the various
predator-prey interactions there
153
Grasslands (Prairie)
bull temperatures range from -40deg F 70deg F
bull growing season and a dormant season
bull growing season is when there is no frost and plants
can grow (which lasts from 100 to 175 days)
bull tropical and subtropical grasslands the length of
the growing season is determined by how long the
rainy season lasts
bull temperate grasslands the length of the growing
season is determined by temperature (ge 50deg F)
bull dormant (not growing) season nothing can grow
because its too cold
26
Grasslands (Prairie)
bull average rainfall per year ranges from 10 - 30 inches
bull tropical and sub-tropical grasslands average rainfall
per year ranges from 25 - 60 inches
bull amount of rainfall is very important in determining which
areas are grasslands
bull hard for trees to compete with grasses in places
where the uppers layers of soil are moist during part
of the year but where deeper layer of soil are always
dry
27
Grasslands (Prairie)
28
Grasslandsndash Indicator Plant Species Old Field Habitat Ohio
Grassland North Dakota
Ironweed
(Vernonia sp) with
Hedge Bindweed
Vine (Calystegia sepium) 29
Grasslandsndash Indicator Plant Species
Ironweed (Vernonia sp)
Joe Pye Weed
Eupatorium purpureum
30
Grasslands ndash Indicator Plant Species
Common Teasel
Dipsacus fullonum Queen Annes Lace (Daucus carota)
31
Grasslands ndash Indicator Animal Species
Bison (Bison bison) on the range
Theodore Roosevelt National Park North
Dakota
32
Grasslands ndash Indicator Animal Species
Przewalskis horse (Equus caballus
przewalskii) The Wilds Ohio
33
Grasslands ndash Indicator Animal Species
34
Taiga
bull Russian word for forest
bull largest biome in the world
bull Eurasia North America
bull located just below the tundra biome
bull many coniferous trees
bull aka boreal forest Boreal was the Greek goddess of the
North Wind
35
Taiga
bull winter temperature range is -54 to -1deg C (-65 to 30deg F)
bull summer -7deg C (20deg F) to 21deg C (70deg F)
bull summers are very short (50 - 100 frost free days)
bull average yearly precipitation 30 - 85 cm (12 - 33 in)
bull main seasons are winter and summer
bull spring and autumn are very short
bull weather is either hot and humid or very cold
36
Taiga
37
Taiga ndash Indicator Plant Species
Balsam Fir
Abies balsamea
Black Spruce
Picea mariana
38
Taiga ndash Indicator Plant Species
Jack Pine
Pinus banksiana
Paper Birch
Betula papyrifera
White Poplar
Populus alba
39
Taiga ndash Indicator Animal Species
American Black Bear
Ursus americanus
Bald Eagle
Haliaeetus leucocephalus 40
Taiga ndash Indicator Animal Species
Long-eared Owl
Aiso otus
Snowshoe Rabbit
Lepus americanus
41
Desert
bull cover about one fifth of Earths land surface
bull hot and dry near Tropic of CancerTropic of
Capricorn
bull cold near the Arctic
bull temperature
bull hot amp dry ~ 25deg C to ~ 49deg C
bull cold -2 to 4deg C (winter) 21 to 26deg C (summer)
bull precipitation
bull hot amp dry very little rainfall andor concentrated
rainfall in short periods between long rainless periods
(lt 15 cmyear)
bull cold 15 - 26 cmyear 42
Desert
43
Desert ndash Indicator Plant Species
44
Desert ndash Indicator Plant Species
Saguaro Cactus
Carnegiea gigantea
Fishhook Cactus
Mammillaria microcarpa
45
Desert ndash Indicator Plant Species
Trichomes
46
Desert ndash Indicator Animal Species
Zebratail Lizard - Callisaurus draconides
47
Desert ndash Indicator Animal Species
Rock hyrax (Procavia capensis) 48
Desert ndash Indicator Animal Species
Bactrian Camel Camelus bactrianus
49
Temperate Deciduous Forest
bull temperature 0 - 20 C
bull precipitation ~ 50 ndash 200 cmyear
50
Temperate Deciduous Forest
51
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Plant Species
Oaks (Quercus sp)
Dutchmans-Breeches
Dicentra cucullaria 52
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Plant Species
Sassafras
Sassafras albidum
Redbud
Cercis canadensis
53
Temperate Deciduous Forest ndash Succession
bull orderly succession of communities to a climax
community (biome)
bull two main types of succession
bull primary succession begins with bare rock exposed
by geologic activity
bull secondary succession begins on soil from which
previous community has been removed (by fire
agriculture etc)
bull secondary succession can proceed much faster
because the soil has been prepared by the
previous community
54
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
American Toad
Bufo americanus
Box Turtle
55
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
Eastern Chipmunk
Tamias striatus
Eastern Gray Squirrel
Sciurus carolinensis
56
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
Yellow-breasted chat
Icteria virens 57
Tundra
bull annual average temperature lt 5 C
bull precipitation (mostly in the form of snow) lt 100 mmyear
bull summer is brief
bull temperatures above freezing last only a few weeks at
most
bull warm summer coincides with periods of almost 24
hour daylight so plant growth can be explosive
58
Tundra
Anaktuvuk Pass Alaska
59
Tundra ndash Indicator Plant Species
Arctic Tundra Wildflowers - Alaska
60
Tundra ndash Indicator Plant Species
Lichen
Polytrichum Moss
(photographed in Ohio not on the
Tundra)
61
Tundra ndash Indicator Animal Species
Reindeer
Rangifer tarandus
62
Tundra ndash Indicator Animal Species
Caribou On Autumn Tundra Denali National Park Alaska
63
Savanna
bull rolling grassland scattered with shrubs and isolated trees
bull found between a tropical rainforest and desert biome
bull not enough rain falls on a savanna to support forests
bull found in a wide band on either side of the equator on
the edges of tropical rainforests
bull warm temperature year round
bull very long dry season (winter) ~ 10 cm rain none at all
from Dec - Feb
bull very wet season (summer) ~ 35-65 cm rain
64
Savanna
65
Savanna ndash Indicator Plant Species
Baobab
Adansonia digitata Umbrella Thorn Acacia
Acacia tortillis
66
Savanna ndash Indicator Animal Species
Savanna Elephant
Loxodonta africana
Black Mamba
Dendroaspis polylepis
Lion
Panthera leo
67
Chaparral
bull winter mild and moist but not rainy
bull summer very hot and dry
bull annual temperature range between -1deg and 38deg C
bull annual precipitation ~ 25-45 cm mostly in the winter
68
Chaparral
69
Chaparral ndash Indicator Plant Species
Blue Oak
Quercus douglasii
Common Sagebrush
Artemisia tridentata
Olive Tree
Olea europaea
70
Chaparral ndash Indicator Animal Species
Black-tailed Jackrabbit
Lepus californicus Golden Jackal
Canis aureus
Spotted Skunk
Spilogale gracilis
71
The Freshwater Biome
bull low salt concentration mdash usually less than 1
bull plants and animals in freshwater regions are adjusted to
the low salt content and would not be able to survive in
areas of high salt concentration (ie ocean)
bull 3 different types of freshwater regions
bull ponds and lakes
bull streams and rivers
bull wetlands
72
The Freshwater Biome ndash Ponds and Lakes
From left a view across Manzanita Lake toward Mt Lassen California a
forest pond near Donnelly Idaho a Great Blue Heron Paranagat Lake
southeastern Nevada
73
The Freshwater Biome ndash Streams and
Rivers
From left McArthur-Burney Falls State Park California trout Green
River Utah Brooks River Alaska
74
The Freshwater Biome - Wetlands
From left Pescadero Marsh California coastal marsh at Umpqua
Dunes Oregon trees and bogs on Esther Island Alaska
75
The Marine Biome
bull cover about three-fourths of the Earths surface
bull marine algae supply much of the worlds oxygen supply
and take in a huge amount of atmospheric carbon
dioxide
bull evaporation of the seawater provides rainwater for the
land
bull 3 different types of marine regions
bull oceans
bull coral reefs
bull estuaries
76
The Marine Biome - Oceans
From left mussels worms and a spider crab at a hydrocarbon seep
community in the Gulf of Mexico a sea fan and brain coral in the Florida
Keys National Marine Sanctuary a school of Atlantic amberjack off North
Carolina
77
The Marine Biome ndash Coral Reefs
From left reef life in the Gulf of Aqaba Red Sea a reef at Fanning
Island atoll in the central Pacific a reef in the Florida Keys National
Marine Sanctuary
78
The Marine Biome - Estuaries
From left Mangrove roots south Florida wetlands and tidal streams
in the Ashe Island area ACE Basin National Estuarine Research
Reserve South Carolina a salt marsh in Winyah Bay National
Estuarine Research Reserve South Carolina
79
Ecological Notes
These are the biomes in order of their productivity (highest
first)
1 estuaries and tropical rain forest (highest)
2 temperate forest
3 agricultural land
4 temperate grassland
5 lakes and streams
6 coastal zone
7 tundra
8 open ocean
9 desert (lowest)
80
Ecological Notes
In order to be productive and have a lot of living material
standing around (biomass) an ecosystem has to have 4
basic necessities for plant life to thrive (if there are
enough plants the ecosystem will also support a lot of
animals) The four things are
1 Sunlight
2 Nutrients
3 Warm temperatures
4 Water
81
Biomes Video
82
Take-Home Message
bull Biomes are the major ecological communities of earth
characterized mostly by the vegetation present
bull Different biomes result from differences in temperature
and precipitation and the extent to which they vary from
season to season
83
Challenge Question
bull Terrestrial biomes are determined by the temperature
and precipitation amounts as well as whether those
factors are constant or vary by season
bull By contrast how are aquatic biomes determined
84
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy flows from producers to
consumers
85
86
87
First Stop Primary Producers
bull ecosystem producers or consumers
bull primary producers plants algae (some) bacteria
bull convert light energy from sun into chemical energy
through photosynthesis
bull chemical energy = food
bull consumers eat or absorb their food
bull energy stored in chemical bonds of carbohydrate
protein and lipid molecules is captured and
harnessed for consumersrsquo own movement
reproduction and growth
88
Food Chain
89
Food Web
90
Food Web
91
Food Chains amp Food Webs
bull A change in one link in a food chain will affect the other
links
bull The table on the next slide gives one example of a food
chain and the trophic levels represented in it
92
Food Chains amp Food Webs
93
GRASS
GRASSHOPPER
TOAD
SNAKE
HAWK
BACTERIA
IN GENERAL
AUTOTROPHS
(PRODUCERS)
HERBIVORES
(PRIMARY
CONSUMERS)
CARNIVORES
(2 3 ETC)
DECOMPOSERS
94
Chain Reaction Game
95
Energy Flows through a Food Web
bull Losses at every ldquosteprdquo in a food chain
bull Inefficiency of energy transfers
96
Energy flow through a food chain
Energy flow refers to the way that energy is transformed through
a food chain (pictured here) containing a series of levels
including plants consumers predators and decomposers 97
Amount of energy available at each of the
four levels of an ecosystem
Ecological pyramids illustrate the amount of energy
available at each of the four levels of an ecosystem 98
Ecological Pyramid
99
A grasshopper eats a plant A mouse eats the
grasshopper A snake eats the mouse A hawk
could eat the snake or the mouse In this food
web how would we categorize the hawk
1 Producer
2 Primary consumer
3 Secondary consumer
4 Tertiary consumer
5 Quaternary consumer
6 4 and 5
100
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps
bull First it is converted to chemical energy in
photosynthesis
bull Herbivores then consume the primary producers the
herbivores are consumed by carnivores and the
carnivores in turn may be consumed by top carnivores
101
Take-home message
bull Detritivores and decomposers extract energy from
organic waste and the remains of organisms that have
died
bull At each step in a food chain some usable energy is lost
as heat
102
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy pyramids reveal the inefficiency of
food chains
103
Biomass
bull biomass total weight of all living organisms in a given
area
bull only about 10 of the plants in an ecosystem is
converted into biomass
bull Food Energy Pyramid
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
bull African savannas and grasslands sustain more species
of higher-order carnivores than any other terrestrial
ecosystem
104
105
Food Energy Pyramids
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
106
107
108
You go out to eat at a fancy restaurant You
have a salad salmon and for dessert ice
cream Which part of the meal was the most
energy efficient food for you to eat
1 Salad
2 Salmon
3 Ice cream
4 2 and 3
109
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps known as trophic levels
bull Energy pyramids reveal that the biomass of primary
producers in an ecosystem tends to be far greater than
the biomass of herbivores
bull The biomass transferred at each step along the food chain tends to be only about 10 of the biomass of the organisms being consumed due to energy lost in cellular respiration
bull As a consequence of this inefficiency food chains rarely exceed four levels
110
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Essential chemicals cycle through
ecosystems
111
Chemical Reservoirs
bull Each chemical is stored in a non-living part of the environment
bull Organisms acquire the chemical from the reservoir a non-living part of the environment
bull The chemical cycles through the food chain (biogeochemical cycles)
bull Eventually the chemical is returned to the reservoir
112
Hydrologic Cycle and the Florida Springs
bull Click here for a description of how falling rain feeds underground aquifers in Florida and forms springs
113
The Most Important Chemical Cycles
1) Carbon
2) Nitrogen
3) Phosphorus
4) Sulfur
114
115
The
Carbon
Cycle
116
The Carbon Cycle
Keeping Up With Carbon
NASA video provides key information on the carbon cycle
117
118
Carbon Cycle Game
Fossil Fuels
bull created when large numbers of organisms die and are buried in sediment lacking oxygen
bull In absence of oxygen at high pressures and after very long periods of time organic remains are ultimately transformed into coal oil and natural gas
bull burning coal oil and natural gas releases large amounts of carbon dioxide
bull increases average CO2 concentration in the atmosphere
bull current level of CO2 in the atmosphere is the highest it has been in almost half a million years
119
Global CO2 levels are rising in
general but they also exhibit a
sharp rise and fall within each
year ndash why
120
121
The Nitrogen Cycle
122
The Nitrogen Cycle
Fertilizers
bull Because it is necessary for the production of every plant
protein and because all nitrogen must first be made
usable by bacteria plant growth is often limited by
nitrogen levels in the soil
bull For this reason most fertilizers contain nitrogen in a
form usable by plants
123
124
125
126
127
Oxygen reduction downstream of a source of
organic pollution
128
Algal growth and eutrophication in an Australian
outback waterway
129
Sulfur Cycle
bull component of protein
bull cycles in both a gas and sedimentary cycle
bull source earths crust
bull enters the atmosphere as hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
during fossil fuel combustion volcanic eruptions
gas exchange at ocean surfaces decomposition
130
Sulfur Cycle
bull H2S is immediately oxidized to sulfur dioxide (SO2)
bull SO2 + water vapor H2SO4 (falls to earth in rain)
bull sulfur in soluble form is taken up by plant roots
incorporated into amino acids such as cysteine
bull travels through food chain
bull eventually released through decomposition
131
How is carbon recycled back to the
atmosphere in the carbon cycle
1 It is ldquofixedrdquo by bacteria
2 It is a product of cellular respiration
3 Burning of fossil fuels
4 2 and 3
5 All of the above
132
Why do commercial fertilizers usually
contain usable forms of nitrogen and
phosphorous
1 These chemicals are not efficiently recycled in
the soil
2 Nitrogen and phosphorous need to be ldquofixedrdquo
by bacteria or the plant
3 Nitrogen and phosphorous are found at high
levels in the atmosphere but not in the soil
4 Nitrogen and phosphorous only enter the soil
through erosion
133
Take-home message
bull Chemicals essential to lifemdashincluding carbon nitrogen and phosphorusmdashcycle through ecosystems
bull They are usually captured from the atmosphere soil or water by growing organisms passed from one trophic level to the next as organisms eat other organisms and returned to the environment through respiration decomposition and erosion
bull These cycles can be disrupted as human activities significantly increase the amounts of the chemicals utilized or released to the environment
134
Symbiotic Relationships
bull Symbiosis close relationship between organisms of
two different species
bull At least one participant gains some sort of benefit
(usually nutritional)
bull Types of symbiosis
bull Parasitism
bull Commensalism
bull Mutualism
bull Predation
135
Symbiotic Relationships in the
Ocean
bull Click here for an explanation of the
relationships of marine animals
including sharks rays and various
fishes
136
Parasitism bull Parasite derives nutrition from the host
bull This harms the host but a true parasite does
not usually kill its host (directly)
137
Ectoparasites
Remain outside the host
Ticks fleas leeches
138
Endoparasites
Live inside the hostrsquos body
Tapeworms malarial parasites
139
Parasite Transmission
bull Many parasites live on or in a single organism
bull Some will alternate between 2 or more host species
bull Vertical transmission ndash from mother offspring
bull Horizontal transmission ndash between members of a
population
bull Direct contact (head lice)
bull Vectors (mosquitos)
140
141
Commensalism
bull Neither species is totally dependent on the other
bull One benefits ndash no effect on the other
bull Feeding or protection
bull Porcelain anemone crabs and anemones
142
Mutualism
bull Both species benefit
bull Food or shelter
bull Examples
bull Plants and microbes (rhizobium in root nodules)
bull Plants and fungi (orchids and mycorrhizae)
bull Protists and fungi (lichen)
bull Plants and insects (pollination)
bull Animals and bacteria (ruminants)
bull Animals and other animals (crocodiles and
plover birds)
143
Mutualism shrimp and moray
Cleaner shrimp cleaning a zebra moray eel Mutualistic
relationships such as these promote the well-being of the
host fishes and provide food for those that do the cleaning 144
Rhizobium
Rhizobium in root nodules of certain plants convert
nitrogen in soil to usable form
145
Orchid Mycorrhizae
Fungi aid the plant in the uptake of nutrients
Fungi ingest some of the food from plant
photosynthesis 146
Lichen
Most of the lichen is composed of fungal filaments
but living among the filaments are algal cells
usually from a green alga or a cyanobacterium
The lichen fungus provides its partner(s) a benefit
(protection) and gains nutrients in return 147
Ruminants
Ruminants are characterized by their four-chambered
stomach and cud-chewing behavior Cud is a food bolus
that is regurgitated rechewed and reswallowed The
rumen is a large fermentation vat containing billions of
microorganisms including bacteria and protozoa which
allow ruminants to digest fibrous feeds such as grass and
hay that other animals cannot efficiently utilize 148
Crocodiles amp
Plover Birds
The bird gets into the crocodiles mouth and picks out
the tiny bits of food stuck in his teeth then eats it (the
tiny bits)
This cleans the crocodiles teeth and keeps his mouth
fresh and free from infections 149
Predation
bull Consumption of one living organism by
another
bull Predators must have offensive strategies
bull ways of finding catching and eating
their prey
bull Prey organisms must have defensive
strategies
bull ways of avoiding or discouraging this
activity
150
Predation
bull Encompasses all levels within an
ecological food chainweb
bull plant-herbivore systems
bull herbivore-carnivore systems
bull three-way interactions of
interdependent plant-herbivore-
carnivore systems
151
This goshawk is the tertiary consumer in his ecosystem
and the mouse in his beak is the secondary consumer
Beneath the mouse on the ecological pyramid lies his
foodsource likely a worm which fed on the primary
producer leafy plants 152
Ecosystem of Life in Floridas
Springs
bull Click here for a close-up look of life
in Floridas springs and the various
predator-prey interactions there
153
Grasslands (Prairie)
bull average rainfall per year ranges from 10 - 30 inches
bull tropical and sub-tropical grasslands average rainfall
per year ranges from 25 - 60 inches
bull amount of rainfall is very important in determining which
areas are grasslands
bull hard for trees to compete with grasses in places
where the uppers layers of soil are moist during part
of the year but where deeper layer of soil are always
dry
27
Grasslands (Prairie)
28
Grasslandsndash Indicator Plant Species Old Field Habitat Ohio
Grassland North Dakota
Ironweed
(Vernonia sp) with
Hedge Bindweed
Vine (Calystegia sepium) 29
Grasslandsndash Indicator Plant Species
Ironweed (Vernonia sp)
Joe Pye Weed
Eupatorium purpureum
30
Grasslands ndash Indicator Plant Species
Common Teasel
Dipsacus fullonum Queen Annes Lace (Daucus carota)
31
Grasslands ndash Indicator Animal Species
Bison (Bison bison) on the range
Theodore Roosevelt National Park North
Dakota
32
Grasslands ndash Indicator Animal Species
Przewalskis horse (Equus caballus
przewalskii) The Wilds Ohio
33
Grasslands ndash Indicator Animal Species
34
Taiga
bull Russian word for forest
bull largest biome in the world
bull Eurasia North America
bull located just below the tundra biome
bull many coniferous trees
bull aka boreal forest Boreal was the Greek goddess of the
North Wind
35
Taiga
bull winter temperature range is -54 to -1deg C (-65 to 30deg F)
bull summer -7deg C (20deg F) to 21deg C (70deg F)
bull summers are very short (50 - 100 frost free days)
bull average yearly precipitation 30 - 85 cm (12 - 33 in)
bull main seasons are winter and summer
bull spring and autumn are very short
bull weather is either hot and humid or very cold
36
Taiga
37
Taiga ndash Indicator Plant Species
Balsam Fir
Abies balsamea
Black Spruce
Picea mariana
38
Taiga ndash Indicator Plant Species
Jack Pine
Pinus banksiana
Paper Birch
Betula papyrifera
White Poplar
Populus alba
39
Taiga ndash Indicator Animal Species
American Black Bear
Ursus americanus
Bald Eagle
Haliaeetus leucocephalus 40
Taiga ndash Indicator Animal Species
Long-eared Owl
Aiso otus
Snowshoe Rabbit
Lepus americanus
41
Desert
bull cover about one fifth of Earths land surface
bull hot and dry near Tropic of CancerTropic of
Capricorn
bull cold near the Arctic
bull temperature
bull hot amp dry ~ 25deg C to ~ 49deg C
bull cold -2 to 4deg C (winter) 21 to 26deg C (summer)
bull precipitation
bull hot amp dry very little rainfall andor concentrated
rainfall in short periods between long rainless periods
(lt 15 cmyear)
bull cold 15 - 26 cmyear 42
Desert
43
Desert ndash Indicator Plant Species
44
Desert ndash Indicator Plant Species
Saguaro Cactus
Carnegiea gigantea
Fishhook Cactus
Mammillaria microcarpa
45
Desert ndash Indicator Plant Species
Trichomes
46
Desert ndash Indicator Animal Species
Zebratail Lizard - Callisaurus draconides
47
Desert ndash Indicator Animal Species
Rock hyrax (Procavia capensis) 48
Desert ndash Indicator Animal Species
Bactrian Camel Camelus bactrianus
49
Temperate Deciduous Forest
bull temperature 0 - 20 C
bull precipitation ~ 50 ndash 200 cmyear
50
Temperate Deciduous Forest
51
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Plant Species
Oaks (Quercus sp)
Dutchmans-Breeches
Dicentra cucullaria 52
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Plant Species
Sassafras
Sassafras albidum
Redbud
Cercis canadensis
53
Temperate Deciduous Forest ndash Succession
bull orderly succession of communities to a climax
community (biome)
bull two main types of succession
bull primary succession begins with bare rock exposed
by geologic activity
bull secondary succession begins on soil from which
previous community has been removed (by fire
agriculture etc)
bull secondary succession can proceed much faster
because the soil has been prepared by the
previous community
54
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
American Toad
Bufo americanus
Box Turtle
55
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
Eastern Chipmunk
Tamias striatus
Eastern Gray Squirrel
Sciurus carolinensis
56
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
Yellow-breasted chat
Icteria virens 57
Tundra
bull annual average temperature lt 5 C
bull precipitation (mostly in the form of snow) lt 100 mmyear
bull summer is brief
bull temperatures above freezing last only a few weeks at
most
bull warm summer coincides with periods of almost 24
hour daylight so plant growth can be explosive
58
Tundra
Anaktuvuk Pass Alaska
59
Tundra ndash Indicator Plant Species
Arctic Tundra Wildflowers - Alaska
60
Tundra ndash Indicator Plant Species
Lichen
Polytrichum Moss
(photographed in Ohio not on the
Tundra)
61
Tundra ndash Indicator Animal Species
Reindeer
Rangifer tarandus
62
Tundra ndash Indicator Animal Species
Caribou On Autumn Tundra Denali National Park Alaska
63
Savanna
bull rolling grassland scattered with shrubs and isolated trees
bull found between a tropical rainforest and desert biome
bull not enough rain falls on a savanna to support forests
bull found in a wide band on either side of the equator on
the edges of tropical rainforests
bull warm temperature year round
bull very long dry season (winter) ~ 10 cm rain none at all
from Dec - Feb
bull very wet season (summer) ~ 35-65 cm rain
64
Savanna
65
Savanna ndash Indicator Plant Species
Baobab
Adansonia digitata Umbrella Thorn Acacia
Acacia tortillis
66
Savanna ndash Indicator Animal Species
Savanna Elephant
Loxodonta africana
Black Mamba
Dendroaspis polylepis
Lion
Panthera leo
67
Chaparral
bull winter mild and moist but not rainy
bull summer very hot and dry
bull annual temperature range between -1deg and 38deg C
bull annual precipitation ~ 25-45 cm mostly in the winter
68
Chaparral
69
Chaparral ndash Indicator Plant Species
Blue Oak
Quercus douglasii
Common Sagebrush
Artemisia tridentata
Olive Tree
Olea europaea
70
Chaparral ndash Indicator Animal Species
Black-tailed Jackrabbit
Lepus californicus Golden Jackal
Canis aureus
Spotted Skunk
Spilogale gracilis
71
The Freshwater Biome
bull low salt concentration mdash usually less than 1
bull plants and animals in freshwater regions are adjusted to
the low salt content and would not be able to survive in
areas of high salt concentration (ie ocean)
bull 3 different types of freshwater regions
bull ponds and lakes
bull streams and rivers
bull wetlands
72
The Freshwater Biome ndash Ponds and Lakes
From left a view across Manzanita Lake toward Mt Lassen California a
forest pond near Donnelly Idaho a Great Blue Heron Paranagat Lake
southeastern Nevada
73
The Freshwater Biome ndash Streams and
Rivers
From left McArthur-Burney Falls State Park California trout Green
River Utah Brooks River Alaska
74
The Freshwater Biome - Wetlands
From left Pescadero Marsh California coastal marsh at Umpqua
Dunes Oregon trees and bogs on Esther Island Alaska
75
The Marine Biome
bull cover about three-fourths of the Earths surface
bull marine algae supply much of the worlds oxygen supply
and take in a huge amount of atmospheric carbon
dioxide
bull evaporation of the seawater provides rainwater for the
land
bull 3 different types of marine regions
bull oceans
bull coral reefs
bull estuaries
76
The Marine Biome - Oceans
From left mussels worms and a spider crab at a hydrocarbon seep
community in the Gulf of Mexico a sea fan and brain coral in the Florida
Keys National Marine Sanctuary a school of Atlantic amberjack off North
Carolina
77
The Marine Biome ndash Coral Reefs
From left reef life in the Gulf of Aqaba Red Sea a reef at Fanning
Island atoll in the central Pacific a reef in the Florida Keys National
Marine Sanctuary
78
The Marine Biome - Estuaries
From left Mangrove roots south Florida wetlands and tidal streams
in the Ashe Island area ACE Basin National Estuarine Research
Reserve South Carolina a salt marsh in Winyah Bay National
Estuarine Research Reserve South Carolina
79
Ecological Notes
These are the biomes in order of their productivity (highest
first)
1 estuaries and tropical rain forest (highest)
2 temperate forest
3 agricultural land
4 temperate grassland
5 lakes and streams
6 coastal zone
7 tundra
8 open ocean
9 desert (lowest)
80
Ecological Notes
In order to be productive and have a lot of living material
standing around (biomass) an ecosystem has to have 4
basic necessities for plant life to thrive (if there are
enough plants the ecosystem will also support a lot of
animals) The four things are
1 Sunlight
2 Nutrients
3 Warm temperatures
4 Water
81
Biomes Video
82
Take-Home Message
bull Biomes are the major ecological communities of earth
characterized mostly by the vegetation present
bull Different biomes result from differences in temperature
and precipitation and the extent to which they vary from
season to season
83
Challenge Question
bull Terrestrial biomes are determined by the temperature
and precipitation amounts as well as whether those
factors are constant or vary by season
bull By contrast how are aquatic biomes determined
84
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy flows from producers to
consumers
85
86
87
First Stop Primary Producers
bull ecosystem producers or consumers
bull primary producers plants algae (some) bacteria
bull convert light energy from sun into chemical energy
through photosynthesis
bull chemical energy = food
bull consumers eat or absorb their food
bull energy stored in chemical bonds of carbohydrate
protein and lipid molecules is captured and
harnessed for consumersrsquo own movement
reproduction and growth
88
Food Chain
89
Food Web
90
Food Web
91
Food Chains amp Food Webs
bull A change in one link in a food chain will affect the other
links
bull The table on the next slide gives one example of a food
chain and the trophic levels represented in it
92
Food Chains amp Food Webs
93
GRASS
GRASSHOPPER
TOAD
SNAKE
HAWK
BACTERIA
IN GENERAL
AUTOTROPHS
(PRODUCERS)
HERBIVORES
(PRIMARY
CONSUMERS)
CARNIVORES
(2 3 ETC)
DECOMPOSERS
94
Chain Reaction Game
95
Energy Flows through a Food Web
bull Losses at every ldquosteprdquo in a food chain
bull Inefficiency of energy transfers
96
Energy flow through a food chain
Energy flow refers to the way that energy is transformed through
a food chain (pictured here) containing a series of levels
including plants consumers predators and decomposers 97
Amount of energy available at each of the
four levels of an ecosystem
Ecological pyramids illustrate the amount of energy
available at each of the four levels of an ecosystem 98
Ecological Pyramid
99
A grasshopper eats a plant A mouse eats the
grasshopper A snake eats the mouse A hawk
could eat the snake or the mouse In this food
web how would we categorize the hawk
1 Producer
2 Primary consumer
3 Secondary consumer
4 Tertiary consumer
5 Quaternary consumer
6 4 and 5
100
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps
bull First it is converted to chemical energy in
photosynthesis
bull Herbivores then consume the primary producers the
herbivores are consumed by carnivores and the
carnivores in turn may be consumed by top carnivores
101
Take-home message
bull Detritivores and decomposers extract energy from
organic waste and the remains of organisms that have
died
bull At each step in a food chain some usable energy is lost
as heat
102
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy pyramids reveal the inefficiency of
food chains
103
Biomass
bull biomass total weight of all living organisms in a given
area
bull only about 10 of the plants in an ecosystem is
converted into biomass
bull Food Energy Pyramid
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
bull African savannas and grasslands sustain more species
of higher-order carnivores than any other terrestrial
ecosystem
104
105
Food Energy Pyramids
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
106
107
108
You go out to eat at a fancy restaurant You
have a salad salmon and for dessert ice
cream Which part of the meal was the most
energy efficient food for you to eat
1 Salad
2 Salmon
3 Ice cream
4 2 and 3
109
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps known as trophic levels
bull Energy pyramids reveal that the biomass of primary
producers in an ecosystem tends to be far greater than
the biomass of herbivores
bull The biomass transferred at each step along the food chain tends to be only about 10 of the biomass of the organisms being consumed due to energy lost in cellular respiration
bull As a consequence of this inefficiency food chains rarely exceed four levels
110
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Essential chemicals cycle through
ecosystems
111
Chemical Reservoirs
bull Each chemical is stored in a non-living part of the environment
bull Organisms acquire the chemical from the reservoir a non-living part of the environment
bull The chemical cycles through the food chain (biogeochemical cycles)
bull Eventually the chemical is returned to the reservoir
112
Hydrologic Cycle and the Florida Springs
bull Click here for a description of how falling rain feeds underground aquifers in Florida and forms springs
113
The Most Important Chemical Cycles
1) Carbon
2) Nitrogen
3) Phosphorus
4) Sulfur
114
115
The
Carbon
Cycle
116
The Carbon Cycle
Keeping Up With Carbon
NASA video provides key information on the carbon cycle
117
118
Carbon Cycle Game
Fossil Fuels
bull created when large numbers of organisms die and are buried in sediment lacking oxygen
bull In absence of oxygen at high pressures and after very long periods of time organic remains are ultimately transformed into coal oil and natural gas
bull burning coal oil and natural gas releases large amounts of carbon dioxide
bull increases average CO2 concentration in the atmosphere
bull current level of CO2 in the atmosphere is the highest it has been in almost half a million years
119
Global CO2 levels are rising in
general but they also exhibit a
sharp rise and fall within each
year ndash why
120
121
The Nitrogen Cycle
122
The Nitrogen Cycle
Fertilizers
bull Because it is necessary for the production of every plant
protein and because all nitrogen must first be made
usable by bacteria plant growth is often limited by
nitrogen levels in the soil
bull For this reason most fertilizers contain nitrogen in a
form usable by plants
123
124
125
126
127
Oxygen reduction downstream of a source of
organic pollution
128
Algal growth and eutrophication in an Australian
outback waterway
129
Sulfur Cycle
bull component of protein
bull cycles in both a gas and sedimentary cycle
bull source earths crust
bull enters the atmosphere as hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
during fossil fuel combustion volcanic eruptions
gas exchange at ocean surfaces decomposition
130
Sulfur Cycle
bull H2S is immediately oxidized to sulfur dioxide (SO2)
bull SO2 + water vapor H2SO4 (falls to earth in rain)
bull sulfur in soluble form is taken up by plant roots
incorporated into amino acids such as cysteine
bull travels through food chain
bull eventually released through decomposition
131
How is carbon recycled back to the
atmosphere in the carbon cycle
1 It is ldquofixedrdquo by bacteria
2 It is a product of cellular respiration
3 Burning of fossil fuels
4 2 and 3
5 All of the above
132
Why do commercial fertilizers usually
contain usable forms of nitrogen and
phosphorous
1 These chemicals are not efficiently recycled in
the soil
2 Nitrogen and phosphorous need to be ldquofixedrdquo
by bacteria or the plant
3 Nitrogen and phosphorous are found at high
levels in the atmosphere but not in the soil
4 Nitrogen and phosphorous only enter the soil
through erosion
133
Take-home message
bull Chemicals essential to lifemdashincluding carbon nitrogen and phosphorusmdashcycle through ecosystems
bull They are usually captured from the atmosphere soil or water by growing organisms passed from one trophic level to the next as organisms eat other organisms and returned to the environment through respiration decomposition and erosion
bull These cycles can be disrupted as human activities significantly increase the amounts of the chemicals utilized or released to the environment
134
Symbiotic Relationships
bull Symbiosis close relationship between organisms of
two different species
bull At least one participant gains some sort of benefit
(usually nutritional)
bull Types of symbiosis
bull Parasitism
bull Commensalism
bull Mutualism
bull Predation
135
Symbiotic Relationships in the
Ocean
bull Click here for an explanation of the
relationships of marine animals
including sharks rays and various
fishes
136
Parasitism bull Parasite derives nutrition from the host
bull This harms the host but a true parasite does
not usually kill its host (directly)
137
Ectoparasites
Remain outside the host
Ticks fleas leeches
138
Endoparasites
Live inside the hostrsquos body
Tapeworms malarial parasites
139
Parasite Transmission
bull Many parasites live on or in a single organism
bull Some will alternate between 2 or more host species
bull Vertical transmission ndash from mother offspring
bull Horizontal transmission ndash between members of a
population
bull Direct contact (head lice)
bull Vectors (mosquitos)
140
141
Commensalism
bull Neither species is totally dependent on the other
bull One benefits ndash no effect on the other
bull Feeding or protection
bull Porcelain anemone crabs and anemones
142
Mutualism
bull Both species benefit
bull Food or shelter
bull Examples
bull Plants and microbes (rhizobium in root nodules)
bull Plants and fungi (orchids and mycorrhizae)
bull Protists and fungi (lichen)
bull Plants and insects (pollination)
bull Animals and bacteria (ruminants)
bull Animals and other animals (crocodiles and
plover birds)
143
Mutualism shrimp and moray
Cleaner shrimp cleaning a zebra moray eel Mutualistic
relationships such as these promote the well-being of the
host fishes and provide food for those that do the cleaning 144
Rhizobium
Rhizobium in root nodules of certain plants convert
nitrogen in soil to usable form
145
Orchid Mycorrhizae
Fungi aid the plant in the uptake of nutrients
Fungi ingest some of the food from plant
photosynthesis 146
Lichen
Most of the lichen is composed of fungal filaments
but living among the filaments are algal cells
usually from a green alga or a cyanobacterium
The lichen fungus provides its partner(s) a benefit
(protection) and gains nutrients in return 147
Ruminants
Ruminants are characterized by their four-chambered
stomach and cud-chewing behavior Cud is a food bolus
that is regurgitated rechewed and reswallowed The
rumen is a large fermentation vat containing billions of
microorganisms including bacteria and protozoa which
allow ruminants to digest fibrous feeds such as grass and
hay that other animals cannot efficiently utilize 148
Crocodiles amp
Plover Birds
The bird gets into the crocodiles mouth and picks out
the tiny bits of food stuck in his teeth then eats it (the
tiny bits)
This cleans the crocodiles teeth and keeps his mouth
fresh and free from infections 149
Predation
bull Consumption of one living organism by
another
bull Predators must have offensive strategies
bull ways of finding catching and eating
their prey
bull Prey organisms must have defensive
strategies
bull ways of avoiding or discouraging this
activity
150
Predation
bull Encompasses all levels within an
ecological food chainweb
bull plant-herbivore systems
bull herbivore-carnivore systems
bull three-way interactions of
interdependent plant-herbivore-
carnivore systems
151
This goshawk is the tertiary consumer in his ecosystem
and the mouse in his beak is the secondary consumer
Beneath the mouse on the ecological pyramid lies his
foodsource likely a worm which fed on the primary
producer leafy plants 152
Ecosystem of Life in Floridas
Springs
bull Click here for a close-up look of life
in Floridas springs and the various
predator-prey interactions there
153
Grasslands (Prairie)
28
Grasslandsndash Indicator Plant Species Old Field Habitat Ohio
Grassland North Dakota
Ironweed
(Vernonia sp) with
Hedge Bindweed
Vine (Calystegia sepium) 29
Grasslandsndash Indicator Plant Species
Ironweed (Vernonia sp)
Joe Pye Weed
Eupatorium purpureum
30
Grasslands ndash Indicator Plant Species
Common Teasel
Dipsacus fullonum Queen Annes Lace (Daucus carota)
31
Grasslands ndash Indicator Animal Species
Bison (Bison bison) on the range
Theodore Roosevelt National Park North
Dakota
32
Grasslands ndash Indicator Animal Species
Przewalskis horse (Equus caballus
przewalskii) The Wilds Ohio
33
Grasslands ndash Indicator Animal Species
34
Taiga
bull Russian word for forest
bull largest biome in the world
bull Eurasia North America
bull located just below the tundra biome
bull many coniferous trees
bull aka boreal forest Boreal was the Greek goddess of the
North Wind
35
Taiga
bull winter temperature range is -54 to -1deg C (-65 to 30deg F)
bull summer -7deg C (20deg F) to 21deg C (70deg F)
bull summers are very short (50 - 100 frost free days)
bull average yearly precipitation 30 - 85 cm (12 - 33 in)
bull main seasons are winter and summer
bull spring and autumn are very short
bull weather is either hot and humid or very cold
36
Taiga
37
Taiga ndash Indicator Plant Species
Balsam Fir
Abies balsamea
Black Spruce
Picea mariana
38
Taiga ndash Indicator Plant Species
Jack Pine
Pinus banksiana
Paper Birch
Betula papyrifera
White Poplar
Populus alba
39
Taiga ndash Indicator Animal Species
American Black Bear
Ursus americanus
Bald Eagle
Haliaeetus leucocephalus 40
Taiga ndash Indicator Animal Species
Long-eared Owl
Aiso otus
Snowshoe Rabbit
Lepus americanus
41
Desert
bull cover about one fifth of Earths land surface
bull hot and dry near Tropic of CancerTropic of
Capricorn
bull cold near the Arctic
bull temperature
bull hot amp dry ~ 25deg C to ~ 49deg C
bull cold -2 to 4deg C (winter) 21 to 26deg C (summer)
bull precipitation
bull hot amp dry very little rainfall andor concentrated
rainfall in short periods between long rainless periods
(lt 15 cmyear)
bull cold 15 - 26 cmyear 42
Desert
43
Desert ndash Indicator Plant Species
44
Desert ndash Indicator Plant Species
Saguaro Cactus
Carnegiea gigantea
Fishhook Cactus
Mammillaria microcarpa
45
Desert ndash Indicator Plant Species
Trichomes
46
Desert ndash Indicator Animal Species
Zebratail Lizard - Callisaurus draconides
47
Desert ndash Indicator Animal Species
Rock hyrax (Procavia capensis) 48
Desert ndash Indicator Animal Species
Bactrian Camel Camelus bactrianus
49
Temperate Deciduous Forest
bull temperature 0 - 20 C
bull precipitation ~ 50 ndash 200 cmyear
50
Temperate Deciduous Forest
51
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Plant Species
Oaks (Quercus sp)
Dutchmans-Breeches
Dicentra cucullaria 52
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Plant Species
Sassafras
Sassafras albidum
Redbud
Cercis canadensis
53
Temperate Deciduous Forest ndash Succession
bull orderly succession of communities to a climax
community (biome)
bull two main types of succession
bull primary succession begins with bare rock exposed
by geologic activity
bull secondary succession begins on soil from which
previous community has been removed (by fire
agriculture etc)
bull secondary succession can proceed much faster
because the soil has been prepared by the
previous community
54
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
American Toad
Bufo americanus
Box Turtle
55
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
Eastern Chipmunk
Tamias striatus
Eastern Gray Squirrel
Sciurus carolinensis
56
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
Yellow-breasted chat
Icteria virens 57
Tundra
bull annual average temperature lt 5 C
bull precipitation (mostly in the form of snow) lt 100 mmyear
bull summer is brief
bull temperatures above freezing last only a few weeks at
most
bull warm summer coincides with periods of almost 24
hour daylight so plant growth can be explosive
58
Tundra
Anaktuvuk Pass Alaska
59
Tundra ndash Indicator Plant Species
Arctic Tundra Wildflowers - Alaska
60
Tundra ndash Indicator Plant Species
Lichen
Polytrichum Moss
(photographed in Ohio not on the
Tundra)
61
Tundra ndash Indicator Animal Species
Reindeer
Rangifer tarandus
62
Tundra ndash Indicator Animal Species
Caribou On Autumn Tundra Denali National Park Alaska
63
Savanna
bull rolling grassland scattered with shrubs and isolated trees
bull found between a tropical rainforest and desert biome
bull not enough rain falls on a savanna to support forests
bull found in a wide band on either side of the equator on
the edges of tropical rainforests
bull warm temperature year round
bull very long dry season (winter) ~ 10 cm rain none at all
from Dec - Feb
bull very wet season (summer) ~ 35-65 cm rain
64
Savanna
65
Savanna ndash Indicator Plant Species
Baobab
Adansonia digitata Umbrella Thorn Acacia
Acacia tortillis
66
Savanna ndash Indicator Animal Species
Savanna Elephant
Loxodonta africana
Black Mamba
Dendroaspis polylepis
Lion
Panthera leo
67
Chaparral
bull winter mild and moist but not rainy
bull summer very hot and dry
bull annual temperature range between -1deg and 38deg C
bull annual precipitation ~ 25-45 cm mostly in the winter
68
Chaparral
69
Chaparral ndash Indicator Plant Species
Blue Oak
Quercus douglasii
Common Sagebrush
Artemisia tridentata
Olive Tree
Olea europaea
70
Chaparral ndash Indicator Animal Species
Black-tailed Jackrabbit
Lepus californicus Golden Jackal
Canis aureus
Spotted Skunk
Spilogale gracilis
71
The Freshwater Biome
bull low salt concentration mdash usually less than 1
bull plants and animals in freshwater regions are adjusted to
the low salt content and would not be able to survive in
areas of high salt concentration (ie ocean)
bull 3 different types of freshwater regions
bull ponds and lakes
bull streams and rivers
bull wetlands
72
The Freshwater Biome ndash Ponds and Lakes
From left a view across Manzanita Lake toward Mt Lassen California a
forest pond near Donnelly Idaho a Great Blue Heron Paranagat Lake
southeastern Nevada
73
The Freshwater Biome ndash Streams and
Rivers
From left McArthur-Burney Falls State Park California trout Green
River Utah Brooks River Alaska
74
The Freshwater Biome - Wetlands
From left Pescadero Marsh California coastal marsh at Umpqua
Dunes Oregon trees and bogs on Esther Island Alaska
75
The Marine Biome
bull cover about three-fourths of the Earths surface
bull marine algae supply much of the worlds oxygen supply
and take in a huge amount of atmospheric carbon
dioxide
bull evaporation of the seawater provides rainwater for the
land
bull 3 different types of marine regions
bull oceans
bull coral reefs
bull estuaries
76
The Marine Biome - Oceans
From left mussels worms and a spider crab at a hydrocarbon seep
community in the Gulf of Mexico a sea fan and brain coral in the Florida
Keys National Marine Sanctuary a school of Atlantic amberjack off North
Carolina
77
The Marine Biome ndash Coral Reefs
From left reef life in the Gulf of Aqaba Red Sea a reef at Fanning
Island atoll in the central Pacific a reef in the Florida Keys National
Marine Sanctuary
78
The Marine Biome - Estuaries
From left Mangrove roots south Florida wetlands and tidal streams
in the Ashe Island area ACE Basin National Estuarine Research
Reserve South Carolina a salt marsh in Winyah Bay National
Estuarine Research Reserve South Carolina
79
Ecological Notes
These are the biomes in order of their productivity (highest
first)
1 estuaries and tropical rain forest (highest)
2 temperate forest
3 agricultural land
4 temperate grassland
5 lakes and streams
6 coastal zone
7 tundra
8 open ocean
9 desert (lowest)
80
Ecological Notes
In order to be productive and have a lot of living material
standing around (biomass) an ecosystem has to have 4
basic necessities for plant life to thrive (if there are
enough plants the ecosystem will also support a lot of
animals) The four things are
1 Sunlight
2 Nutrients
3 Warm temperatures
4 Water
81
Biomes Video
82
Take-Home Message
bull Biomes are the major ecological communities of earth
characterized mostly by the vegetation present
bull Different biomes result from differences in temperature
and precipitation and the extent to which they vary from
season to season
83
Challenge Question
bull Terrestrial biomes are determined by the temperature
and precipitation amounts as well as whether those
factors are constant or vary by season
bull By contrast how are aquatic biomes determined
84
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy flows from producers to
consumers
85
86
87
First Stop Primary Producers
bull ecosystem producers or consumers
bull primary producers plants algae (some) bacteria
bull convert light energy from sun into chemical energy
through photosynthesis
bull chemical energy = food
bull consumers eat or absorb their food
bull energy stored in chemical bonds of carbohydrate
protein and lipid molecules is captured and
harnessed for consumersrsquo own movement
reproduction and growth
88
Food Chain
89
Food Web
90
Food Web
91
Food Chains amp Food Webs
bull A change in one link in a food chain will affect the other
links
bull The table on the next slide gives one example of a food
chain and the trophic levels represented in it
92
Food Chains amp Food Webs
93
GRASS
GRASSHOPPER
TOAD
SNAKE
HAWK
BACTERIA
IN GENERAL
AUTOTROPHS
(PRODUCERS)
HERBIVORES
(PRIMARY
CONSUMERS)
CARNIVORES
(2 3 ETC)
DECOMPOSERS
94
Chain Reaction Game
95
Energy Flows through a Food Web
bull Losses at every ldquosteprdquo in a food chain
bull Inefficiency of energy transfers
96
Energy flow through a food chain
Energy flow refers to the way that energy is transformed through
a food chain (pictured here) containing a series of levels
including plants consumers predators and decomposers 97
Amount of energy available at each of the
four levels of an ecosystem
Ecological pyramids illustrate the amount of energy
available at each of the four levels of an ecosystem 98
Ecological Pyramid
99
A grasshopper eats a plant A mouse eats the
grasshopper A snake eats the mouse A hawk
could eat the snake or the mouse In this food
web how would we categorize the hawk
1 Producer
2 Primary consumer
3 Secondary consumer
4 Tertiary consumer
5 Quaternary consumer
6 4 and 5
100
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps
bull First it is converted to chemical energy in
photosynthesis
bull Herbivores then consume the primary producers the
herbivores are consumed by carnivores and the
carnivores in turn may be consumed by top carnivores
101
Take-home message
bull Detritivores and decomposers extract energy from
organic waste and the remains of organisms that have
died
bull At each step in a food chain some usable energy is lost
as heat
102
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy pyramids reveal the inefficiency of
food chains
103
Biomass
bull biomass total weight of all living organisms in a given
area
bull only about 10 of the plants in an ecosystem is
converted into biomass
bull Food Energy Pyramid
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
bull African savannas and grasslands sustain more species
of higher-order carnivores than any other terrestrial
ecosystem
104
105
Food Energy Pyramids
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
106
107
108
You go out to eat at a fancy restaurant You
have a salad salmon and for dessert ice
cream Which part of the meal was the most
energy efficient food for you to eat
1 Salad
2 Salmon
3 Ice cream
4 2 and 3
109
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps known as trophic levels
bull Energy pyramids reveal that the biomass of primary
producers in an ecosystem tends to be far greater than
the biomass of herbivores
bull The biomass transferred at each step along the food chain tends to be only about 10 of the biomass of the organisms being consumed due to energy lost in cellular respiration
bull As a consequence of this inefficiency food chains rarely exceed four levels
110
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Essential chemicals cycle through
ecosystems
111
Chemical Reservoirs
bull Each chemical is stored in a non-living part of the environment
bull Organisms acquire the chemical from the reservoir a non-living part of the environment
bull The chemical cycles through the food chain (biogeochemical cycles)
bull Eventually the chemical is returned to the reservoir
112
Hydrologic Cycle and the Florida Springs
bull Click here for a description of how falling rain feeds underground aquifers in Florida and forms springs
113
The Most Important Chemical Cycles
1) Carbon
2) Nitrogen
3) Phosphorus
4) Sulfur
114
115
The
Carbon
Cycle
116
The Carbon Cycle
Keeping Up With Carbon
NASA video provides key information on the carbon cycle
117
118
Carbon Cycle Game
Fossil Fuels
bull created when large numbers of organisms die and are buried in sediment lacking oxygen
bull In absence of oxygen at high pressures and after very long periods of time organic remains are ultimately transformed into coal oil and natural gas
bull burning coal oil and natural gas releases large amounts of carbon dioxide
bull increases average CO2 concentration in the atmosphere
bull current level of CO2 in the atmosphere is the highest it has been in almost half a million years
119
Global CO2 levels are rising in
general but they also exhibit a
sharp rise and fall within each
year ndash why
120
121
The Nitrogen Cycle
122
The Nitrogen Cycle
Fertilizers
bull Because it is necessary for the production of every plant
protein and because all nitrogen must first be made
usable by bacteria plant growth is often limited by
nitrogen levels in the soil
bull For this reason most fertilizers contain nitrogen in a
form usable by plants
123
124
125
126
127
Oxygen reduction downstream of a source of
organic pollution
128
Algal growth and eutrophication in an Australian
outback waterway
129
Sulfur Cycle
bull component of protein
bull cycles in both a gas and sedimentary cycle
bull source earths crust
bull enters the atmosphere as hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
during fossil fuel combustion volcanic eruptions
gas exchange at ocean surfaces decomposition
130
Sulfur Cycle
bull H2S is immediately oxidized to sulfur dioxide (SO2)
bull SO2 + water vapor H2SO4 (falls to earth in rain)
bull sulfur in soluble form is taken up by plant roots
incorporated into amino acids such as cysteine
bull travels through food chain
bull eventually released through decomposition
131
How is carbon recycled back to the
atmosphere in the carbon cycle
1 It is ldquofixedrdquo by bacteria
2 It is a product of cellular respiration
3 Burning of fossil fuels
4 2 and 3
5 All of the above
132
Why do commercial fertilizers usually
contain usable forms of nitrogen and
phosphorous
1 These chemicals are not efficiently recycled in
the soil
2 Nitrogen and phosphorous need to be ldquofixedrdquo
by bacteria or the plant
3 Nitrogen and phosphorous are found at high
levels in the atmosphere but not in the soil
4 Nitrogen and phosphorous only enter the soil
through erosion
133
Take-home message
bull Chemicals essential to lifemdashincluding carbon nitrogen and phosphorusmdashcycle through ecosystems
bull They are usually captured from the atmosphere soil or water by growing organisms passed from one trophic level to the next as organisms eat other organisms and returned to the environment through respiration decomposition and erosion
bull These cycles can be disrupted as human activities significantly increase the amounts of the chemicals utilized or released to the environment
134
Symbiotic Relationships
bull Symbiosis close relationship between organisms of
two different species
bull At least one participant gains some sort of benefit
(usually nutritional)
bull Types of symbiosis
bull Parasitism
bull Commensalism
bull Mutualism
bull Predation
135
Symbiotic Relationships in the
Ocean
bull Click here for an explanation of the
relationships of marine animals
including sharks rays and various
fishes
136
Parasitism bull Parasite derives nutrition from the host
bull This harms the host but a true parasite does
not usually kill its host (directly)
137
Ectoparasites
Remain outside the host
Ticks fleas leeches
138
Endoparasites
Live inside the hostrsquos body
Tapeworms malarial parasites
139
Parasite Transmission
bull Many parasites live on or in a single organism
bull Some will alternate between 2 or more host species
bull Vertical transmission ndash from mother offspring
bull Horizontal transmission ndash between members of a
population
bull Direct contact (head lice)
bull Vectors (mosquitos)
140
141
Commensalism
bull Neither species is totally dependent on the other
bull One benefits ndash no effect on the other
bull Feeding or protection
bull Porcelain anemone crabs and anemones
142
Mutualism
bull Both species benefit
bull Food or shelter
bull Examples
bull Plants and microbes (rhizobium in root nodules)
bull Plants and fungi (orchids and mycorrhizae)
bull Protists and fungi (lichen)
bull Plants and insects (pollination)
bull Animals and bacteria (ruminants)
bull Animals and other animals (crocodiles and
plover birds)
143
Mutualism shrimp and moray
Cleaner shrimp cleaning a zebra moray eel Mutualistic
relationships such as these promote the well-being of the
host fishes and provide food for those that do the cleaning 144
Rhizobium
Rhizobium in root nodules of certain plants convert
nitrogen in soil to usable form
145
Orchid Mycorrhizae
Fungi aid the plant in the uptake of nutrients
Fungi ingest some of the food from plant
photosynthesis 146
Lichen
Most of the lichen is composed of fungal filaments
but living among the filaments are algal cells
usually from a green alga or a cyanobacterium
The lichen fungus provides its partner(s) a benefit
(protection) and gains nutrients in return 147
Ruminants
Ruminants are characterized by their four-chambered
stomach and cud-chewing behavior Cud is a food bolus
that is regurgitated rechewed and reswallowed The
rumen is a large fermentation vat containing billions of
microorganisms including bacteria and protozoa which
allow ruminants to digest fibrous feeds such as grass and
hay that other animals cannot efficiently utilize 148
Crocodiles amp
Plover Birds
The bird gets into the crocodiles mouth and picks out
the tiny bits of food stuck in his teeth then eats it (the
tiny bits)
This cleans the crocodiles teeth and keeps his mouth
fresh and free from infections 149
Predation
bull Consumption of one living organism by
another
bull Predators must have offensive strategies
bull ways of finding catching and eating
their prey
bull Prey organisms must have defensive
strategies
bull ways of avoiding or discouraging this
activity
150
Predation
bull Encompasses all levels within an
ecological food chainweb
bull plant-herbivore systems
bull herbivore-carnivore systems
bull three-way interactions of
interdependent plant-herbivore-
carnivore systems
151
This goshawk is the tertiary consumer in his ecosystem
and the mouse in his beak is the secondary consumer
Beneath the mouse on the ecological pyramid lies his
foodsource likely a worm which fed on the primary
producer leafy plants 152
Ecosystem of Life in Floridas
Springs
bull Click here for a close-up look of life
in Floridas springs and the various
predator-prey interactions there
153
Grasslandsndash Indicator Plant Species Old Field Habitat Ohio
Grassland North Dakota
Ironweed
(Vernonia sp) with
Hedge Bindweed
Vine (Calystegia sepium) 29
Grasslandsndash Indicator Plant Species
Ironweed (Vernonia sp)
Joe Pye Weed
Eupatorium purpureum
30
Grasslands ndash Indicator Plant Species
Common Teasel
Dipsacus fullonum Queen Annes Lace (Daucus carota)
31
Grasslands ndash Indicator Animal Species
Bison (Bison bison) on the range
Theodore Roosevelt National Park North
Dakota
32
Grasslands ndash Indicator Animal Species
Przewalskis horse (Equus caballus
przewalskii) The Wilds Ohio
33
Grasslands ndash Indicator Animal Species
34
Taiga
bull Russian word for forest
bull largest biome in the world
bull Eurasia North America
bull located just below the tundra biome
bull many coniferous trees
bull aka boreal forest Boreal was the Greek goddess of the
North Wind
35
Taiga
bull winter temperature range is -54 to -1deg C (-65 to 30deg F)
bull summer -7deg C (20deg F) to 21deg C (70deg F)
bull summers are very short (50 - 100 frost free days)
bull average yearly precipitation 30 - 85 cm (12 - 33 in)
bull main seasons are winter and summer
bull spring and autumn are very short
bull weather is either hot and humid or very cold
36
Taiga
37
Taiga ndash Indicator Plant Species
Balsam Fir
Abies balsamea
Black Spruce
Picea mariana
38
Taiga ndash Indicator Plant Species
Jack Pine
Pinus banksiana
Paper Birch
Betula papyrifera
White Poplar
Populus alba
39
Taiga ndash Indicator Animal Species
American Black Bear
Ursus americanus
Bald Eagle
Haliaeetus leucocephalus 40
Taiga ndash Indicator Animal Species
Long-eared Owl
Aiso otus
Snowshoe Rabbit
Lepus americanus
41
Desert
bull cover about one fifth of Earths land surface
bull hot and dry near Tropic of CancerTropic of
Capricorn
bull cold near the Arctic
bull temperature
bull hot amp dry ~ 25deg C to ~ 49deg C
bull cold -2 to 4deg C (winter) 21 to 26deg C (summer)
bull precipitation
bull hot amp dry very little rainfall andor concentrated
rainfall in short periods between long rainless periods
(lt 15 cmyear)
bull cold 15 - 26 cmyear 42
Desert
43
Desert ndash Indicator Plant Species
44
Desert ndash Indicator Plant Species
Saguaro Cactus
Carnegiea gigantea
Fishhook Cactus
Mammillaria microcarpa
45
Desert ndash Indicator Plant Species
Trichomes
46
Desert ndash Indicator Animal Species
Zebratail Lizard - Callisaurus draconides
47
Desert ndash Indicator Animal Species
Rock hyrax (Procavia capensis) 48
Desert ndash Indicator Animal Species
Bactrian Camel Camelus bactrianus
49
Temperate Deciduous Forest
bull temperature 0 - 20 C
bull precipitation ~ 50 ndash 200 cmyear
50
Temperate Deciduous Forest
51
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Plant Species
Oaks (Quercus sp)
Dutchmans-Breeches
Dicentra cucullaria 52
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Plant Species
Sassafras
Sassafras albidum
Redbud
Cercis canadensis
53
Temperate Deciduous Forest ndash Succession
bull orderly succession of communities to a climax
community (biome)
bull two main types of succession
bull primary succession begins with bare rock exposed
by geologic activity
bull secondary succession begins on soil from which
previous community has been removed (by fire
agriculture etc)
bull secondary succession can proceed much faster
because the soil has been prepared by the
previous community
54
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
American Toad
Bufo americanus
Box Turtle
55
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
Eastern Chipmunk
Tamias striatus
Eastern Gray Squirrel
Sciurus carolinensis
56
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
Yellow-breasted chat
Icteria virens 57
Tundra
bull annual average temperature lt 5 C
bull precipitation (mostly in the form of snow) lt 100 mmyear
bull summer is brief
bull temperatures above freezing last only a few weeks at
most
bull warm summer coincides with periods of almost 24
hour daylight so plant growth can be explosive
58
Tundra
Anaktuvuk Pass Alaska
59
Tundra ndash Indicator Plant Species
Arctic Tundra Wildflowers - Alaska
60
Tundra ndash Indicator Plant Species
Lichen
Polytrichum Moss
(photographed in Ohio not on the
Tundra)
61
Tundra ndash Indicator Animal Species
Reindeer
Rangifer tarandus
62
Tundra ndash Indicator Animal Species
Caribou On Autumn Tundra Denali National Park Alaska
63
Savanna
bull rolling grassland scattered with shrubs and isolated trees
bull found between a tropical rainforest and desert biome
bull not enough rain falls on a savanna to support forests
bull found in a wide band on either side of the equator on
the edges of tropical rainforests
bull warm temperature year round
bull very long dry season (winter) ~ 10 cm rain none at all
from Dec - Feb
bull very wet season (summer) ~ 35-65 cm rain
64
Savanna
65
Savanna ndash Indicator Plant Species
Baobab
Adansonia digitata Umbrella Thorn Acacia
Acacia tortillis
66
Savanna ndash Indicator Animal Species
Savanna Elephant
Loxodonta africana
Black Mamba
Dendroaspis polylepis
Lion
Panthera leo
67
Chaparral
bull winter mild and moist but not rainy
bull summer very hot and dry
bull annual temperature range between -1deg and 38deg C
bull annual precipitation ~ 25-45 cm mostly in the winter
68
Chaparral
69
Chaparral ndash Indicator Plant Species
Blue Oak
Quercus douglasii
Common Sagebrush
Artemisia tridentata
Olive Tree
Olea europaea
70
Chaparral ndash Indicator Animal Species
Black-tailed Jackrabbit
Lepus californicus Golden Jackal
Canis aureus
Spotted Skunk
Spilogale gracilis
71
The Freshwater Biome
bull low salt concentration mdash usually less than 1
bull plants and animals in freshwater regions are adjusted to
the low salt content and would not be able to survive in
areas of high salt concentration (ie ocean)
bull 3 different types of freshwater regions
bull ponds and lakes
bull streams and rivers
bull wetlands
72
The Freshwater Biome ndash Ponds and Lakes
From left a view across Manzanita Lake toward Mt Lassen California a
forest pond near Donnelly Idaho a Great Blue Heron Paranagat Lake
southeastern Nevada
73
The Freshwater Biome ndash Streams and
Rivers
From left McArthur-Burney Falls State Park California trout Green
River Utah Brooks River Alaska
74
The Freshwater Biome - Wetlands
From left Pescadero Marsh California coastal marsh at Umpqua
Dunes Oregon trees and bogs on Esther Island Alaska
75
The Marine Biome
bull cover about three-fourths of the Earths surface
bull marine algae supply much of the worlds oxygen supply
and take in a huge amount of atmospheric carbon
dioxide
bull evaporation of the seawater provides rainwater for the
land
bull 3 different types of marine regions
bull oceans
bull coral reefs
bull estuaries
76
The Marine Biome - Oceans
From left mussels worms and a spider crab at a hydrocarbon seep
community in the Gulf of Mexico a sea fan and brain coral in the Florida
Keys National Marine Sanctuary a school of Atlantic amberjack off North
Carolina
77
The Marine Biome ndash Coral Reefs
From left reef life in the Gulf of Aqaba Red Sea a reef at Fanning
Island atoll in the central Pacific a reef in the Florida Keys National
Marine Sanctuary
78
The Marine Biome - Estuaries
From left Mangrove roots south Florida wetlands and tidal streams
in the Ashe Island area ACE Basin National Estuarine Research
Reserve South Carolina a salt marsh in Winyah Bay National
Estuarine Research Reserve South Carolina
79
Ecological Notes
These are the biomes in order of their productivity (highest
first)
1 estuaries and tropical rain forest (highest)
2 temperate forest
3 agricultural land
4 temperate grassland
5 lakes and streams
6 coastal zone
7 tundra
8 open ocean
9 desert (lowest)
80
Ecological Notes
In order to be productive and have a lot of living material
standing around (biomass) an ecosystem has to have 4
basic necessities for plant life to thrive (if there are
enough plants the ecosystem will also support a lot of
animals) The four things are
1 Sunlight
2 Nutrients
3 Warm temperatures
4 Water
81
Biomes Video
82
Take-Home Message
bull Biomes are the major ecological communities of earth
characterized mostly by the vegetation present
bull Different biomes result from differences in temperature
and precipitation and the extent to which they vary from
season to season
83
Challenge Question
bull Terrestrial biomes are determined by the temperature
and precipitation amounts as well as whether those
factors are constant or vary by season
bull By contrast how are aquatic biomes determined
84
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy flows from producers to
consumers
85
86
87
First Stop Primary Producers
bull ecosystem producers or consumers
bull primary producers plants algae (some) bacteria
bull convert light energy from sun into chemical energy
through photosynthesis
bull chemical energy = food
bull consumers eat or absorb their food
bull energy stored in chemical bonds of carbohydrate
protein and lipid molecules is captured and
harnessed for consumersrsquo own movement
reproduction and growth
88
Food Chain
89
Food Web
90
Food Web
91
Food Chains amp Food Webs
bull A change in one link in a food chain will affect the other
links
bull The table on the next slide gives one example of a food
chain and the trophic levels represented in it
92
Food Chains amp Food Webs
93
GRASS
GRASSHOPPER
TOAD
SNAKE
HAWK
BACTERIA
IN GENERAL
AUTOTROPHS
(PRODUCERS)
HERBIVORES
(PRIMARY
CONSUMERS)
CARNIVORES
(2 3 ETC)
DECOMPOSERS
94
Chain Reaction Game
95
Energy Flows through a Food Web
bull Losses at every ldquosteprdquo in a food chain
bull Inefficiency of energy transfers
96
Energy flow through a food chain
Energy flow refers to the way that energy is transformed through
a food chain (pictured here) containing a series of levels
including plants consumers predators and decomposers 97
Amount of energy available at each of the
four levels of an ecosystem
Ecological pyramids illustrate the amount of energy
available at each of the four levels of an ecosystem 98
Ecological Pyramid
99
A grasshopper eats a plant A mouse eats the
grasshopper A snake eats the mouse A hawk
could eat the snake or the mouse In this food
web how would we categorize the hawk
1 Producer
2 Primary consumer
3 Secondary consumer
4 Tertiary consumer
5 Quaternary consumer
6 4 and 5
100
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps
bull First it is converted to chemical energy in
photosynthesis
bull Herbivores then consume the primary producers the
herbivores are consumed by carnivores and the
carnivores in turn may be consumed by top carnivores
101
Take-home message
bull Detritivores and decomposers extract energy from
organic waste and the remains of organisms that have
died
bull At each step in a food chain some usable energy is lost
as heat
102
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy pyramids reveal the inefficiency of
food chains
103
Biomass
bull biomass total weight of all living organisms in a given
area
bull only about 10 of the plants in an ecosystem is
converted into biomass
bull Food Energy Pyramid
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
bull African savannas and grasslands sustain more species
of higher-order carnivores than any other terrestrial
ecosystem
104
105
Food Energy Pyramids
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
106
107
108
You go out to eat at a fancy restaurant You
have a salad salmon and for dessert ice
cream Which part of the meal was the most
energy efficient food for you to eat
1 Salad
2 Salmon
3 Ice cream
4 2 and 3
109
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps known as trophic levels
bull Energy pyramids reveal that the biomass of primary
producers in an ecosystem tends to be far greater than
the biomass of herbivores
bull The biomass transferred at each step along the food chain tends to be only about 10 of the biomass of the organisms being consumed due to energy lost in cellular respiration
bull As a consequence of this inefficiency food chains rarely exceed four levels
110
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Essential chemicals cycle through
ecosystems
111
Chemical Reservoirs
bull Each chemical is stored in a non-living part of the environment
bull Organisms acquire the chemical from the reservoir a non-living part of the environment
bull The chemical cycles through the food chain (biogeochemical cycles)
bull Eventually the chemical is returned to the reservoir
112
Hydrologic Cycle and the Florida Springs
bull Click here for a description of how falling rain feeds underground aquifers in Florida and forms springs
113
The Most Important Chemical Cycles
1) Carbon
2) Nitrogen
3) Phosphorus
4) Sulfur
114
115
The
Carbon
Cycle
116
The Carbon Cycle
Keeping Up With Carbon
NASA video provides key information on the carbon cycle
117
118
Carbon Cycle Game
Fossil Fuels
bull created when large numbers of organisms die and are buried in sediment lacking oxygen
bull In absence of oxygen at high pressures and after very long periods of time organic remains are ultimately transformed into coal oil and natural gas
bull burning coal oil and natural gas releases large amounts of carbon dioxide
bull increases average CO2 concentration in the atmosphere
bull current level of CO2 in the atmosphere is the highest it has been in almost half a million years
119
Global CO2 levels are rising in
general but they also exhibit a
sharp rise and fall within each
year ndash why
120
121
The Nitrogen Cycle
122
The Nitrogen Cycle
Fertilizers
bull Because it is necessary for the production of every plant
protein and because all nitrogen must first be made
usable by bacteria plant growth is often limited by
nitrogen levels in the soil
bull For this reason most fertilizers contain nitrogen in a
form usable by plants
123
124
125
126
127
Oxygen reduction downstream of a source of
organic pollution
128
Algal growth and eutrophication in an Australian
outback waterway
129
Sulfur Cycle
bull component of protein
bull cycles in both a gas and sedimentary cycle
bull source earths crust
bull enters the atmosphere as hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
during fossil fuel combustion volcanic eruptions
gas exchange at ocean surfaces decomposition
130
Sulfur Cycle
bull H2S is immediately oxidized to sulfur dioxide (SO2)
bull SO2 + water vapor H2SO4 (falls to earth in rain)
bull sulfur in soluble form is taken up by plant roots
incorporated into amino acids such as cysteine
bull travels through food chain
bull eventually released through decomposition
131
How is carbon recycled back to the
atmosphere in the carbon cycle
1 It is ldquofixedrdquo by bacteria
2 It is a product of cellular respiration
3 Burning of fossil fuels
4 2 and 3
5 All of the above
132
Why do commercial fertilizers usually
contain usable forms of nitrogen and
phosphorous
1 These chemicals are not efficiently recycled in
the soil
2 Nitrogen and phosphorous need to be ldquofixedrdquo
by bacteria or the plant
3 Nitrogen and phosphorous are found at high
levels in the atmosphere but not in the soil
4 Nitrogen and phosphorous only enter the soil
through erosion
133
Take-home message
bull Chemicals essential to lifemdashincluding carbon nitrogen and phosphorusmdashcycle through ecosystems
bull They are usually captured from the atmosphere soil or water by growing organisms passed from one trophic level to the next as organisms eat other organisms and returned to the environment through respiration decomposition and erosion
bull These cycles can be disrupted as human activities significantly increase the amounts of the chemicals utilized or released to the environment
134
Symbiotic Relationships
bull Symbiosis close relationship between organisms of
two different species
bull At least one participant gains some sort of benefit
(usually nutritional)
bull Types of symbiosis
bull Parasitism
bull Commensalism
bull Mutualism
bull Predation
135
Symbiotic Relationships in the
Ocean
bull Click here for an explanation of the
relationships of marine animals
including sharks rays and various
fishes
136
Parasitism bull Parasite derives nutrition from the host
bull This harms the host but a true parasite does
not usually kill its host (directly)
137
Ectoparasites
Remain outside the host
Ticks fleas leeches
138
Endoparasites
Live inside the hostrsquos body
Tapeworms malarial parasites
139
Parasite Transmission
bull Many parasites live on or in a single organism
bull Some will alternate between 2 or more host species
bull Vertical transmission ndash from mother offspring
bull Horizontal transmission ndash between members of a
population
bull Direct contact (head lice)
bull Vectors (mosquitos)
140
141
Commensalism
bull Neither species is totally dependent on the other
bull One benefits ndash no effect on the other
bull Feeding or protection
bull Porcelain anemone crabs and anemones
142
Mutualism
bull Both species benefit
bull Food or shelter
bull Examples
bull Plants and microbes (rhizobium in root nodules)
bull Plants and fungi (orchids and mycorrhizae)
bull Protists and fungi (lichen)
bull Plants and insects (pollination)
bull Animals and bacteria (ruminants)
bull Animals and other animals (crocodiles and
plover birds)
143
Mutualism shrimp and moray
Cleaner shrimp cleaning a zebra moray eel Mutualistic
relationships such as these promote the well-being of the
host fishes and provide food for those that do the cleaning 144
Rhizobium
Rhizobium in root nodules of certain plants convert
nitrogen in soil to usable form
145
Orchid Mycorrhizae
Fungi aid the plant in the uptake of nutrients
Fungi ingest some of the food from plant
photosynthesis 146
Lichen
Most of the lichen is composed of fungal filaments
but living among the filaments are algal cells
usually from a green alga or a cyanobacterium
The lichen fungus provides its partner(s) a benefit
(protection) and gains nutrients in return 147
Ruminants
Ruminants are characterized by their four-chambered
stomach and cud-chewing behavior Cud is a food bolus
that is regurgitated rechewed and reswallowed The
rumen is a large fermentation vat containing billions of
microorganisms including bacteria and protozoa which
allow ruminants to digest fibrous feeds such as grass and
hay that other animals cannot efficiently utilize 148
Crocodiles amp
Plover Birds
The bird gets into the crocodiles mouth and picks out
the tiny bits of food stuck in his teeth then eats it (the
tiny bits)
This cleans the crocodiles teeth and keeps his mouth
fresh and free from infections 149
Predation
bull Consumption of one living organism by
another
bull Predators must have offensive strategies
bull ways of finding catching and eating
their prey
bull Prey organisms must have defensive
strategies
bull ways of avoiding or discouraging this
activity
150
Predation
bull Encompasses all levels within an
ecological food chainweb
bull plant-herbivore systems
bull herbivore-carnivore systems
bull three-way interactions of
interdependent plant-herbivore-
carnivore systems
151
This goshawk is the tertiary consumer in his ecosystem
and the mouse in his beak is the secondary consumer
Beneath the mouse on the ecological pyramid lies his
foodsource likely a worm which fed on the primary
producer leafy plants 152
Ecosystem of Life in Floridas
Springs
bull Click here for a close-up look of life
in Floridas springs and the various
predator-prey interactions there
153
Grasslandsndash Indicator Plant Species
Ironweed (Vernonia sp)
Joe Pye Weed
Eupatorium purpureum
30
Grasslands ndash Indicator Plant Species
Common Teasel
Dipsacus fullonum Queen Annes Lace (Daucus carota)
31
Grasslands ndash Indicator Animal Species
Bison (Bison bison) on the range
Theodore Roosevelt National Park North
Dakota
32
Grasslands ndash Indicator Animal Species
Przewalskis horse (Equus caballus
przewalskii) The Wilds Ohio
33
Grasslands ndash Indicator Animal Species
34
Taiga
bull Russian word for forest
bull largest biome in the world
bull Eurasia North America
bull located just below the tundra biome
bull many coniferous trees
bull aka boreal forest Boreal was the Greek goddess of the
North Wind
35
Taiga
bull winter temperature range is -54 to -1deg C (-65 to 30deg F)
bull summer -7deg C (20deg F) to 21deg C (70deg F)
bull summers are very short (50 - 100 frost free days)
bull average yearly precipitation 30 - 85 cm (12 - 33 in)
bull main seasons are winter and summer
bull spring and autumn are very short
bull weather is either hot and humid or very cold
36
Taiga
37
Taiga ndash Indicator Plant Species
Balsam Fir
Abies balsamea
Black Spruce
Picea mariana
38
Taiga ndash Indicator Plant Species
Jack Pine
Pinus banksiana
Paper Birch
Betula papyrifera
White Poplar
Populus alba
39
Taiga ndash Indicator Animal Species
American Black Bear
Ursus americanus
Bald Eagle
Haliaeetus leucocephalus 40
Taiga ndash Indicator Animal Species
Long-eared Owl
Aiso otus
Snowshoe Rabbit
Lepus americanus
41
Desert
bull cover about one fifth of Earths land surface
bull hot and dry near Tropic of CancerTropic of
Capricorn
bull cold near the Arctic
bull temperature
bull hot amp dry ~ 25deg C to ~ 49deg C
bull cold -2 to 4deg C (winter) 21 to 26deg C (summer)
bull precipitation
bull hot amp dry very little rainfall andor concentrated
rainfall in short periods between long rainless periods
(lt 15 cmyear)
bull cold 15 - 26 cmyear 42
Desert
43
Desert ndash Indicator Plant Species
44
Desert ndash Indicator Plant Species
Saguaro Cactus
Carnegiea gigantea
Fishhook Cactus
Mammillaria microcarpa
45
Desert ndash Indicator Plant Species
Trichomes
46
Desert ndash Indicator Animal Species
Zebratail Lizard - Callisaurus draconides
47
Desert ndash Indicator Animal Species
Rock hyrax (Procavia capensis) 48
Desert ndash Indicator Animal Species
Bactrian Camel Camelus bactrianus
49
Temperate Deciduous Forest
bull temperature 0 - 20 C
bull precipitation ~ 50 ndash 200 cmyear
50
Temperate Deciduous Forest
51
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Plant Species
Oaks (Quercus sp)
Dutchmans-Breeches
Dicentra cucullaria 52
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Plant Species
Sassafras
Sassafras albidum
Redbud
Cercis canadensis
53
Temperate Deciduous Forest ndash Succession
bull orderly succession of communities to a climax
community (biome)
bull two main types of succession
bull primary succession begins with bare rock exposed
by geologic activity
bull secondary succession begins on soil from which
previous community has been removed (by fire
agriculture etc)
bull secondary succession can proceed much faster
because the soil has been prepared by the
previous community
54
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
American Toad
Bufo americanus
Box Turtle
55
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
Eastern Chipmunk
Tamias striatus
Eastern Gray Squirrel
Sciurus carolinensis
56
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
Yellow-breasted chat
Icteria virens 57
Tundra
bull annual average temperature lt 5 C
bull precipitation (mostly in the form of snow) lt 100 mmyear
bull summer is brief
bull temperatures above freezing last only a few weeks at
most
bull warm summer coincides with periods of almost 24
hour daylight so plant growth can be explosive
58
Tundra
Anaktuvuk Pass Alaska
59
Tundra ndash Indicator Plant Species
Arctic Tundra Wildflowers - Alaska
60
Tundra ndash Indicator Plant Species
Lichen
Polytrichum Moss
(photographed in Ohio not on the
Tundra)
61
Tundra ndash Indicator Animal Species
Reindeer
Rangifer tarandus
62
Tundra ndash Indicator Animal Species
Caribou On Autumn Tundra Denali National Park Alaska
63
Savanna
bull rolling grassland scattered with shrubs and isolated trees
bull found between a tropical rainforest and desert biome
bull not enough rain falls on a savanna to support forests
bull found in a wide band on either side of the equator on
the edges of tropical rainforests
bull warm temperature year round
bull very long dry season (winter) ~ 10 cm rain none at all
from Dec - Feb
bull very wet season (summer) ~ 35-65 cm rain
64
Savanna
65
Savanna ndash Indicator Plant Species
Baobab
Adansonia digitata Umbrella Thorn Acacia
Acacia tortillis
66
Savanna ndash Indicator Animal Species
Savanna Elephant
Loxodonta africana
Black Mamba
Dendroaspis polylepis
Lion
Panthera leo
67
Chaparral
bull winter mild and moist but not rainy
bull summer very hot and dry
bull annual temperature range between -1deg and 38deg C
bull annual precipitation ~ 25-45 cm mostly in the winter
68
Chaparral
69
Chaparral ndash Indicator Plant Species
Blue Oak
Quercus douglasii
Common Sagebrush
Artemisia tridentata
Olive Tree
Olea europaea
70
Chaparral ndash Indicator Animal Species
Black-tailed Jackrabbit
Lepus californicus Golden Jackal
Canis aureus
Spotted Skunk
Spilogale gracilis
71
The Freshwater Biome
bull low salt concentration mdash usually less than 1
bull plants and animals in freshwater regions are adjusted to
the low salt content and would not be able to survive in
areas of high salt concentration (ie ocean)
bull 3 different types of freshwater regions
bull ponds and lakes
bull streams and rivers
bull wetlands
72
The Freshwater Biome ndash Ponds and Lakes
From left a view across Manzanita Lake toward Mt Lassen California a
forest pond near Donnelly Idaho a Great Blue Heron Paranagat Lake
southeastern Nevada
73
The Freshwater Biome ndash Streams and
Rivers
From left McArthur-Burney Falls State Park California trout Green
River Utah Brooks River Alaska
74
The Freshwater Biome - Wetlands
From left Pescadero Marsh California coastal marsh at Umpqua
Dunes Oregon trees and bogs on Esther Island Alaska
75
The Marine Biome
bull cover about three-fourths of the Earths surface
bull marine algae supply much of the worlds oxygen supply
and take in a huge amount of atmospheric carbon
dioxide
bull evaporation of the seawater provides rainwater for the
land
bull 3 different types of marine regions
bull oceans
bull coral reefs
bull estuaries
76
The Marine Biome - Oceans
From left mussels worms and a spider crab at a hydrocarbon seep
community in the Gulf of Mexico a sea fan and brain coral in the Florida
Keys National Marine Sanctuary a school of Atlantic amberjack off North
Carolina
77
The Marine Biome ndash Coral Reefs
From left reef life in the Gulf of Aqaba Red Sea a reef at Fanning
Island atoll in the central Pacific a reef in the Florida Keys National
Marine Sanctuary
78
The Marine Biome - Estuaries
From left Mangrove roots south Florida wetlands and tidal streams
in the Ashe Island area ACE Basin National Estuarine Research
Reserve South Carolina a salt marsh in Winyah Bay National
Estuarine Research Reserve South Carolina
79
Ecological Notes
These are the biomes in order of their productivity (highest
first)
1 estuaries and tropical rain forest (highest)
2 temperate forest
3 agricultural land
4 temperate grassland
5 lakes and streams
6 coastal zone
7 tundra
8 open ocean
9 desert (lowest)
80
Ecological Notes
In order to be productive and have a lot of living material
standing around (biomass) an ecosystem has to have 4
basic necessities for plant life to thrive (if there are
enough plants the ecosystem will also support a lot of
animals) The four things are
1 Sunlight
2 Nutrients
3 Warm temperatures
4 Water
81
Biomes Video
82
Take-Home Message
bull Biomes are the major ecological communities of earth
characterized mostly by the vegetation present
bull Different biomes result from differences in temperature
and precipitation and the extent to which they vary from
season to season
83
Challenge Question
bull Terrestrial biomes are determined by the temperature
and precipitation amounts as well as whether those
factors are constant or vary by season
bull By contrast how are aquatic biomes determined
84
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy flows from producers to
consumers
85
86
87
First Stop Primary Producers
bull ecosystem producers or consumers
bull primary producers plants algae (some) bacteria
bull convert light energy from sun into chemical energy
through photosynthesis
bull chemical energy = food
bull consumers eat or absorb their food
bull energy stored in chemical bonds of carbohydrate
protein and lipid molecules is captured and
harnessed for consumersrsquo own movement
reproduction and growth
88
Food Chain
89
Food Web
90
Food Web
91
Food Chains amp Food Webs
bull A change in one link in a food chain will affect the other
links
bull The table on the next slide gives one example of a food
chain and the trophic levels represented in it
92
Food Chains amp Food Webs
93
GRASS
GRASSHOPPER
TOAD
SNAKE
HAWK
BACTERIA
IN GENERAL
AUTOTROPHS
(PRODUCERS)
HERBIVORES
(PRIMARY
CONSUMERS)
CARNIVORES
(2 3 ETC)
DECOMPOSERS
94
Chain Reaction Game
95
Energy Flows through a Food Web
bull Losses at every ldquosteprdquo in a food chain
bull Inefficiency of energy transfers
96
Energy flow through a food chain
Energy flow refers to the way that energy is transformed through
a food chain (pictured here) containing a series of levels
including plants consumers predators and decomposers 97
Amount of energy available at each of the
four levels of an ecosystem
Ecological pyramids illustrate the amount of energy
available at each of the four levels of an ecosystem 98
Ecological Pyramid
99
A grasshopper eats a plant A mouse eats the
grasshopper A snake eats the mouse A hawk
could eat the snake or the mouse In this food
web how would we categorize the hawk
1 Producer
2 Primary consumer
3 Secondary consumer
4 Tertiary consumer
5 Quaternary consumer
6 4 and 5
100
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps
bull First it is converted to chemical energy in
photosynthesis
bull Herbivores then consume the primary producers the
herbivores are consumed by carnivores and the
carnivores in turn may be consumed by top carnivores
101
Take-home message
bull Detritivores and decomposers extract energy from
organic waste and the remains of organisms that have
died
bull At each step in a food chain some usable energy is lost
as heat
102
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy pyramids reveal the inefficiency of
food chains
103
Biomass
bull biomass total weight of all living organisms in a given
area
bull only about 10 of the plants in an ecosystem is
converted into biomass
bull Food Energy Pyramid
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
bull African savannas and grasslands sustain more species
of higher-order carnivores than any other terrestrial
ecosystem
104
105
Food Energy Pyramids
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
106
107
108
You go out to eat at a fancy restaurant You
have a salad salmon and for dessert ice
cream Which part of the meal was the most
energy efficient food for you to eat
1 Salad
2 Salmon
3 Ice cream
4 2 and 3
109
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps known as trophic levels
bull Energy pyramids reveal that the biomass of primary
producers in an ecosystem tends to be far greater than
the biomass of herbivores
bull The biomass transferred at each step along the food chain tends to be only about 10 of the biomass of the organisms being consumed due to energy lost in cellular respiration
bull As a consequence of this inefficiency food chains rarely exceed four levels
110
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Essential chemicals cycle through
ecosystems
111
Chemical Reservoirs
bull Each chemical is stored in a non-living part of the environment
bull Organisms acquire the chemical from the reservoir a non-living part of the environment
bull The chemical cycles through the food chain (biogeochemical cycles)
bull Eventually the chemical is returned to the reservoir
112
Hydrologic Cycle and the Florida Springs
bull Click here for a description of how falling rain feeds underground aquifers in Florida and forms springs
113
The Most Important Chemical Cycles
1) Carbon
2) Nitrogen
3) Phosphorus
4) Sulfur
114
115
The
Carbon
Cycle
116
The Carbon Cycle
Keeping Up With Carbon
NASA video provides key information on the carbon cycle
117
118
Carbon Cycle Game
Fossil Fuels
bull created when large numbers of organisms die and are buried in sediment lacking oxygen
bull In absence of oxygen at high pressures and after very long periods of time organic remains are ultimately transformed into coal oil and natural gas
bull burning coal oil and natural gas releases large amounts of carbon dioxide
bull increases average CO2 concentration in the atmosphere
bull current level of CO2 in the atmosphere is the highest it has been in almost half a million years
119
Global CO2 levels are rising in
general but they also exhibit a
sharp rise and fall within each
year ndash why
120
121
The Nitrogen Cycle
122
The Nitrogen Cycle
Fertilizers
bull Because it is necessary for the production of every plant
protein and because all nitrogen must first be made
usable by bacteria plant growth is often limited by
nitrogen levels in the soil
bull For this reason most fertilizers contain nitrogen in a
form usable by plants
123
124
125
126
127
Oxygen reduction downstream of a source of
organic pollution
128
Algal growth and eutrophication in an Australian
outback waterway
129
Sulfur Cycle
bull component of protein
bull cycles in both a gas and sedimentary cycle
bull source earths crust
bull enters the atmosphere as hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
during fossil fuel combustion volcanic eruptions
gas exchange at ocean surfaces decomposition
130
Sulfur Cycle
bull H2S is immediately oxidized to sulfur dioxide (SO2)
bull SO2 + water vapor H2SO4 (falls to earth in rain)
bull sulfur in soluble form is taken up by plant roots
incorporated into amino acids such as cysteine
bull travels through food chain
bull eventually released through decomposition
131
How is carbon recycled back to the
atmosphere in the carbon cycle
1 It is ldquofixedrdquo by bacteria
2 It is a product of cellular respiration
3 Burning of fossil fuels
4 2 and 3
5 All of the above
132
Why do commercial fertilizers usually
contain usable forms of nitrogen and
phosphorous
1 These chemicals are not efficiently recycled in
the soil
2 Nitrogen and phosphorous need to be ldquofixedrdquo
by bacteria or the plant
3 Nitrogen and phosphorous are found at high
levels in the atmosphere but not in the soil
4 Nitrogen and phosphorous only enter the soil
through erosion
133
Take-home message
bull Chemicals essential to lifemdashincluding carbon nitrogen and phosphorusmdashcycle through ecosystems
bull They are usually captured from the atmosphere soil or water by growing organisms passed from one trophic level to the next as organisms eat other organisms and returned to the environment through respiration decomposition and erosion
bull These cycles can be disrupted as human activities significantly increase the amounts of the chemicals utilized or released to the environment
134
Symbiotic Relationships
bull Symbiosis close relationship between organisms of
two different species
bull At least one participant gains some sort of benefit
(usually nutritional)
bull Types of symbiosis
bull Parasitism
bull Commensalism
bull Mutualism
bull Predation
135
Symbiotic Relationships in the
Ocean
bull Click here for an explanation of the
relationships of marine animals
including sharks rays and various
fishes
136
Parasitism bull Parasite derives nutrition from the host
bull This harms the host but a true parasite does
not usually kill its host (directly)
137
Ectoparasites
Remain outside the host
Ticks fleas leeches
138
Endoparasites
Live inside the hostrsquos body
Tapeworms malarial parasites
139
Parasite Transmission
bull Many parasites live on or in a single organism
bull Some will alternate between 2 or more host species
bull Vertical transmission ndash from mother offspring
bull Horizontal transmission ndash between members of a
population
bull Direct contact (head lice)
bull Vectors (mosquitos)
140
141
Commensalism
bull Neither species is totally dependent on the other
bull One benefits ndash no effect on the other
bull Feeding or protection
bull Porcelain anemone crabs and anemones
142
Mutualism
bull Both species benefit
bull Food or shelter
bull Examples
bull Plants and microbes (rhizobium in root nodules)
bull Plants and fungi (orchids and mycorrhizae)
bull Protists and fungi (lichen)
bull Plants and insects (pollination)
bull Animals and bacteria (ruminants)
bull Animals and other animals (crocodiles and
plover birds)
143
Mutualism shrimp and moray
Cleaner shrimp cleaning a zebra moray eel Mutualistic
relationships such as these promote the well-being of the
host fishes and provide food for those that do the cleaning 144
Rhizobium
Rhizobium in root nodules of certain plants convert
nitrogen in soil to usable form
145
Orchid Mycorrhizae
Fungi aid the plant in the uptake of nutrients
Fungi ingest some of the food from plant
photosynthesis 146
Lichen
Most of the lichen is composed of fungal filaments
but living among the filaments are algal cells
usually from a green alga or a cyanobacterium
The lichen fungus provides its partner(s) a benefit
(protection) and gains nutrients in return 147
Ruminants
Ruminants are characterized by their four-chambered
stomach and cud-chewing behavior Cud is a food bolus
that is regurgitated rechewed and reswallowed The
rumen is a large fermentation vat containing billions of
microorganisms including bacteria and protozoa which
allow ruminants to digest fibrous feeds such as grass and
hay that other animals cannot efficiently utilize 148
Crocodiles amp
Plover Birds
The bird gets into the crocodiles mouth and picks out
the tiny bits of food stuck in his teeth then eats it (the
tiny bits)
This cleans the crocodiles teeth and keeps his mouth
fresh and free from infections 149
Predation
bull Consumption of one living organism by
another
bull Predators must have offensive strategies
bull ways of finding catching and eating
their prey
bull Prey organisms must have defensive
strategies
bull ways of avoiding or discouraging this
activity
150
Predation
bull Encompasses all levels within an
ecological food chainweb
bull plant-herbivore systems
bull herbivore-carnivore systems
bull three-way interactions of
interdependent plant-herbivore-
carnivore systems
151
This goshawk is the tertiary consumer in his ecosystem
and the mouse in his beak is the secondary consumer
Beneath the mouse on the ecological pyramid lies his
foodsource likely a worm which fed on the primary
producer leafy plants 152
Ecosystem of Life in Floridas
Springs
bull Click here for a close-up look of life
in Floridas springs and the various
predator-prey interactions there
153
Grasslands ndash Indicator Plant Species
Common Teasel
Dipsacus fullonum Queen Annes Lace (Daucus carota)
31
Grasslands ndash Indicator Animal Species
Bison (Bison bison) on the range
Theodore Roosevelt National Park North
Dakota
32
Grasslands ndash Indicator Animal Species
Przewalskis horse (Equus caballus
przewalskii) The Wilds Ohio
33
Grasslands ndash Indicator Animal Species
34
Taiga
bull Russian word for forest
bull largest biome in the world
bull Eurasia North America
bull located just below the tundra biome
bull many coniferous trees
bull aka boreal forest Boreal was the Greek goddess of the
North Wind
35
Taiga
bull winter temperature range is -54 to -1deg C (-65 to 30deg F)
bull summer -7deg C (20deg F) to 21deg C (70deg F)
bull summers are very short (50 - 100 frost free days)
bull average yearly precipitation 30 - 85 cm (12 - 33 in)
bull main seasons are winter and summer
bull spring and autumn are very short
bull weather is either hot and humid or very cold
36
Taiga
37
Taiga ndash Indicator Plant Species
Balsam Fir
Abies balsamea
Black Spruce
Picea mariana
38
Taiga ndash Indicator Plant Species
Jack Pine
Pinus banksiana
Paper Birch
Betula papyrifera
White Poplar
Populus alba
39
Taiga ndash Indicator Animal Species
American Black Bear
Ursus americanus
Bald Eagle
Haliaeetus leucocephalus 40
Taiga ndash Indicator Animal Species
Long-eared Owl
Aiso otus
Snowshoe Rabbit
Lepus americanus
41
Desert
bull cover about one fifth of Earths land surface
bull hot and dry near Tropic of CancerTropic of
Capricorn
bull cold near the Arctic
bull temperature
bull hot amp dry ~ 25deg C to ~ 49deg C
bull cold -2 to 4deg C (winter) 21 to 26deg C (summer)
bull precipitation
bull hot amp dry very little rainfall andor concentrated
rainfall in short periods between long rainless periods
(lt 15 cmyear)
bull cold 15 - 26 cmyear 42
Desert
43
Desert ndash Indicator Plant Species
44
Desert ndash Indicator Plant Species
Saguaro Cactus
Carnegiea gigantea
Fishhook Cactus
Mammillaria microcarpa
45
Desert ndash Indicator Plant Species
Trichomes
46
Desert ndash Indicator Animal Species
Zebratail Lizard - Callisaurus draconides
47
Desert ndash Indicator Animal Species
Rock hyrax (Procavia capensis) 48
Desert ndash Indicator Animal Species
Bactrian Camel Camelus bactrianus
49
Temperate Deciduous Forest
bull temperature 0 - 20 C
bull precipitation ~ 50 ndash 200 cmyear
50
Temperate Deciduous Forest
51
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Plant Species
Oaks (Quercus sp)
Dutchmans-Breeches
Dicentra cucullaria 52
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Plant Species
Sassafras
Sassafras albidum
Redbud
Cercis canadensis
53
Temperate Deciduous Forest ndash Succession
bull orderly succession of communities to a climax
community (biome)
bull two main types of succession
bull primary succession begins with bare rock exposed
by geologic activity
bull secondary succession begins on soil from which
previous community has been removed (by fire
agriculture etc)
bull secondary succession can proceed much faster
because the soil has been prepared by the
previous community
54
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
American Toad
Bufo americanus
Box Turtle
55
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
Eastern Chipmunk
Tamias striatus
Eastern Gray Squirrel
Sciurus carolinensis
56
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
Yellow-breasted chat
Icteria virens 57
Tundra
bull annual average temperature lt 5 C
bull precipitation (mostly in the form of snow) lt 100 mmyear
bull summer is brief
bull temperatures above freezing last only a few weeks at
most
bull warm summer coincides with periods of almost 24
hour daylight so plant growth can be explosive
58
Tundra
Anaktuvuk Pass Alaska
59
Tundra ndash Indicator Plant Species
Arctic Tundra Wildflowers - Alaska
60
Tundra ndash Indicator Plant Species
Lichen
Polytrichum Moss
(photographed in Ohio not on the
Tundra)
61
Tundra ndash Indicator Animal Species
Reindeer
Rangifer tarandus
62
Tundra ndash Indicator Animal Species
Caribou On Autumn Tundra Denali National Park Alaska
63
Savanna
bull rolling grassland scattered with shrubs and isolated trees
bull found between a tropical rainforest and desert biome
bull not enough rain falls on a savanna to support forests
bull found in a wide band on either side of the equator on
the edges of tropical rainforests
bull warm temperature year round
bull very long dry season (winter) ~ 10 cm rain none at all
from Dec - Feb
bull very wet season (summer) ~ 35-65 cm rain
64
Savanna
65
Savanna ndash Indicator Plant Species
Baobab
Adansonia digitata Umbrella Thorn Acacia
Acacia tortillis
66
Savanna ndash Indicator Animal Species
Savanna Elephant
Loxodonta africana
Black Mamba
Dendroaspis polylepis
Lion
Panthera leo
67
Chaparral
bull winter mild and moist but not rainy
bull summer very hot and dry
bull annual temperature range between -1deg and 38deg C
bull annual precipitation ~ 25-45 cm mostly in the winter
68
Chaparral
69
Chaparral ndash Indicator Plant Species
Blue Oak
Quercus douglasii
Common Sagebrush
Artemisia tridentata
Olive Tree
Olea europaea
70
Chaparral ndash Indicator Animal Species
Black-tailed Jackrabbit
Lepus californicus Golden Jackal
Canis aureus
Spotted Skunk
Spilogale gracilis
71
The Freshwater Biome
bull low salt concentration mdash usually less than 1
bull plants and animals in freshwater regions are adjusted to
the low salt content and would not be able to survive in
areas of high salt concentration (ie ocean)
bull 3 different types of freshwater regions
bull ponds and lakes
bull streams and rivers
bull wetlands
72
The Freshwater Biome ndash Ponds and Lakes
From left a view across Manzanita Lake toward Mt Lassen California a
forest pond near Donnelly Idaho a Great Blue Heron Paranagat Lake
southeastern Nevada
73
The Freshwater Biome ndash Streams and
Rivers
From left McArthur-Burney Falls State Park California trout Green
River Utah Brooks River Alaska
74
The Freshwater Biome - Wetlands
From left Pescadero Marsh California coastal marsh at Umpqua
Dunes Oregon trees and bogs on Esther Island Alaska
75
The Marine Biome
bull cover about three-fourths of the Earths surface
bull marine algae supply much of the worlds oxygen supply
and take in a huge amount of atmospheric carbon
dioxide
bull evaporation of the seawater provides rainwater for the
land
bull 3 different types of marine regions
bull oceans
bull coral reefs
bull estuaries
76
The Marine Biome - Oceans
From left mussels worms and a spider crab at a hydrocarbon seep
community in the Gulf of Mexico a sea fan and brain coral in the Florida
Keys National Marine Sanctuary a school of Atlantic amberjack off North
Carolina
77
The Marine Biome ndash Coral Reefs
From left reef life in the Gulf of Aqaba Red Sea a reef at Fanning
Island atoll in the central Pacific a reef in the Florida Keys National
Marine Sanctuary
78
The Marine Biome - Estuaries
From left Mangrove roots south Florida wetlands and tidal streams
in the Ashe Island area ACE Basin National Estuarine Research
Reserve South Carolina a salt marsh in Winyah Bay National
Estuarine Research Reserve South Carolina
79
Ecological Notes
These are the biomes in order of their productivity (highest
first)
1 estuaries and tropical rain forest (highest)
2 temperate forest
3 agricultural land
4 temperate grassland
5 lakes and streams
6 coastal zone
7 tundra
8 open ocean
9 desert (lowest)
80
Ecological Notes
In order to be productive and have a lot of living material
standing around (biomass) an ecosystem has to have 4
basic necessities for plant life to thrive (if there are
enough plants the ecosystem will also support a lot of
animals) The four things are
1 Sunlight
2 Nutrients
3 Warm temperatures
4 Water
81
Biomes Video
82
Take-Home Message
bull Biomes are the major ecological communities of earth
characterized mostly by the vegetation present
bull Different biomes result from differences in temperature
and precipitation and the extent to which they vary from
season to season
83
Challenge Question
bull Terrestrial biomes are determined by the temperature
and precipitation amounts as well as whether those
factors are constant or vary by season
bull By contrast how are aquatic biomes determined
84
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy flows from producers to
consumers
85
86
87
First Stop Primary Producers
bull ecosystem producers or consumers
bull primary producers plants algae (some) bacteria
bull convert light energy from sun into chemical energy
through photosynthesis
bull chemical energy = food
bull consumers eat or absorb their food
bull energy stored in chemical bonds of carbohydrate
protein and lipid molecules is captured and
harnessed for consumersrsquo own movement
reproduction and growth
88
Food Chain
89
Food Web
90
Food Web
91
Food Chains amp Food Webs
bull A change in one link in a food chain will affect the other
links
bull The table on the next slide gives one example of a food
chain and the trophic levels represented in it
92
Food Chains amp Food Webs
93
GRASS
GRASSHOPPER
TOAD
SNAKE
HAWK
BACTERIA
IN GENERAL
AUTOTROPHS
(PRODUCERS)
HERBIVORES
(PRIMARY
CONSUMERS)
CARNIVORES
(2 3 ETC)
DECOMPOSERS
94
Chain Reaction Game
95
Energy Flows through a Food Web
bull Losses at every ldquosteprdquo in a food chain
bull Inefficiency of energy transfers
96
Energy flow through a food chain
Energy flow refers to the way that energy is transformed through
a food chain (pictured here) containing a series of levels
including plants consumers predators and decomposers 97
Amount of energy available at each of the
four levels of an ecosystem
Ecological pyramids illustrate the amount of energy
available at each of the four levels of an ecosystem 98
Ecological Pyramid
99
A grasshopper eats a plant A mouse eats the
grasshopper A snake eats the mouse A hawk
could eat the snake or the mouse In this food
web how would we categorize the hawk
1 Producer
2 Primary consumer
3 Secondary consumer
4 Tertiary consumer
5 Quaternary consumer
6 4 and 5
100
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps
bull First it is converted to chemical energy in
photosynthesis
bull Herbivores then consume the primary producers the
herbivores are consumed by carnivores and the
carnivores in turn may be consumed by top carnivores
101
Take-home message
bull Detritivores and decomposers extract energy from
organic waste and the remains of organisms that have
died
bull At each step in a food chain some usable energy is lost
as heat
102
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy pyramids reveal the inefficiency of
food chains
103
Biomass
bull biomass total weight of all living organisms in a given
area
bull only about 10 of the plants in an ecosystem is
converted into biomass
bull Food Energy Pyramid
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
bull African savannas and grasslands sustain more species
of higher-order carnivores than any other terrestrial
ecosystem
104
105
Food Energy Pyramids
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
106
107
108
You go out to eat at a fancy restaurant You
have a salad salmon and for dessert ice
cream Which part of the meal was the most
energy efficient food for you to eat
1 Salad
2 Salmon
3 Ice cream
4 2 and 3
109
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps known as trophic levels
bull Energy pyramids reveal that the biomass of primary
producers in an ecosystem tends to be far greater than
the biomass of herbivores
bull The biomass transferred at each step along the food chain tends to be only about 10 of the biomass of the organisms being consumed due to energy lost in cellular respiration
bull As a consequence of this inefficiency food chains rarely exceed four levels
110
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Essential chemicals cycle through
ecosystems
111
Chemical Reservoirs
bull Each chemical is stored in a non-living part of the environment
bull Organisms acquire the chemical from the reservoir a non-living part of the environment
bull The chemical cycles through the food chain (biogeochemical cycles)
bull Eventually the chemical is returned to the reservoir
112
Hydrologic Cycle and the Florida Springs
bull Click here for a description of how falling rain feeds underground aquifers in Florida and forms springs
113
The Most Important Chemical Cycles
1) Carbon
2) Nitrogen
3) Phosphorus
4) Sulfur
114
115
The
Carbon
Cycle
116
The Carbon Cycle
Keeping Up With Carbon
NASA video provides key information on the carbon cycle
117
118
Carbon Cycle Game
Fossil Fuels
bull created when large numbers of organisms die and are buried in sediment lacking oxygen
bull In absence of oxygen at high pressures and after very long periods of time organic remains are ultimately transformed into coal oil and natural gas
bull burning coal oil and natural gas releases large amounts of carbon dioxide
bull increases average CO2 concentration in the atmosphere
bull current level of CO2 in the atmosphere is the highest it has been in almost half a million years
119
Global CO2 levels are rising in
general but they also exhibit a
sharp rise and fall within each
year ndash why
120
121
The Nitrogen Cycle
122
The Nitrogen Cycle
Fertilizers
bull Because it is necessary for the production of every plant
protein and because all nitrogen must first be made
usable by bacteria plant growth is often limited by
nitrogen levels in the soil
bull For this reason most fertilizers contain nitrogen in a
form usable by plants
123
124
125
126
127
Oxygen reduction downstream of a source of
organic pollution
128
Algal growth and eutrophication in an Australian
outback waterway
129
Sulfur Cycle
bull component of protein
bull cycles in both a gas and sedimentary cycle
bull source earths crust
bull enters the atmosphere as hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
during fossil fuel combustion volcanic eruptions
gas exchange at ocean surfaces decomposition
130
Sulfur Cycle
bull H2S is immediately oxidized to sulfur dioxide (SO2)
bull SO2 + water vapor H2SO4 (falls to earth in rain)
bull sulfur in soluble form is taken up by plant roots
incorporated into amino acids such as cysteine
bull travels through food chain
bull eventually released through decomposition
131
How is carbon recycled back to the
atmosphere in the carbon cycle
1 It is ldquofixedrdquo by bacteria
2 It is a product of cellular respiration
3 Burning of fossil fuels
4 2 and 3
5 All of the above
132
Why do commercial fertilizers usually
contain usable forms of nitrogen and
phosphorous
1 These chemicals are not efficiently recycled in
the soil
2 Nitrogen and phosphorous need to be ldquofixedrdquo
by bacteria or the plant
3 Nitrogen and phosphorous are found at high
levels in the atmosphere but not in the soil
4 Nitrogen and phosphorous only enter the soil
through erosion
133
Take-home message
bull Chemicals essential to lifemdashincluding carbon nitrogen and phosphorusmdashcycle through ecosystems
bull They are usually captured from the atmosphere soil or water by growing organisms passed from one trophic level to the next as organisms eat other organisms and returned to the environment through respiration decomposition and erosion
bull These cycles can be disrupted as human activities significantly increase the amounts of the chemicals utilized or released to the environment
134
Symbiotic Relationships
bull Symbiosis close relationship between organisms of
two different species
bull At least one participant gains some sort of benefit
(usually nutritional)
bull Types of symbiosis
bull Parasitism
bull Commensalism
bull Mutualism
bull Predation
135
Symbiotic Relationships in the
Ocean
bull Click here for an explanation of the
relationships of marine animals
including sharks rays and various
fishes
136
Parasitism bull Parasite derives nutrition from the host
bull This harms the host but a true parasite does
not usually kill its host (directly)
137
Ectoparasites
Remain outside the host
Ticks fleas leeches
138
Endoparasites
Live inside the hostrsquos body
Tapeworms malarial parasites
139
Parasite Transmission
bull Many parasites live on or in a single organism
bull Some will alternate between 2 or more host species
bull Vertical transmission ndash from mother offspring
bull Horizontal transmission ndash between members of a
population
bull Direct contact (head lice)
bull Vectors (mosquitos)
140
141
Commensalism
bull Neither species is totally dependent on the other
bull One benefits ndash no effect on the other
bull Feeding or protection
bull Porcelain anemone crabs and anemones
142
Mutualism
bull Both species benefit
bull Food or shelter
bull Examples
bull Plants and microbes (rhizobium in root nodules)
bull Plants and fungi (orchids and mycorrhizae)
bull Protists and fungi (lichen)
bull Plants and insects (pollination)
bull Animals and bacteria (ruminants)
bull Animals and other animals (crocodiles and
plover birds)
143
Mutualism shrimp and moray
Cleaner shrimp cleaning a zebra moray eel Mutualistic
relationships such as these promote the well-being of the
host fishes and provide food for those that do the cleaning 144
Rhizobium
Rhizobium in root nodules of certain plants convert
nitrogen in soil to usable form
145
Orchid Mycorrhizae
Fungi aid the plant in the uptake of nutrients
Fungi ingest some of the food from plant
photosynthesis 146
Lichen
Most of the lichen is composed of fungal filaments
but living among the filaments are algal cells
usually from a green alga or a cyanobacterium
The lichen fungus provides its partner(s) a benefit
(protection) and gains nutrients in return 147
Ruminants
Ruminants are characterized by their four-chambered
stomach and cud-chewing behavior Cud is a food bolus
that is regurgitated rechewed and reswallowed The
rumen is a large fermentation vat containing billions of
microorganisms including bacteria and protozoa which
allow ruminants to digest fibrous feeds such as grass and
hay that other animals cannot efficiently utilize 148
Crocodiles amp
Plover Birds
The bird gets into the crocodiles mouth and picks out
the tiny bits of food stuck in his teeth then eats it (the
tiny bits)
This cleans the crocodiles teeth and keeps his mouth
fresh and free from infections 149
Predation
bull Consumption of one living organism by
another
bull Predators must have offensive strategies
bull ways of finding catching and eating
their prey
bull Prey organisms must have defensive
strategies
bull ways of avoiding or discouraging this
activity
150
Predation
bull Encompasses all levels within an
ecological food chainweb
bull plant-herbivore systems
bull herbivore-carnivore systems
bull three-way interactions of
interdependent plant-herbivore-
carnivore systems
151
This goshawk is the tertiary consumer in his ecosystem
and the mouse in his beak is the secondary consumer
Beneath the mouse on the ecological pyramid lies his
foodsource likely a worm which fed on the primary
producer leafy plants 152
Ecosystem of Life in Floridas
Springs
bull Click here for a close-up look of life
in Floridas springs and the various
predator-prey interactions there
153
Grasslands ndash Indicator Animal Species
Bison (Bison bison) on the range
Theodore Roosevelt National Park North
Dakota
32
Grasslands ndash Indicator Animal Species
Przewalskis horse (Equus caballus
przewalskii) The Wilds Ohio
33
Grasslands ndash Indicator Animal Species
34
Taiga
bull Russian word for forest
bull largest biome in the world
bull Eurasia North America
bull located just below the tundra biome
bull many coniferous trees
bull aka boreal forest Boreal was the Greek goddess of the
North Wind
35
Taiga
bull winter temperature range is -54 to -1deg C (-65 to 30deg F)
bull summer -7deg C (20deg F) to 21deg C (70deg F)
bull summers are very short (50 - 100 frost free days)
bull average yearly precipitation 30 - 85 cm (12 - 33 in)
bull main seasons are winter and summer
bull spring and autumn are very short
bull weather is either hot and humid or very cold
36
Taiga
37
Taiga ndash Indicator Plant Species
Balsam Fir
Abies balsamea
Black Spruce
Picea mariana
38
Taiga ndash Indicator Plant Species
Jack Pine
Pinus banksiana
Paper Birch
Betula papyrifera
White Poplar
Populus alba
39
Taiga ndash Indicator Animal Species
American Black Bear
Ursus americanus
Bald Eagle
Haliaeetus leucocephalus 40
Taiga ndash Indicator Animal Species
Long-eared Owl
Aiso otus
Snowshoe Rabbit
Lepus americanus
41
Desert
bull cover about one fifth of Earths land surface
bull hot and dry near Tropic of CancerTropic of
Capricorn
bull cold near the Arctic
bull temperature
bull hot amp dry ~ 25deg C to ~ 49deg C
bull cold -2 to 4deg C (winter) 21 to 26deg C (summer)
bull precipitation
bull hot amp dry very little rainfall andor concentrated
rainfall in short periods between long rainless periods
(lt 15 cmyear)
bull cold 15 - 26 cmyear 42
Desert
43
Desert ndash Indicator Plant Species
44
Desert ndash Indicator Plant Species
Saguaro Cactus
Carnegiea gigantea
Fishhook Cactus
Mammillaria microcarpa
45
Desert ndash Indicator Plant Species
Trichomes
46
Desert ndash Indicator Animal Species
Zebratail Lizard - Callisaurus draconides
47
Desert ndash Indicator Animal Species
Rock hyrax (Procavia capensis) 48
Desert ndash Indicator Animal Species
Bactrian Camel Camelus bactrianus
49
Temperate Deciduous Forest
bull temperature 0 - 20 C
bull precipitation ~ 50 ndash 200 cmyear
50
Temperate Deciduous Forest
51
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Plant Species
Oaks (Quercus sp)
Dutchmans-Breeches
Dicentra cucullaria 52
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Plant Species
Sassafras
Sassafras albidum
Redbud
Cercis canadensis
53
Temperate Deciduous Forest ndash Succession
bull orderly succession of communities to a climax
community (biome)
bull two main types of succession
bull primary succession begins with bare rock exposed
by geologic activity
bull secondary succession begins on soil from which
previous community has been removed (by fire
agriculture etc)
bull secondary succession can proceed much faster
because the soil has been prepared by the
previous community
54
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
American Toad
Bufo americanus
Box Turtle
55
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
Eastern Chipmunk
Tamias striatus
Eastern Gray Squirrel
Sciurus carolinensis
56
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
Yellow-breasted chat
Icteria virens 57
Tundra
bull annual average temperature lt 5 C
bull precipitation (mostly in the form of snow) lt 100 mmyear
bull summer is brief
bull temperatures above freezing last only a few weeks at
most
bull warm summer coincides with periods of almost 24
hour daylight so plant growth can be explosive
58
Tundra
Anaktuvuk Pass Alaska
59
Tundra ndash Indicator Plant Species
Arctic Tundra Wildflowers - Alaska
60
Tundra ndash Indicator Plant Species
Lichen
Polytrichum Moss
(photographed in Ohio not on the
Tundra)
61
Tundra ndash Indicator Animal Species
Reindeer
Rangifer tarandus
62
Tundra ndash Indicator Animal Species
Caribou On Autumn Tundra Denali National Park Alaska
63
Savanna
bull rolling grassland scattered with shrubs and isolated trees
bull found between a tropical rainforest and desert biome
bull not enough rain falls on a savanna to support forests
bull found in a wide band on either side of the equator on
the edges of tropical rainforests
bull warm temperature year round
bull very long dry season (winter) ~ 10 cm rain none at all
from Dec - Feb
bull very wet season (summer) ~ 35-65 cm rain
64
Savanna
65
Savanna ndash Indicator Plant Species
Baobab
Adansonia digitata Umbrella Thorn Acacia
Acacia tortillis
66
Savanna ndash Indicator Animal Species
Savanna Elephant
Loxodonta africana
Black Mamba
Dendroaspis polylepis
Lion
Panthera leo
67
Chaparral
bull winter mild and moist but not rainy
bull summer very hot and dry
bull annual temperature range between -1deg and 38deg C
bull annual precipitation ~ 25-45 cm mostly in the winter
68
Chaparral
69
Chaparral ndash Indicator Plant Species
Blue Oak
Quercus douglasii
Common Sagebrush
Artemisia tridentata
Olive Tree
Olea europaea
70
Chaparral ndash Indicator Animal Species
Black-tailed Jackrabbit
Lepus californicus Golden Jackal
Canis aureus
Spotted Skunk
Spilogale gracilis
71
The Freshwater Biome
bull low salt concentration mdash usually less than 1
bull plants and animals in freshwater regions are adjusted to
the low salt content and would not be able to survive in
areas of high salt concentration (ie ocean)
bull 3 different types of freshwater regions
bull ponds and lakes
bull streams and rivers
bull wetlands
72
The Freshwater Biome ndash Ponds and Lakes
From left a view across Manzanita Lake toward Mt Lassen California a
forest pond near Donnelly Idaho a Great Blue Heron Paranagat Lake
southeastern Nevada
73
The Freshwater Biome ndash Streams and
Rivers
From left McArthur-Burney Falls State Park California trout Green
River Utah Brooks River Alaska
74
The Freshwater Biome - Wetlands
From left Pescadero Marsh California coastal marsh at Umpqua
Dunes Oregon trees and bogs on Esther Island Alaska
75
The Marine Biome
bull cover about three-fourths of the Earths surface
bull marine algae supply much of the worlds oxygen supply
and take in a huge amount of atmospheric carbon
dioxide
bull evaporation of the seawater provides rainwater for the
land
bull 3 different types of marine regions
bull oceans
bull coral reefs
bull estuaries
76
The Marine Biome - Oceans
From left mussels worms and a spider crab at a hydrocarbon seep
community in the Gulf of Mexico a sea fan and brain coral in the Florida
Keys National Marine Sanctuary a school of Atlantic amberjack off North
Carolina
77
The Marine Biome ndash Coral Reefs
From left reef life in the Gulf of Aqaba Red Sea a reef at Fanning
Island atoll in the central Pacific a reef in the Florida Keys National
Marine Sanctuary
78
The Marine Biome - Estuaries
From left Mangrove roots south Florida wetlands and tidal streams
in the Ashe Island area ACE Basin National Estuarine Research
Reserve South Carolina a salt marsh in Winyah Bay National
Estuarine Research Reserve South Carolina
79
Ecological Notes
These are the biomes in order of their productivity (highest
first)
1 estuaries and tropical rain forest (highest)
2 temperate forest
3 agricultural land
4 temperate grassland
5 lakes and streams
6 coastal zone
7 tundra
8 open ocean
9 desert (lowest)
80
Ecological Notes
In order to be productive and have a lot of living material
standing around (biomass) an ecosystem has to have 4
basic necessities for plant life to thrive (if there are
enough plants the ecosystem will also support a lot of
animals) The four things are
1 Sunlight
2 Nutrients
3 Warm temperatures
4 Water
81
Biomes Video
82
Take-Home Message
bull Biomes are the major ecological communities of earth
characterized mostly by the vegetation present
bull Different biomes result from differences in temperature
and precipitation and the extent to which they vary from
season to season
83
Challenge Question
bull Terrestrial biomes are determined by the temperature
and precipitation amounts as well as whether those
factors are constant or vary by season
bull By contrast how are aquatic biomes determined
84
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy flows from producers to
consumers
85
86
87
First Stop Primary Producers
bull ecosystem producers or consumers
bull primary producers plants algae (some) bacteria
bull convert light energy from sun into chemical energy
through photosynthesis
bull chemical energy = food
bull consumers eat or absorb their food
bull energy stored in chemical bonds of carbohydrate
protein and lipid molecules is captured and
harnessed for consumersrsquo own movement
reproduction and growth
88
Food Chain
89
Food Web
90
Food Web
91
Food Chains amp Food Webs
bull A change in one link in a food chain will affect the other
links
bull The table on the next slide gives one example of a food
chain and the trophic levels represented in it
92
Food Chains amp Food Webs
93
GRASS
GRASSHOPPER
TOAD
SNAKE
HAWK
BACTERIA
IN GENERAL
AUTOTROPHS
(PRODUCERS)
HERBIVORES
(PRIMARY
CONSUMERS)
CARNIVORES
(2 3 ETC)
DECOMPOSERS
94
Chain Reaction Game
95
Energy Flows through a Food Web
bull Losses at every ldquosteprdquo in a food chain
bull Inefficiency of energy transfers
96
Energy flow through a food chain
Energy flow refers to the way that energy is transformed through
a food chain (pictured here) containing a series of levels
including plants consumers predators and decomposers 97
Amount of energy available at each of the
four levels of an ecosystem
Ecological pyramids illustrate the amount of energy
available at each of the four levels of an ecosystem 98
Ecological Pyramid
99
A grasshopper eats a plant A mouse eats the
grasshopper A snake eats the mouse A hawk
could eat the snake or the mouse In this food
web how would we categorize the hawk
1 Producer
2 Primary consumer
3 Secondary consumer
4 Tertiary consumer
5 Quaternary consumer
6 4 and 5
100
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps
bull First it is converted to chemical energy in
photosynthesis
bull Herbivores then consume the primary producers the
herbivores are consumed by carnivores and the
carnivores in turn may be consumed by top carnivores
101
Take-home message
bull Detritivores and decomposers extract energy from
organic waste and the remains of organisms that have
died
bull At each step in a food chain some usable energy is lost
as heat
102
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy pyramids reveal the inefficiency of
food chains
103
Biomass
bull biomass total weight of all living organisms in a given
area
bull only about 10 of the plants in an ecosystem is
converted into biomass
bull Food Energy Pyramid
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
bull African savannas and grasslands sustain more species
of higher-order carnivores than any other terrestrial
ecosystem
104
105
Food Energy Pyramids
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
106
107
108
You go out to eat at a fancy restaurant You
have a salad salmon and for dessert ice
cream Which part of the meal was the most
energy efficient food for you to eat
1 Salad
2 Salmon
3 Ice cream
4 2 and 3
109
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps known as trophic levels
bull Energy pyramids reveal that the biomass of primary
producers in an ecosystem tends to be far greater than
the biomass of herbivores
bull The biomass transferred at each step along the food chain tends to be only about 10 of the biomass of the organisms being consumed due to energy lost in cellular respiration
bull As a consequence of this inefficiency food chains rarely exceed four levels
110
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Essential chemicals cycle through
ecosystems
111
Chemical Reservoirs
bull Each chemical is stored in a non-living part of the environment
bull Organisms acquire the chemical from the reservoir a non-living part of the environment
bull The chemical cycles through the food chain (biogeochemical cycles)
bull Eventually the chemical is returned to the reservoir
112
Hydrologic Cycle and the Florida Springs
bull Click here for a description of how falling rain feeds underground aquifers in Florida and forms springs
113
The Most Important Chemical Cycles
1) Carbon
2) Nitrogen
3) Phosphorus
4) Sulfur
114
115
The
Carbon
Cycle
116
The Carbon Cycle
Keeping Up With Carbon
NASA video provides key information on the carbon cycle
117
118
Carbon Cycle Game
Fossil Fuels
bull created when large numbers of organisms die and are buried in sediment lacking oxygen
bull In absence of oxygen at high pressures and after very long periods of time organic remains are ultimately transformed into coal oil and natural gas
bull burning coal oil and natural gas releases large amounts of carbon dioxide
bull increases average CO2 concentration in the atmosphere
bull current level of CO2 in the atmosphere is the highest it has been in almost half a million years
119
Global CO2 levels are rising in
general but they also exhibit a
sharp rise and fall within each
year ndash why
120
121
The Nitrogen Cycle
122
The Nitrogen Cycle
Fertilizers
bull Because it is necessary for the production of every plant
protein and because all nitrogen must first be made
usable by bacteria plant growth is often limited by
nitrogen levels in the soil
bull For this reason most fertilizers contain nitrogen in a
form usable by plants
123
124
125
126
127
Oxygen reduction downstream of a source of
organic pollution
128
Algal growth and eutrophication in an Australian
outback waterway
129
Sulfur Cycle
bull component of protein
bull cycles in both a gas and sedimentary cycle
bull source earths crust
bull enters the atmosphere as hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
during fossil fuel combustion volcanic eruptions
gas exchange at ocean surfaces decomposition
130
Sulfur Cycle
bull H2S is immediately oxidized to sulfur dioxide (SO2)
bull SO2 + water vapor H2SO4 (falls to earth in rain)
bull sulfur in soluble form is taken up by plant roots
incorporated into amino acids such as cysteine
bull travels through food chain
bull eventually released through decomposition
131
How is carbon recycled back to the
atmosphere in the carbon cycle
1 It is ldquofixedrdquo by bacteria
2 It is a product of cellular respiration
3 Burning of fossil fuels
4 2 and 3
5 All of the above
132
Why do commercial fertilizers usually
contain usable forms of nitrogen and
phosphorous
1 These chemicals are not efficiently recycled in
the soil
2 Nitrogen and phosphorous need to be ldquofixedrdquo
by bacteria or the plant
3 Nitrogen and phosphorous are found at high
levels in the atmosphere but not in the soil
4 Nitrogen and phosphorous only enter the soil
through erosion
133
Take-home message
bull Chemicals essential to lifemdashincluding carbon nitrogen and phosphorusmdashcycle through ecosystems
bull They are usually captured from the atmosphere soil or water by growing organisms passed from one trophic level to the next as organisms eat other organisms and returned to the environment through respiration decomposition and erosion
bull These cycles can be disrupted as human activities significantly increase the amounts of the chemicals utilized or released to the environment
134
Symbiotic Relationships
bull Symbiosis close relationship between organisms of
two different species
bull At least one participant gains some sort of benefit
(usually nutritional)
bull Types of symbiosis
bull Parasitism
bull Commensalism
bull Mutualism
bull Predation
135
Symbiotic Relationships in the
Ocean
bull Click here for an explanation of the
relationships of marine animals
including sharks rays and various
fishes
136
Parasitism bull Parasite derives nutrition from the host
bull This harms the host but a true parasite does
not usually kill its host (directly)
137
Ectoparasites
Remain outside the host
Ticks fleas leeches
138
Endoparasites
Live inside the hostrsquos body
Tapeworms malarial parasites
139
Parasite Transmission
bull Many parasites live on or in a single organism
bull Some will alternate between 2 or more host species
bull Vertical transmission ndash from mother offspring
bull Horizontal transmission ndash between members of a
population
bull Direct contact (head lice)
bull Vectors (mosquitos)
140
141
Commensalism
bull Neither species is totally dependent on the other
bull One benefits ndash no effect on the other
bull Feeding or protection
bull Porcelain anemone crabs and anemones
142
Mutualism
bull Both species benefit
bull Food or shelter
bull Examples
bull Plants and microbes (rhizobium in root nodules)
bull Plants and fungi (orchids and mycorrhizae)
bull Protists and fungi (lichen)
bull Plants and insects (pollination)
bull Animals and bacteria (ruminants)
bull Animals and other animals (crocodiles and
plover birds)
143
Mutualism shrimp and moray
Cleaner shrimp cleaning a zebra moray eel Mutualistic
relationships such as these promote the well-being of the
host fishes and provide food for those that do the cleaning 144
Rhizobium
Rhizobium in root nodules of certain plants convert
nitrogen in soil to usable form
145
Orchid Mycorrhizae
Fungi aid the plant in the uptake of nutrients
Fungi ingest some of the food from plant
photosynthesis 146
Lichen
Most of the lichen is composed of fungal filaments
but living among the filaments are algal cells
usually from a green alga or a cyanobacterium
The lichen fungus provides its partner(s) a benefit
(protection) and gains nutrients in return 147
Ruminants
Ruminants are characterized by their four-chambered
stomach and cud-chewing behavior Cud is a food bolus
that is regurgitated rechewed and reswallowed The
rumen is a large fermentation vat containing billions of
microorganisms including bacteria and protozoa which
allow ruminants to digest fibrous feeds such as grass and
hay that other animals cannot efficiently utilize 148
Crocodiles amp
Plover Birds
The bird gets into the crocodiles mouth and picks out
the tiny bits of food stuck in his teeth then eats it (the
tiny bits)
This cleans the crocodiles teeth and keeps his mouth
fresh and free from infections 149
Predation
bull Consumption of one living organism by
another
bull Predators must have offensive strategies
bull ways of finding catching and eating
their prey
bull Prey organisms must have defensive
strategies
bull ways of avoiding or discouraging this
activity
150
Predation
bull Encompasses all levels within an
ecological food chainweb
bull plant-herbivore systems
bull herbivore-carnivore systems
bull three-way interactions of
interdependent plant-herbivore-
carnivore systems
151
This goshawk is the tertiary consumer in his ecosystem
and the mouse in his beak is the secondary consumer
Beneath the mouse on the ecological pyramid lies his
foodsource likely a worm which fed on the primary
producer leafy plants 152
Ecosystem of Life in Floridas
Springs
bull Click here for a close-up look of life
in Floridas springs and the various
predator-prey interactions there
153
Grasslands ndash Indicator Animal Species
Przewalskis horse (Equus caballus
przewalskii) The Wilds Ohio
33
Grasslands ndash Indicator Animal Species
34
Taiga
bull Russian word for forest
bull largest biome in the world
bull Eurasia North America
bull located just below the tundra biome
bull many coniferous trees
bull aka boreal forest Boreal was the Greek goddess of the
North Wind
35
Taiga
bull winter temperature range is -54 to -1deg C (-65 to 30deg F)
bull summer -7deg C (20deg F) to 21deg C (70deg F)
bull summers are very short (50 - 100 frost free days)
bull average yearly precipitation 30 - 85 cm (12 - 33 in)
bull main seasons are winter and summer
bull spring and autumn are very short
bull weather is either hot and humid or very cold
36
Taiga
37
Taiga ndash Indicator Plant Species
Balsam Fir
Abies balsamea
Black Spruce
Picea mariana
38
Taiga ndash Indicator Plant Species
Jack Pine
Pinus banksiana
Paper Birch
Betula papyrifera
White Poplar
Populus alba
39
Taiga ndash Indicator Animal Species
American Black Bear
Ursus americanus
Bald Eagle
Haliaeetus leucocephalus 40
Taiga ndash Indicator Animal Species
Long-eared Owl
Aiso otus
Snowshoe Rabbit
Lepus americanus
41
Desert
bull cover about one fifth of Earths land surface
bull hot and dry near Tropic of CancerTropic of
Capricorn
bull cold near the Arctic
bull temperature
bull hot amp dry ~ 25deg C to ~ 49deg C
bull cold -2 to 4deg C (winter) 21 to 26deg C (summer)
bull precipitation
bull hot amp dry very little rainfall andor concentrated
rainfall in short periods between long rainless periods
(lt 15 cmyear)
bull cold 15 - 26 cmyear 42
Desert
43
Desert ndash Indicator Plant Species
44
Desert ndash Indicator Plant Species
Saguaro Cactus
Carnegiea gigantea
Fishhook Cactus
Mammillaria microcarpa
45
Desert ndash Indicator Plant Species
Trichomes
46
Desert ndash Indicator Animal Species
Zebratail Lizard - Callisaurus draconides
47
Desert ndash Indicator Animal Species
Rock hyrax (Procavia capensis) 48
Desert ndash Indicator Animal Species
Bactrian Camel Camelus bactrianus
49
Temperate Deciduous Forest
bull temperature 0 - 20 C
bull precipitation ~ 50 ndash 200 cmyear
50
Temperate Deciduous Forest
51
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Plant Species
Oaks (Quercus sp)
Dutchmans-Breeches
Dicentra cucullaria 52
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Plant Species
Sassafras
Sassafras albidum
Redbud
Cercis canadensis
53
Temperate Deciduous Forest ndash Succession
bull orderly succession of communities to a climax
community (biome)
bull two main types of succession
bull primary succession begins with bare rock exposed
by geologic activity
bull secondary succession begins on soil from which
previous community has been removed (by fire
agriculture etc)
bull secondary succession can proceed much faster
because the soil has been prepared by the
previous community
54
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
American Toad
Bufo americanus
Box Turtle
55
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
Eastern Chipmunk
Tamias striatus
Eastern Gray Squirrel
Sciurus carolinensis
56
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
Yellow-breasted chat
Icteria virens 57
Tundra
bull annual average temperature lt 5 C
bull precipitation (mostly in the form of snow) lt 100 mmyear
bull summer is brief
bull temperatures above freezing last only a few weeks at
most
bull warm summer coincides with periods of almost 24
hour daylight so plant growth can be explosive
58
Tundra
Anaktuvuk Pass Alaska
59
Tundra ndash Indicator Plant Species
Arctic Tundra Wildflowers - Alaska
60
Tundra ndash Indicator Plant Species
Lichen
Polytrichum Moss
(photographed in Ohio not on the
Tundra)
61
Tundra ndash Indicator Animal Species
Reindeer
Rangifer tarandus
62
Tundra ndash Indicator Animal Species
Caribou On Autumn Tundra Denali National Park Alaska
63
Savanna
bull rolling grassland scattered with shrubs and isolated trees
bull found between a tropical rainforest and desert biome
bull not enough rain falls on a savanna to support forests
bull found in a wide band on either side of the equator on
the edges of tropical rainforests
bull warm temperature year round
bull very long dry season (winter) ~ 10 cm rain none at all
from Dec - Feb
bull very wet season (summer) ~ 35-65 cm rain
64
Savanna
65
Savanna ndash Indicator Plant Species
Baobab
Adansonia digitata Umbrella Thorn Acacia
Acacia tortillis
66
Savanna ndash Indicator Animal Species
Savanna Elephant
Loxodonta africana
Black Mamba
Dendroaspis polylepis
Lion
Panthera leo
67
Chaparral
bull winter mild and moist but not rainy
bull summer very hot and dry
bull annual temperature range between -1deg and 38deg C
bull annual precipitation ~ 25-45 cm mostly in the winter
68
Chaparral
69
Chaparral ndash Indicator Plant Species
Blue Oak
Quercus douglasii
Common Sagebrush
Artemisia tridentata
Olive Tree
Olea europaea
70
Chaparral ndash Indicator Animal Species
Black-tailed Jackrabbit
Lepus californicus Golden Jackal
Canis aureus
Spotted Skunk
Spilogale gracilis
71
The Freshwater Biome
bull low salt concentration mdash usually less than 1
bull plants and animals in freshwater regions are adjusted to
the low salt content and would not be able to survive in
areas of high salt concentration (ie ocean)
bull 3 different types of freshwater regions
bull ponds and lakes
bull streams and rivers
bull wetlands
72
The Freshwater Biome ndash Ponds and Lakes
From left a view across Manzanita Lake toward Mt Lassen California a
forest pond near Donnelly Idaho a Great Blue Heron Paranagat Lake
southeastern Nevada
73
The Freshwater Biome ndash Streams and
Rivers
From left McArthur-Burney Falls State Park California trout Green
River Utah Brooks River Alaska
74
The Freshwater Biome - Wetlands
From left Pescadero Marsh California coastal marsh at Umpqua
Dunes Oregon trees and bogs on Esther Island Alaska
75
The Marine Biome
bull cover about three-fourths of the Earths surface
bull marine algae supply much of the worlds oxygen supply
and take in a huge amount of atmospheric carbon
dioxide
bull evaporation of the seawater provides rainwater for the
land
bull 3 different types of marine regions
bull oceans
bull coral reefs
bull estuaries
76
The Marine Biome - Oceans
From left mussels worms and a spider crab at a hydrocarbon seep
community in the Gulf of Mexico a sea fan and brain coral in the Florida
Keys National Marine Sanctuary a school of Atlantic amberjack off North
Carolina
77
The Marine Biome ndash Coral Reefs
From left reef life in the Gulf of Aqaba Red Sea a reef at Fanning
Island atoll in the central Pacific a reef in the Florida Keys National
Marine Sanctuary
78
The Marine Biome - Estuaries
From left Mangrove roots south Florida wetlands and tidal streams
in the Ashe Island area ACE Basin National Estuarine Research
Reserve South Carolina a salt marsh in Winyah Bay National
Estuarine Research Reserve South Carolina
79
Ecological Notes
These are the biomes in order of their productivity (highest
first)
1 estuaries and tropical rain forest (highest)
2 temperate forest
3 agricultural land
4 temperate grassland
5 lakes and streams
6 coastal zone
7 tundra
8 open ocean
9 desert (lowest)
80
Ecological Notes
In order to be productive and have a lot of living material
standing around (biomass) an ecosystem has to have 4
basic necessities for plant life to thrive (if there are
enough plants the ecosystem will also support a lot of
animals) The four things are
1 Sunlight
2 Nutrients
3 Warm temperatures
4 Water
81
Biomes Video
82
Take-Home Message
bull Biomes are the major ecological communities of earth
characterized mostly by the vegetation present
bull Different biomes result from differences in temperature
and precipitation and the extent to which they vary from
season to season
83
Challenge Question
bull Terrestrial biomes are determined by the temperature
and precipitation amounts as well as whether those
factors are constant or vary by season
bull By contrast how are aquatic biomes determined
84
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy flows from producers to
consumers
85
86
87
First Stop Primary Producers
bull ecosystem producers or consumers
bull primary producers plants algae (some) bacteria
bull convert light energy from sun into chemical energy
through photosynthesis
bull chemical energy = food
bull consumers eat or absorb their food
bull energy stored in chemical bonds of carbohydrate
protein and lipid molecules is captured and
harnessed for consumersrsquo own movement
reproduction and growth
88
Food Chain
89
Food Web
90
Food Web
91
Food Chains amp Food Webs
bull A change in one link in a food chain will affect the other
links
bull The table on the next slide gives one example of a food
chain and the trophic levels represented in it
92
Food Chains amp Food Webs
93
GRASS
GRASSHOPPER
TOAD
SNAKE
HAWK
BACTERIA
IN GENERAL
AUTOTROPHS
(PRODUCERS)
HERBIVORES
(PRIMARY
CONSUMERS)
CARNIVORES
(2 3 ETC)
DECOMPOSERS
94
Chain Reaction Game
95
Energy Flows through a Food Web
bull Losses at every ldquosteprdquo in a food chain
bull Inefficiency of energy transfers
96
Energy flow through a food chain
Energy flow refers to the way that energy is transformed through
a food chain (pictured here) containing a series of levels
including plants consumers predators and decomposers 97
Amount of energy available at each of the
four levels of an ecosystem
Ecological pyramids illustrate the amount of energy
available at each of the four levels of an ecosystem 98
Ecological Pyramid
99
A grasshopper eats a plant A mouse eats the
grasshopper A snake eats the mouse A hawk
could eat the snake or the mouse In this food
web how would we categorize the hawk
1 Producer
2 Primary consumer
3 Secondary consumer
4 Tertiary consumer
5 Quaternary consumer
6 4 and 5
100
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps
bull First it is converted to chemical energy in
photosynthesis
bull Herbivores then consume the primary producers the
herbivores are consumed by carnivores and the
carnivores in turn may be consumed by top carnivores
101
Take-home message
bull Detritivores and decomposers extract energy from
organic waste and the remains of organisms that have
died
bull At each step in a food chain some usable energy is lost
as heat
102
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy pyramids reveal the inefficiency of
food chains
103
Biomass
bull biomass total weight of all living organisms in a given
area
bull only about 10 of the plants in an ecosystem is
converted into biomass
bull Food Energy Pyramid
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
bull African savannas and grasslands sustain more species
of higher-order carnivores than any other terrestrial
ecosystem
104
105
Food Energy Pyramids
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
106
107
108
You go out to eat at a fancy restaurant You
have a salad salmon and for dessert ice
cream Which part of the meal was the most
energy efficient food for you to eat
1 Salad
2 Salmon
3 Ice cream
4 2 and 3
109
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps known as trophic levels
bull Energy pyramids reveal that the biomass of primary
producers in an ecosystem tends to be far greater than
the biomass of herbivores
bull The biomass transferred at each step along the food chain tends to be only about 10 of the biomass of the organisms being consumed due to energy lost in cellular respiration
bull As a consequence of this inefficiency food chains rarely exceed four levels
110
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Essential chemicals cycle through
ecosystems
111
Chemical Reservoirs
bull Each chemical is stored in a non-living part of the environment
bull Organisms acquire the chemical from the reservoir a non-living part of the environment
bull The chemical cycles through the food chain (biogeochemical cycles)
bull Eventually the chemical is returned to the reservoir
112
Hydrologic Cycle and the Florida Springs
bull Click here for a description of how falling rain feeds underground aquifers in Florida and forms springs
113
The Most Important Chemical Cycles
1) Carbon
2) Nitrogen
3) Phosphorus
4) Sulfur
114
115
The
Carbon
Cycle
116
The Carbon Cycle
Keeping Up With Carbon
NASA video provides key information on the carbon cycle
117
118
Carbon Cycle Game
Fossil Fuels
bull created when large numbers of organisms die and are buried in sediment lacking oxygen
bull In absence of oxygen at high pressures and after very long periods of time organic remains are ultimately transformed into coal oil and natural gas
bull burning coal oil and natural gas releases large amounts of carbon dioxide
bull increases average CO2 concentration in the atmosphere
bull current level of CO2 in the atmosphere is the highest it has been in almost half a million years
119
Global CO2 levels are rising in
general but they also exhibit a
sharp rise and fall within each
year ndash why
120
121
The Nitrogen Cycle
122
The Nitrogen Cycle
Fertilizers
bull Because it is necessary for the production of every plant
protein and because all nitrogen must first be made
usable by bacteria plant growth is often limited by
nitrogen levels in the soil
bull For this reason most fertilizers contain nitrogen in a
form usable by plants
123
124
125
126
127
Oxygen reduction downstream of a source of
organic pollution
128
Algal growth and eutrophication in an Australian
outback waterway
129
Sulfur Cycle
bull component of protein
bull cycles in both a gas and sedimentary cycle
bull source earths crust
bull enters the atmosphere as hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
during fossil fuel combustion volcanic eruptions
gas exchange at ocean surfaces decomposition
130
Sulfur Cycle
bull H2S is immediately oxidized to sulfur dioxide (SO2)
bull SO2 + water vapor H2SO4 (falls to earth in rain)
bull sulfur in soluble form is taken up by plant roots
incorporated into amino acids such as cysteine
bull travels through food chain
bull eventually released through decomposition
131
How is carbon recycled back to the
atmosphere in the carbon cycle
1 It is ldquofixedrdquo by bacteria
2 It is a product of cellular respiration
3 Burning of fossil fuels
4 2 and 3
5 All of the above
132
Why do commercial fertilizers usually
contain usable forms of nitrogen and
phosphorous
1 These chemicals are not efficiently recycled in
the soil
2 Nitrogen and phosphorous need to be ldquofixedrdquo
by bacteria or the plant
3 Nitrogen and phosphorous are found at high
levels in the atmosphere but not in the soil
4 Nitrogen and phosphorous only enter the soil
through erosion
133
Take-home message
bull Chemicals essential to lifemdashincluding carbon nitrogen and phosphorusmdashcycle through ecosystems
bull They are usually captured from the atmosphere soil or water by growing organisms passed from one trophic level to the next as organisms eat other organisms and returned to the environment through respiration decomposition and erosion
bull These cycles can be disrupted as human activities significantly increase the amounts of the chemicals utilized or released to the environment
134
Symbiotic Relationships
bull Symbiosis close relationship between organisms of
two different species
bull At least one participant gains some sort of benefit
(usually nutritional)
bull Types of symbiosis
bull Parasitism
bull Commensalism
bull Mutualism
bull Predation
135
Symbiotic Relationships in the
Ocean
bull Click here for an explanation of the
relationships of marine animals
including sharks rays and various
fishes
136
Parasitism bull Parasite derives nutrition from the host
bull This harms the host but a true parasite does
not usually kill its host (directly)
137
Ectoparasites
Remain outside the host
Ticks fleas leeches
138
Endoparasites
Live inside the hostrsquos body
Tapeworms malarial parasites
139
Parasite Transmission
bull Many parasites live on or in a single organism
bull Some will alternate between 2 or more host species
bull Vertical transmission ndash from mother offspring
bull Horizontal transmission ndash between members of a
population
bull Direct contact (head lice)
bull Vectors (mosquitos)
140
141
Commensalism
bull Neither species is totally dependent on the other
bull One benefits ndash no effect on the other
bull Feeding or protection
bull Porcelain anemone crabs and anemones
142
Mutualism
bull Both species benefit
bull Food or shelter
bull Examples
bull Plants and microbes (rhizobium in root nodules)
bull Plants and fungi (orchids and mycorrhizae)
bull Protists and fungi (lichen)
bull Plants and insects (pollination)
bull Animals and bacteria (ruminants)
bull Animals and other animals (crocodiles and
plover birds)
143
Mutualism shrimp and moray
Cleaner shrimp cleaning a zebra moray eel Mutualistic
relationships such as these promote the well-being of the
host fishes and provide food for those that do the cleaning 144
Rhizobium
Rhizobium in root nodules of certain plants convert
nitrogen in soil to usable form
145
Orchid Mycorrhizae
Fungi aid the plant in the uptake of nutrients
Fungi ingest some of the food from plant
photosynthesis 146
Lichen
Most of the lichen is composed of fungal filaments
but living among the filaments are algal cells
usually from a green alga or a cyanobacterium
The lichen fungus provides its partner(s) a benefit
(protection) and gains nutrients in return 147
Ruminants
Ruminants are characterized by their four-chambered
stomach and cud-chewing behavior Cud is a food bolus
that is regurgitated rechewed and reswallowed The
rumen is a large fermentation vat containing billions of
microorganisms including bacteria and protozoa which
allow ruminants to digest fibrous feeds such as grass and
hay that other animals cannot efficiently utilize 148
Crocodiles amp
Plover Birds
The bird gets into the crocodiles mouth and picks out
the tiny bits of food stuck in his teeth then eats it (the
tiny bits)
This cleans the crocodiles teeth and keeps his mouth
fresh and free from infections 149
Predation
bull Consumption of one living organism by
another
bull Predators must have offensive strategies
bull ways of finding catching and eating
their prey
bull Prey organisms must have defensive
strategies
bull ways of avoiding or discouraging this
activity
150
Predation
bull Encompasses all levels within an
ecological food chainweb
bull plant-herbivore systems
bull herbivore-carnivore systems
bull three-way interactions of
interdependent plant-herbivore-
carnivore systems
151
This goshawk is the tertiary consumer in his ecosystem
and the mouse in his beak is the secondary consumer
Beneath the mouse on the ecological pyramid lies his
foodsource likely a worm which fed on the primary
producer leafy plants 152
Ecosystem of Life in Floridas
Springs
bull Click here for a close-up look of life
in Floridas springs and the various
predator-prey interactions there
153
Grasslands ndash Indicator Animal Species
34
Taiga
bull Russian word for forest
bull largest biome in the world
bull Eurasia North America
bull located just below the tundra biome
bull many coniferous trees
bull aka boreal forest Boreal was the Greek goddess of the
North Wind
35
Taiga
bull winter temperature range is -54 to -1deg C (-65 to 30deg F)
bull summer -7deg C (20deg F) to 21deg C (70deg F)
bull summers are very short (50 - 100 frost free days)
bull average yearly precipitation 30 - 85 cm (12 - 33 in)
bull main seasons are winter and summer
bull spring and autumn are very short
bull weather is either hot and humid or very cold
36
Taiga
37
Taiga ndash Indicator Plant Species
Balsam Fir
Abies balsamea
Black Spruce
Picea mariana
38
Taiga ndash Indicator Plant Species
Jack Pine
Pinus banksiana
Paper Birch
Betula papyrifera
White Poplar
Populus alba
39
Taiga ndash Indicator Animal Species
American Black Bear
Ursus americanus
Bald Eagle
Haliaeetus leucocephalus 40
Taiga ndash Indicator Animal Species
Long-eared Owl
Aiso otus
Snowshoe Rabbit
Lepus americanus
41
Desert
bull cover about one fifth of Earths land surface
bull hot and dry near Tropic of CancerTropic of
Capricorn
bull cold near the Arctic
bull temperature
bull hot amp dry ~ 25deg C to ~ 49deg C
bull cold -2 to 4deg C (winter) 21 to 26deg C (summer)
bull precipitation
bull hot amp dry very little rainfall andor concentrated
rainfall in short periods between long rainless periods
(lt 15 cmyear)
bull cold 15 - 26 cmyear 42
Desert
43
Desert ndash Indicator Plant Species
44
Desert ndash Indicator Plant Species
Saguaro Cactus
Carnegiea gigantea
Fishhook Cactus
Mammillaria microcarpa
45
Desert ndash Indicator Plant Species
Trichomes
46
Desert ndash Indicator Animal Species
Zebratail Lizard - Callisaurus draconides
47
Desert ndash Indicator Animal Species
Rock hyrax (Procavia capensis) 48
Desert ndash Indicator Animal Species
Bactrian Camel Camelus bactrianus
49
Temperate Deciduous Forest
bull temperature 0 - 20 C
bull precipitation ~ 50 ndash 200 cmyear
50
Temperate Deciduous Forest
51
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Plant Species
Oaks (Quercus sp)
Dutchmans-Breeches
Dicentra cucullaria 52
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Plant Species
Sassafras
Sassafras albidum
Redbud
Cercis canadensis
53
Temperate Deciduous Forest ndash Succession
bull orderly succession of communities to a climax
community (biome)
bull two main types of succession
bull primary succession begins with bare rock exposed
by geologic activity
bull secondary succession begins on soil from which
previous community has been removed (by fire
agriculture etc)
bull secondary succession can proceed much faster
because the soil has been prepared by the
previous community
54
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
American Toad
Bufo americanus
Box Turtle
55
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
Eastern Chipmunk
Tamias striatus
Eastern Gray Squirrel
Sciurus carolinensis
56
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
Yellow-breasted chat
Icteria virens 57
Tundra
bull annual average temperature lt 5 C
bull precipitation (mostly in the form of snow) lt 100 mmyear
bull summer is brief
bull temperatures above freezing last only a few weeks at
most
bull warm summer coincides with periods of almost 24
hour daylight so plant growth can be explosive
58
Tundra
Anaktuvuk Pass Alaska
59
Tundra ndash Indicator Plant Species
Arctic Tundra Wildflowers - Alaska
60
Tundra ndash Indicator Plant Species
Lichen
Polytrichum Moss
(photographed in Ohio not on the
Tundra)
61
Tundra ndash Indicator Animal Species
Reindeer
Rangifer tarandus
62
Tundra ndash Indicator Animal Species
Caribou On Autumn Tundra Denali National Park Alaska
63
Savanna
bull rolling grassland scattered with shrubs and isolated trees
bull found between a tropical rainforest and desert biome
bull not enough rain falls on a savanna to support forests
bull found in a wide band on either side of the equator on
the edges of tropical rainforests
bull warm temperature year round
bull very long dry season (winter) ~ 10 cm rain none at all
from Dec - Feb
bull very wet season (summer) ~ 35-65 cm rain
64
Savanna
65
Savanna ndash Indicator Plant Species
Baobab
Adansonia digitata Umbrella Thorn Acacia
Acacia tortillis
66
Savanna ndash Indicator Animal Species
Savanna Elephant
Loxodonta africana
Black Mamba
Dendroaspis polylepis
Lion
Panthera leo
67
Chaparral
bull winter mild and moist but not rainy
bull summer very hot and dry
bull annual temperature range between -1deg and 38deg C
bull annual precipitation ~ 25-45 cm mostly in the winter
68
Chaparral
69
Chaparral ndash Indicator Plant Species
Blue Oak
Quercus douglasii
Common Sagebrush
Artemisia tridentata
Olive Tree
Olea europaea
70
Chaparral ndash Indicator Animal Species
Black-tailed Jackrabbit
Lepus californicus Golden Jackal
Canis aureus
Spotted Skunk
Spilogale gracilis
71
The Freshwater Biome
bull low salt concentration mdash usually less than 1
bull plants and animals in freshwater regions are adjusted to
the low salt content and would not be able to survive in
areas of high salt concentration (ie ocean)
bull 3 different types of freshwater regions
bull ponds and lakes
bull streams and rivers
bull wetlands
72
The Freshwater Biome ndash Ponds and Lakes
From left a view across Manzanita Lake toward Mt Lassen California a
forest pond near Donnelly Idaho a Great Blue Heron Paranagat Lake
southeastern Nevada
73
The Freshwater Biome ndash Streams and
Rivers
From left McArthur-Burney Falls State Park California trout Green
River Utah Brooks River Alaska
74
The Freshwater Biome - Wetlands
From left Pescadero Marsh California coastal marsh at Umpqua
Dunes Oregon trees and bogs on Esther Island Alaska
75
The Marine Biome
bull cover about three-fourths of the Earths surface
bull marine algae supply much of the worlds oxygen supply
and take in a huge amount of atmospheric carbon
dioxide
bull evaporation of the seawater provides rainwater for the
land
bull 3 different types of marine regions
bull oceans
bull coral reefs
bull estuaries
76
The Marine Biome - Oceans
From left mussels worms and a spider crab at a hydrocarbon seep
community in the Gulf of Mexico a sea fan and brain coral in the Florida
Keys National Marine Sanctuary a school of Atlantic amberjack off North
Carolina
77
The Marine Biome ndash Coral Reefs
From left reef life in the Gulf of Aqaba Red Sea a reef at Fanning
Island atoll in the central Pacific a reef in the Florida Keys National
Marine Sanctuary
78
The Marine Biome - Estuaries
From left Mangrove roots south Florida wetlands and tidal streams
in the Ashe Island area ACE Basin National Estuarine Research
Reserve South Carolina a salt marsh in Winyah Bay National
Estuarine Research Reserve South Carolina
79
Ecological Notes
These are the biomes in order of their productivity (highest
first)
1 estuaries and tropical rain forest (highest)
2 temperate forest
3 agricultural land
4 temperate grassland
5 lakes and streams
6 coastal zone
7 tundra
8 open ocean
9 desert (lowest)
80
Ecological Notes
In order to be productive and have a lot of living material
standing around (biomass) an ecosystem has to have 4
basic necessities for plant life to thrive (if there are
enough plants the ecosystem will also support a lot of
animals) The four things are
1 Sunlight
2 Nutrients
3 Warm temperatures
4 Water
81
Biomes Video
82
Take-Home Message
bull Biomes are the major ecological communities of earth
characterized mostly by the vegetation present
bull Different biomes result from differences in temperature
and precipitation and the extent to which they vary from
season to season
83
Challenge Question
bull Terrestrial biomes are determined by the temperature
and precipitation amounts as well as whether those
factors are constant or vary by season
bull By contrast how are aquatic biomes determined
84
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy flows from producers to
consumers
85
86
87
First Stop Primary Producers
bull ecosystem producers or consumers
bull primary producers plants algae (some) bacteria
bull convert light energy from sun into chemical energy
through photosynthesis
bull chemical energy = food
bull consumers eat or absorb their food
bull energy stored in chemical bonds of carbohydrate
protein and lipid molecules is captured and
harnessed for consumersrsquo own movement
reproduction and growth
88
Food Chain
89
Food Web
90
Food Web
91
Food Chains amp Food Webs
bull A change in one link in a food chain will affect the other
links
bull The table on the next slide gives one example of a food
chain and the trophic levels represented in it
92
Food Chains amp Food Webs
93
GRASS
GRASSHOPPER
TOAD
SNAKE
HAWK
BACTERIA
IN GENERAL
AUTOTROPHS
(PRODUCERS)
HERBIVORES
(PRIMARY
CONSUMERS)
CARNIVORES
(2 3 ETC)
DECOMPOSERS
94
Chain Reaction Game
95
Energy Flows through a Food Web
bull Losses at every ldquosteprdquo in a food chain
bull Inefficiency of energy transfers
96
Energy flow through a food chain
Energy flow refers to the way that energy is transformed through
a food chain (pictured here) containing a series of levels
including plants consumers predators and decomposers 97
Amount of energy available at each of the
four levels of an ecosystem
Ecological pyramids illustrate the amount of energy
available at each of the four levels of an ecosystem 98
Ecological Pyramid
99
A grasshopper eats a plant A mouse eats the
grasshopper A snake eats the mouse A hawk
could eat the snake or the mouse In this food
web how would we categorize the hawk
1 Producer
2 Primary consumer
3 Secondary consumer
4 Tertiary consumer
5 Quaternary consumer
6 4 and 5
100
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps
bull First it is converted to chemical energy in
photosynthesis
bull Herbivores then consume the primary producers the
herbivores are consumed by carnivores and the
carnivores in turn may be consumed by top carnivores
101
Take-home message
bull Detritivores and decomposers extract energy from
organic waste and the remains of organisms that have
died
bull At each step in a food chain some usable energy is lost
as heat
102
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy pyramids reveal the inefficiency of
food chains
103
Biomass
bull biomass total weight of all living organisms in a given
area
bull only about 10 of the plants in an ecosystem is
converted into biomass
bull Food Energy Pyramid
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
bull African savannas and grasslands sustain more species
of higher-order carnivores than any other terrestrial
ecosystem
104
105
Food Energy Pyramids
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
106
107
108
You go out to eat at a fancy restaurant You
have a salad salmon and for dessert ice
cream Which part of the meal was the most
energy efficient food for you to eat
1 Salad
2 Salmon
3 Ice cream
4 2 and 3
109
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps known as trophic levels
bull Energy pyramids reveal that the biomass of primary
producers in an ecosystem tends to be far greater than
the biomass of herbivores
bull The biomass transferred at each step along the food chain tends to be only about 10 of the biomass of the organisms being consumed due to energy lost in cellular respiration
bull As a consequence of this inefficiency food chains rarely exceed four levels
110
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Essential chemicals cycle through
ecosystems
111
Chemical Reservoirs
bull Each chemical is stored in a non-living part of the environment
bull Organisms acquire the chemical from the reservoir a non-living part of the environment
bull The chemical cycles through the food chain (biogeochemical cycles)
bull Eventually the chemical is returned to the reservoir
112
Hydrologic Cycle and the Florida Springs
bull Click here for a description of how falling rain feeds underground aquifers in Florida and forms springs
113
The Most Important Chemical Cycles
1) Carbon
2) Nitrogen
3) Phosphorus
4) Sulfur
114
115
The
Carbon
Cycle
116
The Carbon Cycle
Keeping Up With Carbon
NASA video provides key information on the carbon cycle
117
118
Carbon Cycle Game
Fossil Fuels
bull created when large numbers of organisms die and are buried in sediment lacking oxygen
bull In absence of oxygen at high pressures and after very long periods of time organic remains are ultimately transformed into coal oil and natural gas
bull burning coal oil and natural gas releases large amounts of carbon dioxide
bull increases average CO2 concentration in the atmosphere
bull current level of CO2 in the atmosphere is the highest it has been in almost half a million years
119
Global CO2 levels are rising in
general but they also exhibit a
sharp rise and fall within each
year ndash why
120
121
The Nitrogen Cycle
122
The Nitrogen Cycle
Fertilizers
bull Because it is necessary for the production of every plant
protein and because all nitrogen must first be made
usable by bacteria plant growth is often limited by
nitrogen levels in the soil
bull For this reason most fertilizers contain nitrogen in a
form usable by plants
123
124
125
126
127
Oxygen reduction downstream of a source of
organic pollution
128
Algal growth and eutrophication in an Australian
outback waterway
129
Sulfur Cycle
bull component of protein
bull cycles in both a gas and sedimentary cycle
bull source earths crust
bull enters the atmosphere as hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
during fossil fuel combustion volcanic eruptions
gas exchange at ocean surfaces decomposition
130
Sulfur Cycle
bull H2S is immediately oxidized to sulfur dioxide (SO2)
bull SO2 + water vapor H2SO4 (falls to earth in rain)
bull sulfur in soluble form is taken up by plant roots
incorporated into amino acids such as cysteine
bull travels through food chain
bull eventually released through decomposition
131
How is carbon recycled back to the
atmosphere in the carbon cycle
1 It is ldquofixedrdquo by bacteria
2 It is a product of cellular respiration
3 Burning of fossil fuels
4 2 and 3
5 All of the above
132
Why do commercial fertilizers usually
contain usable forms of nitrogen and
phosphorous
1 These chemicals are not efficiently recycled in
the soil
2 Nitrogen and phosphorous need to be ldquofixedrdquo
by bacteria or the plant
3 Nitrogen and phosphorous are found at high
levels in the atmosphere but not in the soil
4 Nitrogen and phosphorous only enter the soil
through erosion
133
Take-home message
bull Chemicals essential to lifemdashincluding carbon nitrogen and phosphorusmdashcycle through ecosystems
bull They are usually captured from the atmosphere soil or water by growing organisms passed from one trophic level to the next as organisms eat other organisms and returned to the environment through respiration decomposition and erosion
bull These cycles can be disrupted as human activities significantly increase the amounts of the chemicals utilized or released to the environment
134
Symbiotic Relationships
bull Symbiosis close relationship between organisms of
two different species
bull At least one participant gains some sort of benefit
(usually nutritional)
bull Types of symbiosis
bull Parasitism
bull Commensalism
bull Mutualism
bull Predation
135
Symbiotic Relationships in the
Ocean
bull Click here for an explanation of the
relationships of marine animals
including sharks rays and various
fishes
136
Parasitism bull Parasite derives nutrition from the host
bull This harms the host but a true parasite does
not usually kill its host (directly)
137
Ectoparasites
Remain outside the host
Ticks fleas leeches
138
Endoparasites
Live inside the hostrsquos body
Tapeworms malarial parasites
139
Parasite Transmission
bull Many parasites live on or in a single organism
bull Some will alternate between 2 or more host species
bull Vertical transmission ndash from mother offspring
bull Horizontal transmission ndash between members of a
population
bull Direct contact (head lice)
bull Vectors (mosquitos)
140
141
Commensalism
bull Neither species is totally dependent on the other
bull One benefits ndash no effect on the other
bull Feeding or protection
bull Porcelain anemone crabs and anemones
142
Mutualism
bull Both species benefit
bull Food or shelter
bull Examples
bull Plants and microbes (rhizobium in root nodules)
bull Plants and fungi (orchids and mycorrhizae)
bull Protists and fungi (lichen)
bull Plants and insects (pollination)
bull Animals and bacteria (ruminants)
bull Animals and other animals (crocodiles and
plover birds)
143
Mutualism shrimp and moray
Cleaner shrimp cleaning a zebra moray eel Mutualistic
relationships such as these promote the well-being of the
host fishes and provide food for those that do the cleaning 144
Rhizobium
Rhizobium in root nodules of certain plants convert
nitrogen in soil to usable form
145
Orchid Mycorrhizae
Fungi aid the plant in the uptake of nutrients
Fungi ingest some of the food from plant
photosynthesis 146
Lichen
Most of the lichen is composed of fungal filaments
but living among the filaments are algal cells
usually from a green alga or a cyanobacterium
The lichen fungus provides its partner(s) a benefit
(protection) and gains nutrients in return 147
Ruminants
Ruminants are characterized by their four-chambered
stomach and cud-chewing behavior Cud is a food bolus
that is regurgitated rechewed and reswallowed The
rumen is a large fermentation vat containing billions of
microorganisms including bacteria and protozoa which
allow ruminants to digest fibrous feeds such as grass and
hay that other animals cannot efficiently utilize 148
Crocodiles amp
Plover Birds
The bird gets into the crocodiles mouth and picks out
the tiny bits of food stuck in his teeth then eats it (the
tiny bits)
This cleans the crocodiles teeth and keeps his mouth
fresh and free from infections 149
Predation
bull Consumption of one living organism by
another
bull Predators must have offensive strategies
bull ways of finding catching and eating
their prey
bull Prey organisms must have defensive
strategies
bull ways of avoiding or discouraging this
activity
150
Predation
bull Encompasses all levels within an
ecological food chainweb
bull plant-herbivore systems
bull herbivore-carnivore systems
bull three-way interactions of
interdependent plant-herbivore-
carnivore systems
151
This goshawk is the tertiary consumer in his ecosystem
and the mouse in his beak is the secondary consumer
Beneath the mouse on the ecological pyramid lies his
foodsource likely a worm which fed on the primary
producer leafy plants 152
Ecosystem of Life in Floridas
Springs
bull Click here for a close-up look of life
in Floridas springs and the various
predator-prey interactions there
153
Taiga
bull Russian word for forest
bull largest biome in the world
bull Eurasia North America
bull located just below the tundra biome
bull many coniferous trees
bull aka boreal forest Boreal was the Greek goddess of the
North Wind
35
Taiga
bull winter temperature range is -54 to -1deg C (-65 to 30deg F)
bull summer -7deg C (20deg F) to 21deg C (70deg F)
bull summers are very short (50 - 100 frost free days)
bull average yearly precipitation 30 - 85 cm (12 - 33 in)
bull main seasons are winter and summer
bull spring and autumn are very short
bull weather is either hot and humid or very cold
36
Taiga
37
Taiga ndash Indicator Plant Species
Balsam Fir
Abies balsamea
Black Spruce
Picea mariana
38
Taiga ndash Indicator Plant Species
Jack Pine
Pinus banksiana
Paper Birch
Betula papyrifera
White Poplar
Populus alba
39
Taiga ndash Indicator Animal Species
American Black Bear
Ursus americanus
Bald Eagle
Haliaeetus leucocephalus 40
Taiga ndash Indicator Animal Species
Long-eared Owl
Aiso otus
Snowshoe Rabbit
Lepus americanus
41
Desert
bull cover about one fifth of Earths land surface
bull hot and dry near Tropic of CancerTropic of
Capricorn
bull cold near the Arctic
bull temperature
bull hot amp dry ~ 25deg C to ~ 49deg C
bull cold -2 to 4deg C (winter) 21 to 26deg C (summer)
bull precipitation
bull hot amp dry very little rainfall andor concentrated
rainfall in short periods between long rainless periods
(lt 15 cmyear)
bull cold 15 - 26 cmyear 42
Desert
43
Desert ndash Indicator Plant Species
44
Desert ndash Indicator Plant Species
Saguaro Cactus
Carnegiea gigantea
Fishhook Cactus
Mammillaria microcarpa
45
Desert ndash Indicator Plant Species
Trichomes
46
Desert ndash Indicator Animal Species
Zebratail Lizard - Callisaurus draconides
47
Desert ndash Indicator Animal Species
Rock hyrax (Procavia capensis) 48
Desert ndash Indicator Animal Species
Bactrian Camel Camelus bactrianus
49
Temperate Deciduous Forest
bull temperature 0 - 20 C
bull precipitation ~ 50 ndash 200 cmyear
50
Temperate Deciduous Forest
51
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Plant Species
Oaks (Quercus sp)
Dutchmans-Breeches
Dicentra cucullaria 52
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Plant Species
Sassafras
Sassafras albidum
Redbud
Cercis canadensis
53
Temperate Deciduous Forest ndash Succession
bull orderly succession of communities to a climax
community (biome)
bull two main types of succession
bull primary succession begins with bare rock exposed
by geologic activity
bull secondary succession begins on soil from which
previous community has been removed (by fire
agriculture etc)
bull secondary succession can proceed much faster
because the soil has been prepared by the
previous community
54
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
American Toad
Bufo americanus
Box Turtle
55
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
Eastern Chipmunk
Tamias striatus
Eastern Gray Squirrel
Sciurus carolinensis
56
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
Yellow-breasted chat
Icteria virens 57
Tundra
bull annual average temperature lt 5 C
bull precipitation (mostly in the form of snow) lt 100 mmyear
bull summer is brief
bull temperatures above freezing last only a few weeks at
most
bull warm summer coincides with periods of almost 24
hour daylight so plant growth can be explosive
58
Tundra
Anaktuvuk Pass Alaska
59
Tundra ndash Indicator Plant Species
Arctic Tundra Wildflowers - Alaska
60
Tundra ndash Indicator Plant Species
Lichen
Polytrichum Moss
(photographed in Ohio not on the
Tundra)
61
Tundra ndash Indicator Animal Species
Reindeer
Rangifer tarandus
62
Tundra ndash Indicator Animal Species
Caribou On Autumn Tundra Denali National Park Alaska
63
Savanna
bull rolling grassland scattered with shrubs and isolated trees
bull found between a tropical rainforest and desert biome
bull not enough rain falls on a savanna to support forests
bull found in a wide band on either side of the equator on
the edges of tropical rainforests
bull warm temperature year round
bull very long dry season (winter) ~ 10 cm rain none at all
from Dec - Feb
bull very wet season (summer) ~ 35-65 cm rain
64
Savanna
65
Savanna ndash Indicator Plant Species
Baobab
Adansonia digitata Umbrella Thorn Acacia
Acacia tortillis
66
Savanna ndash Indicator Animal Species
Savanna Elephant
Loxodonta africana
Black Mamba
Dendroaspis polylepis
Lion
Panthera leo
67
Chaparral
bull winter mild and moist but not rainy
bull summer very hot and dry
bull annual temperature range between -1deg and 38deg C
bull annual precipitation ~ 25-45 cm mostly in the winter
68
Chaparral
69
Chaparral ndash Indicator Plant Species
Blue Oak
Quercus douglasii
Common Sagebrush
Artemisia tridentata
Olive Tree
Olea europaea
70
Chaparral ndash Indicator Animal Species
Black-tailed Jackrabbit
Lepus californicus Golden Jackal
Canis aureus
Spotted Skunk
Spilogale gracilis
71
The Freshwater Biome
bull low salt concentration mdash usually less than 1
bull plants and animals in freshwater regions are adjusted to
the low salt content and would not be able to survive in
areas of high salt concentration (ie ocean)
bull 3 different types of freshwater regions
bull ponds and lakes
bull streams and rivers
bull wetlands
72
The Freshwater Biome ndash Ponds and Lakes
From left a view across Manzanita Lake toward Mt Lassen California a
forest pond near Donnelly Idaho a Great Blue Heron Paranagat Lake
southeastern Nevada
73
The Freshwater Biome ndash Streams and
Rivers
From left McArthur-Burney Falls State Park California trout Green
River Utah Brooks River Alaska
74
The Freshwater Biome - Wetlands
From left Pescadero Marsh California coastal marsh at Umpqua
Dunes Oregon trees and bogs on Esther Island Alaska
75
The Marine Biome
bull cover about three-fourths of the Earths surface
bull marine algae supply much of the worlds oxygen supply
and take in a huge amount of atmospheric carbon
dioxide
bull evaporation of the seawater provides rainwater for the
land
bull 3 different types of marine regions
bull oceans
bull coral reefs
bull estuaries
76
The Marine Biome - Oceans
From left mussels worms and a spider crab at a hydrocarbon seep
community in the Gulf of Mexico a sea fan and brain coral in the Florida
Keys National Marine Sanctuary a school of Atlantic amberjack off North
Carolina
77
The Marine Biome ndash Coral Reefs
From left reef life in the Gulf of Aqaba Red Sea a reef at Fanning
Island atoll in the central Pacific a reef in the Florida Keys National
Marine Sanctuary
78
The Marine Biome - Estuaries
From left Mangrove roots south Florida wetlands and tidal streams
in the Ashe Island area ACE Basin National Estuarine Research
Reserve South Carolina a salt marsh in Winyah Bay National
Estuarine Research Reserve South Carolina
79
Ecological Notes
These are the biomes in order of their productivity (highest
first)
1 estuaries and tropical rain forest (highest)
2 temperate forest
3 agricultural land
4 temperate grassland
5 lakes and streams
6 coastal zone
7 tundra
8 open ocean
9 desert (lowest)
80
Ecological Notes
In order to be productive and have a lot of living material
standing around (biomass) an ecosystem has to have 4
basic necessities for plant life to thrive (if there are
enough plants the ecosystem will also support a lot of
animals) The four things are
1 Sunlight
2 Nutrients
3 Warm temperatures
4 Water
81
Biomes Video
82
Take-Home Message
bull Biomes are the major ecological communities of earth
characterized mostly by the vegetation present
bull Different biomes result from differences in temperature
and precipitation and the extent to which they vary from
season to season
83
Challenge Question
bull Terrestrial biomes are determined by the temperature
and precipitation amounts as well as whether those
factors are constant or vary by season
bull By contrast how are aquatic biomes determined
84
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy flows from producers to
consumers
85
86
87
First Stop Primary Producers
bull ecosystem producers or consumers
bull primary producers plants algae (some) bacteria
bull convert light energy from sun into chemical energy
through photosynthesis
bull chemical energy = food
bull consumers eat or absorb their food
bull energy stored in chemical bonds of carbohydrate
protein and lipid molecules is captured and
harnessed for consumersrsquo own movement
reproduction and growth
88
Food Chain
89
Food Web
90
Food Web
91
Food Chains amp Food Webs
bull A change in one link in a food chain will affect the other
links
bull The table on the next slide gives one example of a food
chain and the trophic levels represented in it
92
Food Chains amp Food Webs
93
GRASS
GRASSHOPPER
TOAD
SNAKE
HAWK
BACTERIA
IN GENERAL
AUTOTROPHS
(PRODUCERS)
HERBIVORES
(PRIMARY
CONSUMERS)
CARNIVORES
(2 3 ETC)
DECOMPOSERS
94
Chain Reaction Game
95
Energy Flows through a Food Web
bull Losses at every ldquosteprdquo in a food chain
bull Inefficiency of energy transfers
96
Energy flow through a food chain
Energy flow refers to the way that energy is transformed through
a food chain (pictured here) containing a series of levels
including plants consumers predators and decomposers 97
Amount of energy available at each of the
four levels of an ecosystem
Ecological pyramids illustrate the amount of energy
available at each of the four levels of an ecosystem 98
Ecological Pyramid
99
A grasshopper eats a plant A mouse eats the
grasshopper A snake eats the mouse A hawk
could eat the snake or the mouse In this food
web how would we categorize the hawk
1 Producer
2 Primary consumer
3 Secondary consumer
4 Tertiary consumer
5 Quaternary consumer
6 4 and 5
100
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps
bull First it is converted to chemical energy in
photosynthesis
bull Herbivores then consume the primary producers the
herbivores are consumed by carnivores and the
carnivores in turn may be consumed by top carnivores
101
Take-home message
bull Detritivores and decomposers extract energy from
organic waste and the remains of organisms that have
died
bull At each step in a food chain some usable energy is lost
as heat
102
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy pyramids reveal the inefficiency of
food chains
103
Biomass
bull biomass total weight of all living organisms in a given
area
bull only about 10 of the plants in an ecosystem is
converted into biomass
bull Food Energy Pyramid
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
bull African savannas and grasslands sustain more species
of higher-order carnivores than any other terrestrial
ecosystem
104
105
Food Energy Pyramids
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
106
107
108
You go out to eat at a fancy restaurant You
have a salad salmon and for dessert ice
cream Which part of the meal was the most
energy efficient food for you to eat
1 Salad
2 Salmon
3 Ice cream
4 2 and 3
109
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps known as trophic levels
bull Energy pyramids reveal that the biomass of primary
producers in an ecosystem tends to be far greater than
the biomass of herbivores
bull The biomass transferred at each step along the food chain tends to be only about 10 of the biomass of the organisms being consumed due to energy lost in cellular respiration
bull As a consequence of this inefficiency food chains rarely exceed four levels
110
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Essential chemicals cycle through
ecosystems
111
Chemical Reservoirs
bull Each chemical is stored in a non-living part of the environment
bull Organisms acquire the chemical from the reservoir a non-living part of the environment
bull The chemical cycles through the food chain (biogeochemical cycles)
bull Eventually the chemical is returned to the reservoir
112
Hydrologic Cycle and the Florida Springs
bull Click here for a description of how falling rain feeds underground aquifers in Florida and forms springs
113
The Most Important Chemical Cycles
1) Carbon
2) Nitrogen
3) Phosphorus
4) Sulfur
114
115
The
Carbon
Cycle
116
The Carbon Cycle
Keeping Up With Carbon
NASA video provides key information on the carbon cycle
117
118
Carbon Cycle Game
Fossil Fuels
bull created when large numbers of organisms die and are buried in sediment lacking oxygen
bull In absence of oxygen at high pressures and after very long periods of time organic remains are ultimately transformed into coal oil and natural gas
bull burning coal oil and natural gas releases large amounts of carbon dioxide
bull increases average CO2 concentration in the atmosphere
bull current level of CO2 in the atmosphere is the highest it has been in almost half a million years
119
Global CO2 levels are rising in
general but they also exhibit a
sharp rise and fall within each
year ndash why
120
121
The Nitrogen Cycle
122
The Nitrogen Cycle
Fertilizers
bull Because it is necessary for the production of every plant
protein and because all nitrogen must first be made
usable by bacteria plant growth is often limited by
nitrogen levels in the soil
bull For this reason most fertilizers contain nitrogen in a
form usable by plants
123
124
125
126
127
Oxygen reduction downstream of a source of
organic pollution
128
Algal growth and eutrophication in an Australian
outback waterway
129
Sulfur Cycle
bull component of protein
bull cycles in both a gas and sedimentary cycle
bull source earths crust
bull enters the atmosphere as hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
during fossil fuel combustion volcanic eruptions
gas exchange at ocean surfaces decomposition
130
Sulfur Cycle
bull H2S is immediately oxidized to sulfur dioxide (SO2)
bull SO2 + water vapor H2SO4 (falls to earth in rain)
bull sulfur in soluble form is taken up by plant roots
incorporated into amino acids such as cysteine
bull travels through food chain
bull eventually released through decomposition
131
How is carbon recycled back to the
atmosphere in the carbon cycle
1 It is ldquofixedrdquo by bacteria
2 It is a product of cellular respiration
3 Burning of fossil fuels
4 2 and 3
5 All of the above
132
Why do commercial fertilizers usually
contain usable forms of nitrogen and
phosphorous
1 These chemicals are not efficiently recycled in
the soil
2 Nitrogen and phosphorous need to be ldquofixedrdquo
by bacteria or the plant
3 Nitrogen and phosphorous are found at high
levels in the atmosphere but not in the soil
4 Nitrogen and phosphorous only enter the soil
through erosion
133
Take-home message
bull Chemicals essential to lifemdashincluding carbon nitrogen and phosphorusmdashcycle through ecosystems
bull They are usually captured from the atmosphere soil or water by growing organisms passed from one trophic level to the next as organisms eat other organisms and returned to the environment through respiration decomposition and erosion
bull These cycles can be disrupted as human activities significantly increase the amounts of the chemicals utilized or released to the environment
134
Symbiotic Relationships
bull Symbiosis close relationship between organisms of
two different species
bull At least one participant gains some sort of benefit
(usually nutritional)
bull Types of symbiosis
bull Parasitism
bull Commensalism
bull Mutualism
bull Predation
135
Symbiotic Relationships in the
Ocean
bull Click here for an explanation of the
relationships of marine animals
including sharks rays and various
fishes
136
Parasitism bull Parasite derives nutrition from the host
bull This harms the host but a true parasite does
not usually kill its host (directly)
137
Ectoparasites
Remain outside the host
Ticks fleas leeches
138
Endoparasites
Live inside the hostrsquos body
Tapeworms malarial parasites
139
Parasite Transmission
bull Many parasites live on or in a single organism
bull Some will alternate between 2 or more host species
bull Vertical transmission ndash from mother offspring
bull Horizontal transmission ndash between members of a
population
bull Direct contact (head lice)
bull Vectors (mosquitos)
140
141
Commensalism
bull Neither species is totally dependent on the other
bull One benefits ndash no effect on the other
bull Feeding or protection
bull Porcelain anemone crabs and anemones
142
Mutualism
bull Both species benefit
bull Food or shelter
bull Examples
bull Plants and microbes (rhizobium in root nodules)
bull Plants and fungi (orchids and mycorrhizae)
bull Protists and fungi (lichen)
bull Plants and insects (pollination)
bull Animals and bacteria (ruminants)
bull Animals and other animals (crocodiles and
plover birds)
143
Mutualism shrimp and moray
Cleaner shrimp cleaning a zebra moray eel Mutualistic
relationships such as these promote the well-being of the
host fishes and provide food for those that do the cleaning 144
Rhizobium
Rhizobium in root nodules of certain plants convert
nitrogen in soil to usable form
145
Orchid Mycorrhizae
Fungi aid the plant in the uptake of nutrients
Fungi ingest some of the food from plant
photosynthesis 146
Lichen
Most of the lichen is composed of fungal filaments
but living among the filaments are algal cells
usually from a green alga or a cyanobacterium
The lichen fungus provides its partner(s) a benefit
(protection) and gains nutrients in return 147
Ruminants
Ruminants are characterized by their four-chambered
stomach and cud-chewing behavior Cud is a food bolus
that is regurgitated rechewed and reswallowed The
rumen is a large fermentation vat containing billions of
microorganisms including bacteria and protozoa which
allow ruminants to digest fibrous feeds such as grass and
hay that other animals cannot efficiently utilize 148
Crocodiles amp
Plover Birds
The bird gets into the crocodiles mouth and picks out
the tiny bits of food stuck in his teeth then eats it (the
tiny bits)
This cleans the crocodiles teeth and keeps his mouth
fresh and free from infections 149
Predation
bull Consumption of one living organism by
another
bull Predators must have offensive strategies
bull ways of finding catching and eating
their prey
bull Prey organisms must have defensive
strategies
bull ways of avoiding or discouraging this
activity
150
Predation
bull Encompasses all levels within an
ecological food chainweb
bull plant-herbivore systems
bull herbivore-carnivore systems
bull three-way interactions of
interdependent plant-herbivore-
carnivore systems
151
This goshawk is the tertiary consumer in his ecosystem
and the mouse in his beak is the secondary consumer
Beneath the mouse on the ecological pyramid lies his
foodsource likely a worm which fed on the primary
producer leafy plants 152
Ecosystem of Life in Floridas
Springs
bull Click here for a close-up look of life
in Floridas springs and the various
predator-prey interactions there
153
Taiga
bull winter temperature range is -54 to -1deg C (-65 to 30deg F)
bull summer -7deg C (20deg F) to 21deg C (70deg F)
bull summers are very short (50 - 100 frost free days)
bull average yearly precipitation 30 - 85 cm (12 - 33 in)
bull main seasons are winter and summer
bull spring and autumn are very short
bull weather is either hot and humid or very cold
36
Taiga
37
Taiga ndash Indicator Plant Species
Balsam Fir
Abies balsamea
Black Spruce
Picea mariana
38
Taiga ndash Indicator Plant Species
Jack Pine
Pinus banksiana
Paper Birch
Betula papyrifera
White Poplar
Populus alba
39
Taiga ndash Indicator Animal Species
American Black Bear
Ursus americanus
Bald Eagle
Haliaeetus leucocephalus 40
Taiga ndash Indicator Animal Species
Long-eared Owl
Aiso otus
Snowshoe Rabbit
Lepus americanus
41
Desert
bull cover about one fifth of Earths land surface
bull hot and dry near Tropic of CancerTropic of
Capricorn
bull cold near the Arctic
bull temperature
bull hot amp dry ~ 25deg C to ~ 49deg C
bull cold -2 to 4deg C (winter) 21 to 26deg C (summer)
bull precipitation
bull hot amp dry very little rainfall andor concentrated
rainfall in short periods between long rainless periods
(lt 15 cmyear)
bull cold 15 - 26 cmyear 42
Desert
43
Desert ndash Indicator Plant Species
44
Desert ndash Indicator Plant Species
Saguaro Cactus
Carnegiea gigantea
Fishhook Cactus
Mammillaria microcarpa
45
Desert ndash Indicator Plant Species
Trichomes
46
Desert ndash Indicator Animal Species
Zebratail Lizard - Callisaurus draconides
47
Desert ndash Indicator Animal Species
Rock hyrax (Procavia capensis) 48
Desert ndash Indicator Animal Species
Bactrian Camel Camelus bactrianus
49
Temperate Deciduous Forest
bull temperature 0 - 20 C
bull precipitation ~ 50 ndash 200 cmyear
50
Temperate Deciduous Forest
51
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Plant Species
Oaks (Quercus sp)
Dutchmans-Breeches
Dicentra cucullaria 52
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Plant Species
Sassafras
Sassafras albidum
Redbud
Cercis canadensis
53
Temperate Deciduous Forest ndash Succession
bull orderly succession of communities to a climax
community (biome)
bull two main types of succession
bull primary succession begins with bare rock exposed
by geologic activity
bull secondary succession begins on soil from which
previous community has been removed (by fire
agriculture etc)
bull secondary succession can proceed much faster
because the soil has been prepared by the
previous community
54
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
American Toad
Bufo americanus
Box Turtle
55
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
Eastern Chipmunk
Tamias striatus
Eastern Gray Squirrel
Sciurus carolinensis
56
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
Yellow-breasted chat
Icteria virens 57
Tundra
bull annual average temperature lt 5 C
bull precipitation (mostly in the form of snow) lt 100 mmyear
bull summer is brief
bull temperatures above freezing last only a few weeks at
most
bull warm summer coincides with periods of almost 24
hour daylight so plant growth can be explosive
58
Tundra
Anaktuvuk Pass Alaska
59
Tundra ndash Indicator Plant Species
Arctic Tundra Wildflowers - Alaska
60
Tundra ndash Indicator Plant Species
Lichen
Polytrichum Moss
(photographed in Ohio not on the
Tundra)
61
Tundra ndash Indicator Animal Species
Reindeer
Rangifer tarandus
62
Tundra ndash Indicator Animal Species
Caribou On Autumn Tundra Denali National Park Alaska
63
Savanna
bull rolling grassland scattered with shrubs and isolated trees
bull found between a tropical rainforest and desert biome
bull not enough rain falls on a savanna to support forests
bull found in a wide band on either side of the equator on
the edges of tropical rainforests
bull warm temperature year round
bull very long dry season (winter) ~ 10 cm rain none at all
from Dec - Feb
bull very wet season (summer) ~ 35-65 cm rain
64
Savanna
65
Savanna ndash Indicator Plant Species
Baobab
Adansonia digitata Umbrella Thorn Acacia
Acacia tortillis
66
Savanna ndash Indicator Animal Species
Savanna Elephant
Loxodonta africana
Black Mamba
Dendroaspis polylepis
Lion
Panthera leo
67
Chaparral
bull winter mild and moist but not rainy
bull summer very hot and dry
bull annual temperature range between -1deg and 38deg C
bull annual precipitation ~ 25-45 cm mostly in the winter
68
Chaparral
69
Chaparral ndash Indicator Plant Species
Blue Oak
Quercus douglasii
Common Sagebrush
Artemisia tridentata
Olive Tree
Olea europaea
70
Chaparral ndash Indicator Animal Species
Black-tailed Jackrabbit
Lepus californicus Golden Jackal
Canis aureus
Spotted Skunk
Spilogale gracilis
71
The Freshwater Biome
bull low salt concentration mdash usually less than 1
bull plants and animals in freshwater regions are adjusted to
the low salt content and would not be able to survive in
areas of high salt concentration (ie ocean)
bull 3 different types of freshwater regions
bull ponds and lakes
bull streams and rivers
bull wetlands
72
The Freshwater Biome ndash Ponds and Lakes
From left a view across Manzanita Lake toward Mt Lassen California a
forest pond near Donnelly Idaho a Great Blue Heron Paranagat Lake
southeastern Nevada
73
The Freshwater Biome ndash Streams and
Rivers
From left McArthur-Burney Falls State Park California trout Green
River Utah Brooks River Alaska
74
The Freshwater Biome - Wetlands
From left Pescadero Marsh California coastal marsh at Umpqua
Dunes Oregon trees and bogs on Esther Island Alaska
75
The Marine Biome
bull cover about three-fourths of the Earths surface
bull marine algae supply much of the worlds oxygen supply
and take in a huge amount of atmospheric carbon
dioxide
bull evaporation of the seawater provides rainwater for the
land
bull 3 different types of marine regions
bull oceans
bull coral reefs
bull estuaries
76
The Marine Biome - Oceans
From left mussels worms and a spider crab at a hydrocarbon seep
community in the Gulf of Mexico a sea fan and brain coral in the Florida
Keys National Marine Sanctuary a school of Atlantic amberjack off North
Carolina
77
The Marine Biome ndash Coral Reefs
From left reef life in the Gulf of Aqaba Red Sea a reef at Fanning
Island atoll in the central Pacific a reef in the Florida Keys National
Marine Sanctuary
78
The Marine Biome - Estuaries
From left Mangrove roots south Florida wetlands and tidal streams
in the Ashe Island area ACE Basin National Estuarine Research
Reserve South Carolina a salt marsh in Winyah Bay National
Estuarine Research Reserve South Carolina
79
Ecological Notes
These are the biomes in order of their productivity (highest
first)
1 estuaries and tropical rain forest (highest)
2 temperate forest
3 agricultural land
4 temperate grassland
5 lakes and streams
6 coastal zone
7 tundra
8 open ocean
9 desert (lowest)
80
Ecological Notes
In order to be productive and have a lot of living material
standing around (biomass) an ecosystem has to have 4
basic necessities for plant life to thrive (if there are
enough plants the ecosystem will also support a lot of
animals) The four things are
1 Sunlight
2 Nutrients
3 Warm temperatures
4 Water
81
Biomes Video
82
Take-Home Message
bull Biomes are the major ecological communities of earth
characterized mostly by the vegetation present
bull Different biomes result from differences in temperature
and precipitation and the extent to which they vary from
season to season
83
Challenge Question
bull Terrestrial biomes are determined by the temperature
and precipitation amounts as well as whether those
factors are constant or vary by season
bull By contrast how are aquatic biomes determined
84
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy flows from producers to
consumers
85
86
87
First Stop Primary Producers
bull ecosystem producers or consumers
bull primary producers plants algae (some) bacteria
bull convert light energy from sun into chemical energy
through photosynthesis
bull chemical energy = food
bull consumers eat or absorb their food
bull energy stored in chemical bonds of carbohydrate
protein and lipid molecules is captured and
harnessed for consumersrsquo own movement
reproduction and growth
88
Food Chain
89
Food Web
90
Food Web
91
Food Chains amp Food Webs
bull A change in one link in a food chain will affect the other
links
bull The table on the next slide gives one example of a food
chain and the trophic levels represented in it
92
Food Chains amp Food Webs
93
GRASS
GRASSHOPPER
TOAD
SNAKE
HAWK
BACTERIA
IN GENERAL
AUTOTROPHS
(PRODUCERS)
HERBIVORES
(PRIMARY
CONSUMERS)
CARNIVORES
(2 3 ETC)
DECOMPOSERS
94
Chain Reaction Game
95
Energy Flows through a Food Web
bull Losses at every ldquosteprdquo in a food chain
bull Inefficiency of energy transfers
96
Energy flow through a food chain
Energy flow refers to the way that energy is transformed through
a food chain (pictured here) containing a series of levels
including plants consumers predators and decomposers 97
Amount of energy available at each of the
four levels of an ecosystem
Ecological pyramids illustrate the amount of energy
available at each of the four levels of an ecosystem 98
Ecological Pyramid
99
A grasshopper eats a plant A mouse eats the
grasshopper A snake eats the mouse A hawk
could eat the snake or the mouse In this food
web how would we categorize the hawk
1 Producer
2 Primary consumer
3 Secondary consumer
4 Tertiary consumer
5 Quaternary consumer
6 4 and 5
100
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps
bull First it is converted to chemical energy in
photosynthesis
bull Herbivores then consume the primary producers the
herbivores are consumed by carnivores and the
carnivores in turn may be consumed by top carnivores
101
Take-home message
bull Detritivores and decomposers extract energy from
organic waste and the remains of organisms that have
died
bull At each step in a food chain some usable energy is lost
as heat
102
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy pyramids reveal the inefficiency of
food chains
103
Biomass
bull biomass total weight of all living organisms in a given
area
bull only about 10 of the plants in an ecosystem is
converted into biomass
bull Food Energy Pyramid
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
bull African savannas and grasslands sustain more species
of higher-order carnivores than any other terrestrial
ecosystem
104
105
Food Energy Pyramids
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
106
107
108
You go out to eat at a fancy restaurant You
have a salad salmon and for dessert ice
cream Which part of the meal was the most
energy efficient food for you to eat
1 Salad
2 Salmon
3 Ice cream
4 2 and 3
109
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps known as trophic levels
bull Energy pyramids reveal that the biomass of primary
producers in an ecosystem tends to be far greater than
the biomass of herbivores
bull The biomass transferred at each step along the food chain tends to be only about 10 of the biomass of the organisms being consumed due to energy lost in cellular respiration
bull As a consequence of this inefficiency food chains rarely exceed four levels
110
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Essential chemicals cycle through
ecosystems
111
Chemical Reservoirs
bull Each chemical is stored in a non-living part of the environment
bull Organisms acquire the chemical from the reservoir a non-living part of the environment
bull The chemical cycles through the food chain (biogeochemical cycles)
bull Eventually the chemical is returned to the reservoir
112
Hydrologic Cycle and the Florida Springs
bull Click here for a description of how falling rain feeds underground aquifers in Florida and forms springs
113
The Most Important Chemical Cycles
1) Carbon
2) Nitrogen
3) Phosphorus
4) Sulfur
114
115
The
Carbon
Cycle
116
The Carbon Cycle
Keeping Up With Carbon
NASA video provides key information on the carbon cycle
117
118
Carbon Cycle Game
Fossil Fuels
bull created when large numbers of organisms die and are buried in sediment lacking oxygen
bull In absence of oxygen at high pressures and after very long periods of time organic remains are ultimately transformed into coal oil and natural gas
bull burning coal oil and natural gas releases large amounts of carbon dioxide
bull increases average CO2 concentration in the atmosphere
bull current level of CO2 in the atmosphere is the highest it has been in almost half a million years
119
Global CO2 levels are rising in
general but they also exhibit a
sharp rise and fall within each
year ndash why
120
121
The Nitrogen Cycle
122
The Nitrogen Cycle
Fertilizers
bull Because it is necessary for the production of every plant
protein and because all nitrogen must first be made
usable by bacteria plant growth is often limited by
nitrogen levels in the soil
bull For this reason most fertilizers contain nitrogen in a
form usable by plants
123
124
125
126
127
Oxygen reduction downstream of a source of
organic pollution
128
Algal growth and eutrophication in an Australian
outback waterway
129
Sulfur Cycle
bull component of protein
bull cycles in both a gas and sedimentary cycle
bull source earths crust
bull enters the atmosphere as hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
during fossil fuel combustion volcanic eruptions
gas exchange at ocean surfaces decomposition
130
Sulfur Cycle
bull H2S is immediately oxidized to sulfur dioxide (SO2)
bull SO2 + water vapor H2SO4 (falls to earth in rain)
bull sulfur in soluble form is taken up by plant roots
incorporated into amino acids such as cysteine
bull travels through food chain
bull eventually released through decomposition
131
How is carbon recycled back to the
atmosphere in the carbon cycle
1 It is ldquofixedrdquo by bacteria
2 It is a product of cellular respiration
3 Burning of fossil fuels
4 2 and 3
5 All of the above
132
Why do commercial fertilizers usually
contain usable forms of nitrogen and
phosphorous
1 These chemicals are not efficiently recycled in
the soil
2 Nitrogen and phosphorous need to be ldquofixedrdquo
by bacteria or the plant
3 Nitrogen and phosphorous are found at high
levels in the atmosphere but not in the soil
4 Nitrogen and phosphorous only enter the soil
through erosion
133
Take-home message
bull Chemicals essential to lifemdashincluding carbon nitrogen and phosphorusmdashcycle through ecosystems
bull They are usually captured from the atmosphere soil or water by growing organisms passed from one trophic level to the next as organisms eat other organisms and returned to the environment through respiration decomposition and erosion
bull These cycles can be disrupted as human activities significantly increase the amounts of the chemicals utilized or released to the environment
134
Symbiotic Relationships
bull Symbiosis close relationship between organisms of
two different species
bull At least one participant gains some sort of benefit
(usually nutritional)
bull Types of symbiosis
bull Parasitism
bull Commensalism
bull Mutualism
bull Predation
135
Symbiotic Relationships in the
Ocean
bull Click here for an explanation of the
relationships of marine animals
including sharks rays and various
fishes
136
Parasitism bull Parasite derives nutrition from the host
bull This harms the host but a true parasite does
not usually kill its host (directly)
137
Ectoparasites
Remain outside the host
Ticks fleas leeches
138
Endoparasites
Live inside the hostrsquos body
Tapeworms malarial parasites
139
Parasite Transmission
bull Many parasites live on or in a single organism
bull Some will alternate between 2 or more host species
bull Vertical transmission ndash from mother offspring
bull Horizontal transmission ndash between members of a
population
bull Direct contact (head lice)
bull Vectors (mosquitos)
140
141
Commensalism
bull Neither species is totally dependent on the other
bull One benefits ndash no effect on the other
bull Feeding or protection
bull Porcelain anemone crabs and anemones
142
Mutualism
bull Both species benefit
bull Food or shelter
bull Examples
bull Plants and microbes (rhizobium in root nodules)
bull Plants and fungi (orchids and mycorrhizae)
bull Protists and fungi (lichen)
bull Plants and insects (pollination)
bull Animals and bacteria (ruminants)
bull Animals and other animals (crocodiles and
plover birds)
143
Mutualism shrimp and moray
Cleaner shrimp cleaning a zebra moray eel Mutualistic
relationships such as these promote the well-being of the
host fishes and provide food for those that do the cleaning 144
Rhizobium
Rhizobium in root nodules of certain plants convert
nitrogen in soil to usable form
145
Orchid Mycorrhizae
Fungi aid the plant in the uptake of nutrients
Fungi ingest some of the food from plant
photosynthesis 146
Lichen
Most of the lichen is composed of fungal filaments
but living among the filaments are algal cells
usually from a green alga or a cyanobacterium
The lichen fungus provides its partner(s) a benefit
(protection) and gains nutrients in return 147
Ruminants
Ruminants are characterized by their four-chambered
stomach and cud-chewing behavior Cud is a food bolus
that is regurgitated rechewed and reswallowed The
rumen is a large fermentation vat containing billions of
microorganisms including bacteria and protozoa which
allow ruminants to digest fibrous feeds such as grass and
hay that other animals cannot efficiently utilize 148
Crocodiles amp
Plover Birds
The bird gets into the crocodiles mouth and picks out
the tiny bits of food stuck in his teeth then eats it (the
tiny bits)
This cleans the crocodiles teeth and keeps his mouth
fresh and free from infections 149
Predation
bull Consumption of one living organism by
another
bull Predators must have offensive strategies
bull ways of finding catching and eating
their prey
bull Prey organisms must have defensive
strategies
bull ways of avoiding or discouraging this
activity
150
Predation
bull Encompasses all levels within an
ecological food chainweb
bull plant-herbivore systems
bull herbivore-carnivore systems
bull three-way interactions of
interdependent plant-herbivore-
carnivore systems
151
This goshawk is the tertiary consumer in his ecosystem
and the mouse in his beak is the secondary consumer
Beneath the mouse on the ecological pyramid lies his
foodsource likely a worm which fed on the primary
producer leafy plants 152
Ecosystem of Life in Floridas
Springs
bull Click here for a close-up look of life
in Floridas springs and the various
predator-prey interactions there
153
Taiga
37
Taiga ndash Indicator Plant Species
Balsam Fir
Abies balsamea
Black Spruce
Picea mariana
38
Taiga ndash Indicator Plant Species
Jack Pine
Pinus banksiana
Paper Birch
Betula papyrifera
White Poplar
Populus alba
39
Taiga ndash Indicator Animal Species
American Black Bear
Ursus americanus
Bald Eagle
Haliaeetus leucocephalus 40
Taiga ndash Indicator Animal Species
Long-eared Owl
Aiso otus
Snowshoe Rabbit
Lepus americanus
41
Desert
bull cover about one fifth of Earths land surface
bull hot and dry near Tropic of CancerTropic of
Capricorn
bull cold near the Arctic
bull temperature
bull hot amp dry ~ 25deg C to ~ 49deg C
bull cold -2 to 4deg C (winter) 21 to 26deg C (summer)
bull precipitation
bull hot amp dry very little rainfall andor concentrated
rainfall in short periods between long rainless periods
(lt 15 cmyear)
bull cold 15 - 26 cmyear 42
Desert
43
Desert ndash Indicator Plant Species
44
Desert ndash Indicator Plant Species
Saguaro Cactus
Carnegiea gigantea
Fishhook Cactus
Mammillaria microcarpa
45
Desert ndash Indicator Plant Species
Trichomes
46
Desert ndash Indicator Animal Species
Zebratail Lizard - Callisaurus draconides
47
Desert ndash Indicator Animal Species
Rock hyrax (Procavia capensis) 48
Desert ndash Indicator Animal Species
Bactrian Camel Camelus bactrianus
49
Temperate Deciduous Forest
bull temperature 0 - 20 C
bull precipitation ~ 50 ndash 200 cmyear
50
Temperate Deciduous Forest
51
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Plant Species
Oaks (Quercus sp)
Dutchmans-Breeches
Dicentra cucullaria 52
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Plant Species
Sassafras
Sassafras albidum
Redbud
Cercis canadensis
53
Temperate Deciduous Forest ndash Succession
bull orderly succession of communities to a climax
community (biome)
bull two main types of succession
bull primary succession begins with bare rock exposed
by geologic activity
bull secondary succession begins on soil from which
previous community has been removed (by fire
agriculture etc)
bull secondary succession can proceed much faster
because the soil has been prepared by the
previous community
54
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
American Toad
Bufo americanus
Box Turtle
55
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
Eastern Chipmunk
Tamias striatus
Eastern Gray Squirrel
Sciurus carolinensis
56
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
Yellow-breasted chat
Icteria virens 57
Tundra
bull annual average temperature lt 5 C
bull precipitation (mostly in the form of snow) lt 100 mmyear
bull summer is brief
bull temperatures above freezing last only a few weeks at
most
bull warm summer coincides with periods of almost 24
hour daylight so plant growth can be explosive
58
Tundra
Anaktuvuk Pass Alaska
59
Tundra ndash Indicator Plant Species
Arctic Tundra Wildflowers - Alaska
60
Tundra ndash Indicator Plant Species
Lichen
Polytrichum Moss
(photographed in Ohio not on the
Tundra)
61
Tundra ndash Indicator Animal Species
Reindeer
Rangifer tarandus
62
Tundra ndash Indicator Animal Species
Caribou On Autumn Tundra Denali National Park Alaska
63
Savanna
bull rolling grassland scattered with shrubs and isolated trees
bull found between a tropical rainforest and desert biome
bull not enough rain falls on a savanna to support forests
bull found in a wide band on either side of the equator on
the edges of tropical rainforests
bull warm temperature year round
bull very long dry season (winter) ~ 10 cm rain none at all
from Dec - Feb
bull very wet season (summer) ~ 35-65 cm rain
64
Savanna
65
Savanna ndash Indicator Plant Species
Baobab
Adansonia digitata Umbrella Thorn Acacia
Acacia tortillis
66
Savanna ndash Indicator Animal Species
Savanna Elephant
Loxodonta africana
Black Mamba
Dendroaspis polylepis
Lion
Panthera leo
67
Chaparral
bull winter mild and moist but not rainy
bull summer very hot and dry
bull annual temperature range between -1deg and 38deg C
bull annual precipitation ~ 25-45 cm mostly in the winter
68
Chaparral
69
Chaparral ndash Indicator Plant Species
Blue Oak
Quercus douglasii
Common Sagebrush
Artemisia tridentata
Olive Tree
Olea europaea
70
Chaparral ndash Indicator Animal Species
Black-tailed Jackrabbit
Lepus californicus Golden Jackal
Canis aureus
Spotted Skunk
Spilogale gracilis
71
The Freshwater Biome
bull low salt concentration mdash usually less than 1
bull plants and animals in freshwater regions are adjusted to
the low salt content and would not be able to survive in
areas of high salt concentration (ie ocean)
bull 3 different types of freshwater regions
bull ponds and lakes
bull streams and rivers
bull wetlands
72
The Freshwater Biome ndash Ponds and Lakes
From left a view across Manzanita Lake toward Mt Lassen California a
forest pond near Donnelly Idaho a Great Blue Heron Paranagat Lake
southeastern Nevada
73
The Freshwater Biome ndash Streams and
Rivers
From left McArthur-Burney Falls State Park California trout Green
River Utah Brooks River Alaska
74
The Freshwater Biome - Wetlands
From left Pescadero Marsh California coastal marsh at Umpqua
Dunes Oregon trees and bogs on Esther Island Alaska
75
The Marine Biome
bull cover about three-fourths of the Earths surface
bull marine algae supply much of the worlds oxygen supply
and take in a huge amount of atmospheric carbon
dioxide
bull evaporation of the seawater provides rainwater for the
land
bull 3 different types of marine regions
bull oceans
bull coral reefs
bull estuaries
76
The Marine Biome - Oceans
From left mussels worms and a spider crab at a hydrocarbon seep
community in the Gulf of Mexico a sea fan and brain coral in the Florida
Keys National Marine Sanctuary a school of Atlantic amberjack off North
Carolina
77
The Marine Biome ndash Coral Reefs
From left reef life in the Gulf of Aqaba Red Sea a reef at Fanning
Island atoll in the central Pacific a reef in the Florida Keys National
Marine Sanctuary
78
The Marine Biome - Estuaries
From left Mangrove roots south Florida wetlands and tidal streams
in the Ashe Island area ACE Basin National Estuarine Research
Reserve South Carolina a salt marsh in Winyah Bay National
Estuarine Research Reserve South Carolina
79
Ecological Notes
These are the biomes in order of their productivity (highest
first)
1 estuaries and tropical rain forest (highest)
2 temperate forest
3 agricultural land
4 temperate grassland
5 lakes and streams
6 coastal zone
7 tundra
8 open ocean
9 desert (lowest)
80
Ecological Notes
In order to be productive and have a lot of living material
standing around (biomass) an ecosystem has to have 4
basic necessities for plant life to thrive (if there are
enough plants the ecosystem will also support a lot of
animals) The four things are
1 Sunlight
2 Nutrients
3 Warm temperatures
4 Water
81
Biomes Video
82
Take-Home Message
bull Biomes are the major ecological communities of earth
characterized mostly by the vegetation present
bull Different biomes result from differences in temperature
and precipitation and the extent to which they vary from
season to season
83
Challenge Question
bull Terrestrial biomes are determined by the temperature
and precipitation amounts as well as whether those
factors are constant or vary by season
bull By contrast how are aquatic biomes determined
84
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy flows from producers to
consumers
85
86
87
First Stop Primary Producers
bull ecosystem producers or consumers
bull primary producers plants algae (some) bacteria
bull convert light energy from sun into chemical energy
through photosynthesis
bull chemical energy = food
bull consumers eat or absorb their food
bull energy stored in chemical bonds of carbohydrate
protein and lipid molecules is captured and
harnessed for consumersrsquo own movement
reproduction and growth
88
Food Chain
89
Food Web
90
Food Web
91
Food Chains amp Food Webs
bull A change in one link in a food chain will affect the other
links
bull The table on the next slide gives one example of a food
chain and the trophic levels represented in it
92
Food Chains amp Food Webs
93
GRASS
GRASSHOPPER
TOAD
SNAKE
HAWK
BACTERIA
IN GENERAL
AUTOTROPHS
(PRODUCERS)
HERBIVORES
(PRIMARY
CONSUMERS)
CARNIVORES
(2 3 ETC)
DECOMPOSERS
94
Chain Reaction Game
95
Energy Flows through a Food Web
bull Losses at every ldquosteprdquo in a food chain
bull Inefficiency of energy transfers
96
Energy flow through a food chain
Energy flow refers to the way that energy is transformed through
a food chain (pictured here) containing a series of levels
including plants consumers predators and decomposers 97
Amount of energy available at each of the
four levels of an ecosystem
Ecological pyramids illustrate the amount of energy
available at each of the four levels of an ecosystem 98
Ecological Pyramid
99
A grasshopper eats a plant A mouse eats the
grasshopper A snake eats the mouse A hawk
could eat the snake or the mouse In this food
web how would we categorize the hawk
1 Producer
2 Primary consumer
3 Secondary consumer
4 Tertiary consumer
5 Quaternary consumer
6 4 and 5
100
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps
bull First it is converted to chemical energy in
photosynthesis
bull Herbivores then consume the primary producers the
herbivores are consumed by carnivores and the
carnivores in turn may be consumed by top carnivores
101
Take-home message
bull Detritivores and decomposers extract energy from
organic waste and the remains of organisms that have
died
bull At each step in a food chain some usable energy is lost
as heat
102
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy pyramids reveal the inefficiency of
food chains
103
Biomass
bull biomass total weight of all living organisms in a given
area
bull only about 10 of the plants in an ecosystem is
converted into biomass
bull Food Energy Pyramid
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
bull African savannas and grasslands sustain more species
of higher-order carnivores than any other terrestrial
ecosystem
104
105
Food Energy Pyramids
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
106
107
108
You go out to eat at a fancy restaurant You
have a salad salmon and for dessert ice
cream Which part of the meal was the most
energy efficient food for you to eat
1 Salad
2 Salmon
3 Ice cream
4 2 and 3
109
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps known as trophic levels
bull Energy pyramids reveal that the biomass of primary
producers in an ecosystem tends to be far greater than
the biomass of herbivores
bull The biomass transferred at each step along the food chain tends to be only about 10 of the biomass of the organisms being consumed due to energy lost in cellular respiration
bull As a consequence of this inefficiency food chains rarely exceed four levels
110
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Essential chemicals cycle through
ecosystems
111
Chemical Reservoirs
bull Each chemical is stored in a non-living part of the environment
bull Organisms acquire the chemical from the reservoir a non-living part of the environment
bull The chemical cycles through the food chain (biogeochemical cycles)
bull Eventually the chemical is returned to the reservoir
112
Hydrologic Cycle and the Florida Springs
bull Click here for a description of how falling rain feeds underground aquifers in Florida and forms springs
113
The Most Important Chemical Cycles
1) Carbon
2) Nitrogen
3) Phosphorus
4) Sulfur
114
115
The
Carbon
Cycle
116
The Carbon Cycle
Keeping Up With Carbon
NASA video provides key information on the carbon cycle
117
118
Carbon Cycle Game
Fossil Fuels
bull created when large numbers of organisms die and are buried in sediment lacking oxygen
bull In absence of oxygen at high pressures and after very long periods of time organic remains are ultimately transformed into coal oil and natural gas
bull burning coal oil and natural gas releases large amounts of carbon dioxide
bull increases average CO2 concentration in the atmosphere
bull current level of CO2 in the atmosphere is the highest it has been in almost half a million years
119
Global CO2 levels are rising in
general but they also exhibit a
sharp rise and fall within each
year ndash why
120
121
The Nitrogen Cycle
122
The Nitrogen Cycle
Fertilizers
bull Because it is necessary for the production of every plant
protein and because all nitrogen must first be made
usable by bacteria plant growth is often limited by
nitrogen levels in the soil
bull For this reason most fertilizers contain nitrogen in a
form usable by plants
123
124
125
126
127
Oxygen reduction downstream of a source of
organic pollution
128
Algal growth and eutrophication in an Australian
outback waterway
129
Sulfur Cycle
bull component of protein
bull cycles in both a gas and sedimentary cycle
bull source earths crust
bull enters the atmosphere as hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
during fossil fuel combustion volcanic eruptions
gas exchange at ocean surfaces decomposition
130
Sulfur Cycle
bull H2S is immediately oxidized to sulfur dioxide (SO2)
bull SO2 + water vapor H2SO4 (falls to earth in rain)
bull sulfur in soluble form is taken up by plant roots
incorporated into amino acids such as cysteine
bull travels through food chain
bull eventually released through decomposition
131
How is carbon recycled back to the
atmosphere in the carbon cycle
1 It is ldquofixedrdquo by bacteria
2 It is a product of cellular respiration
3 Burning of fossil fuels
4 2 and 3
5 All of the above
132
Why do commercial fertilizers usually
contain usable forms of nitrogen and
phosphorous
1 These chemicals are not efficiently recycled in
the soil
2 Nitrogen and phosphorous need to be ldquofixedrdquo
by bacteria or the plant
3 Nitrogen and phosphorous are found at high
levels in the atmosphere but not in the soil
4 Nitrogen and phosphorous only enter the soil
through erosion
133
Take-home message
bull Chemicals essential to lifemdashincluding carbon nitrogen and phosphorusmdashcycle through ecosystems
bull They are usually captured from the atmosphere soil or water by growing organisms passed from one trophic level to the next as organisms eat other organisms and returned to the environment through respiration decomposition and erosion
bull These cycles can be disrupted as human activities significantly increase the amounts of the chemicals utilized or released to the environment
134
Symbiotic Relationships
bull Symbiosis close relationship between organisms of
two different species
bull At least one participant gains some sort of benefit
(usually nutritional)
bull Types of symbiosis
bull Parasitism
bull Commensalism
bull Mutualism
bull Predation
135
Symbiotic Relationships in the
Ocean
bull Click here for an explanation of the
relationships of marine animals
including sharks rays and various
fishes
136
Parasitism bull Parasite derives nutrition from the host
bull This harms the host but a true parasite does
not usually kill its host (directly)
137
Ectoparasites
Remain outside the host
Ticks fleas leeches
138
Endoparasites
Live inside the hostrsquos body
Tapeworms malarial parasites
139
Parasite Transmission
bull Many parasites live on or in a single organism
bull Some will alternate between 2 or more host species
bull Vertical transmission ndash from mother offspring
bull Horizontal transmission ndash between members of a
population
bull Direct contact (head lice)
bull Vectors (mosquitos)
140
141
Commensalism
bull Neither species is totally dependent on the other
bull One benefits ndash no effect on the other
bull Feeding or protection
bull Porcelain anemone crabs and anemones
142
Mutualism
bull Both species benefit
bull Food or shelter
bull Examples
bull Plants and microbes (rhizobium in root nodules)
bull Plants and fungi (orchids and mycorrhizae)
bull Protists and fungi (lichen)
bull Plants and insects (pollination)
bull Animals and bacteria (ruminants)
bull Animals and other animals (crocodiles and
plover birds)
143
Mutualism shrimp and moray
Cleaner shrimp cleaning a zebra moray eel Mutualistic
relationships such as these promote the well-being of the
host fishes and provide food for those that do the cleaning 144
Rhizobium
Rhizobium in root nodules of certain plants convert
nitrogen in soil to usable form
145
Orchid Mycorrhizae
Fungi aid the plant in the uptake of nutrients
Fungi ingest some of the food from plant
photosynthesis 146
Lichen
Most of the lichen is composed of fungal filaments
but living among the filaments are algal cells
usually from a green alga or a cyanobacterium
The lichen fungus provides its partner(s) a benefit
(protection) and gains nutrients in return 147
Ruminants
Ruminants are characterized by their four-chambered
stomach and cud-chewing behavior Cud is a food bolus
that is regurgitated rechewed and reswallowed The
rumen is a large fermentation vat containing billions of
microorganisms including bacteria and protozoa which
allow ruminants to digest fibrous feeds such as grass and
hay that other animals cannot efficiently utilize 148
Crocodiles amp
Plover Birds
The bird gets into the crocodiles mouth and picks out
the tiny bits of food stuck in his teeth then eats it (the
tiny bits)
This cleans the crocodiles teeth and keeps his mouth
fresh and free from infections 149
Predation
bull Consumption of one living organism by
another
bull Predators must have offensive strategies
bull ways of finding catching and eating
their prey
bull Prey organisms must have defensive
strategies
bull ways of avoiding or discouraging this
activity
150
Predation
bull Encompasses all levels within an
ecological food chainweb
bull plant-herbivore systems
bull herbivore-carnivore systems
bull three-way interactions of
interdependent plant-herbivore-
carnivore systems
151
This goshawk is the tertiary consumer in his ecosystem
and the mouse in his beak is the secondary consumer
Beneath the mouse on the ecological pyramid lies his
foodsource likely a worm which fed on the primary
producer leafy plants 152
Ecosystem of Life in Floridas
Springs
bull Click here for a close-up look of life
in Floridas springs and the various
predator-prey interactions there
153
Taiga ndash Indicator Plant Species
Balsam Fir
Abies balsamea
Black Spruce
Picea mariana
38
Taiga ndash Indicator Plant Species
Jack Pine
Pinus banksiana
Paper Birch
Betula papyrifera
White Poplar
Populus alba
39
Taiga ndash Indicator Animal Species
American Black Bear
Ursus americanus
Bald Eagle
Haliaeetus leucocephalus 40
Taiga ndash Indicator Animal Species
Long-eared Owl
Aiso otus
Snowshoe Rabbit
Lepus americanus
41
Desert
bull cover about one fifth of Earths land surface
bull hot and dry near Tropic of CancerTropic of
Capricorn
bull cold near the Arctic
bull temperature
bull hot amp dry ~ 25deg C to ~ 49deg C
bull cold -2 to 4deg C (winter) 21 to 26deg C (summer)
bull precipitation
bull hot amp dry very little rainfall andor concentrated
rainfall in short periods between long rainless periods
(lt 15 cmyear)
bull cold 15 - 26 cmyear 42
Desert
43
Desert ndash Indicator Plant Species
44
Desert ndash Indicator Plant Species
Saguaro Cactus
Carnegiea gigantea
Fishhook Cactus
Mammillaria microcarpa
45
Desert ndash Indicator Plant Species
Trichomes
46
Desert ndash Indicator Animal Species
Zebratail Lizard - Callisaurus draconides
47
Desert ndash Indicator Animal Species
Rock hyrax (Procavia capensis) 48
Desert ndash Indicator Animal Species
Bactrian Camel Camelus bactrianus
49
Temperate Deciduous Forest
bull temperature 0 - 20 C
bull precipitation ~ 50 ndash 200 cmyear
50
Temperate Deciduous Forest
51
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Plant Species
Oaks (Quercus sp)
Dutchmans-Breeches
Dicentra cucullaria 52
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Plant Species
Sassafras
Sassafras albidum
Redbud
Cercis canadensis
53
Temperate Deciduous Forest ndash Succession
bull orderly succession of communities to a climax
community (biome)
bull two main types of succession
bull primary succession begins with bare rock exposed
by geologic activity
bull secondary succession begins on soil from which
previous community has been removed (by fire
agriculture etc)
bull secondary succession can proceed much faster
because the soil has been prepared by the
previous community
54
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
American Toad
Bufo americanus
Box Turtle
55
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
Eastern Chipmunk
Tamias striatus
Eastern Gray Squirrel
Sciurus carolinensis
56
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
Yellow-breasted chat
Icteria virens 57
Tundra
bull annual average temperature lt 5 C
bull precipitation (mostly in the form of snow) lt 100 mmyear
bull summer is brief
bull temperatures above freezing last only a few weeks at
most
bull warm summer coincides with periods of almost 24
hour daylight so plant growth can be explosive
58
Tundra
Anaktuvuk Pass Alaska
59
Tundra ndash Indicator Plant Species
Arctic Tundra Wildflowers - Alaska
60
Tundra ndash Indicator Plant Species
Lichen
Polytrichum Moss
(photographed in Ohio not on the
Tundra)
61
Tundra ndash Indicator Animal Species
Reindeer
Rangifer tarandus
62
Tundra ndash Indicator Animal Species
Caribou On Autumn Tundra Denali National Park Alaska
63
Savanna
bull rolling grassland scattered with shrubs and isolated trees
bull found between a tropical rainforest and desert biome
bull not enough rain falls on a savanna to support forests
bull found in a wide band on either side of the equator on
the edges of tropical rainforests
bull warm temperature year round
bull very long dry season (winter) ~ 10 cm rain none at all
from Dec - Feb
bull very wet season (summer) ~ 35-65 cm rain
64
Savanna
65
Savanna ndash Indicator Plant Species
Baobab
Adansonia digitata Umbrella Thorn Acacia
Acacia tortillis
66
Savanna ndash Indicator Animal Species
Savanna Elephant
Loxodonta africana
Black Mamba
Dendroaspis polylepis
Lion
Panthera leo
67
Chaparral
bull winter mild and moist but not rainy
bull summer very hot and dry
bull annual temperature range between -1deg and 38deg C
bull annual precipitation ~ 25-45 cm mostly in the winter
68
Chaparral
69
Chaparral ndash Indicator Plant Species
Blue Oak
Quercus douglasii
Common Sagebrush
Artemisia tridentata
Olive Tree
Olea europaea
70
Chaparral ndash Indicator Animal Species
Black-tailed Jackrabbit
Lepus californicus Golden Jackal
Canis aureus
Spotted Skunk
Spilogale gracilis
71
The Freshwater Biome
bull low salt concentration mdash usually less than 1
bull plants and animals in freshwater regions are adjusted to
the low salt content and would not be able to survive in
areas of high salt concentration (ie ocean)
bull 3 different types of freshwater regions
bull ponds and lakes
bull streams and rivers
bull wetlands
72
The Freshwater Biome ndash Ponds and Lakes
From left a view across Manzanita Lake toward Mt Lassen California a
forest pond near Donnelly Idaho a Great Blue Heron Paranagat Lake
southeastern Nevada
73
The Freshwater Biome ndash Streams and
Rivers
From left McArthur-Burney Falls State Park California trout Green
River Utah Brooks River Alaska
74
The Freshwater Biome - Wetlands
From left Pescadero Marsh California coastal marsh at Umpqua
Dunes Oregon trees and bogs on Esther Island Alaska
75
The Marine Biome
bull cover about three-fourths of the Earths surface
bull marine algae supply much of the worlds oxygen supply
and take in a huge amount of atmospheric carbon
dioxide
bull evaporation of the seawater provides rainwater for the
land
bull 3 different types of marine regions
bull oceans
bull coral reefs
bull estuaries
76
The Marine Biome - Oceans
From left mussels worms and a spider crab at a hydrocarbon seep
community in the Gulf of Mexico a sea fan and brain coral in the Florida
Keys National Marine Sanctuary a school of Atlantic amberjack off North
Carolina
77
The Marine Biome ndash Coral Reefs
From left reef life in the Gulf of Aqaba Red Sea a reef at Fanning
Island atoll in the central Pacific a reef in the Florida Keys National
Marine Sanctuary
78
The Marine Biome - Estuaries
From left Mangrove roots south Florida wetlands and tidal streams
in the Ashe Island area ACE Basin National Estuarine Research
Reserve South Carolina a salt marsh in Winyah Bay National
Estuarine Research Reserve South Carolina
79
Ecological Notes
These are the biomes in order of their productivity (highest
first)
1 estuaries and tropical rain forest (highest)
2 temperate forest
3 agricultural land
4 temperate grassland
5 lakes and streams
6 coastal zone
7 tundra
8 open ocean
9 desert (lowest)
80
Ecological Notes
In order to be productive and have a lot of living material
standing around (biomass) an ecosystem has to have 4
basic necessities for plant life to thrive (if there are
enough plants the ecosystem will also support a lot of
animals) The four things are
1 Sunlight
2 Nutrients
3 Warm temperatures
4 Water
81
Biomes Video
82
Take-Home Message
bull Biomes are the major ecological communities of earth
characterized mostly by the vegetation present
bull Different biomes result from differences in temperature
and precipitation and the extent to which they vary from
season to season
83
Challenge Question
bull Terrestrial biomes are determined by the temperature
and precipitation amounts as well as whether those
factors are constant or vary by season
bull By contrast how are aquatic biomes determined
84
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy flows from producers to
consumers
85
86
87
First Stop Primary Producers
bull ecosystem producers or consumers
bull primary producers plants algae (some) bacteria
bull convert light energy from sun into chemical energy
through photosynthesis
bull chemical energy = food
bull consumers eat or absorb their food
bull energy stored in chemical bonds of carbohydrate
protein and lipid molecules is captured and
harnessed for consumersrsquo own movement
reproduction and growth
88
Food Chain
89
Food Web
90
Food Web
91
Food Chains amp Food Webs
bull A change in one link in a food chain will affect the other
links
bull The table on the next slide gives one example of a food
chain and the trophic levels represented in it
92
Food Chains amp Food Webs
93
GRASS
GRASSHOPPER
TOAD
SNAKE
HAWK
BACTERIA
IN GENERAL
AUTOTROPHS
(PRODUCERS)
HERBIVORES
(PRIMARY
CONSUMERS)
CARNIVORES
(2 3 ETC)
DECOMPOSERS
94
Chain Reaction Game
95
Energy Flows through a Food Web
bull Losses at every ldquosteprdquo in a food chain
bull Inefficiency of energy transfers
96
Energy flow through a food chain
Energy flow refers to the way that energy is transformed through
a food chain (pictured here) containing a series of levels
including plants consumers predators and decomposers 97
Amount of energy available at each of the
four levels of an ecosystem
Ecological pyramids illustrate the amount of energy
available at each of the four levels of an ecosystem 98
Ecological Pyramid
99
A grasshopper eats a plant A mouse eats the
grasshopper A snake eats the mouse A hawk
could eat the snake or the mouse In this food
web how would we categorize the hawk
1 Producer
2 Primary consumer
3 Secondary consumer
4 Tertiary consumer
5 Quaternary consumer
6 4 and 5
100
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps
bull First it is converted to chemical energy in
photosynthesis
bull Herbivores then consume the primary producers the
herbivores are consumed by carnivores and the
carnivores in turn may be consumed by top carnivores
101
Take-home message
bull Detritivores and decomposers extract energy from
organic waste and the remains of organisms that have
died
bull At each step in a food chain some usable energy is lost
as heat
102
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy pyramids reveal the inefficiency of
food chains
103
Biomass
bull biomass total weight of all living organisms in a given
area
bull only about 10 of the plants in an ecosystem is
converted into biomass
bull Food Energy Pyramid
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
bull African savannas and grasslands sustain more species
of higher-order carnivores than any other terrestrial
ecosystem
104
105
Food Energy Pyramids
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
106
107
108
You go out to eat at a fancy restaurant You
have a salad salmon and for dessert ice
cream Which part of the meal was the most
energy efficient food for you to eat
1 Salad
2 Salmon
3 Ice cream
4 2 and 3
109
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps known as trophic levels
bull Energy pyramids reveal that the biomass of primary
producers in an ecosystem tends to be far greater than
the biomass of herbivores
bull The biomass transferred at each step along the food chain tends to be only about 10 of the biomass of the organisms being consumed due to energy lost in cellular respiration
bull As a consequence of this inefficiency food chains rarely exceed four levels
110
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Essential chemicals cycle through
ecosystems
111
Chemical Reservoirs
bull Each chemical is stored in a non-living part of the environment
bull Organisms acquire the chemical from the reservoir a non-living part of the environment
bull The chemical cycles through the food chain (biogeochemical cycles)
bull Eventually the chemical is returned to the reservoir
112
Hydrologic Cycle and the Florida Springs
bull Click here for a description of how falling rain feeds underground aquifers in Florida and forms springs
113
The Most Important Chemical Cycles
1) Carbon
2) Nitrogen
3) Phosphorus
4) Sulfur
114
115
The
Carbon
Cycle
116
The Carbon Cycle
Keeping Up With Carbon
NASA video provides key information on the carbon cycle
117
118
Carbon Cycle Game
Fossil Fuels
bull created when large numbers of organisms die and are buried in sediment lacking oxygen
bull In absence of oxygen at high pressures and after very long periods of time organic remains are ultimately transformed into coal oil and natural gas
bull burning coal oil and natural gas releases large amounts of carbon dioxide
bull increases average CO2 concentration in the atmosphere
bull current level of CO2 in the atmosphere is the highest it has been in almost half a million years
119
Global CO2 levels are rising in
general but they also exhibit a
sharp rise and fall within each
year ndash why
120
121
The Nitrogen Cycle
122
The Nitrogen Cycle
Fertilizers
bull Because it is necessary for the production of every plant
protein and because all nitrogen must first be made
usable by bacteria plant growth is often limited by
nitrogen levels in the soil
bull For this reason most fertilizers contain nitrogen in a
form usable by plants
123
124
125
126
127
Oxygen reduction downstream of a source of
organic pollution
128
Algal growth and eutrophication in an Australian
outback waterway
129
Sulfur Cycle
bull component of protein
bull cycles in both a gas and sedimentary cycle
bull source earths crust
bull enters the atmosphere as hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
during fossil fuel combustion volcanic eruptions
gas exchange at ocean surfaces decomposition
130
Sulfur Cycle
bull H2S is immediately oxidized to sulfur dioxide (SO2)
bull SO2 + water vapor H2SO4 (falls to earth in rain)
bull sulfur in soluble form is taken up by plant roots
incorporated into amino acids such as cysteine
bull travels through food chain
bull eventually released through decomposition
131
How is carbon recycled back to the
atmosphere in the carbon cycle
1 It is ldquofixedrdquo by bacteria
2 It is a product of cellular respiration
3 Burning of fossil fuels
4 2 and 3
5 All of the above
132
Why do commercial fertilizers usually
contain usable forms of nitrogen and
phosphorous
1 These chemicals are not efficiently recycled in
the soil
2 Nitrogen and phosphorous need to be ldquofixedrdquo
by bacteria or the plant
3 Nitrogen and phosphorous are found at high
levels in the atmosphere but not in the soil
4 Nitrogen and phosphorous only enter the soil
through erosion
133
Take-home message
bull Chemicals essential to lifemdashincluding carbon nitrogen and phosphorusmdashcycle through ecosystems
bull They are usually captured from the atmosphere soil or water by growing organisms passed from one trophic level to the next as organisms eat other organisms and returned to the environment through respiration decomposition and erosion
bull These cycles can be disrupted as human activities significantly increase the amounts of the chemicals utilized or released to the environment
134
Symbiotic Relationships
bull Symbiosis close relationship between organisms of
two different species
bull At least one participant gains some sort of benefit
(usually nutritional)
bull Types of symbiosis
bull Parasitism
bull Commensalism
bull Mutualism
bull Predation
135
Symbiotic Relationships in the
Ocean
bull Click here for an explanation of the
relationships of marine animals
including sharks rays and various
fishes
136
Parasitism bull Parasite derives nutrition from the host
bull This harms the host but a true parasite does
not usually kill its host (directly)
137
Ectoparasites
Remain outside the host
Ticks fleas leeches
138
Endoparasites
Live inside the hostrsquos body
Tapeworms malarial parasites
139
Parasite Transmission
bull Many parasites live on or in a single organism
bull Some will alternate between 2 or more host species
bull Vertical transmission ndash from mother offspring
bull Horizontal transmission ndash between members of a
population
bull Direct contact (head lice)
bull Vectors (mosquitos)
140
141
Commensalism
bull Neither species is totally dependent on the other
bull One benefits ndash no effect on the other
bull Feeding or protection
bull Porcelain anemone crabs and anemones
142
Mutualism
bull Both species benefit
bull Food or shelter
bull Examples
bull Plants and microbes (rhizobium in root nodules)
bull Plants and fungi (orchids and mycorrhizae)
bull Protists and fungi (lichen)
bull Plants and insects (pollination)
bull Animals and bacteria (ruminants)
bull Animals and other animals (crocodiles and
plover birds)
143
Mutualism shrimp and moray
Cleaner shrimp cleaning a zebra moray eel Mutualistic
relationships such as these promote the well-being of the
host fishes and provide food for those that do the cleaning 144
Rhizobium
Rhizobium in root nodules of certain plants convert
nitrogen in soil to usable form
145
Orchid Mycorrhizae
Fungi aid the plant in the uptake of nutrients
Fungi ingest some of the food from plant
photosynthesis 146
Lichen
Most of the lichen is composed of fungal filaments
but living among the filaments are algal cells
usually from a green alga or a cyanobacterium
The lichen fungus provides its partner(s) a benefit
(protection) and gains nutrients in return 147
Ruminants
Ruminants are characterized by their four-chambered
stomach and cud-chewing behavior Cud is a food bolus
that is regurgitated rechewed and reswallowed The
rumen is a large fermentation vat containing billions of
microorganisms including bacteria and protozoa which
allow ruminants to digest fibrous feeds such as grass and
hay that other animals cannot efficiently utilize 148
Crocodiles amp
Plover Birds
The bird gets into the crocodiles mouth and picks out
the tiny bits of food stuck in his teeth then eats it (the
tiny bits)
This cleans the crocodiles teeth and keeps his mouth
fresh and free from infections 149
Predation
bull Consumption of one living organism by
another
bull Predators must have offensive strategies
bull ways of finding catching and eating
their prey
bull Prey organisms must have defensive
strategies
bull ways of avoiding or discouraging this
activity
150
Predation
bull Encompasses all levels within an
ecological food chainweb
bull plant-herbivore systems
bull herbivore-carnivore systems
bull three-way interactions of
interdependent plant-herbivore-
carnivore systems
151
This goshawk is the tertiary consumer in his ecosystem
and the mouse in his beak is the secondary consumer
Beneath the mouse on the ecological pyramid lies his
foodsource likely a worm which fed on the primary
producer leafy plants 152
Ecosystem of Life in Floridas
Springs
bull Click here for a close-up look of life
in Floridas springs and the various
predator-prey interactions there
153
Taiga ndash Indicator Plant Species
Jack Pine
Pinus banksiana
Paper Birch
Betula papyrifera
White Poplar
Populus alba
39
Taiga ndash Indicator Animal Species
American Black Bear
Ursus americanus
Bald Eagle
Haliaeetus leucocephalus 40
Taiga ndash Indicator Animal Species
Long-eared Owl
Aiso otus
Snowshoe Rabbit
Lepus americanus
41
Desert
bull cover about one fifth of Earths land surface
bull hot and dry near Tropic of CancerTropic of
Capricorn
bull cold near the Arctic
bull temperature
bull hot amp dry ~ 25deg C to ~ 49deg C
bull cold -2 to 4deg C (winter) 21 to 26deg C (summer)
bull precipitation
bull hot amp dry very little rainfall andor concentrated
rainfall in short periods between long rainless periods
(lt 15 cmyear)
bull cold 15 - 26 cmyear 42
Desert
43
Desert ndash Indicator Plant Species
44
Desert ndash Indicator Plant Species
Saguaro Cactus
Carnegiea gigantea
Fishhook Cactus
Mammillaria microcarpa
45
Desert ndash Indicator Plant Species
Trichomes
46
Desert ndash Indicator Animal Species
Zebratail Lizard - Callisaurus draconides
47
Desert ndash Indicator Animal Species
Rock hyrax (Procavia capensis) 48
Desert ndash Indicator Animal Species
Bactrian Camel Camelus bactrianus
49
Temperate Deciduous Forest
bull temperature 0 - 20 C
bull precipitation ~ 50 ndash 200 cmyear
50
Temperate Deciduous Forest
51
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Plant Species
Oaks (Quercus sp)
Dutchmans-Breeches
Dicentra cucullaria 52
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Plant Species
Sassafras
Sassafras albidum
Redbud
Cercis canadensis
53
Temperate Deciduous Forest ndash Succession
bull orderly succession of communities to a climax
community (biome)
bull two main types of succession
bull primary succession begins with bare rock exposed
by geologic activity
bull secondary succession begins on soil from which
previous community has been removed (by fire
agriculture etc)
bull secondary succession can proceed much faster
because the soil has been prepared by the
previous community
54
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
American Toad
Bufo americanus
Box Turtle
55
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
Eastern Chipmunk
Tamias striatus
Eastern Gray Squirrel
Sciurus carolinensis
56
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
Yellow-breasted chat
Icteria virens 57
Tundra
bull annual average temperature lt 5 C
bull precipitation (mostly in the form of snow) lt 100 mmyear
bull summer is brief
bull temperatures above freezing last only a few weeks at
most
bull warm summer coincides with periods of almost 24
hour daylight so plant growth can be explosive
58
Tundra
Anaktuvuk Pass Alaska
59
Tundra ndash Indicator Plant Species
Arctic Tundra Wildflowers - Alaska
60
Tundra ndash Indicator Plant Species
Lichen
Polytrichum Moss
(photographed in Ohio not on the
Tundra)
61
Tundra ndash Indicator Animal Species
Reindeer
Rangifer tarandus
62
Tundra ndash Indicator Animal Species
Caribou On Autumn Tundra Denali National Park Alaska
63
Savanna
bull rolling grassland scattered with shrubs and isolated trees
bull found between a tropical rainforest and desert biome
bull not enough rain falls on a savanna to support forests
bull found in a wide band on either side of the equator on
the edges of tropical rainforests
bull warm temperature year round
bull very long dry season (winter) ~ 10 cm rain none at all
from Dec - Feb
bull very wet season (summer) ~ 35-65 cm rain
64
Savanna
65
Savanna ndash Indicator Plant Species
Baobab
Adansonia digitata Umbrella Thorn Acacia
Acacia tortillis
66
Savanna ndash Indicator Animal Species
Savanna Elephant
Loxodonta africana
Black Mamba
Dendroaspis polylepis
Lion
Panthera leo
67
Chaparral
bull winter mild and moist but not rainy
bull summer very hot and dry
bull annual temperature range between -1deg and 38deg C
bull annual precipitation ~ 25-45 cm mostly in the winter
68
Chaparral
69
Chaparral ndash Indicator Plant Species
Blue Oak
Quercus douglasii
Common Sagebrush
Artemisia tridentata
Olive Tree
Olea europaea
70
Chaparral ndash Indicator Animal Species
Black-tailed Jackrabbit
Lepus californicus Golden Jackal
Canis aureus
Spotted Skunk
Spilogale gracilis
71
The Freshwater Biome
bull low salt concentration mdash usually less than 1
bull plants and animals in freshwater regions are adjusted to
the low salt content and would not be able to survive in
areas of high salt concentration (ie ocean)
bull 3 different types of freshwater regions
bull ponds and lakes
bull streams and rivers
bull wetlands
72
The Freshwater Biome ndash Ponds and Lakes
From left a view across Manzanita Lake toward Mt Lassen California a
forest pond near Donnelly Idaho a Great Blue Heron Paranagat Lake
southeastern Nevada
73
The Freshwater Biome ndash Streams and
Rivers
From left McArthur-Burney Falls State Park California trout Green
River Utah Brooks River Alaska
74
The Freshwater Biome - Wetlands
From left Pescadero Marsh California coastal marsh at Umpqua
Dunes Oregon trees and bogs on Esther Island Alaska
75
The Marine Biome
bull cover about three-fourths of the Earths surface
bull marine algae supply much of the worlds oxygen supply
and take in a huge amount of atmospheric carbon
dioxide
bull evaporation of the seawater provides rainwater for the
land
bull 3 different types of marine regions
bull oceans
bull coral reefs
bull estuaries
76
The Marine Biome - Oceans
From left mussels worms and a spider crab at a hydrocarbon seep
community in the Gulf of Mexico a sea fan and brain coral in the Florida
Keys National Marine Sanctuary a school of Atlantic amberjack off North
Carolina
77
The Marine Biome ndash Coral Reefs
From left reef life in the Gulf of Aqaba Red Sea a reef at Fanning
Island atoll in the central Pacific a reef in the Florida Keys National
Marine Sanctuary
78
The Marine Biome - Estuaries
From left Mangrove roots south Florida wetlands and tidal streams
in the Ashe Island area ACE Basin National Estuarine Research
Reserve South Carolina a salt marsh in Winyah Bay National
Estuarine Research Reserve South Carolina
79
Ecological Notes
These are the biomes in order of their productivity (highest
first)
1 estuaries and tropical rain forest (highest)
2 temperate forest
3 agricultural land
4 temperate grassland
5 lakes and streams
6 coastal zone
7 tundra
8 open ocean
9 desert (lowest)
80
Ecological Notes
In order to be productive and have a lot of living material
standing around (biomass) an ecosystem has to have 4
basic necessities for plant life to thrive (if there are
enough plants the ecosystem will also support a lot of
animals) The four things are
1 Sunlight
2 Nutrients
3 Warm temperatures
4 Water
81
Biomes Video
82
Take-Home Message
bull Biomes are the major ecological communities of earth
characterized mostly by the vegetation present
bull Different biomes result from differences in temperature
and precipitation and the extent to which they vary from
season to season
83
Challenge Question
bull Terrestrial biomes are determined by the temperature
and precipitation amounts as well as whether those
factors are constant or vary by season
bull By contrast how are aquatic biomes determined
84
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy flows from producers to
consumers
85
86
87
First Stop Primary Producers
bull ecosystem producers or consumers
bull primary producers plants algae (some) bacteria
bull convert light energy from sun into chemical energy
through photosynthesis
bull chemical energy = food
bull consumers eat or absorb their food
bull energy stored in chemical bonds of carbohydrate
protein and lipid molecules is captured and
harnessed for consumersrsquo own movement
reproduction and growth
88
Food Chain
89
Food Web
90
Food Web
91
Food Chains amp Food Webs
bull A change in one link in a food chain will affect the other
links
bull The table on the next slide gives one example of a food
chain and the trophic levels represented in it
92
Food Chains amp Food Webs
93
GRASS
GRASSHOPPER
TOAD
SNAKE
HAWK
BACTERIA
IN GENERAL
AUTOTROPHS
(PRODUCERS)
HERBIVORES
(PRIMARY
CONSUMERS)
CARNIVORES
(2 3 ETC)
DECOMPOSERS
94
Chain Reaction Game
95
Energy Flows through a Food Web
bull Losses at every ldquosteprdquo in a food chain
bull Inefficiency of energy transfers
96
Energy flow through a food chain
Energy flow refers to the way that energy is transformed through
a food chain (pictured here) containing a series of levels
including plants consumers predators and decomposers 97
Amount of energy available at each of the
four levels of an ecosystem
Ecological pyramids illustrate the amount of energy
available at each of the four levels of an ecosystem 98
Ecological Pyramid
99
A grasshopper eats a plant A mouse eats the
grasshopper A snake eats the mouse A hawk
could eat the snake or the mouse In this food
web how would we categorize the hawk
1 Producer
2 Primary consumer
3 Secondary consumer
4 Tertiary consumer
5 Quaternary consumer
6 4 and 5
100
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps
bull First it is converted to chemical energy in
photosynthesis
bull Herbivores then consume the primary producers the
herbivores are consumed by carnivores and the
carnivores in turn may be consumed by top carnivores
101
Take-home message
bull Detritivores and decomposers extract energy from
organic waste and the remains of organisms that have
died
bull At each step in a food chain some usable energy is lost
as heat
102
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy pyramids reveal the inefficiency of
food chains
103
Biomass
bull biomass total weight of all living organisms in a given
area
bull only about 10 of the plants in an ecosystem is
converted into biomass
bull Food Energy Pyramid
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
bull African savannas and grasslands sustain more species
of higher-order carnivores than any other terrestrial
ecosystem
104
105
Food Energy Pyramids
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
106
107
108
You go out to eat at a fancy restaurant You
have a salad salmon and for dessert ice
cream Which part of the meal was the most
energy efficient food for you to eat
1 Salad
2 Salmon
3 Ice cream
4 2 and 3
109
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps known as trophic levels
bull Energy pyramids reveal that the biomass of primary
producers in an ecosystem tends to be far greater than
the biomass of herbivores
bull The biomass transferred at each step along the food chain tends to be only about 10 of the biomass of the organisms being consumed due to energy lost in cellular respiration
bull As a consequence of this inefficiency food chains rarely exceed four levels
110
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Essential chemicals cycle through
ecosystems
111
Chemical Reservoirs
bull Each chemical is stored in a non-living part of the environment
bull Organisms acquire the chemical from the reservoir a non-living part of the environment
bull The chemical cycles through the food chain (biogeochemical cycles)
bull Eventually the chemical is returned to the reservoir
112
Hydrologic Cycle and the Florida Springs
bull Click here for a description of how falling rain feeds underground aquifers in Florida and forms springs
113
The Most Important Chemical Cycles
1) Carbon
2) Nitrogen
3) Phosphorus
4) Sulfur
114
115
The
Carbon
Cycle
116
The Carbon Cycle
Keeping Up With Carbon
NASA video provides key information on the carbon cycle
117
118
Carbon Cycle Game
Fossil Fuels
bull created when large numbers of organisms die and are buried in sediment lacking oxygen
bull In absence of oxygen at high pressures and after very long periods of time organic remains are ultimately transformed into coal oil and natural gas
bull burning coal oil and natural gas releases large amounts of carbon dioxide
bull increases average CO2 concentration in the atmosphere
bull current level of CO2 in the atmosphere is the highest it has been in almost half a million years
119
Global CO2 levels are rising in
general but they also exhibit a
sharp rise and fall within each
year ndash why
120
121
The Nitrogen Cycle
122
The Nitrogen Cycle
Fertilizers
bull Because it is necessary for the production of every plant
protein and because all nitrogen must first be made
usable by bacteria plant growth is often limited by
nitrogen levels in the soil
bull For this reason most fertilizers contain nitrogen in a
form usable by plants
123
124
125
126
127
Oxygen reduction downstream of a source of
organic pollution
128
Algal growth and eutrophication in an Australian
outback waterway
129
Sulfur Cycle
bull component of protein
bull cycles in both a gas and sedimentary cycle
bull source earths crust
bull enters the atmosphere as hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
during fossil fuel combustion volcanic eruptions
gas exchange at ocean surfaces decomposition
130
Sulfur Cycle
bull H2S is immediately oxidized to sulfur dioxide (SO2)
bull SO2 + water vapor H2SO4 (falls to earth in rain)
bull sulfur in soluble form is taken up by plant roots
incorporated into amino acids such as cysteine
bull travels through food chain
bull eventually released through decomposition
131
How is carbon recycled back to the
atmosphere in the carbon cycle
1 It is ldquofixedrdquo by bacteria
2 It is a product of cellular respiration
3 Burning of fossil fuels
4 2 and 3
5 All of the above
132
Why do commercial fertilizers usually
contain usable forms of nitrogen and
phosphorous
1 These chemicals are not efficiently recycled in
the soil
2 Nitrogen and phosphorous need to be ldquofixedrdquo
by bacteria or the plant
3 Nitrogen and phosphorous are found at high
levels in the atmosphere but not in the soil
4 Nitrogen and phosphorous only enter the soil
through erosion
133
Take-home message
bull Chemicals essential to lifemdashincluding carbon nitrogen and phosphorusmdashcycle through ecosystems
bull They are usually captured from the atmosphere soil or water by growing organisms passed from one trophic level to the next as organisms eat other organisms and returned to the environment through respiration decomposition and erosion
bull These cycles can be disrupted as human activities significantly increase the amounts of the chemicals utilized or released to the environment
134
Symbiotic Relationships
bull Symbiosis close relationship between organisms of
two different species
bull At least one participant gains some sort of benefit
(usually nutritional)
bull Types of symbiosis
bull Parasitism
bull Commensalism
bull Mutualism
bull Predation
135
Symbiotic Relationships in the
Ocean
bull Click here for an explanation of the
relationships of marine animals
including sharks rays and various
fishes
136
Parasitism bull Parasite derives nutrition from the host
bull This harms the host but a true parasite does
not usually kill its host (directly)
137
Ectoparasites
Remain outside the host
Ticks fleas leeches
138
Endoparasites
Live inside the hostrsquos body
Tapeworms malarial parasites
139
Parasite Transmission
bull Many parasites live on or in a single organism
bull Some will alternate between 2 or more host species
bull Vertical transmission ndash from mother offspring
bull Horizontal transmission ndash between members of a
population
bull Direct contact (head lice)
bull Vectors (mosquitos)
140
141
Commensalism
bull Neither species is totally dependent on the other
bull One benefits ndash no effect on the other
bull Feeding or protection
bull Porcelain anemone crabs and anemones
142
Mutualism
bull Both species benefit
bull Food or shelter
bull Examples
bull Plants and microbes (rhizobium in root nodules)
bull Plants and fungi (orchids and mycorrhizae)
bull Protists and fungi (lichen)
bull Plants and insects (pollination)
bull Animals and bacteria (ruminants)
bull Animals and other animals (crocodiles and
plover birds)
143
Mutualism shrimp and moray
Cleaner shrimp cleaning a zebra moray eel Mutualistic
relationships such as these promote the well-being of the
host fishes and provide food for those that do the cleaning 144
Rhizobium
Rhizobium in root nodules of certain plants convert
nitrogen in soil to usable form
145
Orchid Mycorrhizae
Fungi aid the plant in the uptake of nutrients
Fungi ingest some of the food from plant
photosynthesis 146
Lichen
Most of the lichen is composed of fungal filaments
but living among the filaments are algal cells
usually from a green alga or a cyanobacterium
The lichen fungus provides its partner(s) a benefit
(protection) and gains nutrients in return 147
Ruminants
Ruminants are characterized by their four-chambered
stomach and cud-chewing behavior Cud is a food bolus
that is regurgitated rechewed and reswallowed The
rumen is a large fermentation vat containing billions of
microorganisms including bacteria and protozoa which
allow ruminants to digest fibrous feeds such as grass and
hay that other animals cannot efficiently utilize 148
Crocodiles amp
Plover Birds
The bird gets into the crocodiles mouth and picks out
the tiny bits of food stuck in his teeth then eats it (the
tiny bits)
This cleans the crocodiles teeth and keeps his mouth
fresh and free from infections 149
Predation
bull Consumption of one living organism by
another
bull Predators must have offensive strategies
bull ways of finding catching and eating
their prey
bull Prey organisms must have defensive
strategies
bull ways of avoiding or discouraging this
activity
150
Predation
bull Encompasses all levels within an
ecological food chainweb
bull plant-herbivore systems
bull herbivore-carnivore systems
bull three-way interactions of
interdependent plant-herbivore-
carnivore systems
151
This goshawk is the tertiary consumer in his ecosystem
and the mouse in his beak is the secondary consumer
Beneath the mouse on the ecological pyramid lies his
foodsource likely a worm which fed on the primary
producer leafy plants 152
Ecosystem of Life in Floridas
Springs
bull Click here for a close-up look of life
in Floridas springs and the various
predator-prey interactions there
153
Taiga ndash Indicator Animal Species
American Black Bear
Ursus americanus
Bald Eagle
Haliaeetus leucocephalus 40
Taiga ndash Indicator Animal Species
Long-eared Owl
Aiso otus
Snowshoe Rabbit
Lepus americanus
41
Desert
bull cover about one fifth of Earths land surface
bull hot and dry near Tropic of CancerTropic of
Capricorn
bull cold near the Arctic
bull temperature
bull hot amp dry ~ 25deg C to ~ 49deg C
bull cold -2 to 4deg C (winter) 21 to 26deg C (summer)
bull precipitation
bull hot amp dry very little rainfall andor concentrated
rainfall in short periods between long rainless periods
(lt 15 cmyear)
bull cold 15 - 26 cmyear 42
Desert
43
Desert ndash Indicator Plant Species
44
Desert ndash Indicator Plant Species
Saguaro Cactus
Carnegiea gigantea
Fishhook Cactus
Mammillaria microcarpa
45
Desert ndash Indicator Plant Species
Trichomes
46
Desert ndash Indicator Animal Species
Zebratail Lizard - Callisaurus draconides
47
Desert ndash Indicator Animal Species
Rock hyrax (Procavia capensis) 48
Desert ndash Indicator Animal Species
Bactrian Camel Camelus bactrianus
49
Temperate Deciduous Forest
bull temperature 0 - 20 C
bull precipitation ~ 50 ndash 200 cmyear
50
Temperate Deciduous Forest
51
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Plant Species
Oaks (Quercus sp)
Dutchmans-Breeches
Dicentra cucullaria 52
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Plant Species
Sassafras
Sassafras albidum
Redbud
Cercis canadensis
53
Temperate Deciduous Forest ndash Succession
bull orderly succession of communities to a climax
community (biome)
bull two main types of succession
bull primary succession begins with bare rock exposed
by geologic activity
bull secondary succession begins on soil from which
previous community has been removed (by fire
agriculture etc)
bull secondary succession can proceed much faster
because the soil has been prepared by the
previous community
54
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
American Toad
Bufo americanus
Box Turtle
55
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
Eastern Chipmunk
Tamias striatus
Eastern Gray Squirrel
Sciurus carolinensis
56
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
Yellow-breasted chat
Icteria virens 57
Tundra
bull annual average temperature lt 5 C
bull precipitation (mostly in the form of snow) lt 100 mmyear
bull summer is brief
bull temperatures above freezing last only a few weeks at
most
bull warm summer coincides with periods of almost 24
hour daylight so plant growth can be explosive
58
Tundra
Anaktuvuk Pass Alaska
59
Tundra ndash Indicator Plant Species
Arctic Tundra Wildflowers - Alaska
60
Tundra ndash Indicator Plant Species
Lichen
Polytrichum Moss
(photographed in Ohio not on the
Tundra)
61
Tundra ndash Indicator Animal Species
Reindeer
Rangifer tarandus
62
Tundra ndash Indicator Animal Species
Caribou On Autumn Tundra Denali National Park Alaska
63
Savanna
bull rolling grassland scattered with shrubs and isolated trees
bull found between a tropical rainforest and desert biome
bull not enough rain falls on a savanna to support forests
bull found in a wide band on either side of the equator on
the edges of tropical rainforests
bull warm temperature year round
bull very long dry season (winter) ~ 10 cm rain none at all
from Dec - Feb
bull very wet season (summer) ~ 35-65 cm rain
64
Savanna
65
Savanna ndash Indicator Plant Species
Baobab
Adansonia digitata Umbrella Thorn Acacia
Acacia tortillis
66
Savanna ndash Indicator Animal Species
Savanna Elephant
Loxodonta africana
Black Mamba
Dendroaspis polylepis
Lion
Panthera leo
67
Chaparral
bull winter mild and moist but not rainy
bull summer very hot and dry
bull annual temperature range between -1deg and 38deg C
bull annual precipitation ~ 25-45 cm mostly in the winter
68
Chaparral
69
Chaparral ndash Indicator Plant Species
Blue Oak
Quercus douglasii
Common Sagebrush
Artemisia tridentata
Olive Tree
Olea europaea
70
Chaparral ndash Indicator Animal Species
Black-tailed Jackrabbit
Lepus californicus Golden Jackal
Canis aureus
Spotted Skunk
Spilogale gracilis
71
The Freshwater Biome
bull low salt concentration mdash usually less than 1
bull plants and animals in freshwater regions are adjusted to
the low salt content and would not be able to survive in
areas of high salt concentration (ie ocean)
bull 3 different types of freshwater regions
bull ponds and lakes
bull streams and rivers
bull wetlands
72
The Freshwater Biome ndash Ponds and Lakes
From left a view across Manzanita Lake toward Mt Lassen California a
forest pond near Donnelly Idaho a Great Blue Heron Paranagat Lake
southeastern Nevada
73
The Freshwater Biome ndash Streams and
Rivers
From left McArthur-Burney Falls State Park California trout Green
River Utah Brooks River Alaska
74
The Freshwater Biome - Wetlands
From left Pescadero Marsh California coastal marsh at Umpqua
Dunes Oregon trees and bogs on Esther Island Alaska
75
The Marine Biome
bull cover about three-fourths of the Earths surface
bull marine algae supply much of the worlds oxygen supply
and take in a huge amount of atmospheric carbon
dioxide
bull evaporation of the seawater provides rainwater for the
land
bull 3 different types of marine regions
bull oceans
bull coral reefs
bull estuaries
76
The Marine Biome - Oceans
From left mussels worms and a spider crab at a hydrocarbon seep
community in the Gulf of Mexico a sea fan and brain coral in the Florida
Keys National Marine Sanctuary a school of Atlantic amberjack off North
Carolina
77
The Marine Biome ndash Coral Reefs
From left reef life in the Gulf of Aqaba Red Sea a reef at Fanning
Island atoll in the central Pacific a reef in the Florida Keys National
Marine Sanctuary
78
The Marine Biome - Estuaries
From left Mangrove roots south Florida wetlands and tidal streams
in the Ashe Island area ACE Basin National Estuarine Research
Reserve South Carolina a salt marsh in Winyah Bay National
Estuarine Research Reserve South Carolina
79
Ecological Notes
These are the biomes in order of their productivity (highest
first)
1 estuaries and tropical rain forest (highest)
2 temperate forest
3 agricultural land
4 temperate grassland
5 lakes and streams
6 coastal zone
7 tundra
8 open ocean
9 desert (lowest)
80
Ecological Notes
In order to be productive and have a lot of living material
standing around (biomass) an ecosystem has to have 4
basic necessities for plant life to thrive (if there are
enough plants the ecosystem will also support a lot of
animals) The four things are
1 Sunlight
2 Nutrients
3 Warm temperatures
4 Water
81
Biomes Video
82
Take-Home Message
bull Biomes are the major ecological communities of earth
characterized mostly by the vegetation present
bull Different biomes result from differences in temperature
and precipitation and the extent to which they vary from
season to season
83
Challenge Question
bull Terrestrial biomes are determined by the temperature
and precipitation amounts as well as whether those
factors are constant or vary by season
bull By contrast how are aquatic biomes determined
84
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy flows from producers to
consumers
85
86
87
First Stop Primary Producers
bull ecosystem producers or consumers
bull primary producers plants algae (some) bacteria
bull convert light energy from sun into chemical energy
through photosynthesis
bull chemical energy = food
bull consumers eat or absorb their food
bull energy stored in chemical bonds of carbohydrate
protein and lipid molecules is captured and
harnessed for consumersrsquo own movement
reproduction and growth
88
Food Chain
89
Food Web
90
Food Web
91
Food Chains amp Food Webs
bull A change in one link in a food chain will affect the other
links
bull The table on the next slide gives one example of a food
chain and the trophic levels represented in it
92
Food Chains amp Food Webs
93
GRASS
GRASSHOPPER
TOAD
SNAKE
HAWK
BACTERIA
IN GENERAL
AUTOTROPHS
(PRODUCERS)
HERBIVORES
(PRIMARY
CONSUMERS)
CARNIVORES
(2 3 ETC)
DECOMPOSERS
94
Chain Reaction Game
95
Energy Flows through a Food Web
bull Losses at every ldquosteprdquo in a food chain
bull Inefficiency of energy transfers
96
Energy flow through a food chain
Energy flow refers to the way that energy is transformed through
a food chain (pictured here) containing a series of levels
including plants consumers predators and decomposers 97
Amount of energy available at each of the
four levels of an ecosystem
Ecological pyramids illustrate the amount of energy
available at each of the four levels of an ecosystem 98
Ecological Pyramid
99
A grasshopper eats a plant A mouse eats the
grasshopper A snake eats the mouse A hawk
could eat the snake or the mouse In this food
web how would we categorize the hawk
1 Producer
2 Primary consumer
3 Secondary consumer
4 Tertiary consumer
5 Quaternary consumer
6 4 and 5
100
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps
bull First it is converted to chemical energy in
photosynthesis
bull Herbivores then consume the primary producers the
herbivores are consumed by carnivores and the
carnivores in turn may be consumed by top carnivores
101
Take-home message
bull Detritivores and decomposers extract energy from
organic waste and the remains of organisms that have
died
bull At each step in a food chain some usable energy is lost
as heat
102
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy pyramids reveal the inefficiency of
food chains
103
Biomass
bull biomass total weight of all living organisms in a given
area
bull only about 10 of the plants in an ecosystem is
converted into biomass
bull Food Energy Pyramid
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
bull African savannas and grasslands sustain more species
of higher-order carnivores than any other terrestrial
ecosystem
104
105
Food Energy Pyramids
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
106
107
108
You go out to eat at a fancy restaurant You
have a salad salmon and for dessert ice
cream Which part of the meal was the most
energy efficient food for you to eat
1 Salad
2 Salmon
3 Ice cream
4 2 and 3
109
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps known as trophic levels
bull Energy pyramids reveal that the biomass of primary
producers in an ecosystem tends to be far greater than
the biomass of herbivores
bull The biomass transferred at each step along the food chain tends to be only about 10 of the biomass of the organisms being consumed due to energy lost in cellular respiration
bull As a consequence of this inefficiency food chains rarely exceed four levels
110
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Essential chemicals cycle through
ecosystems
111
Chemical Reservoirs
bull Each chemical is stored in a non-living part of the environment
bull Organisms acquire the chemical from the reservoir a non-living part of the environment
bull The chemical cycles through the food chain (biogeochemical cycles)
bull Eventually the chemical is returned to the reservoir
112
Hydrologic Cycle and the Florida Springs
bull Click here for a description of how falling rain feeds underground aquifers in Florida and forms springs
113
The Most Important Chemical Cycles
1) Carbon
2) Nitrogen
3) Phosphorus
4) Sulfur
114
115
The
Carbon
Cycle
116
The Carbon Cycle
Keeping Up With Carbon
NASA video provides key information on the carbon cycle
117
118
Carbon Cycle Game
Fossil Fuels
bull created when large numbers of organisms die and are buried in sediment lacking oxygen
bull In absence of oxygen at high pressures and after very long periods of time organic remains are ultimately transformed into coal oil and natural gas
bull burning coal oil and natural gas releases large amounts of carbon dioxide
bull increases average CO2 concentration in the atmosphere
bull current level of CO2 in the atmosphere is the highest it has been in almost half a million years
119
Global CO2 levels are rising in
general but they also exhibit a
sharp rise and fall within each
year ndash why
120
121
The Nitrogen Cycle
122
The Nitrogen Cycle
Fertilizers
bull Because it is necessary for the production of every plant
protein and because all nitrogen must first be made
usable by bacteria plant growth is often limited by
nitrogen levels in the soil
bull For this reason most fertilizers contain nitrogen in a
form usable by plants
123
124
125
126
127
Oxygen reduction downstream of a source of
organic pollution
128
Algal growth and eutrophication in an Australian
outback waterway
129
Sulfur Cycle
bull component of protein
bull cycles in both a gas and sedimentary cycle
bull source earths crust
bull enters the atmosphere as hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
during fossil fuel combustion volcanic eruptions
gas exchange at ocean surfaces decomposition
130
Sulfur Cycle
bull H2S is immediately oxidized to sulfur dioxide (SO2)
bull SO2 + water vapor H2SO4 (falls to earth in rain)
bull sulfur in soluble form is taken up by plant roots
incorporated into amino acids such as cysteine
bull travels through food chain
bull eventually released through decomposition
131
How is carbon recycled back to the
atmosphere in the carbon cycle
1 It is ldquofixedrdquo by bacteria
2 It is a product of cellular respiration
3 Burning of fossil fuels
4 2 and 3
5 All of the above
132
Why do commercial fertilizers usually
contain usable forms of nitrogen and
phosphorous
1 These chemicals are not efficiently recycled in
the soil
2 Nitrogen and phosphorous need to be ldquofixedrdquo
by bacteria or the plant
3 Nitrogen and phosphorous are found at high
levels in the atmosphere but not in the soil
4 Nitrogen and phosphorous only enter the soil
through erosion
133
Take-home message
bull Chemicals essential to lifemdashincluding carbon nitrogen and phosphorusmdashcycle through ecosystems
bull They are usually captured from the atmosphere soil or water by growing organisms passed from one trophic level to the next as organisms eat other organisms and returned to the environment through respiration decomposition and erosion
bull These cycles can be disrupted as human activities significantly increase the amounts of the chemicals utilized or released to the environment
134
Symbiotic Relationships
bull Symbiosis close relationship between organisms of
two different species
bull At least one participant gains some sort of benefit
(usually nutritional)
bull Types of symbiosis
bull Parasitism
bull Commensalism
bull Mutualism
bull Predation
135
Symbiotic Relationships in the
Ocean
bull Click here for an explanation of the
relationships of marine animals
including sharks rays and various
fishes
136
Parasitism bull Parasite derives nutrition from the host
bull This harms the host but a true parasite does
not usually kill its host (directly)
137
Ectoparasites
Remain outside the host
Ticks fleas leeches
138
Endoparasites
Live inside the hostrsquos body
Tapeworms malarial parasites
139
Parasite Transmission
bull Many parasites live on or in a single organism
bull Some will alternate between 2 or more host species
bull Vertical transmission ndash from mother offspring
bull Horizontal transmission ndash between members of a
population
bull Direct contact (head lice)
bull Vectors (mosquitos)
140
141
Commensalism
bull Neither species is totally dependent on the other
bull One benefits ndash no effect on the other
bull Feeding or protection
bull Porcelain anemone crabs and anemones
142
Mutualism
bull Both species benefit
bull Food or shelter
bull Examples
bull Plants and microbes (rhizobium in root nodules)
bull Plants and fungi (orchids and mycorrhizae)
bull Protists and fungi (lichen)
bull Plants and insects (pollination)
bull Animals and bacteria (ruminants)
bull Animals and other animals (crocodiles and
plover birds)
143
Mutualism shrimp and moray
Cleaner shrimp cleaning a zebra moray eel Mutualistic
relationships such as these promote the well-being of the
host fishes and provide food for those that do the cleaning 144
Rhizobium
Rhizobium in root nodules of certain plants convert
nitrogen in soil to usable form
145
Orchid Mycorrhizae
Fungi aid the plant in the uptake of nutrients
Fungi ingest some of the food from plant
photosynthesis 146
Lichen
Most of the lichen is composed of fungal filaments
but living among the filaments are algal cells
usually from a green alga or a cyanobacterium
The lichen fungus provides its partner(s) a benefit
(protection) and gains nutrients in return 147
Ruminants
Ruminants are characterized by their four-chambered
stomach and cud-chewing behavior Cud is a food bolus
that is regurgitated rechewed and reswallowed The
rumen is a large fermentation vat containing billions of
microorganisms including bacteria and protozoa which
allow ruminants to digest fibrous feeds such as grass and
hay that other animals cannot efficiently utilize 148
Crocodiles amp
Plover Birds
The bird gets into the crocodiles mouth and picks out
the tiny bits of food stuck in his teeth then eats it (the
tiny bits)
This cleans the crocodiles teeth and keeps his mouth
fresh and free from infections 149
Predation
bull Consumption of one living organism by
another
bull Predators must have offensive strategies
bull ways of finding catching and eating
their prey
bull Prey organisms must have defensive
strategies
bull ways of avoiding or discouraging this
activity
150
Predation
bull Encompasses all levels within an
ecological food chainweb
bull plant-herbivore systems
bull herbivore-carnivore systems
bull three-way interactions of
interdependent plant-herbivore-
carnivore systems
151
This goshawk is the tertiary consumer in his ecosystem
and the mouse in his beak is the secondary consumer
Beneath the mouse on the ecological pyramid lies his
foodsource likely a worm which fed on the primary
producer leafy plants 152
Ecosystem of Life in Floridas
Springs
bull Click here for a close-up look of life
in Floridas springs and the various
predator-prey interactions there
153
Taiga ndash Indicator Animal Species
Long-eared Owl
Aiso otus
Snowshoe Rabbit
Lepus americanus
41
Desert
bull cover about one fifth of Earths land surface
bull hot and dry near Tropic of CancerTropic of
Capricorn
bull cold near the Arctic
bull temperature
bull hot amp dry ~ 25deg C to ~ 49deg C
bull cold -2 to 4deg C (winter) 21 to 26deg C (summer)
bull precipitation
bull hot amp dry very little rainfall andor concentrated
rainfall in short periods between long rainless periods
(lt 15 cmyear)
bull cold 15 - 26 cmyear 42
Desert
43
Desert ndash Indicator Plant Species
44
Desert ndash Indicator Plant Species
Saguaro Cactus
Carnegiea gigantea
Fishhook Cactus
Mammillaria microcarpa
45
Desert ndash Indicator Plant Species
Trichomes
46
Desert ndash Indicator Animal Species
Zebratail Lizard - Callisaurus draconides
47
Desert ndash Indicator Animal Species
Rock hyrax (Procavia capensis) 48
Desert ndash Indicator Animal Species
Bactrian Camel Camelus bactrianus
49
Temperate Deciduous Forest
bull temperature 0 - 20 C
bull precipitation ~ 50 ndash 200 cmyear
50
Temperate Deciduous Forest
51
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Plant Species
Oaks (Quercus sp)
Dutchmans-Breeches
Dicentra cucullaria 52
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Plant Species
Sassafras
Sassafras albidum
Redbud
Cercis canadensis
53
Temperate Deciduous Forest ndash Succession
bull orderly succession of communities to a climax
community (biome)
bull two main types of succession
bull primary succession begins with bare rock exposed
by geologic activity
bull secondary succession begins on soil from which
previous community has been removed (by fire
agriculture etc)
bull secondary succession can proceed much faster
because the soil has been prepared by the
previous community
54
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
American Toad
Bufo americanus
Box Turtle
55
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
Eastern Chipmunk
Tamias striatus
Eastern Gray Squirrel
Sciurus carolinensis
56
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
Yellow-breasted chat
Icteria virens 57
Tundra
bull annual average temperature lt 5 C
bull precipitation (mostly in the form of snow) lt 100 mmyear
bull summer is brief
bull temperatures above freezing last only a few weeks at
most
bull warm summer coincides with periods of almost 24
hour daylight so plant growth can be explosive
58
Tundra
Anaktuvuk Pass Alaska
59
Tundra ndash Indicator Plant Species
Arctic Tundra Wildflowers - Alaska
60
Tundra ndash Indicator Plant Species
Lichen
Polytrichum Moss
(photographed in Ohio not on the
Tundra)
61
Tundra ndash Indicator Animal Species
Reindeer
Rangifer tarandus
62
Tundra ndash Indicator Animal Species
Caribou On Autumn Tundra Denali National Park Alaska
63
Savanna
bull rolling grassland scattered with shrubs and isolated trees
bull found between a tropical rainforest and desert biome
bull not enough rain falls on a savanna to support forests
bull found in a wide band on either side of the equator on
the edges of tropical rainforests
bull warm temperature year round
bull very long dry season (winter) ~ 10 cm rain none at all
from Dec - Feb
bull very wet season (summer) ~ 35-65 cm rain
64
Savanna
65
Savanna ndash Indicator Plant Species
Baobab
Adansonia digitata Umbrella Thorn Acacia
Acacia tortillis
66
Savanna ndash Indicator Animal Species
Savanna Elephant
Loxodonta africana
Black Mamba
Dendroaspis polylepis
Lion
Panthera leo
67
Chaparral
bull winter mild and moist but not rainy
bull summer very hot and dry
bull annual temperature range between -1deg and 38deg C
bull annual precipitation ~ 25-45 cm mostly in the winter
68
Chaparral
69
Chaparral ndash Indicator Plant Species
Blue Oak
Quercus douglasii
Common Sagebrush
Artemisia tridentata
Olive Tree
Olea europaea
70
Chaparral ndash Indicator Animal Species
Black-tailed Jackrabbit
Lepus californicus Golden Jackal
Canis aureus
Spotted Skunk
Spilogale gracilis
71
The Freshwater Biome
bull low salt concentration mdash usually less than 1
bull plants and animals in freshwater regions are adjusted to
the low salt content and would not be able to survive in
areas of high salt concentration (ie ocean)
bull 3 different types of freshwater regions
bull ponds and lakes
bull streams and rivers
bull wetlands
72
The Freshwater Biome ndash Ponds and Lakes
From left a view across Manzanita Lake toward Mt Lassen California a
forest pond near Donnelly Idaho a Great Blue Heron Paranagat Lake
southeastern Nevada
73
The Freshwater Biome ndash Streams and
Rivers
From left McArthur-Burney Falls State Park California trout Green
River Utah Brooks River Alaska
74
The Freshwater Biome - Wetlands
From left Pescadero Marsh California coastal marsh at Umpqua
Dunes Oregon trees and bogs on Esther Island Alaska
75
The Marine Biome
bull cover about three-fourths of the Earths surface
bull marine algae supply much of the worlds oxygen supply
and take in a huge amount of atmospheric carbon
dioxide
bull evaporation of the seawater provides rainwater for the
land
bull 3 different types of marine regions
bull oceans
bull coral reefs
bull estuaries
76
The Marine Biome - Oceans
From left mussels worms and a spider crab at a hydrocarbon seep
community in the Gulf of Mexico a sea fan and brain coral in the Florida
Keys National Marine Sanctuary a school of Atlantic amberjack off North
Carolina
77
The Marine Biome ndash Coral Reefs
From left reef life in the Gulf of Aqaba Red Sea a reef at Fanning
Island atoll in the central Pacific a reef in the Florida Keys National
Marine Sanctuary
78
The Marine Biome - Estuaries
From left Mangrove roots south Florida wetlands and tidal streams
in the Ashe Island area ACE Basin National Estuarine Research
Reserve South Carolina a salt marsh in Winyah Bay National
Estuarine Research Reserve South Carolina
79
Ecological Notes
These are the biomes in order of their productivity (highest
first)
1 estuaries and tropical rain forest (highest)
2 temperate forest
3 agricultural land
4 temperate grassland
5 lakes and streams
6 coastal zone
7 tundra
8 open ocean
9 desert (lowest)
80
Ecological Notes
In order to be productive and have a lot of living material
standing around (biomass) an ecosystem has to have 4
basic necessities for plant life to thrive (if there are
enough plants the ecosystem will also support a lot of
animals) The four things are
1 Sunlight
2 Nutrients
3 Warm temperatures
4 Water
81
Biomes Video
82
Take-Home Message
bull Biomes are the major ecological communities of earth
characterized mostly by the vegetation present
bull Different biomes result from differences in temperature
and precipitation and the extent to which they vary from
season to season
83
Challenge Question
bull Terrestrial biomes are determined by the temperature
and precipitation amounts as well as whether those
factors are constant or vary by season
bull By contrast how are aquatic biomes determined
84
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy flows from producers to
consumers
85
86
87
First Stop Primary Producers
bull ecosystem producers or consumers
bull primary producers plants algae (some) bacteria
bull convert light energy from sun into chemical energy
through photosynthesis
bull chemical energy = food
bull consumers eat or absorb their food
bull energy stored in chemical bonds of carbohydrate
protein and lipid molecules is captured and
harnessed for consumersrsquo own movement
reproduction and growth
88
Food Chain
89
Food Web
90
Food Web
91
Food Chains amp Food Webs
bull A change in one link in a food chain will affect the other
links
bull The table on the next slide gives one example of a food
chain and the trophic levels represented in it
92
Food Chains amp Food Webs
93
GRASS
GRASSHOPPER
TOAD
SNAKE
HAWK
BACTERIA
IN GENERAL
AUTOTROPHS
(PRODUCERS)
HERBIVORES
(PRIMARY
CONSUMERS)
CARNIVORES
(2 3 ETC)
DECOMPOSERS
94
Chain Reaction Game
95
Energy Flows through a Food Web
bull Losses at every ldquosteprdquo in a food chain
bull Inefficiency of energy transfers
96
Energy flow through a food chain
Energy flow refers to the way that energy is transformed through
a food chain (pictured here) containing a series of levels
including plants consumers predators and decomposers 97
Amount of energy available at each of the
four levels of an ecosystem
Ecological pyramids illustrate the amount of energy
available at each of the four levels of an ecosystem 98
Ecological Pyramid
99
A grasshopper eats a plant A mouse eats the
grasshopper A snake eats the mouse A hawk
could eat the snake or the mouse In this food
web how would we categorize the hawk
1 Producer
2 Primary consumer
3 Secondary consumer
4 Tertiary consumer
5 Quaternary consumer
6 4 and 5
100
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps
bull First it is converted to chemical energy in
photosynthesis
bull Herbivores then consume the primary producers the
herbivores are consumed by carnivores and the
carnivores in turn may be consumed by top carnivores
101
Take-home message
bull Detritivores and decomposers extract energy from
organic waste and the remains of organisms that have
died
bull At each step in a food chain some usable energy is lost
as heat
102
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy pyramids reveal the inefficiency of
food chains
103
Biomass
bull biomass total weight of all living organisms in a given
area
bull only about 10 of the plants in an ecosystem is
converted into biomass
bull Food Energy Pyramid
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
bull African savannas and grasslands sustain more species
of higher-order carnivores than any other terrestrial
ecosystem
104
105
Food Energy Pyramids
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
106
107
108
You go out to eat at a fancy restaurant You
have a salad salmon and for dessert ice
cream Which part of the meal was the most
energy efficient food for you to eat
1 Salad
2 Salmon
3 Ice cream
4 2 and 3
109
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps known as trophic levels
bull Energy pyramids reveal that the biomass of primary
producers in an ecosystem tends to be far greater than
the biomass of herbivores
bull The biomass transferred at each step along the food chain tends to be only about 10 of the biomass of the organisms being consumed due to energy lost in cellular respiration
bull As a consequence of this inefficiency food chains rarely exceed four levels
110
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Essential chemicals cycle through
ecosystems
111
Chemical Reservoirs
bull Each chemical is stored in a non-living part of the environment
bull Organisms acquire the chemical from the reservoir a non-living part of the environment
bull The chemical cycles through the food chain (biogeochemical cycles)
bull Eventually the chemical is returned to the reservoir
112
Hydrologic Cycle and the Florida Springs
bull Click here for a description of how falling rain feeds underground aquifers in Florida and forms springs
113
The Most Important Chemical Cycles
1) Carbon
2) Nitrogen
3) Phosphorus
4) Sulfur
114
115
The
Carbon
Cycle
116
The Carbon Cycle
Keeping Up With Carbon
NASA video provides key information on the carbon cycle
117
118
Carbon Cycle Game
Fossil Fuels
bull created when large numbers of organisms die and are buried in sediment lacking oxygen
bull In absence of oxygen at high pressures and after very long periods of time organic remains are ultimately transformed into coal oil and natural gas
bull burning coal oil and natural gas releases large amounts of carbon dioxide
bull increases average CO2 concentration in the atmosphere
bull current level of CO2 in the atmosphere is the highest it has been in almost half a million years
119
Global CO2 levels are rising in
general but they also exhibit a
sharp rise and fall within each
year ndash why
120
121
The Nitrogen Cycle
122
The Nitrogen Cycle
Fertilizers
bull Because it is necessary for the production of every plant
protein and because all nitrogen must first be made
usable by bacteria plant growth is often limited by
nitrogen levels in the soil
bull For this reason most fertilizers contain nitrogen in a
form usable by plants
123
124
125
126
127
Oxygen reduction downstream of a source of
organic pollution
128
Algal growth and eutrophication in an Australian
outback waterway
129
Sulfur Cycle
bull component of protein
bull cycles in both a gas and sedimentary cycle
bull source earths crust
bull enters the atmosphere as hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
during fossil fuel combustion volcanic eruptions
gas exchange at ocean surfaces decomposition
130
Sulfur Cycle
bull H2S is immediately oxidized to sulfur dioxide (SO2)
bull SO2 + water vapor H2SO4 (falls to earth in rain)
bull sulfur in soluble form is taken up by plant roots
incorporated into amino acids such as cysteine
bull travels through food chain
bull eventually released through decomposition
131
How is carbon recycled back to the
atmosphere in the carbon cycle
1 It is ldquofixedrdquo by bacteria
2 It is a product of cellular respiration
3 Burning of fossil fuels
4 2 and 3
5 All of the above
132
Why do commercial fertilizers usually
contain usable forms of nitrogen and
phosphorous
1 These chemicals are not efficiently recycled in
the soil
2 Nitrogen and phosphorous need to be ldquofixedrdquo
by bacteria or the plant
3 Nitrogen and phosphorous are found at high
levels in the atmosphere but not in the soil
4 Nitrogen and phosphorous only enter the soil
through erosion
133
Take-home message
bull Chemicals essential to lifemdashincluding carbon nitrogen and phosphorusmdashcycle through ecosystems
bull They are usually captured from the atmosphere soil or water by growing organisms passed from one trophic level to the next as organisms eat other organisms and returned to the environment through respiration decomposition and erosion
bull These cycles can be disrupted as human activities significantly increase the amounts of the chemicals utilized or released to the environment
134
Symbiotic Relationships
bull Symbiosis close relationship between organisms of
two different species
bull At least one participant gains some sort of benefit
(usually nutritional)
bull Types of symbiosis
bull Parasitism
bull Commensalism
bull Mutualism
bull Predation
135
Symbiotic Relationships in the
Ocean
bull Click here for an explanation of the
relationships of marine animals
including sharks rays and various
fishes
136
Parasitism bull Parasite derives nutrition from the host
bull This harms the host but a true parasite does
not usually kill its host (directly)
137
Ectoparasites
Remain outside the host
Ticks fleas leeches
138
Endoparasites
Live inside the hostrsquos body
Tapeworms malarial parasites
139
Parasite Transmission
bull Many parasites live on or in a single organism
bull Some will alternate between 2 or more host species
bull Vertical transmission ndash from mother offspring
bull Horizontal transmission ndash between members of a
population
bull Direct contact (head lice)
bull Vectors (mosquitos)
140
141
Commensalism
bull Neither species is totally dependent on the other
bull One benefits ndash no effect on the other
bull Feeding or protection
bull Porcelain anemone crabs and anemones
142
Mutualism
bull Both species benefit
bull Food or shelter
bull Examples
bull Plants and microbes (rhizobium in root nodules)
bull Plants and fungi (orchids and mycorrhizae)
bull Protists and fungi (lichen)
bull Plants and insects (pollination)
bull Animals and bacteria (ruminants)
bull Animals and other animals (crocodiles and
plover birds)
143
Mutualism shrimp and moray
Cleaner shrimp cleaning a zebra moray eel Mutualistic
relationships such as these promote the well-being of the
host fishes and provide food for those that do the cleaning 144
Rhizobium
Rhizobium in root nodules of certain plants convert
nitrogen in soil to usable form
145
Orchid Mycorrhizae
Fungi aid the plant in the uptake of nutrients
Fungi ingest some of the food from plant
photosynthesis 146
Lichen
Most of the lichen is composed of fungal filaments
but living among the filaments are algal cells
usually from a green alga or a cyanobacterium
The lichen fungus provides its partner(s) a benefit
(protection) and gains nutrients in return 147
Ruminants
Ruminants are characterized by their four-chambered
stomach and cud-chewing behavior Cud is a food bolus
that is regurgitated rechewed and reswallowed The
rumen is a large fermentation vat containing billions of
microorganisms including bacteria and protozoa which
allow ruminants to digest fibrous feeds such as grass and
hay that other animals cannot efficiently utilize 148
Crocodiles amp
Plover Birds
The bird gets into the crocodiles mouth and picks out
the tiny bits of food stuck in his teeth then eats it (the
tiny bits)
This cleans the crocodiles teeth and keeps his mouth
fresh and free from infections 149
Predation
bull Consumption of one living organism by
another
bull Predators must have offensive strategies
bull ways of finding catching and eating
their prey
bull Prey organisms must have defensive
strategies
bull ways of avoiding or discouraging this
activity
150
Predation
bull Encompasses all levels within an
ecological food chainweb
bull plant-herbivore systems
bull herbivore-carnivore systems
bull three-way interactions of
interdependent plant-herbivore-
carnivore systems
151
This goshawk is the tertiary consumer in his ecosystem
and the mouse in his beak is the secondary consumer
Beneath the mouse on the ecological pyramid lies his
foodsource likely a worm which fed on the primary
producer leafy plants 152
Ecosystem of Life in Floridas
Springs
bull Click here for a close-up look of life
in Floridas springs and the various
predator-prey interactions there
153
Desert
bull cover about one fifth of Earths land surface
bull hot and dry near Tropic of CancerTropic of
Capricorn
bull cold near the Arctic
bull temperature
bull hot amp dry ~ 25deg C to ~ 49deg C
bull cold -2 to 4deg C (winter) 21 to 26deg C (summer)
bull precipitation
bull hot amp dry very little rainfall andor concentrated
rainfall in short periods between long rainless periods
(lt 15 cmyear)
bull cold 15 - 26 cmyear 42
Desert
43
Desert ndash Indicator Plant Species
44
Desert ndash Indicator Plant Species
Saguaro Cactus
Carnegiea gigantea
Fishhook Cactus
Mammillaria microcarpa
45
Desert ndash Indicator Plant Species
Trichomes
46
Desert ndash Indicator Animal Species
Zebratail Lizard - Callisaurus draconides
47
Desert ndash Indicator Animal Species
Rock hyrax (Procavia capensis) 48
Desert ndash Indicator Animal Species
Bactrian Camel Camelus bactrianus
49
Temperate Deciduous Forest
bull temperature 0 - 20 C
bull precipitation ~ 50 ndash 200 cmyear
50
Temperate Deciduous Forest
51
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Plant Species
Oaks (Quercus sp)
Dutchmans-Breeches
Dicentra cucullaria 52
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Plant Species
Sassafras
Sassafras albidum
Redbud
Cercis canadensis
53
Temperate Deciduous Forest ndash Succession
bull orderly succession of communities to a climax
community (biome)
bull two main types of succession
bull primary succession begins with bare rock exposed
by geologic activity
bull secondary succession begins on soil from which
previous community has been removed (by fire
agriculture etc)
bull secondary succession can proceed much faster
because the soil has been prepared by the
previous community
54
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
American Toad
Bufo americanus
Box Turtle
55
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
Eastern Chipmunk
Tamias striatus
Eastern Gray Squirrel
Sciurus carolinensis
56
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
Yellow-breasted chat
Icteria virens 57
Tundra
bull annual average temperature lt 5 C
bull precipitation (mostly in the form of snow) lt 100 mmyear
bull summer is brief
bull temperatures above freezing last only a few weeks at
most
bull warm summer coincides with periods of almost 24
hour daylight so plant growth can be explosive
58
Tundra
Anaktuvuk Pass Alaska
59
Tundra ndash Indicator Plant Species
Arctic Tundra Wildflowers - Alaska
60
Tundra ndash Indicator Plant Species
Lichen
Polytrichum Moss
(photographed in Ohio not on the
Tundra)
61
Tundra ndash Indicator Animal Species
Reindeer
Rangifer tarandus
62
Tundra ndash Indicator Animal Species
Caribou On Autumn Tundra Denali National Park Alaska
63
Savanna
bull rolling grassland scattered with shrubs and isolated trees
bull found between a tropical rainforest and desert biome
bull not enough rain falls on a savanna to support forests
bull found in a wide band on either side of the equator on
the edges of tropical rainforests
bull warm temperature year round
bull very long dry season (winter) ~ 10 cm rain none at all
from Dec - Feb
bull very wet season (summer) ~ 35-65 cm rain
64
Savanna
65
Savanna ndash Indicator Plant Species
Baobab
Adansonia digitata Umbrella Thorn Acacia
Acacia tortillis
66
Savanna ndash Indicator Animal Species
Savanna Elephant
Loxodonta africana
Black Mamba
Dendroaspis polylepis
Lion
Panthera leo
67
Chaparral
bull winter mild and moist but not rainy
bull summer very hot and dry
bull annual temperature range between -1deg and 38deg C
bull annual precipitation ~ 25-45 cm mostly in the winter
68
Chaparral
69
Chaparral ndash Indicator Plant Species
Blue Oak
Quercus douglasii
Common Sagebrush
Artemisia tridentata
Olive Tree
Olea europaea
70
Chaparral ndash Indicator Animal Species
Black-tailed Jackrabbit
Lepus californicus Golden Jackal
Canis aureus
Spotted Skunk
Spilogale gracilis
71
The Freshwater Biome
bull low salt concentration mdash usually less than 1
bull plants and animals in freshwater regions are adjusted to
the low salt content and would not be able to survive in
areas of high salt concentration (ie ocean)
bull 3 different types of freshwater regions
bull ponds and lakes
bull streams and rivers
bull wetlands
72
The Freshwater Biome ndash Ponds and Lakes
From left a view across Manzanita Lake toward Mt Lassen California a
forest pond near Donnelly Idaho a Great Blue Heron Paranagat Lake
southeastern Nevada
73
The Freshwater Biome ndash Streams and
Rivers
From left McArthur-Burney Falls State Park California trout Green
River Utah Brooks River Alaska
74
The Freshwater Biome - Wetlands
From left Pescadero Marsh California coastal marsh at Umpqua
Dunes Oregon trees and bogs on Esther Island Alaska
75
The Marine Biome
bull cover about three-fourths of the Earths surface
bull marine algae supply much of the worlds oxygen supply
and take in a huge amount of atmospheric carbon
dioxide
bull evaporation of the seawater provides rainwater for the
land
bull 3 different types of marine regions
bull oceans
bull coral reefs
bull estuaries
76
The Marine Biome - Oceans
From left mussels worms and a spider crab at a hydrocarbon seep
community in the Gulf of Mexico a sea fan and brain coral in the Florida
Keys National Marine Sanctuary a school of Atlantic amberjack off North
Carolina
77
The Marine Biome ndash Coral Reefs
From left reef life in the Gulf of Aqaba Red Sea a reef at Fanning
Island atoll in the central Pacific a reef in the Florida Keys National
Marine Sanctuary
78
The Marine Biome - Estuaries
From left Mangrove roots south Florida wetlands and tidal streams
in the Ashe Island area ACE Basin National Estuarine Research
Reserve South Carolina a salt marsh in Winyah Bay National
Estuarine Research Reserve South Carolina
79
Ecological Notes
These are the biomes in order of their productivity (highest
first)
1 estuaries and tropical rain forest (highest)
2 temperate forest
3 agricultural land
4 temperate grassland
5 lakes and streams
6 coastal zone
7 tundra
8 open ocean
9 desert (lowest)
80
Ecological Notes
In order to be productive and have a lot of living material
standing around (biomass) an ecosystem has to have 4
basic necessities for plant life to thrive (if there are
enough plants the ecosystem will also support a lot of
animals) The four things are
1 Sunlight
2 Nutrients
3 Warm temperatures
4 Water
81
Biomes Video
82
Take-Home Message
bull Biomes are the major ecological communities of earth
characterized mostly by the vegetation present
bull Different biomes result from differences in temperature
and precipitation and the extent to which they vary from
season to season
83
Challenge Question
bull Terrestrial biomes are determined by the temperature
and precipitation amounts as well as whether those
factors are constant or vary by season
bull By contrast how are aquatic biomes determined
84
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy flows from producers to
consumers
85
86
87
First Stop Primary Producers
bull ecosystem producers or consumers
bull primary producers plants algae (some) bacteria
bull convert light energy from sun into chemical energy
through photosynthesis
bull chemical energy = food
bull consumers eat or absorb their food
bull energy stored in chemical bonds of carbohydrate
protein and lipid molecules is captured and
harnessed for consumersrsquo own movement
reproduction and growth
88
Food Chain
89
Food Web
90
Food Web
91
Food Chains amp Food Webs
bull A change in one link in a food chain will affect the other
links
bull The table on the next slide gives one example of a food
chain and the trophic levels represented in it
92
Food Chains amp Food Webs
93
GRASS
GRASSHOPPER
TOAD
SNAKE
HAWK
BACTERIA
IN GENERAL
AUTOTROPHS
(PRODUCERS)
HERBIVORES
(PRIMARY
CONSUMERS)
CARNIVORES
(2 3 ETC)
DECOMPOSERS
94
Chain Reaction Game
95
Energy Flows through a Food Web
bull Losses at every ldquosteprdquo in a food chain
bull Inefficiency of energy transfers
96
Energy flow through a food chain
Energy flow refers to the way that energy is transformed through
a food chain (pictured here) containing a series of levels
including plants consumers predators and decomposers 97
Amount of energy available at each of the
four levels of an ecosystem
Ecological pyramids illustrate the amount of energy
available at each of the four levels of an ecosystem 98
Ecological Pyramid
99
A grasshopper eats a plant A mouse eats the
grasshopper A snake eats the mouse A hawk
could eat the snake or the mouse In this food
web how would we categorize the hawk
1 Producer
2 Primary consumer
3 Secondary consumer
4 Tertiary consumer
5 Quaternary consumer
6 4 and 5
100
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps
bull First it is converted to chemical energy in
photosynthesis
bull Herbivores then consume the primary producers the
herbivores are consumed by carnivores and the
carnivores in turn may be consumed by top carnivores
101
Take-home message
bull Detritivores and decomposers extract energy from
organic waste and the remains of organisms that have
died
bull At each step in a food chain some usable energy is lost
as heat
102
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy pyramids reveal the inefficiency of
food chains
103
Biomass
bull biomass total weight of all living organisms in a given
area
bull only about 10 of the plants in an ecosystem is
converted into biomass
bull Food Energy Pyramid
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
bull African savannas and grasslands sustain more species
of higher-order carnivores than any other terrestrial
ecosystem
104
105
Food Energy Pyramids
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
106
107
108
You go out to eat at a fancy restaurant You
have a salad salmon and for dessert ice
cream Which part of the meal was the most
energy efficient food for you to eat
1 Salad
2 Salmon
3 Ice cream
4 2 and 3
109
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps known as trophic levels
bull Energy pyramids reveal that the biomass of primary
producers in an ecosystem tends to be far greater than
the biomass of herbivores
bull The biomass transferred at each step along the food chain tends to be only about 10 of the biomass of the organisms being consumed due to energy lost in cellular respiration
bull As a consequence of this inefficiency food chains rarely exceed four levels
110
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Essential chemicals cycle through
ecosystems
111
Chemical Reservoirs
bull Each chemical is stored in a non-living part of the environment
bull Organisms acquire the chemical from the reservoir a non-living part of the environment
bull The chemical cycles through the food chain (biogeochemical cycles)
bull Eventually the chemical is returned to the reservoir
112
Hydrologic Cycle and the Florida Springs
bull Click here for a description of how falling rain feeds underground aquifers in Florida and forms springs
113
The Most Important Chemical Cycles
1) Carbon
2) Nitrogen
3) Phosphorus
4) Sulfur
114
115
The
Carbon
Cycle
116
The Carbon Cycle
Keeping Up With Carbon
NASA video provides key information on the carbon cycle
117
118
Carbon Cycle Game
Fossil Fuels
bull created when large numbers of organisms die and are buried in sediment lacking oxygen
bull In absence of oxygen at high pressures and after very long periods of time organic remains are ultimately transformed into coal oil and natural gas
bull burning coal oil and natural gas releases large amounts of carbon dioxide
bull increases average CO2 concentration in the atmosphere
bull current level of CO2 in the atmosphere is the highest it has been in almost half a million years
119
Global CO2 levels are rising in
general but they also exhibit a
sharp rise and fall within each
year ndash why
120
121
The Nitrogen Cycle
122
The Nitrogen Cycle
Fertilizers
bull Because it is necessary for the production of every plant
protein and because all nitrogen must first be made
usable by bacteria plant growth is often limited by
nitrogen levels in the soil
bull For this reason most fertilizers contain nitrogen in a
form usable by plants
123
124
125
126
127
Oxygen reduction downstream of a source of
organic pollution
128
Algal growth and eutrophication in an Australian
outback waterway
129
Sulfur Cycle
bull component of protein
bull cycles in both a gas and sedimentary cycle
bull source earths crust
bull enters the atmosphere as hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
during fossil fuel combustion volcanic eruptions
gas exchange at ocean surfaces decomposition
130
Sulfur Cycle
bull H2S is immediately oxidized to sulfur dioxide (SO2)
bull SO2 + water vapor H2SO4 (falls to earth in rain)
bull sulfur in soluble form is taken up by plant roots
incorporated into amino acids such as cysteine
bull travels through food chain
bull eventually released through decomposition
131
How is carbon recycled back to the
atmosphere in the carbon cycle
1 It is ldquofixedrdquo by bacteria
2 It is a product of cellular respiration
3 Burning of fossil fuels
4 2 and 3
5 All of the above
132
Why do commercial fertilizers usually
contain usable forms of nitrogen and
phosphorous
1 These chemicals are not efficiently recycled in
the soil
2 Nitrogen and phosphorous need to be ldquofixedrdquo
by bacteria or the plant
3 Nitrogen and phosphorous are found at high
levels in the atmosphere but not in the soil
4 Nitrogen and phosphorous only enter the soil
through erosion
133
Take-home message
bull Chemicals essential to lifemdashincluding carbon nitrogen and phosphorusmdashcycle through ecosystems
bull They are usually captured from the atmosphere soil or water by growing organisms passed from one trophic level to the next as organisms eat other organisms and returned to the environment through respiration decomposition and erosion
bull These cycles can be disrupted as human activities significantly increase the amounts of the chemicals utilized or released to the environment
134
Symbiotic Relationships
bull Symbiosis close relationship between organisms of
two different species
bull At least one participant gains some sort of benefit
(usually nutritional)
bull Types of symbiosis
bull Parasitism
bull Commensalism
bull Mutualism
bull Predation
135
Symbiotic Relationships in the
Ocean
bull Click here for an explanation of the
relationships of marine animals
including sharks rays and various
fishes
136
Parasitism bull Parasite derives nutrition from the host
bull This harms the host but a true parasite does
not usually kill its host (directly)
137
Ectoparasites
Remain outside the host
Ticks fleas leeches
138
Endoparasites
Live inside the hostrsquos body
Tapeworms malarial parasites
139
Parasite Transmission
bull Many parasites live on or in a single organism
bull Some will alternate between 2 or more host species
bull Vertical transmission ndash from mother offspring
bull Horizontal transmission ndash between members of a
population
bull Direct contact (head lice)
bull Vectors (mosquitos)
140
141
Commensalism
bull Neither species is totally dependent on the other
bull One benefits ndash no effect on the other
bull Feeding or protection
bull Porcelain anemone crabs and anemones
142
Mutualism
bull Both species benefit
bull Food or shelter
bull Examples
bull Plants and microbes (rhizobium in root nodules)
bull Plants and fungi (orchids and mycorrhizae)
bull Protists and fungi (lichen)
bull Plants and insects (pollination)
bull Animals and bacteria (ruminants)
bull Animals and other animals (crocodiles and
plover birds)
143
Mutualism shrimp and moray
Cleaner shrimp cleaning a zebra moray eel Mutualistic
relationships such as these promote the well-being of the
host fishes and provide food for those that do the cleaning 144
Rhizobium
Rhizobium in root nodules of certain plants convert
nitrogen in soil to usable form
145
Orchid Mycorrhizae
Fungi aid the plant in the uptake of nutrients
Fungi ingest some of the food from plant
photosynthesis 146
Lichen
Most of the lichen is composed of fungal filaments
but living among the filaments are algal cells
usually from a green alga or a cyanobacterium
The lichen fungus provides its partner(s) a benefit
(protection) and gains nutrients in return 147
Ruminants
Ruminants are characterized by their four-chambered
stomach and cud-chewing behavior Cud is a food bolus
that is regurgitated rechewed and reswallowed The
rumen is a large fermentation vat containing billions of
microorganisms including bacteria and protozoa which
allow ruminants to digest fibrous feeds such as grass and
hay that other animals cannot efficiently utilize 148
Crocodiles amp
Plover Birds
The bird gets into the crocodiles mouth and picks out
the tiny bits of food stuck in his teeth then eats it (the
tiny bits)
This cleans the crocodiles teeth and keeps his mouth
fresh and free from infections 149
Predation
bull Consumption of one living organism by
another
bull Predators must have offensive strategies
bull ways of finding catching and eating
their prey
bull Prey organisms must have defensive
strategies
bull ways of avoiding or discouraging this
activity
150
Predation
bull Encompasses all levels within an
ecological food chainweb
bull plant-herbivore systems
bull herbivore-carnivore systems
bull three-way interactions of
interdependent plant-herbivore-
carnivore systems
151
This goshawk is the tertiary consumer in his ecosystem
and the mouse in his beak is the secondary consumer
Beneath the mouse on the ecological pyramid lies his
foodsource likely a worm which fed on the primary
producer leafy plants 152
Ecosystem of Life in Floridas
Springs
bull Click here for a close-up look of life
in Floridas springs and the various
predator-prey interactions there
153
Desert
43
Desert ndash Indicator Plant Species
44
Desert ndash Indicator Plant Species
Saguaro Cactus
Carnegiea gigantea
Fishhook Cactus
Mammillaria microcarpa
45
Desert ndash Indicator Plant Species
Trichomes
46
Desert ndash Indicator Animal Species
Zebratail Lizard - Callisaurus draconides
47
Desert ndash Indicator Animal Species
Rock hyrax (Procavia capensis) 48
Desert ndash Indicator Animal Species
Bactrian Camel Camelus bactrianus
49
Temperate Deciduous Forest
bull temperature 0 - 20 C
bull precipitation ~ 50 ndash 200 cmyear
50
Temperate Deciduous Forest
51
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Plant Species
Oaks (Quercus sp)
Dutchmans-Breeches
Dicentra cucullaria 52
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Plant Species
Sassafras
Sassafras albidum
Redbud
Cercis canadensis
53
Temperate Deciduous Forest ndash Succession
bull orderly succession of communities to a climax
community (biome)
bull two main types of succession
bull primary succession begins with bare rock exposed
by geologic activity
bull secondary succession begins on soil from which
previous community has been removed (by fire
agriculture etc)
bull secondary succession can proceed much faster
because the soil has been prepared by the
previous community
54
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
American Toad
Bufo americanus
Box Turtle
55
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
Eastern Chipmunk
Tamias striatus
Eastern Gray Squirrel
Sciurus carolinensis
56
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
Yellow-breasted chat
Icteria virens 57
Tundra
bull annual average temperature lt 5 C
bull precipitation (mostly in the form of snow) lt 100 mmyear
bull summer is brief
bull temperatures above freezing last only a few weeks at
most
bull warm summer coincides with periods of almost 24
hour daylight so plant growth can be explosive
58
Tundra
Anaktuvuk Pass Alaska
59
Tundra ndash Indicator Plant Species
Arctic Tundra Wildflowers - Alaska
60
Tundra ndash Indicator Plant Species
Lichen
Polytrichum Moss
(photographed in Ohio not on the
Tundra)
61
Tundra ndash Indicator Animal Species
Reindeer
Rangifer tarandus
62
Tundra ndash Indicator Animal Species
Caribou On Autumn Tundra Denali National Park Alaska
63
Savanna
bull rolling grassland scattered with shrubs and isolated trees
bull found between a tropical rainforest and desert biome
bull not enough rain falls on a savanna to support forests
bull found in a wide band on either side of the equator on
the edges of tropical rainforests
bull warm temperature year round
bull very long dry season (winter) ~ 10 cm rain none at all
from Dec - Feb
bull very wet season (summer) ~ 35-65 cm rain
64
Savanna
65
Savanna ndash Indicator Plant Species
Baobab
Adansonia digitata Umbrella Thorn Acacia
Acacia tortillis
66
Savanna ndash Indicator Animal Species
Savanna Elephant
Loxodonta africana
Black Mamba
Dendroaspis polylepis
Lion
Panthera leo
67
Chaparral
bull winter mild and moist but not rainy
bull summer very hot and dry
bull annual temperature range between -1deg and 38deg C
bull annual precipitation ~ 25-45 cm mostly in the winter
68
Chaparral
69
Chaparral ndash Indicator Plant Species
Blue Oak
Quercus douglasii
Common Sagebrush
Artemisia tridentata
Olive Tree
Olea europaea
70
Chaparral ndash Indicator Animal Species
Black-tailed Jackrabbit
Lepus californicus Golden Jackal
Canis aureus
Spotted Skunk
Spilogale gracilis
71
The Freshwater Biome
bull low salt concentration mdash usually less than 1
bull plants and animals in freshwater regions are adjusted to
the low salt content and would not be able to survive in
areas of high salt concentration (ie ocean)
bull 3 different types of freshwater regions
bull ponds and lakes
bull streams and rivers
bull wetlands
72
The Freshwater Biome ndash Ponds and Lakes
From left a view across Manzanita Lake toward Mt Lassen California a
forest pond near Donnelly Idaho a Great Blue Heron Paranagat Lake
southeastern Nevada
73
The Freshwater Biome ndash Streams and
Rivers
From left McArthur-Burney Falls State Park California trout Green
River Utah Brooks River Alaska
74
The Freshwater Biome - Wetlands
From left Pescadero Marsh California coastal marsh at Umpqua
Dunes Oregon trees and bogs on Esther Island Alaska
75
The Marine Biome
bull cover about three-fourths of the Earths surface
bull marine algae supply much of the worlds oxygen supply
and take in a huge amount of atmospheric carbon
dioxide
bull evaporation of the seawater provides rainwater for the
land
bull 3 different types of marine regions
bull oceans
bull coral reefs
bull estuaries
76
The Marine Biome - Oceans
From left mussels worms and a spider crab at a hydrocarbon seep
community in the Gulf of Mexico a sea fan and brain coral in the Florida
Keys National Marine Sanctuary a school of Atlantic amberjack off North
Carolina
77
The Marine Biome ndash Coral Reefs
From left reef life in the Gulf of Aqaba Red Sea a reef at Fanning
Island atoll in the central Pacific a reef in the Florida Keys National
Marine Sanctuary
78
The Marine Biome - Estuaries
From left Mangrove roots south Florida wetlands and tidal streams
in the Ashe Island area ACE Basin National Estuarine Research
Reserve South Carolina a salt marsh in Winyah Bay National
Estuarine Research Reserve South Carolina
79
Ecological Notes
These are the biomes in order of their productivity (highest
first)
1 estuaries and tropical rain forest (highest)
2 temperate forest
3 agricultural land
4 temperate grassland
5 lakes and streams
6 coastal zone
7 tundra
8 open ocean
9 desert (lowest)
80
Ecological Notes
In order to be productive and have a lot of living material
standing around (biomass) an ecosystem has to have 4
basic necessities for plant life to thrive (if there are
enough plants the ecosystem will also support a lot of
animals) The four things are
1 Sunlight
2 Nutrients
3 Warm temperatures
4 Water
81
Biomes Video
82
Take-Home Message
bull Biomes are the major ecological communities of earth
characterized mostly by the vegetation present
bull Different biomes result from differences in temperature
and precipitation and the extent to which they vary from
season to season
83
Challenge Question
bull Terrestrial biomes are determined by the temperature
and precipitation amounts as well as whether those
factors are constant or vary by season
bull By contrast how are aquatic biomes determined
84
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy flows from producers to
consumers
85
86
87
First Stop Primary Producers
bull ecosystem producers or consumers
bull primary producers plants algae (some) bacteria
bull convert light energy from sun into chemical energy
through photosynthesis
bull chemical energy = food
bull consumers eat or absorb their food
bull energy stored in chemical bonds of carbohydrate
protein and lipid molecules is captured and
harnessed for consumersrsquo own movement
reproduction and growth
88
Food Chain
89
Food Web
90
Food Web
91
Food Chains amp Food Webs
bull A change in one link in a food chain will affect the other
links
bull The table on the next slide gives one example of a food
chain and the trophic levels represented in it
92
Food Chains amp Food Webs
93
GRASS
GRASSHOPPER
TOAD
SNAKE
HAWK
BACTERIA
IN GENERAL
AUTOTROPHS
(PRODUCERS)
HERBIVORES
(PRIMARY
CONSUMERS)
CARNIVORES
(2 3 ETC)
DECOMPOSERS
94
Chain Reaction Game
95
Energy Flows through a Food Web
bull Losses at every ldquosteprdquo in a food chain
bull Inefficiency of energy transfers
96
Energy flow through a food chain
Energy flow refers to the way that energy is transformed through
a food chain (pictured here) containing a series of levels
including plants consumers predators and decomposers 97
Amount of energy available at each of the
four levels of an ecosystem
Ecological pyramids illustrate the amount of energy
available at each of the four levels of an ecosystem 98
Ecological Pyramid
99
A grasshopper eats a plant A mouse eats the
grasshopper A snake eats the mouse A hawk
could eat the snake or the mouse In this food
web how would we categorize the hawk
1 Producer
2 Primary consumer
3 Secondary consumer
4 Tertiary consumer
5 Quaternary consumer
6 4 and 5
100
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps
bull First it is converted to chemical energy in
photosynthesis
bull Herbivores then consume the primary producers the
herbivores are consumed by carnivores and the
carnivores in turn may be consumed by top carnivores
101
Take-home message
bull Detritivores and decomposers extract energy from
organic waste and the remains of organisms that have
died
bull At each step in a food chain some usable energy is lost
as heat
102
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy pyramids reveal the inefficiency of
food chains
103
Biomass
bull biomass total weight of all living organisms in a given
area
bull only about 10 of the plants in an ecosystem is
converted into biomass
bull Food Energy Pyramid
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
bull African savannas and grasslands sustain more species
of higher-order carnivores than any other terrestrial
ecosystem
104
105
Food Energy Pyramids
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
106
107
108
You go out to eat at a fancy restaurant You
have a salad salmon and for dessert ice
cream Which part of the meal was the most
energy efficient food for you to eat
1 Salad
2 Salmon
3 Ice cream
4 2 and 3
109
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps known as trophic levels
bull Energy pyramids reveal that the biomass of primary
producers in an ecosystem tends to be far greater than
the biomass of herbivores
bull The biomass transferred at each step along the food chain tends to be only about 10 of the biomass of the organisms being consumed due to energy lost in cellular respiration
bull As a consequence of this inefficiency food chains rarely exceed four levels
110
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Essential chemicals cycle through
ecosystems
111
Chemical Reservoirs
bull Each chemical is stored in a non-living part of the environment
bull Organisms acquire the chemical from the reservoir a non-living part of the environment
bull The chemical cycles through the food chain (biogeochemical cycles)
bull Eventually the chemical is returned to the reservoir
112
Hydrologic Cycle and the Florida Springs
bull Click here for a description of how falling rain feeds underground aquifers in Florida and forms springs
113
The Most Important Chemical Cycles
1) Carbon
2) Nitrogen
3) Phosphorus
4) Sulfur
114
115
The
Carbon
Cycle
116
The Carbon Cycle
Keeping Up With Carbon
NASA video provides key information on the carbon cycle
117
118
Carbon Cycle Game
Fossil Fuels
bull created when large numbers of organisms die and are buried in sediment lacking oxygen
bull In absence of oxygen at high pressures and after very long periods of time organic remains are ultimately transformed into coal oil and natural gas
bull burning coal oil and natural gas releases large amounts of carbon dioxide
bull increases average CO2 concentration in the atmosphere
bull current level of CO2 in the atmosphere is the highest it has been in almost half a million years
119
Global CO2 levels are rising in
general but they also exhibit a
sharp rise and fall within each
year ndash why
120
121
The Nitrogen Cycle
122
The Nitrogen Cycle
Fertilizers
bull Because it is necessary for the production of every plant
protein and because all nitrogen must first be made
usable by bacteria plant growth is often limited by
nitrogen levels in the soil
bull For this reason most fertilizers contain nitrogen in a
form usable by plants
123
124
125
126
127
Oxygen reduction downstream of a source of
organic pollution
128
Algal growth and eutrophication in an Australian
outback waterway
129
Sulfur Cycle
bull component of protein
bull cycles in both a gas and sedimentary cycle
bull source earths crust
bull enters the atmosphere as hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
during fossil fuel combustion volcanic eruptions
gas exchange at ocean surfaces decomposition
130
Sulfur Cycle
bull H2S is immediately oxidized to sulfur dioxide (SO2)
bull SO2 + water vapor H2SO4 (falls to earth in rain)
bull sulfur in soluble form is taken up by plant roots
incorporated into amino acids such as cysteine
bull travels through food chain
bull eventually released through decomposition
131
How is carbon recycled back to the
atmosphere in the carbon cycle
1 It is ldquofixedrdquo by bacteria
2 It is a product of cellular respiration
3 Burning of fossil fuels
4 2 and 3
5 All of the above
132
Why do commercial fertilizers usually
contain usable forms of nitrogen and
phosphorous
1 These chemicals are not efficiently recycled in
the soil
2 Nitrogen and phosphorous need to be ldquofixedrdquo
by bacteria or the plant
3 Nitrogen and phosphorous are found at high
levels in the atmosphere but not in the soil
4 Nitrogen and phosphorous only enter the soil
through erosion
133
Take-home message
bull Chemicals essential to lifemdashincluding carbon nitrogen and phosphorusmdashcycle through ecosystems
bull They are usually captured from the atmosphere soil or water by growing organisms passed from one trophic level to the next as organisms eat other organisms and returned to the environment through respiration decomposition and erosion
bull These cycles can be disrupted as human activities significantly increase the amounts of the chemicals utilized or released to the environment
134
Symbiotic Relationships
bull Symbiosis close relationship between organisms of
two different species
bull At least one participant gains some sort of benefit
(usually nutritional)
bull Types of symbiosis
bull Parasitism
bull Commensalism
bull Mutualism
bull Predation
135
Symbiotic Relationships in the
Ocean
bull Click here for an explanation of the
relationships of marine animals
including sharks rays and various
fishes
136
Parasitism bull Parasite derives nutrition from the host
bull This harms the host but a true parasite does
not usually kill its host (directly)
137
Ectoparasites
Remain outside the host
Ticks fleas leeches
138
Endoparasites
Live inside the hostrsquos body
Tapeworms malarial parasites
139
Parasite Transmission
bull Many parasites live on or in a single organism
bull Some will alternate between 2 or more host species
bull Vertical transmission ndash from mother offspring
bull Horizontal transmission ndash between members of a
population
bull Direct contact (head lice)
bull Vectors (mosquitos)
140
141
Commensalism
bull Neither species is totally dependent on the other
bull One benefits ndash no effect on the other
bull Feeding or protection
bull Porcelain anemone crabs and anemones
142
Mutualism
bull Both species benefit
bull Food or shelter
bull Examples
bull Plants and microbes (rhizobium in root nodules)
bull Plants and fungi (orchids and mycorrhizae)
bull Protists and fungi (lichen)
bull Plants and insects (pollination)
bull Animals and bacteria (ruminants)
bull Animals and other animals (crocodiles and
plover birds)
143
Mutualism shrimp and moray
Cleaner shrimp cleaning a zebra moray eel Mutualistic
relationships such as these promote the well-being of the
host fishes and provide food for those that do the cleaning 144
Rhizobium
Rhizobium in root nodules of certain plants convert
nitrogen in soil to usable form
145
Orchid Mycorrhizae
Fungi aid the plant in the uptake of nutrients
Fungi ingest some of the food from plant
photosynthesis 146
Lichen
Most of the lichen is composed of fungal filaments
but living among the filaments are algal cells
usually from a green alga or a cyanobacterium
The lichen fungus provides its partner(s) a benefit
(protection) and gains nutrients in return 147
Ruminants
Ruminants are characterized by their four-chambered
stomach and cud-chewing behavior Cud is a food bolus
that is regurgitated rechewed and reswallowed The
rumen is a large fermentation vat containing billions of
microorganisms including bacteria and protozoa which
allow ruminants to digest fibrous feeds such as grass and
hay that other animals cannot efficiently utilize 148
Crocodiles amp
Plover Birds
The bird gets into the crocodiles mouth and picks out
the tiny bits of food stuck in his teeth then eats it (the
tiny bits)
This cleans the crocodiles teeth and keeps his mouth
fresh and free from infections 149
Predation
bull Consumption of one living organism by
another
bull Predators must have offensive strategies
bull ways of finding catching and eating
their prey
bull Prey organisms must have defensive
strategies
bull ways of avoiding or discouraging this
activity
150
Predation
bull Encompasses all levels within an
ecological food chainweb
bull plant-herbivore systems
bull herbivore-carnivore systems
bull three-way interactions of
interdependent plant-herbivore-
carnivore systems
151
This goshawk is the tertiary consumer in his ecosystem
and the mouse in his beak is the secondary consumer
Beneath the mouse on the ecological pyramid lies his
foodsource likely a worm which fed on the primary
producer leafy plants 152
Ecosystem of Life in Floridas
Springs
bull Click here for a close-up look of life
in Floridas springs and the various
predator-prey interactions there
153
Desert ndash Indicator Plant Species
44
Desert ndash Indicator Plant Species
Saguaro Cactus
Carnegiea gigantea
Fishhook Cactus
Mammillaria microcarpa
45
Desert ndash Indicator Plant Species
Trichomes
46
Desert ndash Indicator Animal Species
Zebratail Lizard - Callisaurus draconides
47
Desert ndash Indicator Animal Species
Rock hyrax (Procavia capensis) 48
Desert ndash Indicator Animal Species
Bactrian Camel Camelus bactrianus
49
Temperate Deciduous Forest
bull temperature 0 - 20 C
bull precipitation ~ 50 ndash 200 cmyear
50
Temperate Deciduous Forest
51
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Plant Species
Oaks (Quercus sp)
Dutchmans-Breeches
Dicentra cucullaria 52
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Plant Species
Sassafras
Sassafras albidum
Redbud
Cercis canadensis
53
Temperate Deciduous Forest ndash Succession
bull orderly succession of communities to a climax
community (biome)
bull two main types of succession
bull primary succession begins with bare rock exposed
by geologic activity
bull secondary succession begins on soil from which
previous community has been removed (by fire
agriculture etc)
bull secondary succession can proceed much faster
because the soil has been prepared by the
previous community
54
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
American Toad
Bufo americanus
Box Turtle
55
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
Eastern Chipmunk
Tamias striatus
Eastern Gray Squirrel
Sciurus carolinensis
56
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
Yellow-breasted chat
Icteria virens 57
Tundra
bull annual average temperature lt 5 C
bull precipitation (mostly in the form of snow) lt 100 mmyear
bull summer is brief
bull temperatures above freezing last only a few weeks at
most
bull warm summer coincides with periods of almost 24
hour daylight so plant growth can be explosive
58
Tundra
Anaktuvuk Pass Alaska
59
Tundra ndash Indicator Plant Species
Arctic Tundra Wildflowers - Alaska
60
Tundra ndash Indicator Plant Species
Lichen
Polytrichum Moss
(photographed in Ohio not on the
Tundra)
61
Tundra ndash Indicator Animal Species
Reindeer
Rangifer tarandus
62
Tundra ndash Indicator Animal Species
Caribou On Autumn Tundra Denali National Park Alaska
63
Savanna
bull rolling grassland scattered with shrubs and isolated trees
bull found between a tropical rainforest and desert biome
bull not enough rain falls on a savanna to support forests
bull found in a wide band on either side of the equator on
the edges of tropical rainforests
bull warm temperature year round
bull very long dry season (winter) ~ 10 cm rain none at all
from Dec - Feb
bull very wet season (summer) ~ 35-65 cm rain
64
Savanna
65
Savanna ndash Indicator Plant Species
Baobab
Adansonia digitata Umbrella Thorn Acacia
Acacia tortillis
66
Savanna ndash Indicator Animal Species
Savanna Elephant
Loxodonta africana
Black Mamba
Dendroaspis polylepis
Lion
Panthera leo
67
Chaparral
bull winter mild and moist but not rainy
bull summer very hot and dry
bull annual temperature range between -1deg and 38deg C
bull annual precipitation ~ 25-45 cm mostly in the winter
68
Chaparral
69
Chaparral ndash Indicator Plant Species
Blue Oak
Quercus douglasii
Common Sagebrush
Artemisia tridentata
Olive Tree
Olea europaea
70
Chaparral ndash Indicator Animal Species
Black-tailed Jackrabbit
Lepus californicus Golden Jackal
Canis aureus
Spotted Skunk
Spilogale gracilis
71
The Freshwater Biome
bull low salt concentration mdash usually less than 1
bull plants and animals in freshwater regions are adjusted to
the low salt content and would not be able to survive in
areas of high salt concentration (ie ocean)
bull 3 different types of freshwater regions
bull ponds and lakes
bull streams and rivers
bull wetlands
72
The Freshwater Biome ndash Ponds and Lakes
From left a view across Manzanita Lake toward Mt Lassen California a
forest pond near Donnelly Idaho a Great Blue Heron Paranagat Lake
southeastern Nevada
73
The Freshwater Biome ndash Streams and
Rivers
From left McArthur-Burney Falls State Park California trout Green
River Utah Brooks River Alaska
74
The Freshwater Biome - Wetlands
From left Pescadero Marsh California coastal marsh at Umpqua
Dunes Oregon trees and bogs on Esther Island Alaska
75
The Marine Biome
bull cover about three-fourths of the Earths surface
bull marine algae supply much of the worlds oxygen supply
and take in a huge amount of atmospheric carbon
dioxide
bull evaporation of the seawater provides rainwater for the
land
bull 3 different types of marine regions
bull oceans
bull coral reefs
bull estuaries
76
The Marine Biome - Oceans
From left mussels worms and a spider crab at a hydrocarbon seep
community in the Gulf of Mexico a sea fan and brain coral in the Florida
Keys National Marine Sanctuary a school of Atlantic amberjack off North
Carolina
77
The Marine Biome ndash Coral Reefs
From left reef life in the Gulf of Aqaba Red Sea a reef at Fanning
Island atoll in the central Pacific a reef in the Florida Keys National
Marine Sanctuary
78
The Marine Biome - Estuaries
From left Mangrove roots south Florida wetlands and tidal streams
in the Ashe Island area ACE Basin National Estuarine Research
Reserve South Carolina a salt marsh in Winyah Bay National
Estuarine Research Reserve South Carolina
79
Ecological Notes
These are the biomes in order of their productivity (highest
first)
1 estuaries and tropical rain forest (highest)
2 temperate forest
3 agricultural land
4 temperate grassland
5 lakes and streams
6 coastal zone
7 tundra
8 open ocean
9 desert (lowest)
80
Ecological Notes
In order to be productive and have a lot of living material
standing around (biomass) an ecosystem has to have 4
basic necessities for plant life to thrive (if there are
enough plants the ecosystem will also support a lot of
animals) The four things are
1 Sunlight
2 Nutrients
3 Warm temperatures
4 Water
81
Biomes Video
82
Take-Home Message
bull Biomes are the major ecological communities of earth
characterized mostly by the vegetation present
bull Different biomes result from differences in temperature
and precipitation and the extent to which they vary from
season to season
83
Challenge Question
bull Terrestrial biomes are determined by the temperature
and precipitation amounts as well as whether those
factors are constant or vary by season
bull By contrast how are aquatic biomes determined
84
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy flows from producers to
consumers
85
86
87
First Stop Primary Producers
bull ecosystem producers or consumers
bull primary producers plants algae (some) bacteria
bull convert light energy from sun into chemical energy
through photosynthesis
bull chemical energy = food
bull consumers eat or absorb their food
bull energy stored in chemical bonds of carbohydrate
protein and lipid molecules is captured and
harnessed for consumersrsquo own movement
reproduction and growth
88
Food Chain
89
Food Web
90
Food Web
91
Food Chains amp Food Webs
bull A change in one link in a food chain will affect the other
links
bull The table on the next slide gives one example of a food
chain and the trophic levels represented in it
92
Food Chains amp Food Webs
93
GRASS
GRASSHOPPER
TOAD
SNAKE
HAWK
BACTERIA
IN GENERAL
AUTOTROPHS
(PRODUCERS)
HERBIVORES
(PRIMARY
CONSUMERS)
CARNIVORES
(2 3 ETC)
DECOMPOSERS
94
Chain Reaction Game
95
Energy Flows through a Food Web
bull Losses at every ldquosteprdquo in a food chain
bull Inefficiency of energy transfers
96
Energy flow through a food chain
Energy flow refers to the way that energy is transformed through
a food chain (pictured here) containing a series of levels
including plants consumers predators and decomposers 97
Amount of energy available at each of the
four levels of an ecosystem
Ecological pyramids illustrate the amount of energy
available at each of the four levels of an ecosystem 98
Ecological Pyramid
99
A grasshopper eats a plant A mouse eats the
grasshopper A snake eats the mouse A hawk
could eat the snake or the mouse In this food
web how would we categorize the hawk
1 Producer
2 Primary consumer
3 Secondary consumer
4 Tertiary consumer
5 Quaternary consumer
6 4 and 5
100
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps
bull First it is converted to chemical energy in
photosynthesis
bull Herbivores then consume the primary producers the
herbivores are consumed by carnivores and the
carnivores in turn may be consumed by top carnivores
101
Take-home message
bull Detritivores and decomposers extract energy from
organic waste and the remains of organisms that have
died
bull At each step in a food chain some usable energy is lost
as heat
102
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy pyramids reveal the inefficiency of
food chains
103
Biomass
bull biomass total weight of all living organisms in a given
area
bull only about 10 of the plants in an ecosystem is
converted into biomass
bull Food Energy Pyramid
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
bull African savannas and grasslands sustain more species
of higher-order carnivores than any other terrestrial
ecosystem
104
105
Food Energy Pyramids
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
106
107
108
You go out to eat at a fancy restaurant You
have a salad salmon and for dessert ice
cream Which part of the meal was the most
energy efficient food for you to eat
1 Salad
2 Salmon
3 Ice cream
4 2 and 3
109
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps known as trophic levels
bull Energy pyramids reveal that the biomass of primary
producers in an ecosystem tends to be far greater than
the biomass of herbivores
bull The biomass transferred at each step along the food chain tends to be only about 10 of the biomass of the organisms being consumed due to energy lost in cellular respiration
bull As a consequence of this inefficiency food chains rarely exceed four levels
110
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Essential chemicals cycle through
ecosystems
111
Chemical Reservoirs
bull Each chemical is stored in a non-living part of the environment
bull Organisms acquire the chemical from the reservoir a non-living part of the environment
bull The chemical cycles through the food chain (biogeochemical cycles)
bull Eventually the chemical is returned to the reservoir
112
Hydrologic Cycle and the Florida Springs
bull Click here for a description of how falling rain feeds underground aquifers in Florida and forms springs
113
The Most Important Chemical Cycles
1) Carbon
2) Nitrogen
3) Phosphorus
4) Sulfur
114
115
The
Carbon
Cycle
116
The Carbon Cycle
Keeping Up With Carbon
NASA video provides key information on the carbon cycle
117
118
Carbon Cycle Game
Fossil Fuels
bull created when large numbers of organisms die and are buried in sediment lacking oxygen
bull In absence of oxygen at high pressures and after very long periods of time organic remains are ultimately transformed into coal oil and natural gas
bull burning coal oil and natural gas releases large amounts of carbon dioxide
bull increases average CO2 concentration in the atmosphere
bull current level of CO2 in the atmosphere is the highest it has been in almost half a million years
119
Global CO2 levels are rising in
general but they also exhibit a
sharp rise and fall within each
year ndash why
120
121
The Nitrogen Cycle
122
The Nitrogen Cycle
Fertilizers
bull Because it is necessary for the production of every plant
protein and because all nitrogen must first be made
usable by bacteria plant growth is often limited by
nitrogen levels in the soil
bull For this reason most fertilizers contain nitrogen in a
form usable by plants
123
124
125
126
127
Oxygen reduction downstream of a source of
organic pollution
128
Algal growth and eutrophication in an Australian
outback waterway
129
Sulfur Cycle
bull component of protein
bull cycles in both a gas and sedimentary cycle
bull source earths crust
bull enters the atmosphere as hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
during fossil fuel combustion volcanic eruptions
gas exchange at ocean surfaces decomposition
130
Sulfur Cycle
bull H2S is immediately oxidized to sulfur dioxide (SO2)
bull SO2 + water vapor H2SO4 (falls to earth in rain)
bull sulfur in soluble form is taken up by plant roots
incorporated into amino acids such as cysteine
bull travels through food chain
bull eventually released through decomposition
131
How is carbon recycled back to the
atmosphere in the carbon cycle
1 It is ldquofixedrdquo by bacteria
2 It is a product of cellular respiration
3 Burning of fossil fuels
4 2 and 3
5 All of the above
132
Why do commercial fertilizers usually
contain usable forms of nitrogen and
phosphorous
1 These chemicals are not efficiently recycled in
the soil
2 Nitrogen and phosphorous need to be ldquofixedrdquo
by bacteria or the plant
3 Nitrogen and phosphorous are found at high
levels in the atmosphere but not in the soil
4 Nitrogen and phosphorous only enter the soil
through erosion
133
Take-home message
bull Chemicals essential to lifemdashincluding carbon nitrogen and phosphorusmdashcycle through ecosystems
bull They are usually captured from the atmosphere soil or water by growing organisms passed from one trophic level to the next as organisms eat other organisms and returned to the environment through respiration decomposition and erosion
bull These cycles can be disrupted as human activities significantly increase the amounts of the chemicals utilized or released to the environment
134
Symbiotic Relationships
bull Symbiosis close relationship between organisms of
two different species
bull At least one participant gains some sort of benefit
(usually nutritional)
bull Types of symbiosis
bull Parasitism
bull Commensalism
bull Mutualism
bull Predation
135
Symbiotic Relationships in the
Ocean
bull Click here for an explanation of the
relationships of marine animals
including sharks rays and various
fishes
136
Parasitism bull Parasite derives nutrition from the host
bull This harms the host but a true parasite does
not usually kill its host (directly)
137
Ectoparasites
Remain outside the host
Ticks fleas leeches
138
Endoparasites
Live inside the hostrsquos body
Tapeworms malarial parasites
139
Parasite Transmission
bull Many parasites live on or in a single organism
bull Some will alternate between 2 or more host species
bull Vertical transmission ndash from mother offspring
bull Horizontal transmission ndash between members of a
population
bull Direct contact (head lice)
bull Vectors (mosquitos)
140
141
Commensalism
bull Neither species is totally dependent on the other
bull One benefits ndash no effect on the other
bull Feeding or protection
bull Porcelain anemone crabs and anemones
142
Mutualism
bull Both species benefit
bull Food or shelter
bull Examples
bull Plants and microbes (rhizobium in root nodules)
bull Plants and fungi (orchids and mycorrhizae)
bull Protists and fungi (lichen)
bull Plants and insects (pollination)
bull Animals and bacteria (ruminants)
bull Animals and other animals (crocodiles and
plover birds)
143
Mutualism shrimp and moray
Cleaner shrimp cleaning a zebra moray eel Mutualistic
relationships such as these promote the well-being of the
host fishes and provide food for those that do the cleaning 144
Rhizobium
Rhizobium in root nodules of certain plants convert
nitrogen in soil to usable form
145
Orchid Mycorrhizae
Fungi aid the plant in the uptake of nutrients
Fungi ingest some of the food from plant
photosynthesis 146
Lichen
Most of the lichen is composed of fungal filaments
but living among the filaments are algal cells
usually from a green alga or a cyanobacterium
The lichen fungus provides its partner(s) a benefit
(protection) and gains nutrients in return 147
Ruminants
Ruminants are characterized by their four-chambered
stomach and cud-chewing behavior Cud is a food bolus
that is regurgitated rechewed and reswallowed The
rumen is a large fermentation vat containing billions of
microorganisms including bacteria and protozoa which
allow ruminants to digest fibrous feeds such as grass and
hay that other animals cannot efficiently utilize 148
Crocodiles amp
Plover Birds
The bird gets into the crocodiles mouth and picks out
the tiny bits of food stuck in his teeth then eats it (the
tiny bits)
This cleans the crocodiles teeth and keeps his mouth
fresh and free from infections 149
Predation
bull Consumption of one living organism by
another
bull Predators must have offensive strategies
bull ways of finding catching and eating
their prey
bull Prey organisms must have defensive
strategies
bull ways of avoiding or discouraging this
activity
150
Predation
bull Encompasses all levels within an
ecological food chainweb
bull plant-herbivore systems
bull herbivore-carnivore systems
bull three-way interactions of
interdependent plant-herbivore-
carnivore systems
151
This goshawk is the tertiary consumer in his ecosystem
and the mouse in his beak is the secondary consumer
Beneath the mouse on the ecological pyramid lies his
foodsource likely a worm which fed on the primary
producer leafy plants 152
Ecosystem of Life in Floridas
Springs
bull Click here for a close-up look of life
in Floridas springs and the various
predator-prey interactions there
153
Desert ndash Indicator Plant Species
Saguaro Cactus
Carnegiea gigantea
Fishhook Cactus
Mammillaria microcarpa
45
Desert ndash Indicator Plant Species
Trichomes
46
Desert ndash Indicator Animal Species
Zebratail Lizard - Callisaurus draconides
47
Desert ndash Indicator Animal Species
Rock hyrax (Procavia capensis) 48
Desert ndash Indicator Animal Species
Bactrian Camel Camelus bactrianus
49
Temperate Deciduous Forest
bull temperature 0 - 20 C
bull precipitation ~ 50 ndash 200 cmyear
50
Temperate Deciduous Forest
51
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Plant Species
Oaks (Quercus sp)
Dutchmans-Breeches
Dicentra cucullaria 52
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Plant Species
Sassafras
Sassafras albidum
Redbud
Cercis canadensis
53
Temperate Deciduous Forest ndash Succession
bull orderly succession of communities to a climax
community (biome)
bull two main types of succession
bull primary succession begins with bare rock exposed
by geologic activity
bull secondary succession begins on soil from which
previous community has been removed (by fire
agriculture etc)
bull secondary succession can proceed much faster
because the soil has been prepared by the
previous community
54
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
American Toad
Bufo americanus
Box Turtle
55
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
Eastern Chipmunk
Tamias striatus
Eastern Gray Squirrel
Sciurus carolinensis
56
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
Yellow-breasted chat
Icteria virens 57
Tundra
bull annual average temperature lt 5 C
bull precipitation (mostly in the form of snow) lt 100 mmyear
bull summer is brief
bull temperatures above freezing last only a few weeks at
most
bull warm summer coincides with periods of almost 24
hour daylight so plant growth can be explosive
58
Tundra
Anaktuvuk Pass Alaska
59
Tundra ndash Indicator Plant Species
Arctic Tundra Wildflowers - Alaska
60
Tundra ndash Indicator Plant Species
Lichen
Polytrichum Moss
(photographed in Ohio not on the
Tundra)
61
Tundra ndash Indicator Animal Species
Reindeer
Rangifer tarandus
62
Tundra ndash Indicator Animal Species
Caribou On Autumn Tundra Denali National Park Alaska
63
Savanna
bull rolling grassland scattered with shrubs and isolated trees
bull found between a tropical rainforest and desert biome
bull not enough rain falls on a savanna to support forests
bull found in a wide band on either side of the equator on
the edges of tropical rainforests
bull warm temperature year round
bull very long dry season (winter) ~ 10 cm rain none at all
from Dec - Feb
bull very wet season (summer) ~ 35-65 cm rain
64
Savanna
65
Savanna ndash Indicator Plant Species
Baobab
Adansonia digitata Umbrella Thorn Acacia
Acacia tortillis
66
Savanna ndash Indicator Animal Species
Savanna Elephant
Loxodonta africana
Black Mamba
Dendroaspis polylepis
Lion
Panthera leo
67
Chaparral
bull winter mild and moist but not rainy
bull summer very hot and dry
bull annual temperature range between -1deg and 38deg C
bull annual precipitation ~ 25-45 cm mostly in the winter
68
Chaparral
69
Chaparral ndash Indicator Plant Species
Blue Oak
Quercus douglasii
Common Sagebrush
Artemisia tridentata
Olive Tree
Olea europaea
70
Chaparral ndash Indicator Animal Species
Black-tailed Jackrabbit
Lepus californicus Golden Jackal
Canis aureus
Spotted Skunk
Spilogale gracilis
71
The Freshwater Biome
bull low salt concentration mdash usually less than 1
bull plants and animals in freshwater regions are adjusted to
the low salt content and would not be able to survive in
areas of high salt concentration (ie ocean)
bull 3 different types of freshwater regions
bull ponds and lakes
bull streams and rivers
bull wetlands
72
The Freshwater Biome ndash Ponds and Lakes
From left a view across Manzanita Lake toward Mt Lassen California a
forest pond near Donnelly Idaho a Great Blue Heron Paranagat Lake
southeastern Nevada
73
The Freshwater Biome ndash Streams and
Rivers
From left McArthur-Burney Falls State Park California trout Green
River Utah Brooks River Alaska
74
The Freshwater Biome - Wetlands
From left Pescadero Marsh California coastal marsh at Umpqua
Dunes Oregon trees and bogs on Esther Island Alaska
75
The Marine Biome
bull cover about three-fourths of the Earths surface
bull marine algae supply much of the worlds oxygen supply
and take in a huge amount of atmospheric carbon
dioxide
bull evaporation of the seawater provides rainwater for the
land
bull 3 different types of marine regions
bull oceans
bull coral reefs
bull estuaries
76
The Marine Biome - Oceans
From left mussels worms and a spider crab at a hydrocarbon seep
community in the Gulf of Mexico a sea fan and brain coral in the Florida
Keys National Marine Sanctuary a school of Atlantic amberjack off North
Carolina
77
The Marine Biome ndash Coral Reefs
From left reef life in the Gulf of Aqaba Red Sea a reef at Fanning
Island atoll in the central Pacific a reef in the Florida Keys National
Marine Sanctuary
78
The Marine Biome - Estuaries
From left Mangrove roots south Florida wetlands and tidal streams
in the Ashe Island area ACE Basin National Estuarine Research
Reserve South Carolina a salt marsh in Winyah Bay National
Estuarine Research Reserve South Carolina
79
Ecological Notes
These are the biomes in order of their productivity (highest
first)
1 estuaries and tropical rain forest (highest)
2 temperate forest
3 agricultural land
4 temperate grassland
5 lakes and streams
6 coastal zone
7 tundra
8 open ocean
9 desert (lowest)
80
Ecological Notes
In order to be productive and have a lot of living material
standing around (biomass) an ecosystem has to have 4
basic necessities for plant life to thrive (if there are
enough plants the ecosystem will also support a lot of
animals) The four things are
1 Sunlight
2 Nutrients
3 Warm temperatures
4 Water
81
Biomes Video
82
Take-Home Message
bull Biomes are the major ecological communities of earth
characterized mostly by the vegetation present
bull Different biomes result from differences in temperature
and precipitation and the extent to which they vary from
season to season
83
Challenge Question
bull Terrestrial biomes are determined by the temperature
and precipitation amounts as well as whether those
factors are constant or vary by season
bull By contrast how are aquatic biomes determined
84
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy flows from producers to
consumers
85
86
87
First Stop Primary Producers
bull ecosystem producers or consumers
bull primary producers plants algae (some) bacteria
bull convert light energy from sun into chemical energy
through photosynthesis
bull chemical energy = food
bull consumers eat or absorb their food
bull energy stored in chemical bonds of carbohydrate
protein and lipid molecules is captured and
harnessed for consumersrsquo own movement
reproduction and growth
88
Food Chain
89
Food Web
90
Food Web
91
Food Chains amp Food Webs
bull A change in one link in a food chain will affect the other
links
bull The table on the next slide gives one example of a food
chain and the trophic levels represented in it
92
Food Chains amp Food Webs
93
GRASS
GRASSHOPPER
TOAD
SNAKE
HAWK
BACTERIA
IN GENERAL
AUTOTROPHS
(PRODUCERS)
HERBIVORES
(PRIMARY
CONSUMERS)
CARNIVORES
(2 3 ETC)
DECOMPOSERS
94
Chain Reaction Game
95
Energy Flows through a Food Web
bull Losses at every ldquosteprdquo in a food chain
bull Inefficiency of energy transfers
96
Energy flow through a food chain
Energy flow refers to the way that energy is transformed through
a food chain (pictured here) containing a series of levels
including plants consumers predators and decomposers 97
Amount of energy available at each of the
four levels of an ecosystem
Ecological pyramids illustrate the amount of energy
available at each of the four levels of an ecosystem 98
Ecological Pyramid
99
A grasshopper eats a plant A mouse eats the
grasshopper A snake eats the mouse A hawk
could eat the snake or the mouse In this food
web how would we categorize the hawk
1 Producer
2 Primary consumer
3 Secondary consumer
4 Tertiary consumer
5 Quaternary consumer
6 4 and 5
100
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps
bull First it is converted to chemical energy in
photosynthesis
bull Herbivores then consume the primary producers the
herbivores are consumed by carnivores and the
carnivores in turn may be consumed by top carnivores
101
Take-home message
bull Detritivores and decomposers extract energy from
organic waste and the remains of organisms that have
died
bull At each step in a food chain some usable energy is lost
as heat
102
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy pyramids reveal the inefficiency of
food chains
103
Biomass
bull biomass total weight of all living organisms in a given
area
bull only about 10 of the plants in an ecosystem is
converted into biomass
bull Food Energy Pyramid
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
bull African savannas and grasslands sustain more species
of higher-order carnivores than any other terrestrial
ecosystem
104
105
Food Energy Pyramids
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
106
107
108
You go out to eat at a fancy restaurant You
have a salad salmon and for dessert ice
cream Which part of the meal was the most
energy efficient food for you to eat
1 Salad
2 Salmon
3 Ice cream
4 2 and 3
109
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps known as trophic levels
bull Energy pyramids reveal that the biomass of primary
producers in an ecosystem tends to be far greater than
the biomass of herbivores
bull The biomass transferred at each step along the food chain tends to be only about 10 of the biomass of the organisms being consumed due to energy lost in cellular respiration
bull As a consequence of this inefficiency food chains rarely exceed four levels
110
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Essential chemicals cycle through
ecosystems
111
Chemical Reservoirs
bull Each chemical is stored in a non-living part of the environment
bull Organisms acquire the chemical from the reservoir a non-living part of the environment
bull The chemical cycles through the food chain (biogeochemical cycles)
bull Eventually the chemical is returned to the reservoir
112
Hydrologic Cycle and the Florida Springs
bull Click here for a description of how falling rain feeds underground aquifers in Florida and forms springs
113
The Most Important Chemical Cycles
1) Carbon
2) Nitrogen
3) Phosphorus
4) Sulfur
114
115
The
Carbon
Cycle
116
The Carbon Cycle
Keeping Up With Carbon
NASA video provides key information on the carbon cycle
117
118
Carbon Cycle Game
Fossil Fuels
bull created when large numbers of organisms die and are buried in sediment lacking oxygen
bull In absence of oxygen at high pressures and after very long periods of time organic remains are ultimately transformed into coal oil and natural gas
bull burning coal oil and natural gas releases large amounts of carbon dioxide
bull increases average CO2 concentration in the atmosphere
bull current level of CO2 in the atmosphere is the highest it has been in almost half a million years
119
Global CO2 levels are rising in
general but they also exhibit a
sharp rise and fall within each
year ndash why
120
121
The Nitrogen Cycle
122
The Nitrogen Cycle
Fertilizers
bull Because it is necessary for the production of every plant
protein and because all nitrogen must first be made
usable by bacteria plant growth is often limited by
nitrogen levels in the soil
bull For this reason most fertilizers contain nitrogen in a
form usable by plants
123
124
125
126
127
Oxygen reduction downstream of a source of
organic pollution
128
Algal growth and eutrophication in an Australian
outback waterway
129
Sulfur Cycle
bull component of protein
bull cycles in both a gas and sedimentary cycle
bull source earths crust
bull enters the atmosphere as hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
during fossil fuel combustion volcanic eruptions
gas exchange at ocean surfaces decomposition
130
Sulfur Cycle
bull H2S is immediately oxidized to sulfur dioxide (SO2)
bull SO2 + water vapor H2SO4 (falls to earth in rain)
bull sulfur in soluble form is taken up by plant roots
incorporated into amino acids such as cysteine
bull travels through food chain
bull eventually released through decomposition
131
How is carbon recycled back to the
atmosphere in the carbon cycle
1 It is ldquofixedrdquo by bacteria
2 It is a product of cellular respiration
3 Burning of fossil fuels
4 2 and 3
5 All of the above
132
Why do commercial fertilizers usually
contain usable forms of nitrogen and
phosphorous
1 These chemicals are not efficiently recycled in
the soil
2 Nitrogen and phosphorous need to be ldquofixedrdquo
by bacteria or the plant
3 Nitrogen and phosphorous are found at high
levels in the atmosphere but not in the soil
4 Nitrogen and phosphorous only enter the soil
through erosion
133
Take-home message
bull Chemicals essential to lifemdashincluding carbon nitrogen and phosphorusmdashcycle through ecosystems
bull They are usually captured from the atmosphere soil or water by growing organisms passed from one trophic level to the next as organisms eat other organisms and returned to the environment through respiration decomposition and erosion
bull These cycles can be disrupted as human activities significantly increase the amounts of the chemicals utilized or released to the environment
134
Symbiotic Relationships
bull Symbiosis close relationship between organisms of
two different species
bull At least one participant gains some sort of benefit
(usually nutritional)
bull Types of symbiosis
bull Parasitism
bull Commensalism
bull Mutualism
bull Predation
135
Symbiotic Relationships in the
Ocean
bull Click here for an explanation of the
relationships of marine animals
including sharks rays and various
fishes
136
Parasitism bull Parasite derives nutrition from the host
bull This harms the host but a true parasite does
not usually kill its host (directly)
137
Ectoparasites
Remain outside the host
Ticks fleas leeches
138
Endoparasites
Live inside the hostrsquos body
Tapeworms malarial parasites
139
Parasite Transmission
bull Many parasites live on or in a single organism
bull Some will alternate between 2 or more host species
bull Vertical transmission ndash from mother offspring
bull Horizontal transmission ndash between members of a
population
bull Direct contact (head lice)
bull Vectors (mosquitos)
140
141
Commensalism
bull Neither species is totally dependent on the other
bull One benefits ndash no effect on the other
bull Feeding or protection
bull Porcelain anemone crabs and anemones
142
Mutualism
bull Both species benefit
bull Food or shelter
bull Examples
bull Plants and microbes (rhizobium in root nodules)
bull Plants and fungi (orchids and mycorrhizae)
bull Protists and fungi (lichen)
bull Plants and insects (pollination)
bull Animals and bacteria (ruminants)
bull Animals and other animals (crocodiles and
plover birds)
143
Mutualism shrimp and moray
Cleaner shrimp cleaning a zebra moray eel Mutualistic
relationships such as these promote the well-being of the
host fishes and provide food for those that do the cleaning 144
Rhizobium
Rhizobium in root nodules of certain plants convert
nitrogen in soil to usable form
145
Orchid Mycorrhizae
Fungi aid the plant in the uptake of nutrients
Fungi ingest some of the food from plant
photosynthesis 146
Lichen
Most of the lichen is composed of fungal filaments
but living among the filaments are algal cells
usually from a green alga or a cyanobacterium
The lichen fungus provides its partner(s) a benefit
(protection) and gains nutrients in return 147
Ruminants
Ruminants are characterized by their four-chambered
stomach and cud-chewing behavior Cud is a food bolus
that is regurgitated rechewed and reswallowed The
rumen is a large fermentation vat containing billions of
microorganisms including bacteria and protozoa which
allow ruminants to digest fibrous feeds such as grass and
hay that other animals cannot efficiently utilize 148
Crocodiles amp
Plover Birds
The bird gets into the crocodiles mouth and picks out
the tiny bits of food stuck in his teeth then eats it (the
tiny bits)
This cleans the crocodiles teeth and keeps his mouth
fresh and free from infections 149
Predation
bull Consumption of one living organism by
another
bull Predators must have offensive strategies
bull ways of finding catching and eating
their prey
bull Prey organisms must have defensive
strategies
bull ways of avoiding or discouraging this
activity
150
Predation
bull Encompasses all levels within an
ecological food chainweb
bull plant-herbivore systems
bull herbivore-carnivore systems
bull three-way interactions of
interdependent plant-herbivore-
carnivore systems
151
This goshawk is the tertiary consumer in his ecosystem
and the mouse in his beak is the secondary consumer
Beneath the mouse on the ecological pyramid lies his
foodsource likely a worm which fed on the primary
producer leafy plants 152
Ecosystem of Life in Floridas
Springs
bull Click here for a close-up look of life
in Floridas springs and the various
predator-prey interactions there
153
Desert ndash Indicator Plant Species
Trichomes
46
Desert ndash Indicator Animal Species
Zebratail Lizard - Callisaurus draconides
47
Desert ndash Indicator Animal Species
Rock hyrax (Procavia capensis) 48
Desert ndash Indicator Animal Species
Bactrian Camel Camelus bactrianus
49
Temperate Deciduous Forest
bull temperature 0 - 20 C
bull precipitation ~ 50 ndash 200 cmyear
50
Temperate Deciduous Forest
51
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Plant Species
Oaks (Quercus sp)
Dutchmans-Breeches
Dicentra cucullaria 52
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Plant Species
Sassafras
Sassafras albidum
Redbud
Cercis canadensis
53
Temperate Deciduous Forest ndash Succession
bull orderly succession of communities to a climax
community (biome)
bull two main types of succession
bull primary succession begins with bare rock exposed
by geologic activity
bull secondary succession begins on soil from which
previous community has been removed (by fire
agriculture etc)
bull secondary succession can proceed much faster
because the soil has been prepared by the
previous community
54
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
American Toad
Bufo americanus
Box Turtle
55
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
Eastern Chipmunk
Tamias striatus
Eastern Gray Squirrel
Sciurus carolinensis
56
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
Yellow-breasted chat
Icteria virens 57
Tundra
bull annual average temperature lt 5 C
bull precipitation (mostly in the form of snow) lt 100 mmyear
bull summer is brief
bull temperatures above freezing last only a few weeks at
most
bull warm summer coincides with periods of almost 24
hour daylight so plant growth can be explosive
58
Tundra
Anaktuvuk Pass Alaska
59
Tundra ndash Indicator Plant Species
Arctic Tundra Wildflowers - Alaska
60
Tundra ndash Indicator Plant Species
Lichen
Polytrichum Moss
(photographed in Ohio not on the
Tundra)
61
Tundra ndash Indicator Animal Species
Reindeer
Rangifer tarandus
62
Tundra ndash Indicator Animal Species
Caribou On Autumn Tundra Denali National Park Alaska
63
Savanna
bull rolling grassland scattered with shrubs and isolated trees
bull found between a tropical rainforest and desert biome
bull not enough rain falls on a savanna to support forests
bull found in a wide band on either side of the equator on
the edges of tropical rainforests
bull warm temperature year round
bull very long dry season (winter) ~ 10 cm rain none at all
from Dec - Feb
bull very wet season (summer) ~ 35-65 cm rain
64
Savanna
65
Savanna ndash Indicator Plant Species
Baobab
Adansonia digitata Umbrella Thorn Acacia
Acacia tortillis
66
Savanna ndash Indicator Animal Species
Savanna Elephant
Loxodonta africana
Black Mamba
Dendroaspis polylepis
Lion
Panthera leo
67
Chaparral
bull winter mild and moist but not rainy
bull summer very hot and dry
bull annual temperature range between -1deg and 38deg C
bull annual precipitation ~ 25-45 cm mostly in the winter
68
Chaparral
69
Chaparral ndash Indicator Plant Species
Blue Oak
Quercus douglasii
Common Sagebrush
Artemisia tridentata
Olive Tree
Olea europaea
70
Chaparral ndash Indicator Animal Species
Black-tailed Jackrabbit
Lepus californicus Golden Jackal
Canis aureus
Spotted Skunk
Spilogale gracilis
71
The Freshwater Biome
bull low salt concentration mdash usually less than 1
bull plants and animals in freshwater regions are adjusted to
the low salt content and would not be able to survive in
areas of high salt concentration (ie ocean)
bull 3 different types of freshwater regions
bull ponds and lakes
bull streams and rivers
bull wetlands
72
The Freshwater Biome ndash Ponds and Lakes
From left a view across Manzanita Lake toward Mt Lassen California a
forest pond near Donnelly Idaho a Great Blue Heron Paranagat Lake
southeastern Nevada
73
The Freshwater Biome ndash Streams and
Rivers
From left McArthur-Burney Falls State Park California trout Green
River Utah Brooks River Alaska
74
The Freshwater Biome - Wetlands
From left Pescadero Marsh California coastal marsh at Umpqua
Dunes Oregon trees and bogs on Esther Island Alaska
75
The Marine Biome
bull cover about three-fourths of the Earths surface
bull marine algae supply much of the worlds oxygen supply
and take in a huge amount of atmospheric carbon
dioxide
bull evaporation of the seawater provides rainwater for the
land
bull 3 different types of marine regions
bull oceans
bull coral reefs
bull estuaries
76
The Marine Biome - Oceans
From left mussels worms and a spider crab at a hydrocarbon seep
community in the Gulf of Mexico a sea fan and brain coral in the Florida
Keys National Marine Sanctuary a school of Atlantic amberjack off North
Carolina
77
The Marine Biome ndash Coral Reefs
From left reef life in the Gulf of Aqaba Red Sea a reef at Fanning
Island atoll in the central Pacific a reef in the Florida Keys National
Marine Sanctuary
78
The Marine Biome - Estuaries
From left Mangrove roots south Florida wetlands and tidal streams
in the Ashe Island area ACE Basin National Estuarine Research
Reserve South Carolina a salt marsh in Winyah Bay National
Estuarine Research Reserve South Carolina
79
Ecological Notes
These are the biomes in order of their productivity (highest
first)
1 estuaries and tropical rain forest (highest)
2 temperate forest
3 agricultural land
4 temperate grassland
5 lakes and streams
6 coastal zone
7 tundra
8 open ocean
9 desert (lowest)
80
Ecological Notes
In order to be productive and have a lot of living material
standing around (biomass) an ecosystem has to have 4
basic necessities for plant life to thrive (if there are
enough plants the ecosystem will also support a lot of
animals) The four things are
1 Sunlight
2 Nutrients
3 Warm temperatures
4 Water
81
Biomes Video
82
Take-Home Message
bull Biomes are the major ecological communities of earth
characterized mostly by the vegetation present
bull Different biomes result from differences in temperature
and precipitation and the extent to which they vary from
season to season
83
Challenge Question
bull Terrestrial biomes are determined by the temperature
and precipitation amounts as well as whether those
factors are constant or vary by season
bull By contrast how are aquatic biomes determined
84
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy flows from producers to
consumers
85
86
87
First Stop Primary Producers
bull ecosystem producers or consumers
bull primary producers plants algae (some) bacteria
bull convert light energy from sun into chemical energy
through photosynthesis
bull chemical energy = food
bull consumers eat or absorb their food
bull energy stored in chemical bonds of carbohydrate
protein and lipid molecules is captured and
harnessed for consumersrsquo own movement
reproduction and growth
88
Food Chain
89
Food Web
90
Food Web
91
Food Chains amp Food Webs
bull A change in one link in a food chain will affect the other
links
bull The table on the next slide gives one example of a food
chain and the trophic levels represented in it
92
Food Chains amp Food Webs
93
GRASS
GRASSHOPPER
TOAD
SNAKE
HAWK
BACTERIA
IN GENERAL
AUTOTROPHS
(PRODUCERS)
HERBIVORES
(PRIMARY
CONSUMERS)
CARNIVORES
(2 3 ETC)
DECOMPOSERS
94
Chain Reaction Game
95
Energy Flows through a Food Web
bull Losses at every ldquosteprdquo in a food chain
bull Inefficiency of energy transfers
96
Energy flow through a food chain
Energy flow refers to the way that energy is transformed through
a food chain (pictured here) containing a series of levels
including plants consumers predators and decomposers 97
Amount of energy available at each of the
four levels of an ecosystem
Ecological pyramids illustrate the amount of energy
available at each of the four levels of an ecosystem 98
Ecological Pyramid
99
A grasshopper eats a plant A mouse eats the
grasshopper A snake eats the mouse A hawk
could eat the snake or the mouse In this food
web how would we categorize the hawk
1 Producer
2 Primary consumer
3 Secondary consumer
4 Tertiary consumer
5 Quaternary consumer
6 4 and 5
100
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps
bull First it is converted to chemical energy in
photosynthesis
bull Herbivores then consume the primary producers the
herbivores are consumed by carnivores and the
carnivores in turn may be consumed by top carnivores
101
Take-home message
bull Detritivores and decomposers extract energy from
organic waste and the remains of organisms that have
died
bull At each step in a food chain some usable energy is lost
as heat
102
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy pyramids reveal the inefficiency of
food chains
103
Biomass
bull biomass total weight of all living organisms in a given
area
bull only about 10 of the plants in an ecosystem is
converted into biomass
bull Food Energy Pyramid
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
bull African savannas and grasslands sustain more species
of higher-order carnivores than any other terrestrial
ecosystem
104
105
Food Energy Pyramids
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
106
107
108
You go out to eat at a fancy restaurant You
have a salad salmon and for dessert ice
cream Which part of the meal was the most
energy efficient food for you to eat
1 Salad
2 Salmon
3 Ice cream
4 2 and 3
109
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps known as trophic levels
bull Energy pyramids reveal that the biomass of primary
producers in an ecosystem tends to be far greater than
the biomass of herbivores
bull The biomass transferred at each step along the food chain tends to be only about 10 of the biomass of the organisms being consumed due to energy lost in cellular respiration
bull As a consequence of this inefficiency food chains rarely exceed four levels
110
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Essential chemicals cycle through
ecosystems
111
Chemical Reservoirs
bull Each chemical is stored in a non-living part of the environment
bull Organisms acquire the chemical from the reservoir a non-living part of the environment
bull The chemical cycles through the food chain (biogeochemical cycles)
bull Eventually the chemical is returned to the reservoir
112
Hydrologic Cycle and the Florida Springs
bull Click here for a description of how falling rain feeds underground aquifers in Florida and forms springs
113
The Most Important Chemical Cycles
1) Carbon
2) Nitrogen
3) Phosphorus
4) Sulfur
114
115
The
Carbon
Cycle
116
The Carbon Cycle
Keeping Up With Carbon
NASA video provides key information on the carbon cycle
117
118
Carbon Cycle Game
Fossil Fuels
bull created when large numbers of organisms die and are buried in sediment lacking oxygen
bull In absence of oxygen at high pressures and after very long periods of time organic remains are ultimately transformed into coal oil and natural gas
bull burning coal oil and natural gas releases large amounts of carbon dioxide
bull increases average CO2 concentration in the atmosphere
bull current level of CO2 in the atmosphere is the highest it has been in almost half a million years
119
Global CO2 levels are rising in
general but they also exhibit a
sharp rise and fall within each
year ndash why
120
121
The Nitrogen Cycle
122
The Nitrogen Cycle
Fertilizers
bull Because it is necessary for the production of every plant
protein and because all nitrogen must first be made
usable by bacteria plant growth is often limited by
nitrogen levels in the soil
bull For this reason most fertilizers contain nitrogen in a
form usable by plants
123
124
125
126
127
Oxygen reduction downstream of a source of
organic pollution
128
Algal growth and eutrophication in an Australian
outback waterway
129
Sulfur Cycle
bull component of protein
bull cycles in both a gas and sedimentary cycle
bull source earths crust
bull enters the atmosphere as hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
during fossil fuel combustion volcanic eruptions
gas exchange at ocean surfaces decomposition
130
Sulfur Cycle
bull H2S is immediately oxidized to sulfur dioxide (SO2)
bull SO2 + water vapor H2SO4 (falls to earth in rain)
bull sulfur in soluble form is taken up by plant roots
incorporated into amino acids such as cysteine
bull travels through food chain
bull eventually released through decomposition
131
How is carbon recycled back to the
atmosphere in the carbon cycle
1 It is ldquofixedrdquo by bacteria
2 It is a product of cellular respiration
3 Burning of fossil fuels
4 2 and 3
5 All of the above
132
Why do commercial fertilizers usually
contain usable forms of nitrogen and
phosphorous
1 These chemicals are not efficiently recycled in
the soil
2 Nitrogen and phosphorous need to be ldquofixedrdquo
by bacteria or the plant
3 Nitrogen and phosphorous are found at high
levels in the atmosphere but not in the soil
4 Nitrogen and phosphorous only enter the soil
through erosion
133
Take-home message
bull Chemicals essential to lifemdashincluding carbon nitrogen and phosphorusmdashcycle through ecosystems
bull They are usually captured from the atmosphere soil or water by growing organisms passed from one trophic level to the next as organisms eat other organisms and returned to the environment through respiration decomposition and erosion
bull These cycles can be disrupted as human activities significantly increase the amounts of the chemicals utilized or released to the environment
134
Symbiotic Relationships
bull Symbiosis close relationship between organisms of
two different species
bull At least one participant gains some sort of benefit
(usually nutritional)
bull Types of symbiosis
bull Parasitism
bull Commensalism
bull Mutualism
bull Predation
135
Symbiotic Relationships in the
Ocean
bull Click here for an explanation of the
relationships of marine animals
including sharks rays and various
fishes
136
Parasitism bull Parasite derives nutrition from the host
bull This harms the host but a true parasite does
not usually kill its host (directly)
137
Ectoparasites
Remain outside the host
Ticks fleas leeches
138
Endoparasites
Live inside the hostrsquos body
Tapeworms malarial parasites
139
Parasite Transmission
bull Many parasites live on or in a single organism
bull Some will alternate between 2 or more host species
bull Vertical transmission ndash from mother offspring
bull Horizontal transmission ndash between members of a
population
bull Direct contact (head lice)
bull Vectors (mosquitos)
140
141
Commensalism
bull Neither species is totally dependent on the other
bull One benefits ndash no effect on the other
bull Feeding or protection
bull Porcelain anemone crabs and anemones
142
Mutualism
bull Both species benefit
bull Food or shelter
bull Examples
bull Plants and microbes (rhizobium in root nodules)
bull Plants and fungi (orchids and mycorrhizae)
bull Protists and fungi (lichen)
bull Plants and insects (pollination)
bull Animals and bacteria (ruminants)
bull Animals and other animals (crocodiles and
plover birds)
143
Mutualism shrimp and moray
Cleaner shrimp cleaning a zebra moray eel Mutualistic
relationships such as these promote the well-being of the
host fishes and provide food for those that do the cleaning 144
Rhizobium
Rhizobium in root nodules of certain plants convert
nitrogen in soil to usable form
145
Orchid Mycorrhizae
Fungi aid the plant in the uptake of nutrients
Fungi ingest some of the food from plant
photosynthesis 146
Lichen
Most of the lichen is composed of fungal filaments
but living among the filaments are algal cells
usually from a green alga or a cyanobacterium
The lichen fungus provides its partner(s) a benefit
(protection) and gains nutrients in return 147
Ruminants
Ruminants are characterized by their four-chambered
stomach and cud-chewing behavior Cud is a food bolus
that is regurgitated rechewed and reswallowed The
rumen is a large fermentation vat containing billions of
microorganisms including bacteria and protozoa which
allow ruminants to digest fibrous feeds such as grass and
hay that other animals cannot efficiently utilize 148
Crocodiles amp
Plover Birds
The bird gets into the crocodiles mouth and picks out
the tiny bits of food stuck in his teeth then eats it (the
tiny bits)
This cleans the crocodiles teeth and keeps his mouth
fresh and free from infections 149
Predation
bull Consumption of one living organism by
another
bull Predators must have offensive strategies
bull ways of finding catching and eating
their prey
bull Prey organisms must have defensive
strategies
bull ways of avoiding or discouraging this
activity
150
Predation
bull Encompasses all levels within an
ecological food chainweb
bull plant-herbivore systems
bull herbivore-carnivore systems
bull three-way interactions of
interdependent plant-herbivore-
carnivore systems
151
This goshawk is the tertiary consumer in his ecosystem
and the mouse in his beak is the secondary consumer
Beneath the mouse on the ecological pyramid lies his
foodsource likely a worm which fed on the primary
producer leafy plants 152
Ecosystem of Life in Floridas
Springs
bull Click here for a close-up look of life
in Floridas springs and the various
predator-prey interactions there
153
Desert ndash Indicator Animal Species
Zebratail Lizard - Callisaurus draconides
47
Desert ndash Indicator Animal Species
Rock hyrax (Procavia capensis) 48
Desert ndash Indicator Animal Species
Bactrian Camel Camelus bactrianus
49
Temperate Deciduous Forest
bull temperature 0 - 20 C
bull precipitation ~ 50 ndash 200 cmyear
50
Temperate Deciduous Forest
51
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Plant Species
Oaks (Quercus sp)
Dutchmans-Breeches
Dicentra cucullaria 52
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Plant Species
Sassafras
Sassafras albidum
Redbud
Cercis canadensis
53
Temperate Deciduous Forest ndash Succession
bull orderly succession of communities to a climax
community (biome)
bull two main types of succession
bull primary succession begins with bare rock exposed
by geologic activity
bull secondary succession begins on soil from which
previous community has been removed (by fire
agriculture etc)
bull secondary succession can proceed much faster
because the soil has been prepared by the
previous community
54
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
American Toad
Bufo americanus
Box Turtle
55
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
Eastern Chipmunk
Tamias striatus
Eastern Gray Squirrel
Sciurus carolinensis
56
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
Yellow-breasted chat
Icteria virens 57
Tundra
bull annual average temperature lt 5 C
bull precipitation (mostly in the form of snow) lt 100 mmyear
bull summer is brief
bull temperatures above freezing last only a few weeks at
most
bull warm summer coincides with periods of almost 24
hour daylight so plant growth can be explosive
58
Tundra
Anaktuvuk Pass Alaska
59
Tundra ndash Indicator Plant Species
Arctic Tundra Wildflowers - Alaska
60
Tundra ndash Indicator Plant Species
Lichen
Polytrichum Moss
(photographed in Ohio not on the
Tundra)
61
Tundra ndash Indicator Animal Species
Reindeer
Rangifer tarandus
62
Tundra ndash Indicator Animal Species
Caribou On Autumn Tundra Denali National Park Alaska
63
Savanna
bull rolling grassland scattered with shrubs and isolated trees
bull found between a tropical rainforest and desert biome
bull not enough rain falls on a savanna to support forests
bull found in a wide band on either side of the equator on
the edges of tropical rainforests
bull warm temperature year round
bull very long dry season (winter) ~ 10 cm rain none at all
from Dec - Feb
bull very wet season (summer) ~ 35-65 cm rain
64
Savanna
65
Savanna ndash Indicator Plant Species
Baobab
Adansonia digitata Umbrella Thorn Acacia
Acacia tortillis
66
Savanna ndash Indicator Animal Species
Savanna Elephant
Loxodonta africana
Black Mamba
Dendroaspis polylepis
Lion
Panthera leo
67
Chaparral
bull winter mild and moist but not rainy
bull summer very hot and dry
bull annual temperature range between -1deg and 38deg C
bull annual precipitation ~ 25-45 cm mostly in the winter
68
Chaparral
69
Chaparral ndash Indicator Plant Species
Blue Oak
Quercus douglasii
Common Sagebrush
Artemisia tridentata
Olive Tree
Olea europaea
70
Chaparral ndash Indicator Animal Species
Black-tailed Jackrabbit
Lepus californicus Golden Jackal
Canis aureus
Spotted Skunk
Spilogale gracilis
71
The Freshwater Biome
bull low salt concentration mdash usually less than 1
bull plants and animals in freshwater regions are adjusted to
the low salt content and would not be able to survive in
areas of high salt concentration (ie ocean)
bull 3 different types of freshwater regions
bull ponds and lakes
bull streams and rivers
bull wetlands
72
The Freshwater Biome ndash Ponds and Lakes
From left a view across Manzanita Lake toward Mt Lassen California a
forest pond near Donnelly Idaho a Great Blue Heron Paranagat Lake
southeastern Nevada
73
The Freshwater Biome ndash Streams and
Rivers
From left McArthur-Burney Falls State Park California trout Green
River Utah Brooks River Alaska
74
The Freshwater Biome - Wetlands
From left Pescadero Marsh California coastal marsh at Umpqua
Dunes Oregon trees and bogs on Esther Island Alaska
75
The Marine Biome
bull cover about three-fourths of the Earths surface
bull marine algae supply much of the worlds oxygen supply
and take in a huge amount of atmospheric carbon
dioxide
bull evaporation of the seawater provides rainwater for the
land
bull 3 different types of marine regions
bull oceans
bull coral reefs
bull estuaries
76
The Marine Biome - Oceans
From left mussels worms and a spider crab at a hydrocarbon seep
community in the Gulf of Mexico a sea fan and brain coral in the Florida
Keys National Marine Sanctuary a school of Atlantic amberjack off North
Carolina
77
The Marine Biome ndash Coral Reefs
From left reef life in the Gulf of Aqaba Red Sea a reef at Fanning
Island atoll in the central Pacific a reef in the Florida Keys National
Marine Sanctuary
78
The Marine Biome - Estuaries
From left Mangrove roots south Florida wetlands and tidal streams
in the Ashe Island area ACE Basin National Estuarine Research
Reserve South Carolina a salt marsh in Winyah Bay National
Estuarine Research Reserve South Carolina
79
Ecological Notes
These are the biomes in order of their productivity (highest
first)
1 estuaries and tropical rain forest (highest)
2 temperate forest
3 agricultural land
4 temperate grassland
5 lakes and streams
6 coastal zone
7 tundra
8 open ocean
9 desert (lowest)
80
Ecological Notes
In order to be productive and have a lot of living material
standing around (biomass) an ecosystem has to have 4
basic necessities for plant life to thrive (if there are
enough plants the ecosystem will also support a lot of
animals) The four things are
1 Sunlight
2 Nutrients
3 Warm temperatures
4 Water
81
Biomes Video
82
Take-Home Message
bull Biomes are the major ecological communities of earth
characterized mostly by the vegetation present
bull Different biomes result from differences in temperature
and precipitation and the extent to which they vary from
season to season
83
Challenge Question
bull Terrestrial biomes are determined by the temperature
and precipitation amounts as well as whether those
factors are constant or vary by season
bull By contrast how are aquatic biomes determined
84
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy flows from producers to
consumers
85
86
87
First Stop Primary Producers
bull ecosystem producers or consumers
bull primary producers plants algae (some) bacteria
bull convert light energy from sun into chemical energy
through photosynthesis
bull chemical energy = food
bull consumers eat or absorb their food
bull energy stored in chemical bonds of carbohydrate
protein and lipid molecules is captured and
harnessed for consumersrsquo own movement
reproduction and growth
88
Food Chain
89
Food Web
90
Food Web
91
Food Chains amp Food Webs
bull A change in one link in a food chain will affect the other
links
bull The table on the next slide gives one example of a food
chain and the trophic levels represented in it
92
Food Chains amp Food Webs
93
GRASS
GRASSHOPPER
TOAD
SNAKE
HAWK
BACTERIA
IN GENERAL
AUTOTROPHS
(PRODUCERS)
HERBIVORES
(PRIMARY
CONSUMERS)
CARNIVORES
(2 3 ETC)
DECOMPOSERS
94
Chain Reaction Game
95
Energy Flows through a Food Web
bull Losses at every ldquosteprdquo in a food chain
bull Inefficiency of energy transfers
96
Energy flow through a food chain
Energy flow refers to the way that energy is transformed through
a food chain (pictured here) containing a series of levels
including plants consumers predators and decomposers 97
Amount of energy available at each of the
four levels of an ecosystem
Ecological pyramids illustrate the amount of energy
available at each of the four levels of an ecosystem 98
Ecological Pyramid
99
A grasshopper eats a plant A mouse eats the
grasshopper A snake eats the mouse A hawk
could eat the snake or the mouse In this food
web how would we categorize the hawk
1 Producer
2 Primary consumer
3 Secondary consumer
4 Tertiary consumer
5 Quaternary consumer
6 4 and 5
100
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps
bull First it is converted to chemical energy in
photosynthesis
bull Herbivores then consume the primary producers the
herbivores are consumed by carnivores and the
carnivores in turn may be consumed by top carnivores
101
Take-home message
bull Detritivores and decomposers extract energy from
organic waste and the remains of organisms that have
died
bull At each step in a food chain some usable energy is lost
as heat
102
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy pyramids reveal the inefficiency of
food chains
103
Biomass
bull biomass total weight of all living organisms in a given
area
bull only about 10 of the plants in an ecosystem is
converted into biomass
bull Food Energy Pyramid
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
bull African savannas and grasslands sustain more species
of higher-order carnivores than any other terrestrial
ecosystem
104
105
Food Energy Pyramids
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
106
107
108
You go out to eat at a fancy restaurant You
have a salad salmon and for dessert ice
cream Which part of the meal was the most
energy efficient food for you to eat
1 Salad
2 Salmon
3 Ice cream
4 2 and 3
109
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps known as trophic levels
bull Energy pyramids reveal that the biomass of primary
producers in an ecosystem tends to be far greater than
the biomass of herbivores
bull The biomass transferred at each step along the food chain tends to be only about 10 of the biomass of the organisms being consumed due to energy lost in cellular respiration
bull As a consequence of this inefficiency food chains rarely exceed four levels
110
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Essential chemicals cycle through
ecosystems
111
Chemical Reservoirs
bull Each chemical is stored in a non-living part of the environment
bull Organisms acquire the chemical from the reservoir a non-living part of the environment
bull The chemical cycles through the food chain (biogeochemical cycles)
bull Eventually the chemical is returned to the reservoir
112
Hydrologic Cycle and the Florida Springs
bull Click here for a description of how falling rain feeds underground aquifers in Florida and forms springs
113
The Most Important Chemical Cycles
1) Carbon
2) Nitrogen
3) Phosphorus
4) Sulfur
114
115
The
Carbon
Cycle
116
The Carbon Cycle
Keeping Up With Carbon
NASA video provides key information on the carbon cycle
117
118
Carbon Cycle Game
Fossil Fuels
bull created when large numbers of organisms die and are buried in sediment lacking oxygen
bull In absence of oxygen at high pressures and after very long periods of time organic remains are ultimately transformed into coal oil and natural gas
bull burning coal oil and natural gas releases large amounts of carbon dioxide
bull increases average CO2 concentration in the atmosphere
bull current level of CO2 in the atmosphere is the highest it has been in almost half a million years
119
Global CO2 levels are rising in
general but they also exhibit a
sharp rise and fall within each
year ndash why
120
121
The Nitrogen Cycle
122
The Nitrogen Cycle
Fertilizers
bull Because it is necessary for the production of every plant
protein and because all nitrogen must first be made
usable by bacteria plant growth is often limited by
nitrogen levels in the soil
bull For this reason most fertilizers contain nitrogen in a
form usable by plants
123
124
125
126
127
Oxygen reduction downstream of a source of
organic pollution
128
Algal growth and eutrophication in an Australian
outback waterway
129
Sulfur Cycle
bull component of protein
bull cycles in both a gas and sedimentary cycle
bull source earths crust
bull enters the atmosphere as hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
during fossil fuel combustion volcanic eruptions
gas exchange at ocean surfaces decomposition
130
Sulfur Cycle
bull H2S is immediately oxidized to sulfur dioxide (SO2)
bull SO2 + water vapor H2SO4 (falls to earth in rain)
bull sulfur in soluble form is taken up by plant roots
incorporated into amino acids such as cysteine
bull travels through food chain
bull eventually released through decomposition
131
How is carbon recycled back to the
atmosphere in the carbon cycle
1 It is ldquofixedrdquo by bacteria
2 It is a product of cellular respiration
3 Burning of fossil fuels
4 2 and 3
5 All of the above
132
Why do commercial fertilizers usually
contain usable forms of nitrogen and
phosphorous
1 These chemicals are not efficiently recycled in
the soil
2 Nitrogen and phosphorous need to be ldquofixedrdquo
by bacteria or the plant
3 Nitrogen and phosphorous are found at high
levels in the atmosphere but not in the soil
4 Nitrogen and phosphorous only enter the soil
through erosion
133
Take-home message
bull Chemicals essential to lifemdashincluding carbon nitrogen and phosphorusmdashcycle through ecosystems
bull They are usually captured from the atmosphere soil or water by growing organisms passed from one trophic level to the next as organisms eat other organisms and returned to the environment through respiration decomposition and erosion
bull These cycles can be disrupted as human activities significantly increase the amounts of the chemicals utilized or released to the environment
134
Symbiotic Relationships
bull Symbiosis close relationship between organisms of
two different species
bull At least one participant gains some sort of benefit
(usually nutritional)
bull Types of symbiosis
bull Parasitism
bull Commensalism
bull Mutualism
bull Predation
135
Symbiotic Relationships in the
Ocean
bull Click here for an explanation of the
relationships of marine animals
including sharks rays and various
fishes
136
Parasitism bull Parasite derives nutrition from the host
bull This harms the host but a true parasite does
not usually kill its host (directly)
137
Ectoparasites
Remain outside the host
Ticks fleas leeches
138
Endoparasites
Live inside the hostrsquos body
Tapeworms malarial parasites
139
Parasite Transmission
bull Many parasites live on or in a single organism
bull Some will alternate between 2 or more host species
bull Vertical transmission ndash from mother offspring
bull Horizontal transmission ndash between members of a
population
bull Direct contact (head lice)
bull Vectors (mosquitos)
140
141
Commensalism
bull Neither species is totally dependent on the other
bull One benefits ndash no effect on the other
bull Feeding or protection
bull Porcelain anemone crabs and anemones
142
Mutualism
bull Both species benefit
bull Food or shelter
bull Examples
bull Plants and microbes (rhizobium in root nodules)
bull Plants and fungi (orchids and mycorrhizae)
bull Protists and fungi (lichen)
bull Plants and insects (pollination)
bull Animals and bacteria (ruminants)
bull Animals and other animals (crocodiles and
plover birds)
143
Mutualism shrimp and moray
Cleaner shrimp cleaning a zebra moray eel Mutualistic
relationships such as these promote the well-being of the
host fishes and provide food for those that do the cleaning 144
Rhizobium
Rhizobium in root nodules of certain plants convert
nitrogen in soil to usable form
145
Orchid Mycorrhizae
Fungi aid the plant in the uptake of nutrients
Fungi ingest some of the food from plant
photosynthesis 146
Lichen
Most of the lichen is composed of fungal filaments
but living among the filaments are algal cells
usually from a green alga or a cyanobacterium
The lichen fungus provides its partner(s) a benefit
(protection) and gains nutrients in return 147
Ruminants
Ruminants are characterized by their four-chambered
stomach and cud-chewing behavior Cud is a food bolus
that is regurgitated rechewed and reswallowed The
rumen is a large fermentation vat containing billions of
microorganisms including bacteria and protozoa which
allow ruminants to digest fibrous feeds such as grass and
hay that other animals cannot efficiently utilize 148
Crocodiles amp
Plover Birds
The bird gets into the crocodiles mouth and picks out
the tiny bits of food stuck in his teeth then eats it (the
tiny bits)
This cleans the crocodiles teeth and keeps his mouth
fresh and free from infections 149
Predation
bull Consumption of one living organism by
another
bull Predators must have offensive strategies
bull ways of finding catching and eating
their prey
bull Prey organisms must have defensive
strategies
bull ways of avoiding or discouraging this
activity
150
Predation
bull Encompasses all levels within an
ecological food chainweb
bull plant-herbivore systems
bull herbivore-carnivore systems
bull three-way interactions of
interdependent plant-herbivore-
carnivore systems
151
This goshawk is the tertiary consumer in his ecosystem
and the mouse in his beak is the secondary consumer
Beneath the mouse on the ecological pyramid lies his
foodsource likely a worm which fed on the primary
producer leafy plants 152
Ecosystem of Life in Floridas
Springs
bull Click here for a close-up look of life
in Floridas springs and the various
predator-prey interactions there
153
Desert ndash Indicator Animal Species
Rock hyrax (Procavia capensis) 48
Desert ndash Indicator Animal Species
Bactrian Camel Camelus bactrianus
49
Temperate Deciduous Forest
bull temperature 0 - 20 C
bull precipitation ~ 50 ndash 200 cmyear
50
Temperate Deciduous Forest
51
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Plant Species
Oaks (Quercus sp)
Dutchmans-Breeches
Dicentra cucullaria 52
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Plant Species
Sassafras
Sassafras albidum
Redbud
Cercis canadensis
53
Temperate Deciduous Forest ndash Succession
bull orderly succession of communities to a climax
community (biome)
bull two main types of succession
bull primary succession begins with bare rock exposed
by geologic activity
bull secondary succession begins on soil from which
previous community has been removed (by fire
agriculture etc)
bull secondary succession can proceed much faster
because the soil has been prepared by the
previous community
54
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
American Toad
Bufo americanus
Box Turtle
55
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
Eastern Chipmunk
Tamias striatus
Eastern Gray Squirrel
Sciurus carolinensis
56
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
Yellow-breasted chat
Icteria virens 57
Tundra
bull annual average temperature lt 5 C
bull precipitation (mostly in the form of snow) lt 100 mmyear
bull summer is brief
bull temperatures above freezing last only a few weeks at
most
bull warm summer coincides with periods of almost 24
hour daylight so plant growth can be explosive
58
Tundra
Anaktuvuk Pass Alaska
59
Tundra ndash Indicator Plant Species
Arctic Tundra Wildflowers - Alaska
60
Tundra ndash Indicator Plant Species
Lichen
Polytrichum Moss
(photographed in Ohio not on the
Tundra)
61
Tundra ndash Indicator Animal Species
Reindeer
Rangifer tarandus
62
Tundra ndash Indicator Animal Species
Caribou On Autumn Tundra Denali National Park Alaska
63
Savanna
bull rolling grassland scattered with shrubs and isolated trees
bull found between a tropical rainforest and desert biome
bull not enough rain falls on a savanna to support forests
bull found in a wide band on either side of the equator on
the edges of tropical rainforests
bull warm temperature year round
bull very long dry season (winter) ~ 10 cm rain none at all
from Dec - Feb
bull very wet season (summer) ~ 35-65 cm rain
64
Savanna
65
Savanna ndash Indicator Plant Species
Baobab
Adansonia digitata Umbrella Thorn Acacia
Acacia tortillis
66
Savanna ndash Indicator Animal Species
Savanna Elephant
Loxodonta africana
Black Mamba
Dendroaspis polylepis
Lion
Panthera leo
67
Chaparral
bull winter mild and moist but not rainy
bull summer very hot and dry
bull annual temperature range between -1deg and 38deg C
bull annual precipitation ~ 25-45 cm mostly in the winter
68
Chaparral
69
Chaparral ndash Indicator Plant Species
Blue Oak
Quercus douglasii
Common Sagebrush
Artemisia tridentata
Olive Tree
Olea europaea
70
Chaparral ndash Indicator Animal Species
Black-tailed Jackrabbit
Lepus californicus Golden Jackal
Canis aureus
Spotted Skunk
Spilogale gracilis
71
The Freshwater Biome
bull low salt concentration mdash usually less than 1
bull plants and animals in freshwater regions are adjusted to
the low salt content and would not be able to survive in
areas of high salt concentration (ie ocean)
bull 3 different types of freshwater regions
bull ponds and lakes
bull streams and rivers
bull wetlands
72
The Freshwater Biome ndash Ponds and Lakes
From left a view across Manzanita Lake toward Mt Lassen California a
forest pond near Donnelly Idaho a Great Blue Heron Paranagat Lake
southeastern Nevada
73
The Freshwater Biome ndash Streams and
Rivers
From left McArthur-Burney Falls State Park California trout Green
River Utah Brooks River Alaska
74
The Freshwater Biome - Wetlands
From left Pescadero Marsh California coastal marsh at Umpqua
Dunes Oregon trees and bogs on Esther Island Alaska
75
The Marine Biome
bull cover about three-fourths of the Earths surface
bull marine algae supply much of the worlds oxygen supply
and take in a huge amount of atmospheric carbon
dioxide
bull evaporation of the seawater provides rainwater for the
land
bull 3 different types of marine regions
bull oceans
bull coral reefs
bull estuaries
76
The Marine Biome - Oceans
From left mussels worms and a spider crab at a hydrocarbon seep
community in the Gulf of Mexico a sea fan and brain coral in the Florida
Keys National Marine Sanctuary a school of Atlantic amberjack off North
Carolina
77
The Marine Biome ndash Coral Reefs
From left reef life in the Gulf of Aqaba Red Sea a reef at Fanning
Island atoll in the central Pacific a reef in the Florida Keys National
Marine Sanctuary
78
The Marine Biome - Estuaries
From left Mangrove roots south Florida wetlands and tidal streams
in the Ashe Island area ACE Basin National Estuarine Research
Reserve South Carolina a salt marsh in Winyah Bay National
Estuarine Research Reserve South Carolina
79
Ecological Notes
These are the biomes in order of their productivity (highest
first)
1 estuaries and tropical rain forest (highest)
2 temperate forest
3 agricultural land
4 temperate grassland
5 lakes and streams
6 coastal zone
7 tundra
8 open ocean
9 desert (lowest)
80
Ecological Notes
In order to be productive and have a lot of living material
standing around (biomass) an ecosystem has to have 4
basic necessities for plant life to thrive (if there are
enough plants the ecosystem will also support a lot of
animals) The four things are
1 Sunlight
2 Nutrients
3 Warm temperatures
4 Water
81
Biomes Video
82
Take-Home Message
bull Biomes are the major ecological communities of earth
characterized mostly by the vegetation present
bull Different biomes result from differences in temperature
and precipitation and the extent to which they vary from
season to season
83
Challenge Question
bull Terrestrial biomes are determined by the temperature
and precipitation amounts as well as whether those
factors are constant or vary by season
bull By contrast how are aquatic biomes determined
84
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy flows from producers to
consumers
85
86
87
First Stop Primary Producers
bull ecosystem producers or consumers
bull primary producers plants algae (some) bacteria
bull convert light energy from sun into chemical energy
through photosynthesis
bull chemical energy = food
bull consumers eat or absorb their food
bull energy stored in chemical bonds of carbohydrate
protein and lipid molecules is captured and
harnessed for consumersrsquo own movement
reproduction and growth
88
Food Chain
89
Food Web
90
Food Web
91
Food Chains amp Food Webs
bull A change in one link in a food chain will affect the other
links
bull The table on the next slide gives one example of a food
chain and the trophic levels represented in it
92
Food Chains amp Food Webs
93
GRASS
GRASSHOPPER
TOAD
SNAKE
HAWK
BACTERIA
IN GENERAL
AUTOTROPHS
(PRODUCERS)
HERBIVORES
(PRIMARY
CONSUMERS)
CARNIVORES
(2 3 ETC)
DECOMPOSERS
94
Chain Reaction Game
95
Energy Flows through a Food Web
bull Losses at every ldquosteprdquo in a food chain
bull Inefficiency of energy transfers
96
Energy flow through a food chain
Energy flow refers to the way that energy is transformed through
a food chain (pictured here) containing a series of levels
including plants consumers predators and decomposers 97
Amount of energy available at each of the
four levels of an ecosystem
Ecological pyramids illustrate the amount of energy
available at each of the four levels of an ecosystem 98
Ecological Pyramid
99
A grasshopper eats a plant A mouse eats the
grasshopper A snake eats the mouse A hawk
could eat the snake or the mouse In this food
web how would we categorize the hawk
1 Producer
2 Primary consumer
3 Secondary consumer
4 Tertiary consumer
5 Quaternary consumer
6 4 and 5
100
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps
bull First it is converted to chemical energy in
photosynthesis
bull Herbivores then consume the primary producers the
herbivores are consumed by carnivores and the
carnivores in turn may be consumed by top carnivores
101
Take-home message
bull Detritivores and decomposers extract energy from
organic waste and the remains of organisms that have
died
bull At each step in a food chain some usable energy is lost
as heat
102
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy pyramids reveal the inefficiency of
food chains
103
Biomass
bull biomass total weight of all living organisms in a given
area
bull only about 10 of the plants in an ecosystem is
converted into biomass
bull Food Energy Pyramid
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
bull African savannas and grasslands sustain more species
of higher-order carnivores than any other terrestrial
ecosystem
104
105
Food Energy Pyramids
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
106
107
108
You go out to eat at a fancy restaurant You
have a salad salmon and for dessert ice
cream Which part of the meal was the most
energy efficient food for you to eat
1 Salad
2 Salmon
3 Ice cream
4 2 and 3
109
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps known as trophic levels
bull Energy pyramids reveal that the biomass of primary
producers in an ecosystem tends to be far greater than
the biomass of herbivores
bull The biomass transferred at each step along the food chain tends to be only about 10 of the biomass of the organisms being consumed due to energy lost in cellular respiration
bull As a consequence of this inefficiency food chains rarely exceed four levels
110
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Essential chemicals cycle through
ecosystems
111
Chemical Reservoirs
bull Each chemical is stored in a non-living part of the environment
bull Organisms acquire the chemical from the reservoir a non-living part of the environment
bull The chemical cycles through the food chain (biogeochemical cycles)
bull Eventually the chemical is returned to the reservoir
112
Hydrologic Cycle and the Florida Springs
bull Click here for a description of how falling rain feeds underground aquifers in Florida and forms springs
113
The Most Important Chemical Cycles
1) Carbon
2) Nitrogen
3) Phosphorus
4) Sulfur
114
115
The
Carbon
Cycle
116
The Carbon Cycle
Keeping Up With Carbon
NASA video provides key information on the carbon cycle
117
118
Carbon Cycle Game
Fossil Fuels
bull created when large numbers of organisms die and are buried in sediment lacking oxygen
bull In absence of oxygen at high pressures and after very long periods of time organic remains are ultimately transformed into coal oil and natural gas
bull burning coal oil and natural gas releases large amounts of carbon dioxide
bull increases average CO2 concentration in the atmosphere
bull current level of CO2 in the atmosphere is the highest it has been in almost half a million years
119
Global CO2 levels are rising in
general but they also exhibit a
sharp rise and fall within each
year ndash why
120
121
The Nitrogen Cycle
122
The Nitrogen Cycle
Fertilizers
bull Because it is necessary for the production of every plant
protein and because all nitrogen must first be made
usable by bacteria plant growth is often limited by
nitrogen levels in the soil
bull For this reason most fertilizers contain nitrogen in a
form usable by plants
123
124
125
126
127
Oxygen reduction downstream of a source of
organic pollution
128
Algal growth and eutrophication in an Australian
outback waterway
129
Sulfur Cycle
bull component of protein
bull cycles in both a gas and sedimentary cycle
bull source earths crust
bull enters the atmosphere as hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
during fossil fuel combustion volcanic eruptions
gas exchange at ocean surfaces decomposition
130
Sulfur Cycle
bull H2S is immediately oxidized to sulfur dioxide (SO2)
bull SO2 + water vapor H2SO4 (falls to earth in rain)
bull sulfur in soluble form is taken up by plant roots
incorporated into amino acids such as cysteine
bull travels through food chain
bull eventually released through decomposition
131
How is carbon recycled back to the
atmosphere in the carbon cycle
1 It is ldquofixedrdquo by bacteria
2 It is a product of cellular respiration
3 Burning of fossil fuels
4 2 and 3
5 All of the above
132
Why do commercial fertilizers usually
contain usable forms of nitrogen and
phosphorous
1 These chemicals are not efficiently recycled in
the soil
2 Nitrogen and phosphorous need to be ldquofixedrdquo
by bacteria or the plant
3 Nitrogen and phosphorous are found at high
levels in the atmosphere but not in the soil
4 Nitrogen and phosphorous only enter the soil
through erosion
133
Take-home message
bull Chemicals essential to lifemdashincluding carbon nitrogen and phosphorusmdashcycle through ecosystems
bull They are usually captured from the atmosphere soil or water by growing organisms passed from one trophic level to the next as organisms eat other organisms and returned to the environment through respiration decomposition and erosion
bull These cycles can be disrupted as human activities significantly increase the amounts of the chemicals utilized or released to the environment
134
Symbiotic Relationships
bull Symbiosis close relationship between organisms of
two different species
bull At least one participant gains some sort of benefit
(usually nutritional)
bull Types of symbiosis
bull Parasitism
bull Commensalism
bull Mutualism
bull Predation
135
Symbiotic Relationships in the
Ocean
bull Click here for an explanation of the
relationships of marine animals
including sharks rays and various
fishes
136
Parasitism bull Parasite derives nutrition from the host
bull This harms the host but a true parasite does
not usually kill its host (directly)
137
Ectoparasites
Remain outside the host
Ticks fleas leeches
138
Endoparasites
Live inside the hostrsquos body
Tapeworms malarial parasites
139
Parasite Transmission
bull Many parasites live on or in a single organism
bull Some will alternate between 2 or more host species
bull Vertical transmission ndash from mother offspring
bull Horizontal transmission ndash between members of a
population
bull Direct contact (head lice)
bull Vectors (mosquitos)
140
141
Commensalism
bull Neither species is totally dependent on the other
bull One benefits ndash no effect on the other
bull Feeding or protection
bull Porcelain anemone crabs and anemones
142
Mutualism
bull Both species benefit
bull Food or shelter
bull Examples
bull Plants and microbes (rhizobium in root nodules)
bull Plants and fungi (orchids and mycorrhizae)
bull Protists and fungi (lichen)
bull Plants and insects (pollination)
bull Animals and bacteria (ruminants)
bull Animals and other animals (crocodiles and
plover birds)
143
Mutualism shrimp and moray
Cleaner shrimp cleaning a zebra moray eel Mutualistic
relationships such as these promote the well-being of the
host fishes and provide food for those that do the cleaning 144
Rhizobium
Rhizobium in root nodules of certain plants convert
nitrogen in soil to usable form
145
Orchid Mycorrhizae
Fungi aid the plant in the uptake of nutrients
Fungi ingest some of the food from plant
photosynthesis 146
Lichen
Most of the lichen is composed of fungal filaments
but living among the filaments are algal cells
usually from a green alga or a cyanobacterium
The lichen fungus provides its partner(s) a benefit
(protection) and gains nutrients in return 147
Ruminants
Ruminants are characterized by their four-chambered
stomach and cud-chewing behavior Cud is a food bolus
that is regurgitated rechewed and reswallowed The
rumen is a large fermentation vat containing billions of
microorganisms including bacteria and protozoa which
allow ruminants to digest fibrous feeds such as grass and
hay that other animals cannot efficiently utilize 148
Crocodiles amp
Plover Birds
The bird gets into the crocodiles mouth and picks out
the tiny bits of food stuck in his teeth then eats it (the
tiny bits)
This cleans the crocodiles teeth and keeps his mouth
fresh and free from infections 149
Predation
bull Consumption of one living organism by
another
bull Predators must have offensive strategies
bull ways of finding catching and eating
their prey
bull Prey organisms must have defensive
strategies
bull ways of avoiding or discouraging this
activity
150
Predation
bull Encompasses all levels within an
ecological food chainweb
bull plant-herbivore systems
bull herbivore-carnivore systems
bull three-way interactions of
interdependent plant-herbivore-
carnivore systems
151
This goshawk is the tertiary consumer in his ecosystem
and the mouse in his beak is the secondary consumer
Beneath the mouse on the ecological pyramid lies his
foodsource likely a worm which fed on the primary
producer leafy plants 152
Ecosystem of Life in Floridas
Springs
bull Click here for a close-up look of life
in Floridas springs and the various
predator-prey interactions there
153
Desert ndash Indicator Animal Species
Bactrian Camel Camelus bactrianus
49
Temperate Deciduous Forest
bull temperature 0 - 20 C
bull precipitation ~ 50 ndash 200 cmyear
50
Temperate Deciduous Forest
51
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Plant Species
Oaks (Quercus sp)
Dutchmans-Breeches
Dicentra cucullaria 52
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Plant Species
Sassafras
Sassafras albidum
Redbud
Cercis canadensis
53
Temperate Deciduous Forest ndash Succession
bull orderly succession of communities to a climax
community (biome)
bull two main types of succession
bull primary succession begins with bare rock exposed
by geologic activity
bull secondary succession begins on soil from which
previous community has been removed (by fire
agriculture etc)
bull secondary succession can proceed much faster
because the soil has been prepared by the
previous community
54
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
American Toad
Bufo americanus
Box Turtle
55
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
Eastern Chipmunk
Tamias striatus
Eastern Gray Squirrel
Sciurus carolinensis
56
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
Yellow-breasted chat
Icteria virens 57
Tundra
bull annual average temperature lt 5 C
bull precipitation (mostly in the form of snow) lt 100 mmyear
bull summer is brief
bull temperatures above freezing last only a few weeks at
most
bull warm summer coincides with periods of almost 24
hour daylight so plant growth can be explosive
58
Tundra
Anaktuvuk Pass Alaska
59
Tundra ndash Indicator Plant Species
Arctic Tundra Wildflowers - Alaska
60
Tundra ndash Indicator Plant Species
Lichen
Polytrichum Moss
(photographed in Ohio not on the
Tundra)
61
Tundra ndash Indicator Animal Species
Reindeer
Rangifer tarandus
62
Tundra ndash Indicator Animal Species
Caribou On Autumn Tundra Denali National Park Alaska
63
Savanna
bull rolling grassland scattered with shrubs and isolated trees
bull found between a tropical rainforest and desert biome
bull not enough rain falls on a savanna to support forests
bull found in a wide band on either side of the equator on
the edges of tropical rainforests
bull warm temperature year round
bull very long dry season (winter) ~ 10 cm rain none at all
from Dec - Feb
bull very wet season (summer) ~ 35-65 cm rain
64
Savanna
65
Savanna ndash Indicator Plant Species
Baobab
Adansonia digitata Umbrella Thorn Acacia
Acacia tortillis
66
Savanna ndash Indicator Animal Species
Savanna Elephant
Loxodonta africana
Black Mamba
Dendroaspis polylepis
Lion
Panthera leo
67
Chaparral
bull winter mild and moist but not rainy
bull summer very hot and dry
bull annual temperature range between -1deg and 38deg C
bull annual precipitation ~ 25-45 cm mostly in the winter
68
Chaparral
69
Chaparral ndash Indicator Plant Species
Blue Oak
Quercus douglasii
Common Sagebrush
Artemisia tridentata
Olive Tree
Olea europaea
70
Chaparral ndash Indicator Animal Species
Black-tailed Jackrabbit
Lepus californicus Golden Jackal
Canis aureus
Spotted Skunk
Spilogale gracilis
71
The Freshwater Biome
bull low salt concentration mdash usually less than 1
bull plants and animals in freshwater regions are adjusted to
the low salt content and would not be able to survive in
areas of high salt concentration (ie ocean)
bull 3 different types of freshwater regions
bull ponds and lakes
bull streams and rivers
bull wetlands
72
The Freshwater Biome ndash Ponds and Lakes
From left a view across Manzanita Lake toward Mt Lassen California a
forest pond near Donnelly Idaho a Great Blue Heron Paranagat Lake
southeastern Nevada
73
The Freshwater Biome ndash Streams and
Rivers
From left McArthur-Burney Falls State Park California trout Green
River Utah Brooks River Alaska
74
The Freshwater Biome - Wetlands
From left Pescadero Marsh California coastal marsh at Umpqua
Dunes Oregon trees and bogs on Esther Island Alaska
75
The Marine Biome
bull cover about three-fourths of the Earths surface
bull marine algae supply much of the worlds oxygen supply
and take in a huge amount of atmospheric carbon
dioxide
bull evaporation of the seawater provides rainwater for the
land
bull 3 different types of marine regions
bull oceans
bull coral reefs
bull estuaries
76
The Marine Biome - Oceans
From left mussels worms and a spider crab at a hydrocarbon seep
community in the Gulf of Mexico a sea fan and brain coral in the Florida
Keys National Marine Sanctuary a school of Atlantic amberjack off North
Carolina
77
The Marine Biome ndash Coral Reefs
From left reef life in the Gulf of Aqaba Red Sea a reef at Fanning
Island atoll in the central Pacific a reef in the Florida Keys National
Marine Sanctuary
78
The Marine Biome - Estuaries
From left Mangrove roots south Florida wetlands and tidal streams
in the Ashe Island area ACE Basin National Estuarine Research
Reserve South Carolina a salt marsh in Winyah Bay National
Estuarine Research Reserve South Carolina
79
Ecological Notes
These are the biomes in order of their productivity (highest
first)
1 estuaries and tropical rain forest (highest)
2 temperate forest
3 agricultural land
4 temperate grassland
5 lakes and streams
6 coastal zone
7 tundra
8 open ocean
9 desert (lowest)
80
Ecological Notes
In order to be productive and have a lot of living material
standing around (biomass) an ecosystem has to have 4
basic necessities for plant life to thrive (if there are
enough plants the ecosystem will also support a lot of
animals) The four things are
1 Sunlight
2 Nutrients
3 Warm temperatures
4 Water
81
Biomes Video
82
Take-Home Message
bull Biomes are the major ecological communities of earth
characterized mostly by the vegetation present
bull Different biomes result from differences in temperature
and precipitation and the extent to which they vary from
season to season
83
Challenge Question
bull Terrestrial biomes are determined by the temperature
and precipitation amounts as well as whether those
factors are constant or vary by season
bull By contrast how are aquatic biomes determined
84
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy flows from producers to
consumers
85
86
87
First Stop Primary Producers
bull ecosystem producers or consumers
bull primary producers plants algae (some) bacteria
bull convert light energy from sun into chemical energy
through photosynthesis
bull chemical energy = food
bull consumers eat or absorb their food
bull energy stored in chemical bonds of carbohydrate
protein and lipid molecules is captured and
harnessed for consumersrsquo own movement
reproduction and growth
88
Food Chain
89
Food Web
90
Food Web
91
Food Chains amp Food Webs
bull A change in one link in a food chain will affect the other
links
bull The table on the next slide gives one example of a food
chain and the trophic levels represented in it
92
Food Chains amp Food Webs
93
GRASS
GRASSHOPPER
TOAD
SNAKE
HAWK
BACTERIA
IN GENERAL
AUTOTROPHS
(PRODUCERS)
HERBIVORES
(PRIMARY
CONSUMERS)
CARNIVORES
(2 3 ETC)
DECOMPOSERS
94
Chain Reaction Game
95
Energy Flows through a Food Web
bull Losses at every ldquosteprdquo in a food chain
bull Inefficiency of energy transfers
96
Energy flow through a food chain
Energy flow refers to the way that energy is transformed through
a food chain (pictured here) containing a series of levels
including plants consumers predators and decomposers 97
Amount of energy available at each of the
four levels of an ecosystem
Ecological pyramids illustrate the amount of energy
available at each of the four levels of an ecosystem 98
Ecological Pyramid
99
A grasshopper eats a plant A mouse eats the
grasshopper A snake eats the mouse A hawk
could eat the snake or the mouse In this food
web how would we categorize the hawk
1 Producer
2 Primary consumer
3 Secondary consumer
4 Tertiary consumer
5 Quaternary consumer
6 4 and 5
100
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps
bull First it is converted to chemical energy in
photosynthesis
bull Herbivores then consume the primary producers the
herbivores are consumed by carnivores and the
carnivores in turn may be consumed by top carnivores
101
Take-home message
bull Detritivores and decomposers extract energy from
organic waste and the remains of organisms that have
died
bull At each step in a food chain some usable energy is lost
as heat
102
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy pyramids reveal the inefficiency of
food chains
103
Biomass
bull biomass total weight of all living organisms in a given
area
bull only about 10 of the plants in an ecosystem is
converted into biomass
bull Food Energy Pyramid
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
bull African savannas and grasslands sustain more species
of higher-order carnivores than any other terrestrial
ecosystem
104
105
Food Energy Pyramids
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
106
107
108
You go out to eat at a fancy restaurant You
have a salad salmon and for dessert ice
cream Which part of the meal was the most
energy efficient food for you to eat
1 Salad
2 Salmon
3 Ice cream
4 2 and 3
109
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps known as trophic levels
bull Energy pyramids reveal that the biomass of primary
producers in an ecosystem tends to be far greater than
the biomass of herbivores
bull The biomass transferred at each step along the food chain tends to be only about 10 of the biomass of the organisms being consumed due to energy lost in cellular respiration
bull As a consequence of this inefficiency food chains rarely exceed four levels
110
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Essential chemicals cycle through
ecosystems
111
Chemical Reservoirs
bull Each chemical is stored in a non-living part of the environment
bull Organisms acquire the chemical from the reservoir a non-living part of the environment
bull The chemical cycles through the food chain (biogeochemical cycles)
bull Eventually the chemical is returned to the reservoir
112
Hydrologic Cycle and the Florida Springs
bull Click here for a description of how falling rain feeds underground aquifers in Florida and forms springs
113
The Most Important Chemical Cycles
1) Carbon
2) Nitrogen
3) Phosphorus
4) Sulfur
114
115
The
Carbon
Cycle
116
The Carbon Cycle
Keeping Up With Carbon
NASA video provides key information on the carbon cycle
117
118
Carbon Cycle Game
Fossil Fuels
bull created when large numbers of organisms die and are buried in sediment lacking oxygen
bull In absence of oxygen at high pressures and after very long periods of time organic remains are ultimately transformed into coal oil and natural gas
bull burning coal oil and natural gas releases large amounts of carbon dioxide
bull increases average CO2 concentration in the atmosphere
bull current level of CO2 in the atmosphere is the highest it has been in almost half a million years
119
Global CO2 levels are rising in
general but they also exhibit a
sharp rise and fall within each
year ndash why
120
121
The Nitrogen Cycle
122
The Nitrogen Cycle
Fertilizers
bull Because it is necessary for the production of every plant
protein and because all nitrogen must first be made
usable by bacteria plant growth is often limited by
nitrogen levels in the soil
bull For this reason most fertilizers contain nitrogen in a
form usable by plants
123
124
125
126
127
Oxygen reduction downstream of a source of
organic pollution
128
Algal growth and eutrophication in an Australian
outback waterway
129
Sulfur Cycle
bull component of protein
bull cycles in both a gas and sedimentary cycle
bull source earths crust
bull enters the atmosphere as hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
during fossil fuel combustion volcanic eruptions
gas exchange at ocean surfaces decomposition
130
Sulfur Cycle
bull H2S is immediately oxidized to sulfur dioxide (SO2)
bull SO2 + water vapor H2SO4 (falls to earth in rain)
bull sulfur in soluble form is taken up by plant roots
incorporated into amino acids such as cysteine
bull travels through food chain
bull eventually released through decomposition
131
How is carbon recycled back to the
atmosphere in the carbon cycle
1 It is ldquofixedrdquo by bacteria
2 It is a product of cellular respiration
3 Burning of fossil fuels
4 2 and 3
5 All of the above
132
Why do commercial fertilizers usually
contain usable forms of nitrogen and
phosphorous
1 These chemicals are not efficiently recycled in
the soil
2 Nitrogen and phosphorous need to be ldquofixedrdquo
by bacteria or the plant
3 Nitrogen and phosphorous are found at high
levels in the atmosphere but not in the soil
4 Nitrogen and phosphorous only enter the soil
through erosion
133
Take-home message
bull Chemicals essential to lifemdashincluding carbon nitrogen and phosphorusmdashcycle through ecosystems
bull They are usually captured from the atmosphere soil or water by growing organisms passed from one trophic level to the next as organisms eat other organisms and returned to the environment through respiration decomposition and erosion
bull These cycles can be disrupted as human activities significantly increase the amounts of the chemicals utilized or released to the environment
134
Symbiotic Relationships
bull Symbiosis close relationship between organisms of
two different species
bull At least one participant gains some sort of benefit
(usually nutritional)
bull Types of symbiosis
bull Parasitism
bull Commensalism
bull Mutualism
bull Predation
135
Symbiotic Relationships in the
Ocean
bull Click here for an explanation of the
relationships of marine animals
including sharks rays and various
fishes
136
Parasitism bull Parasite derives nutrition from the host
bull This harms the host but a true parasite does
not usually kill its host (directly)
137
Ectoparasites
Remain outside the host
Ticks fleas leeches
138
Endoparasites
Live inside the hostrsquos body
Tapeworms malarial parasites
139
Parasite Transmission
bull Many parasites live on or in a single organism
bull Some will alternate between 2 or more host species
bull Vertical transmission ndash from mother offspring
bull Horizontal transmission ndash between members of a
population
bull Direct contact (head lice)
bull Vectors (mosquitos)
140
141
Commensalism
bull Neither species is totally dependent on the other
bull One benefits ndash no effect on the other
bull Feeding or protection
bull Porcelain anemone crabs and anemones
142
Mutualism
bull Both species benefit
bull Food or shelter
bull Examples
bull Plants and microbes (rhizobium in root nodules)
bull Plants and fungi (orchids and mycorrhizae)
bull Protists and fungi (lichen)
bull Plants and insects (pollination)
bull Animals and bacteria (ruminants)
bull Animals and other animals (crocodiles and
plover birds)
143
Mutualism shrimp and moray
Cleaner shrimp cleaning a zebra moray eel Mutualistic
relationships such as these promote the well-being of the
host fishes and provide food for those that do the cleaning 144
Rhizobium
Rhizobium in root nodules of certain plants convert
nitrogen in soil to usable form
145
Orchid Mycorrhizae
Fungi aid the plant in the uptake of nutrients
Fungi ingest some of the food from plant
photosynthesis 146
Lichen
Most of the lichen is composed of fungal filaments
but living among the filaments are algal cells
usually from a green alga or a cyanobacterium
The lichen fungus provides its partner(s) a benefit
(protection) and gains nutrients in return 147
Ruminants
Ruminants are characterized by their four-chambered
stomach and cud-chewing behavior Cud is a food bolus
that is regurgitated rechewed and reswallowed The
rumen is a large fermentation vat containing billions of
microorganisms including bacteria and protozoa which
allow ruminants to digest fibrous feeds such as grass and
hay that other animals cannot efficiently utilize 148
Crocodiles amp
Plover Birds
The bird gets into the crocodiles mouth and picks out
the tiny bits of food stuck in his teeth then eats it (the
tiny bits)
This cleans the crocodiles teeth and keeps his mouth
fresh and free from infections 149
Predation
bull Consumption of one living organism by
another
bull Predators must have offensive strategies
bull ways of finding catching and eating
their prey
bull Prey organisms must have defensive
strategies
bull ways of avoiding or discouraging this
activity
150
Predation
bull Encompasses all levels within an
ecological food chainweb
bull plant-herbivore systems
bull herbivore-carnivore systems
bull three-way interactions of
interdependent plant-herbivore-
carnivore systems
151
This goshawk is the tertiary consumer in his ecosystem
and the mouse in his beak is the secondary consumer
Beneath the mouse on the ecological pyramid lies his
foodsource likely a worm which fed on the primary
producer leafy plants 152
Ecosystem of Life in Floridas
Springs
bull Click here for a close-up look of life
in Floridas springs and the various
predator-prey interactions there
153
Temperate Deciduous Forest
bull temperature 0 - 20 C
bull precipitation ~ 50 ndash 200 cmyear
50
Temperate Deciduous Forest
51
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Plant Species
Oaks (Quercus sp)
Dutchmans-Breeches
Dicentra cucullaria 52
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Plant Species
Sassafras
Sassafras albidum
Redbud
Cercis canadensis
53
Temperate Deciduous Forest ndash Succession
bull orderly succession of communities to a climax
community (biome)
bull two main types of succession
bull primary succession begins with bare rock exposed
by geologic activity
bull secondary succession begins on soil from which
previous community has been removed (by fire
agriculture etc)
bull secondary succession can proceed much faster
because the soil has been prepared by the
previous community
54
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
American Toad
Bufo americanus
Box Turtle
55
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
Eastern Chipmunk
Tamias striatus
Eastern Gray Squirrel
Sciurus carolinensis
56
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
Yellow-breasted chat
Icteria virens 57
Tundra
bull annual average temperature lt 5 C
bull precipitation (mostly in the form of snow) lt 100 mmyear
bull summer is brief
bull temperatures above freezing last only a few weeks at
most
bull warm summer coincides with periods of almost 24
hour daylight so plant growth can be explosive
58
Tundra
Anaktuvuk Pass Alaska
59
Tundra ndash Indicator Plant Species
Arctic Tundra Wildflowers - Alaska
60
Tundra ndash Indicator Plant Species
Lichen
Polytrichum Moss
(photographed in Ohio not on the
Tundra)
61
Tundra ndash Indicator Animal Species
Reindeer
Rangifer tarandus
62
Tundra ndash Indicator Animal Species
Caribou On Autumn Tundra Denali National Park Alaska
63
Savanna
bull rolling grassland scattered with shrubs and isolated trees
bull found between a tropical rainforest and desert biome
bull not enough rain falls on a savanna to support forests
bull found in a wide band on either side of the equator on
the edges of tropical rainforests
bull warm temperature year round
bull very long dry season (winter) ~ 10 cm rain none at all
from Dec - Feb
bull very wet season (summer) ~ 35-65 cm rain
64
Savanna
65
Savanna ndash Indicator Plant Species
Baobab
Adansonia digitata Umbrella Thorn Acacia
Acacia tortillis
66
Savanna ndash Indicator Animal Species
Savanna Elephant
Loxodonta africana
Black Mamba
Dendroaspis polylepis
Lion
Panthera leo
67
Chaparral
bull winter mild and moist but not rainy
bull summer very hot and dry
bull annual temperature range between -1deg and 38deg C
bull annual precipitation ~ 25-45 cm mostly in the winter
68
Chaparral
69
Chaparral ndash Indicator Plant Species
Blue Oak
Quercus douglasii
Common Sagebrush
Artemisia tridentata
Olive Tree
Olea europaea
70
Chaparral ndash Indicator Animal Species
Black-tailed Jackrabbit
Lepus californicus Golden Jackal
Canis aureus
Spotted Skunk
Spilogale gracilis
71
The Freshwater Biome
bull low salt concentration mdash usually less than 1
bull plants and animals in freshwater regions are adjusted to
the low salt content and would not be able to survive in
areas of high salt concentration (ie ocean)
bull 3 different types of freshwater regions
bull ponds and lakes
bull streams and rivers
bull wetlands
72
The Freshwater Biome ndash Ponds and Lakes
From left a view across Manzanita Lake toward Mt Lassen California a
forest pond near Donnelly Idaho a Great Blue Heron Paranagat Lake
southeastern Nevada
73
The Freshwater Biome ndash Streams and
Rivers
From left McArthur-Burney Falls State Park California trout Green
River Utah Brooks River Alaska
74
The Freshwater Biome - Wetlands
From left Pescadero Marsh California coastal marsh at Umpqua
Dunes Oregon trees and bogs on Esther Island Alaska
75
The Marine Biome
bull cover about three-fourths of the Earths surface
bull marine algae supply much of the worlds oxygen supply
and take in a huge amount of atmospheric carbon
dioxide
bull evaporation of the seawater provides rainwater for the
land
bull 3 different types of marine regions
bull oceans
bull coral reefs
bull estuaries
76
The Marine Biome - Oceans
From left mussels worms and a spider crab at a hydrocarbon seep
community in the Gulf of Mexico a sea fan and brain coral in the Florida
Keys National Marine Sanctuary a school of Atlantic amberjack off North
Carolina
77
The Marine Biome ndash Coral Reefs
From left reef life in the Gulf of Aqaba Red Sea a reef at Fanning
Island atoll in the central Pacific a reef in the Florida Keys National
Marine Sanctuary
78
The Marine Biome - Estuaries
From left Mangrove roots south Florida wetlands and tidal streams
in the Ashe Island area ACE Basin National Estuarine Research
Reserve South Carolina a salt marsh in Winyah Bay National
Estuarine Research Reserve South Carolina
79
Ecological Notes
These are the biomes in order of their productivity (highest
first)
1 estuaries and tropical rain forest (highest)
2 temperate forest
3 agricultural land
4 temperate grassland
5 lakes and streams
6 coastal zone
7 tundra
8 open ocean
9 desert (lowest)
80
Ecological Notes
In order to be productive and have a lot of living material
standing around (biomass) an ecosystem has to have 4
basic necessities for plant life to thrive (if there are
enough plants the ecosystem will also support a lot of
animals) The four things are
1 Sunlight
2 Nutrients
3 Warm temperatures
4 Water
81
Biomes Video
82
Take-Home Message
bull Biomes are the major ecological communities of earth
characterized mostly by the vegetation present
bull Different biomes result from differences in temperature
and precipitation and the extent to which they vary from
season to season
83
Challenge Question
bull Terrestrial biomes are determined by the temperature
and precipitation amounts as well as whether those
factors are constant or vary by season
bull By contrast how are aquatic biomes determined
84
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy flows from producers to
consumers
85
86
87
First Stop Primary Producers
bull ecosystem producers or consumers
bull primary producers plants algae (some) bacteria
bull convert light energy from sun into chemical energy
through photosynthesis
bull chemical energy = food
bull consumers eat or absorb their food
bull energy stored in chemical bonds of carbohydrate
protein and lipid molecules is captured and
harnessed for consumersrsquo own movement
reproduction and growth
88
Food Chain
89
Food Web
90
Food Web
91
Food Chains amp Food Webs
bull A change in one link in a food chain will affect the other
links
bull The table on the next slide gives one example of a food
chain and the trophic levels represented in it
92
Food Chains amp Food Webs
93
GRASS
GRASSHOPPER
TOAD
SNAKE
HAWK
BACTERIA
IN GENERAL
AUTOTROPHS
(PRODUCERS)
HERBIVORES
(PRIMARY
CONSUMERS)
CARNIVORES
(2 3 ETC)
DECOMPOSERS
94
Chain Reaction Game
95
Energy Flows through a Food Web
bull Losses at every ldquosteprdquo in a food chain
bull Inefficiency of energy transfers
96
Energy flow through a food chain
Energy flow refers to the way that energy is transformed through
a food chain (pictured here) containing a series of levels
including plants consumers predators and decomposers 97
Amount of energy available at each of the
four levels of an ecosystem
Ecological pyramids illustrate the amount of energy
available at each of the four levels of an ecosystem 98
Ecological Pyramid
99
A grasshopper eats a plant A mouse eats the
grasshopper A snake eats the mouse A hawk
could eat the snake or the mouse In this food
web how would we categorize the hawk
1 Producer
2 Primary consumer
3 Secondary consumer
4 Tertiary consumer
5 Quaternary consumer
6 4 and 5
100
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps
bull First it is converted to chemical energy in
photosynthesis
bull Herbivores then consume the primary producers the
herbivores are consumed by carnivores and the
carnivores in turn may be consumed by top carnivores
101
Take-home message
bull Detritivores and decomposers extract energy from
organic waste and the remains of organisms that have
died
bull At each step in a food chain some usable energy is lost
as heat
102
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy pyramids reveal the inefficiency of
food chains
103
Biomass
bull biomass total weight of all living organisms in a given
area
bull only about 10 of the plants in an ecosystem is
converted into biomass
bull Food Energy Pyramid
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
bull African savannas and grasslands sustain more species
of higher-order carnivores than any other terrestrial
ecosystem
104
105
Food Energy Pyramids
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
106
107
108
You go out to eat at a fancy restaurant You
have a salad salmon and for dessert ice
cream Which part of the meal was the most
energy efficient food for you to eat
1 Salad
2 Salmon
3 Ice cream
4 2 and 3
109
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps known as trophic levels
bull Energy pyramids reveal that the biomass of primary
producers in an ecosystem tends to be far greater than
the biomass of herbivores
bull The biomass transferred at each step along the food chain tends to be only about 10 of the biomass of the organisms being consumed due to energy lost in cellular respiration
bull As a consequence of this inefficiency food chains rarely exceed four levels
110
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Essential chemicals cycle through
ecosystems
111
Chemical Reservoirs
bull Each chemical is stored in a non-living part of the environment
bull Organisms acquire the chemical from the reservoir a non-living part of the environment
bull The chemical cycles through the food chain (biogeochemical cycles)
bull Eventually the chemical is returned to the reservoir
112
Hydrologic Cycle and the Florida Springs
bull Click here for a description of how falling rain feeds underground aquifers in Florida and forms springs
113
The Most Important Chemical Cycles
1) Carbon
2) Nitrogen
3) Phosphorus
4) Sulfur
114
115
The
Carbon
Cycle
116
The Carbon Cycle
Keeping Up With Carbon
NASA video provides key information on the carbon cycle
117
118
Carbon Cycle Game
Fossil Fuels
bull created when large numbers of organisms die and are buried in sediment lacking oxygen
bull In absence of oxygen at high pressures and after very long periods of time organic remains are ultimately transformed into coal oil and natural gas
bull burning coal oil and natural gas releases large amounts of carbon dioxide
bull increases average CO2 concentration in the atmosphere
bull current level of CO2 in the atmosphere is the highest it has been in almost half a million years
119
Global CO2 levels are rising in
general but they also exhibit a
sharp rise and fall within each
year ndash why
120
121
The Nitrogen Cycle
122
The Nitrogen Cycle
Fertilizers
bull Because it is necessary for the production of every plant
protein and because all nitrogen must first be made
usable by bacteria plant growth is often limited by
nitrogen levels in the soil
bull For this reason most fertilizers contain nitrogen in a
form usable by plants
123
124
125
126
127
Oxygen reduction downstream of a source of
organic pollution
128
Algal growth and eutrophication in an Australian
outback waterway
129
Sulfur Cycle
bull component of protein
bull cycles in both a gas and sedimentary cycle
bull source earths crust
bull enters the atmosphere as hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
during fossil fuel combustion volcanic eruptions
gas exchange at ocean surfaces decomposition
130
Sulfur Cycle
bull H2S is immediately oxidized to sulfur dioxide (SO2)
bull SO2 + water vapor H2SO4 (falls to earth in rain)
bull sulfur in soluble form is taken up by plant roots
incorporated into amino acids such as cysteine
bull travels through food chain
bull eventually released through decomposition
131
How is carbon recycled back to the
atmosphere in the carbon cycle
1 It is ldquofixedrdquo by bacteria
2 It is a product of cellular respiration
3 Burning of fossil fuels
4 2 and 3
5 All of the above
132
Why do commercial fertilizers usually
contain usable forms of nitrogen and
phosphorous
1 These chemicals are not efficiently recycled in
the soil
2 Nitrogen and phosphorous need to be ldquofixedrdquo
by bacteria or the plant
3 Nitrogen and phosphorous are found at high
levels in the atmosphere but not in the soil
4 Nitrogen and phosphorous only enter the soil
through erosion
133
Take-home message
bull Chemicals essential to lifemdashincluding carbon nitrogen and phosphorusmdashcycle through ecosystems
bull They are usually captured from the atmosphere soil or water by growing organisms passed from one trophic level to the next as organisms eat other organisms and returned to the environment through respiration decomposition and erosion
bull These cycles can be disrupted as human activities significantly increase the amounts of the chemicals utilized or released to the environment
134
Symbiotic Relationships
bull Symbiosis close relationship between organisms of
two different species
bull At least one participant gains some sort of benefit
(usually nutritional)
bull Types of symbiosis
bull Parasitism
bull Commensalism
bull Mutualism
bull Predation
135
Symbiotic Relationships in the
Ocean
bull Click here for an explanation of the
relationships of marine animals
including sharks rays and various
fishes
136
Parasitism bull Parasite derives nutrition from the host
bull This harms the host but a true parasite does
not usually kill its host (directly)
137
Ectoparasites
Remain outside the host
Ticks fleas leeches
138
Endoparasites
Live inside the hostrsquos body
Tapeworms malarial parasites
139
Parasite Transmission
bull Many parasites live on or in a single organism
bull Some will alternate between 2 or more host species
bull Vertical transmission ndash from mother offspring
bull Horizontal transmission ndash between members of a
population
bull Direct contact (head lice)
bull Vectors (mosquitos)
140
141
Commensalism
bull Neither species is totally dependent on the other
bull One benefits ndash no effect on the other
bull Feeding or protection
bull Porcelain anemone crabs and anemones
142
Mutualism
bull Both species benefit
bull Food or shelter
bull Examples
bull Plants and microbes (rhizobium in root nodules)
bull Plants and fungi (orchids and mycorrhizae)
bull Protists and fungi (lichen)
bull Plants and insects (pollination)
bull Animals and bacteria (ruminants)
bull Animals and other animals (crocodiles and
plover birds)
143
Mutualism shrimp and moray
Cleaner shrimp cleaning a zebra moray eel Mutualistic
relationships such as these promote the well-being of the
host fishes and provide food for those that do the cleaning 144
Rhizobium
Rhizobium in root nodules of certain plants convert
nitrogen in soil to usable form
145
Orchid Mycorrhizae
Fungi aid the plant in the uptake of nutrients
Fungi ingest some of the food from plant
photosynthesis 146
Lichen
Most of the lichen is composed of fungal filaments
but living among the filaments are algal cells
usually from a green alga or a cyanobacterium
The lichen fungus provides its partner(s) a benefit
(protection) and gains nutrients in return 147
Ruminants
Ruminants are characterized by their four-chambered
stomach and cud-chewing behavior Cud is a food bolus
that is regurgitated rechewed and reswallowed The
rumen is a large fermentation vat containing billions of
microorganisms including bacteria and protozoa which
allow ruminants to digest fibrous feeds such as grass and
hay that other animals cannot efficiently utilize 148
Crocodiles amp
Plover Birds
The bird gets into the crocodiles mouth and picks out
the tiny bits of food stuck in his teeth then eats it (the
tiny bits)
This cleans the crocodiles teeth and keeps his mouth
fresh and free from infections 149
Predation
bull Consumption of one living organism by
another
bull Predators must have offensive strategies
bull ways of finding catching and eating
their prey
bull Prey organisms must have defensive
strategies
bull ways of avoiding or discouraging this
activity
150
Predation
bull Encompasses all levels within an
ecological food chainweb
bull plant-herbivore systems
bull herbivore-carnivore systems
bull three-way interactions of
interdependent plant-herbivore-
carnivore systems
151
This goshawk is the tertiary consumer in his ecosystem
and the mouse in his beak is the secondary consumer
Beneath the mouse on the ecological pyramid lies his
foodsource likely a worm which fed on the primary
producer leafy plants 152
Ecosystem of Life in Floridas
Springs
bull Click here for a close-up look of life
in Floridas springs and the various
predator-prey interactions there
153
Temperate Deciduous Forest
51
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Plant Species
Oaks (Quercus sp)
Dutchmans-Breeches
Dicentra cucullaria 52
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Plant Species
Sassafras
Sassafras albidum
Redbud
Cercis canadensis
53
Temperate Deciduous Forest ndash Succession
bull orderly succession of communities to a climax
community (biome)
bull two main types of succession
bull primary succession begins with bare rock exposed
by geologic activity
bull secondary succession begins on soil from which
previous community has been removed (by fire
agriculture etc)
bull secondary succession can proceed much faster
because the soil has been prepared by the
previous community
54
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
American Toad
Bufo americanus
Box Turtle
55
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
Eastern Chipmunk
Tamias striatus
Eastern Gray Squirrel
Sciurus carolinensis
56
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
Yellow-breasted chat
Icteria virens 57
Tundra
bull annual average temperature lt 5 C
bull precipitation (mostly in the form of snow) lt 100 mmyear
bull summer is brief
bull temperatures above freezing last only a few weeks at
most
bull warm summer coincides with periods of almost 24
hour daylight so plant growth can be explosive
58
Tundra
Anaktuvuk Pass Alaska
59
Tundra ndash Indicator Plant Species
Arctic Tundra Wildflowers - Alaska
60
Tundra ndash Indicator Plant Species
Lichen
Polytrichum Moss
(photographed in Ohio not on the
Tundra)
61
Tundra ndash Indicator Animal Species
Reindeer
Rangifer tarandus
62
Tundra ndash Indicator Animal Species
Caribou On Autumn Tundra Denali National Park Alaska
63
Savanna
bull rolling grassland scattered with shrubs and isolated trees
bull found between a tropical rainforest and desert biome
bull not enough rain falls on a savanna to support forests
bull found in a wide band on either side of the equator on
the edges of tropical rainforests
bull warm temperature year round
bull very long dry season (winter) ~ 10 cm rain none at all
from Dec - Feb
bull very wet season (summer) ~ 35-65 cm rain
64
Savanna
65
Savanna ndash Indicator Plant Species
Baobab
Adansonia digitata Umbrella Thorn Acacia
Acacia tortillis
66
Savanna ndash Indicator Animal Species
Savanna Elephant
Loxodonta africana
Black Mamba
Dendroaspis polylepis
Lion
Panthera leo
67
Chaparral
bull winter mild and moist but not rainy
bull summer very hot and dry
bull annual temperature range between -1deg and 38deg C
bull annual precipitation ~ 25-45 cm mostly in the winter
68
Chaparral
69
Chaparral ndash Indicator Plant Species
Blue Oak
Quercus douglasii
Common Sagebrush
Artemisia tridentata
Olive Tree
Olea europaea
70
Chaparral ndash Indicator Animal Species
Black-tailed Jackrabbit
Lepus californicus Golden Jackal
Canis aureus
Spotted Skunk
Spilogale gracilis
71
The Freshwater Biome
bull low salt concentration mdash usually less than 1
bull plants and animals in freshwater regions are adjusted to
the low salt content and would not be able to survive in
areas of high salt concentration (ie ocean)
bull 3 different types of freshwater regions
bull ponds and lakes
bull streams and rivers
bull wetlands
72
The Freshwater Biome ndash Ponds and Lakes
From left a view across Manzanita Lake toward Mt Lassen California a
forest pond near Donnelly Idaho a Great Blue Heron Paranagat Lake
southeastern Nevada
73
The Freshwater Biome ndash Streams and
Rivers
From left McArthur-Burney Falls State Park California trout Green
River Utah Brooks River Alaska
74
The Freshwater Biome - Wetlands
From left Pescadero Marsh California coastal marsh at Umpqua
Dunes Oregon trees and bogs on Esther Island Alaska
75
The Marine Biome
bull cover about three-fourths of the Earths surface
bull marine algae supply much of the worlds oxygen supply
and take in a huge amount of atmospheric carbon
dioxide
bull evaporation of the seawater provides rainwater for the
land
bull 3 different types of marine regions
bull oceans
bull coral reefs
bull estuaries
76
The Marine Biome - Oceans
From left mussels worms and a spider crab at a hydrocarbon seep
community in the Gulf of Mexico a sea fan and brain coral in the Florida
Keys National Marine Sanctuary a school of Atlantic amberjack off North
Carolina
77
The Marine Biome ndash Coral Reefs
From left reef life in the Gulf of Aqaba Red Sea a reef at Fanning
Island atoll in the central Pacific a reef in the Florida Keys National
Marine Sanctuary
78
The Marine Biome - Estuaries
From left Mangrove roots south Florida wetlands and tidal streams
in the Ashe Island area ACE Basin National Estuarine Research
Reserve South Carolina a salt marsh in Winyah Bay National
Estuarine Research Reserve South Carolina
79
Ecological Notes
These are the biomes in order of their productivity (highest
first)
1 estuaries and tropical rain forest (highest)
2 temperate forest
3 agricultural land
4 temperate grassland
5 lakes and streams
6 coastal zone
7 tundra
8 open ocean
9 desert (lowest)
80
Ecological Notes
In order to be productive and have a lot of living material
standing around (biomass) an ecosystem has to have 4
basic necessities for plant life to thrive (if there are
enough plants the ecosystem will also support a lot of
animals) The four things are
1 Sunlight
2 Nutrients
3 Warm temperatures
4 Water
81
Biomes Video
82
Take-Home Message
bull Biomes are the major ecological communities of earth
characterized mostly by the vegetation present
bull Different biomes result from differences in temperature
and precipitation and the extent to which they vary from
season to season
83
Challenge Question
bull Terrestrial biomes are determined by the temperature
and precipitation amounts as well as whether those
factors are constant or vary by season
bull By contrast how are aquatic biomes determined
84
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy flows from producers to
consumers
85
86
87
First Stop Primary Producers
bull ecosystem producers or consumers
bull primary producers plants algae (some) bacteria
bull convert light energy from sun into chemical energy
through photosynthesis
bull chemical energy = food
bull consumers eat or absorb their food
bull energy stored in chemical bonds of carbohydrate
protein and lipid molecules is captured and
harnessed for consumersrsquo own movement
reproduction and growth
88
Food Chain
89
Food Web
90
Food Web
91
Food Chains amp Food Webs
bull A change in one link in a food chain will affect the other
links
bull The table on the next slide gives one example of a food
chain and the trophic levels represented in it
92
Food Chains amp Food Webs
93
GRASS
GRASSHOPPER
TOAD
SNAKE
HAWK
BACTERIA
IN GENERAL
AUTOTROPHS
(PRODUCERS)
HERBIVORES
(PRIMARY
CONSUMERS)
CARNIVORES
(2 3 ETC)
DECOMPOSERS
94
Chain Reaction Game
95
Energy Flows through a Food Web
bull Losses at every ldquosteprdquo in a food chain
bull Inefficiency of energy transfers
96
Energy flow through a food chain
Energy flow refers to the way that energy is transformed through
a food chain (pictured here) containing a series of levels
including plants consumers predators and decomposers 97
Amount of energy available at each of the
four levels of an ecosystem
Ecological pyramids illustrate the amount of energy
available at each of the four levels of an ecosystem 98
Ecological Pyramid
99
A grasshopper eats a plant A mouse eats the
grasshopper A snake eats the mouse A hawk
could eat the snake or the mouse In this food
web how would we categorize the hawk
1 Producer
2 Primary consumer
3 Secondary consumer
4 Tertiary consumer
5 Quaternary consumer
6 4 and 5
100
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps
bull First it is converted to chemical energy in
photosynthesis
bull Herbivores then consume the primary producers the
herbivores are consumed by carnivores and the
carnivores in turn may be consumed by top carnivores
101
Take-home message
bull Detritivores and decomposers extract energy from
organic waste and the remains of organisms that have
died
bull At each step in a food chain some usable energy is lost
as heat
102
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy pyramids reveal the inefficiency of
food chains
103
Biomass
bull biomass total weight of all living organisms in a given
area
bull only about 10 of the plants in an ecosystem is
converted into biomass
bull Food Energy Pyramid
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
bull African savannas and grasslands sustain more species
of higher-order carnivores than any other terrestrial
ecosystem
104
105
Food Energy Pyramids
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
106
107
108
You go out to eat at a fancy restaurant You
have a salad salmon and for dessert ice
cream Which part of the meal was the most
energy efficient food for you to eat
1 Salad
2 Salmon
3 Ice cream
4 2 and 3
109
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps known as trophic levels
bull Energy pyramids reveal that the biomass of primary
producers in an ecosystem tends to be far greater than
the biomass of herbivores
bull The biomass transferred at each step along the food chain tends to be only about 10 of the biomass of the organisms being consumed due to energy lost in cellular respiration
bull As a consequence of this inefficiency food chains rarely exceed four levels
110
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Essential chemicals cycle through
ecosystems
111
Chemical Reservoirs
bull Each chemical is stored in a non-living part of the environment
bull Organisms acquire the chemical from the reservoir a non-living part of the environment
bull The chemical cycles through the food chain (biogeochemical cycles)
bull Eventually the chemical is returned to the reservoir
112
Hydrologic Cycle and the Florida Springs
bull Click here for a description of how falling rain feeds underground aquifers in Florida and forms springs
113
The Most Important Chemical Cycles
1) Carbon
2) Nitrogen
3) Phosphorus
4) Sulfur
114
115
The
Carbon
Cycle
116
The Carbon Cycle
Keeping Up With Carbon
NASA video provides key information on the carbon cycle
117
118
Carbon Cycle Game
Fossil Fuels
bull created when large numbers of organisms die and are buried in sediment lacking oxygen
bull In absence of oxygen at high pressures and after very long periods of time organic remains are ultimately transformed into coal oil and natural gas
bull burning coal oil and natural gas releases large amounts of carbon dioxide
bull increases average CO2 concentration in the atmosphere
bull current level of CO2 in the atmosphere is the highest it has been in almost half a million years
119
Global CO2 levels are rising in
general but they also exhibit a
sharp rise and fall within each
year ndash why
120
121
The Nitrogen Cycle
122
The Nitrogen Cycle
Fertilizers
bull Because it is necessary for the production of every plant
protein and because all nitrogen must first be made
usable by bacteria plant growth is often limited by
nitrogen levels in the soil
bull For this reason most fertilizers contain nitrogen in a
form usable by plants
123
124
125
126
127
Oxygen reduction downstream of a source of
organic pollution
128
Algal growth and eutrophication in an Australian
outback waterway
129
Sulfur Cycle
bull component of protein
bull cycles in both a gas and sedimentary cycle
bull source earths crust
bull enters the atmosphere as hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
during fossil fuel combustion volcanic eruptions
gas exchange at ocean surfaces decomposition
130
Sulfur Cycle
bull H2S is immediately oxidized to sulfur dioxide (SO2)
bull SO2 + water vapor H2SO4 (falls to earth in rain)
bull sulfur in soluble form is taken up by plant roots
incorporated into amino acids such as cysteine
bull travels through food chain
bull eventually released through decomposition
131
How is carbon recycled back to the
atmosphere in the carbon cycle
1 It is ldquofixedrdquo by bacteria
2 It is a product of cellular respiration
3 Burning of fossil fuels
4 2 and 3
5 All of the above
132
Why do commercial fertilizers usually
contain usable forms of nitrogen and
phosphorous
1 These chemicals are not efficiently recycled in
the soil
2 Nitrogen and phosphorous need to be ldquofixedrdquo
by bacteria or the plant
3 Nitrogen and phosphorous are found at high
levels in the atmosphere but not in the soil
4 Nitrogen and phosphorous only enter the soil
through erosion
133
Take-home message
bull Chemicals essential to lifemdashincluding carbon nitrogen and phosphorusmdashcycle through ecosystems
bull They are usually captured from the atmosphere soil or water by growing organisms passed from one trophic level to the next as organisms eat other organisms and returned to the environment through respiration decomposition and erosion
bull These cycles can be disrupted as human activities significantly increase the amounts of the chemicals utilized or released to the environment
134
Symbiotic Relationships
bull Symbiosis close relationship between organisms of
two different species
bull At least one participant gains some sort of benefit
(usually nutritional)
bull Types of symbiosis
bull Parasitism
bull Commensalism
bull Mutualism
bull Predation
135
Symbiotic Relationships in the
Ocean
bull Click here for an explanation of the
relationships of marine animals
including sharks rays and various
fishes
136
Parasitism bull Parasite derives nutrition from the host
bull This harms the host but a true parasite does
not usually kill its host (directly)
137
Ectoparasites
Remain outside the host
Ticks fleas leeches
138
Endoparasites
Live inside the hostrsquos body
Tapeworms malarial parasites
139
Parasite Transmission
bull Many parasites live on or in a single organism
bull Some will alternate between 2 or more host species
bull Vertical transmission ndash from mother offspring
bull Horizontal transmission ndash between members of a
population
bull Direct contact (head lice)
bull Vectors (mosquitos)
140
141
Commensalism
bull Neither species is totally dependent on the other
bull One benefits ndash no effect on the other
bull Feeding or protection
bull Porcelain anemone crabs and anemones
142
Mutualism
bull Both species benefit
bull Food or shelter
bull Examples
bull Plants and microbes (rhizobium in root nodules)
bull Plants and fungi (orchids and mycorrhizae)
bull Protists and fungi (lichen)
bull Plants and insects (pollination)
bull Animals and bacteria (ruminants)
bull Animals and other animals (crocodiles and
plover birds)
143
Mutualism shrimp and moray
Cleaner shrimp cleaning a zebra moray eel Mutualistic
relationships such as these promote the well-being of the
host fishes and provide food for those that do the cleaning 144
Rhizobium
Rhizobium in root nodules of certain plants convert
nitrogen in soil to usable form
145
Orchid Mycorrhizae
Fungi aid the plant in the uptake of nutrients
Fungi ingest some of the food from plant
photosynthesis 146
Lichen
Most of the lichen is composed of fungal filaments
but living among the filaments are algal cells
usually from a green alga or a cyanobacterium
The lichen fungus provides its partner(s) a benefit
(protection) and gains nutrients in return 147
Ruminants
Ruminants are characterized by their four-chambered
stomach and cud-chewing behavior Cud is a food bolus
that is regurgitated rechewed and reswallowed The
rumen is a large fermentation vat containing billions of
microorganisms including bacteria and protozoa which
allow ruminants to digest fibrous feeds such as grass and
hay that other animals cannot efficiently utilize 148
Crocodiles amp
Plover Birds
The bird gets into the crocodiles mouth and picks out
the tiny bits of food stuck in his teeth then eats it (the
tiny bits)
This cleans the crocodiles teeth and keeps his mouth
fresh and free from infections 149
Predation
bull Consumption of one living organism by
another
bull Predators must have offensive strategies
bull ways of finding catching and eating
their prey
bull Prey organisms must have defensive
strategies
bull ways of avoiding or discouraging this
activity
150
Predation
bull Encompasses all levels within an
ecological food chainweb
bull plant-herbivore systems
bull herbivore-carnivore systems
bull three-way interactions of
interdependent plant-herbivore-
carnivore systems
151
This goshawk is the tertiary consumer in his ecosystem
and the mouse in his beak is the secondary consumer
Beneath the mouse on the ecological pyramid lies his
foodsource likely a worm which fed on the primary
producer leafy plants 152
Ecosystem of Life in Floridas
Springs
bull Click here for a close-up look of life
in Floridas springs and the various
predator-prey interactions there
153
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Plant Species
Oaks (Quercus sp)
Dutchmans-Breeches
Dicentra cucullaria 52
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Plant Species
Sassafras
Sassafras albidum
Redbud
Cercis canadensis
53
Temperate Deciduous Forest ndash Succession
bull orderly succession of communities to a climax
community (biome)
bull two main types of succession
bull primary succession begins with bare rock exposed
by geologic activity
bull secondary succession begins on soil from which
previous community has been removed (by fire
agriculture etc)
bull secondary succession can proceed much faster
because the soil has been prepared by the
previous community
54
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
American Toad
Bufo americanus
Box Turtle
55
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
Eastern Chipmunk
Tamias striatus
Eastern Gray Squirrel
Sciurus carolinensis
56
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
Yellow-breasted chat
Icteria virens 57
Tundra
bull annual average temperature lt 5 C
bull precipitation (mostly in the form of snow) lt 100 mmyear
bull summer is brief
bull temperatures above freezing last only a few weeks at
most
bull warm summer coincides with periods of almost 24
hour daylight so plant growth can be explosive
58
Tundra
Anaktuvuk Pass Alaska
59
Tundra ndash Indicator Plant Species
Arctic Tundra Wildflowers - Alaska
60
Tundra ndash Indicator Plant Species
Lichen
Polytrichum Moss
(photographed in Ohio not on the
Tundra)
61
Tundra ndash Indicator Animal Species
Reindeer
Rangifer tarandus
62
Tundra ndash Indicator Animal Species
Caribou On Autumn Tundra Denali National Park Alaska
63
Savanna
bull rolling grassland scattered with shrubs and isolated trees
bull found between a tropical rainforest and desert biome
bull not enough rain falls on a savanna to support forests
bull found in a wide band on either side of the equator on
the edges of tropical rainforests
bull warm temperature year round
bull very long dry season (winter) ~ 10 cm rain none at all
from Dec - Feb
bull very wet season (summer) ~ 35-65 cm rain
64
Savanna
65
Savanna ndash Indicator Plant Species
Baobab
Adansonia digitata Umbrella Thorn Acacia
Acacia tortillis
66
Savanna ndash Indicator Animal Species
Savanna Elephant
Loxodonta africana
Black Mamba
Dendroaspis polylepis
Lion
Panthera leo
67
Chaparral
bull winter mild and moist but not rainy
bull summer very hot and dry
bull annual temperature range between -1deg and 38deg C
bull annual precipitation ~ 25-45 cm mostly in the winter
68
Chaparral
69
Chaparral ndash Indicator Plant Species
Blue Oak
Quercus douglasii
Common Sagebrush
Artemisia tridentata
Olive Tree
Olea europaea
70
Chaparral ndash Indicator Animal Species
Black-tailed Jackrabbit
Lepus californicus Golden Jackal
Canis aureus
Spotted Skunk
Spilogale gracilis
71
The Freshwater Biome
bull low salt concentration mdash usually less than 1
bull plants and animals in freshwater regions are adjusted to
the low salt content and would not be able to survive in
areas of high salt concentration (ie ocean)
bull 3 different types of freshwater regions
bull ponds and lakes
bull streams and rivers
bull wetlands
72
The Freshwater Biome ndash Ponds and Lakes
From left a view across Manzanita Lake toward Mt Lassen California a
forest pond near Donnelly Idaho a Great Blue Heron Paranagat Lake
southeastern Nevada
73
The Freshwater Biome ndash Streams and
Rivers
From left McArthur-Burney Falls State Park California trout Green
River Utah Brooks River Alaska
74
The Freshwater Biome - Wetlands
From left Pescadero Marsh California coastal marsh at Umpqua
Dunes Oregon trees and bogs on Esther Island Alaska
75
The Marine Biome
bull cover about three-fourths of the Earths surface
bull marine algae supply much of the worlds oxygen supply
and take in a huge amount of atmospheric carbon
dioxide
bull evaporation of the seawater provides rainwater for the
land
bull 3 different types of marine regions
bull oceans
bull coral reefs
bull estuaries
76
The Marine Biome - Oceans
From left mussels worms and a spider crab at a hydrocarbon seep
community in the Gulf of Mexico a sea fan and brain coral in the Florida
Keys National Marine Sanctuary a school of Atlantic amberjack off North
Carolina
77
The Marine Biome ndash Coral Reefs
From left reef life in the Gulf of Aqaba Red Sea a reef at Fanning
Island atoll in the central Pacific a reef in the Florida Keys National
Marine Sanctuary
78
The Marine Biome - Estuaries
From left Mangrove roots south Florida wetlands and tidal streams
in the Ashe Island area ACE Basin National Estuarine Research
Reserve South Carolina a salt marsh in Winyah Bay National
Estuarine Research Reserve South Carolina
79
Ecological Notes
These are the biomes in order of their productivity (highest
first)
1 estuaries and tropical rain forest (highest)
2 temperate forest
3 agricultural land
4 temperate grassland
5 lakes and streams
6 coastal zone
7 tundra
8 open ocean
9 desert (lowest)
80
Ecological Notes
In order to be productive and have a lot of living material
standing around (biomass) an ecosystem has to have 4
basic necessities for plant life to thrive (if there are
enough plants the ecosystem will also support a lot of
animals) The four things are
1 Sunlight
2 Nutrients
3 Warm temperatures
4 Water
81
Biomes Video
82
Take-Home Message
bull Biomes are the major ecological communities of earth
characterized mostly by the vegetation present
bull Different biomes result from differences in temperature
and precipitation and the extent to which they vary from
season to season
83
Challenge Question
bull Terrestrial biomes are determined by the temperature
and precipitation amounts as well as whether those
factors are constant or vary by season
bull By contrast how are aquatic biomes determined
84
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy flows from producers to
consumers
85
86
87
First Stop Primary Producers
bull ecosystem producers or consumers
bull primary producers plants algae (some) bacteria
bull convert light energy from sun into chemical energy
through photosynthesis
bull chemical energy = food
bull consumers eat or absorb their food
bull energy stored in chemical bonds of carbohydrate
protein and lipid molecules is captured and
harnessed for consumersrsquo own movement
reproduction and growth
88
Food Chain
89
Food Web
90
Food Web
91
Food Chains amp Food Webs
bull A change in one link in a food chain will affect the other
links
bull The table on the next slide gives one example of a food
chain and the trophic levels represented in it
92
Food Chains amp Food Webs
93
GRASS
GRASSHOPPER
TOAD
SNAKE
HAWK
BACTERIA
IN GENERAL
AUTOTROPHS
(PRODUCERS)
HERBIVORES
(PRIMARY
CONSUMERS)
CARNIVORES
(2 3 ETC)
DECOMPOSERS
94
Chain Reaction Game
95
Energy Flows through a Food Web
bull Losses at every ldquosteprdquo in a food chain
bull Inefficiency of energy transfers
96
Energy flow through a food chain
Energy flow refers to the way that energy is transformed through
a food chain (pictured here) containing a series of levels
including plants consumers predators and decomposers 97
Amount of energy available at each of the
four levels of an ecosystem
Ecological pyramids illustrate the amount of energy
available at each of the four levels of an ecosystem 98
Ecological Pyramid
99
A grasshopper eats a plant A mouse eats the
grasshopper A snake eats the mouse A hawk
could eat the snake or the mouse In this food
web how would we categorize the hawk
1 Producer
2 Primary consumer
3 Secondary consumer
4 Tertiary consumer
5 Quaternary consumer
6 4 and 5
100
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps
bull First it is converted to chemical energy in
photosynthesis
bull Herbivores then consume the primary producers the
herbivores are consumed by carnivores and the
carnivores in turn may be consumed by top carnivores
101
Take-home message
bull Detritivores and decomposers extract energy from
organic waste and the remains of organisms that have
died
bull At each step in a food chain some usable energy is lost
as heat
102
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy pyramids reveal the inefficiency of
food chains
103
Biomass
bull biomass total weight of all living organisms in a given
area
bull only about 10 of the plants in an ecosystem is
converted into biomass
bull Food Energy Pyramid
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
bull African savannas and grasslands sustain more species
of higher-order carnivores than any other terrestrial
ecosystem
104
105
Food Energy Pyramids
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
106
107
108
You go out to eat at a fancy restaurant You
have a salad salmon and for dessert ice
cream Which part of the meal was the most
energy efficient food for you to eat
1 Salad
2 Salmon
3 Ice cream
4 2 and 3
109
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps known as trophic levels
bull Energy pyramids reveal that the biomass of primary
producers in an ecosystem tends to be far greater than
the biomass of herbivores
bull The biomass transferred at each step along the food chain tends to be only about 10 of the biomass of the organisms being consumed due to energy lost in cellular respiration
bull As a consequence of this inefficiency food chains rarely exceed four levels
110
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Essential chemicals cycle through
ecosystems
111
Chemical Reservoirs
bull Each chemical is stored in a non-living part of the environment
bull Organisms acquire the chemical from the reservoir a non-living part of the environment
bull The chemical cycles through the food chain (biogeochemical cycles)
bull Eventually the chemical is returned to the reservoir
112
Hydrologic Cycle and the Florida Springs
bull Click here for a description of how falling rain feeds underground aquifers in Florida and forms springs
113
The Most Important Chemical Cycles
1) Carbon
2) Nitrogen
3) Phosphorus
4) Sulfur
114
115
The
Carbon
Cycle
116
The Carbon Cycle
Keeping Up With Carbon
NASA video provides key information on the carbon cycle
117
118
Carbon Cycle Game
Fossil Fuels
bull created when large numbers of organisms die and are buried in sediment lacking oxygen
bull In absence of oxygen at high pressures and after very long periods of time organic remains are ultimately transformed into coal oil and natural gas
bull burning coal oil and natural gas releases large amounts of carbon dioxide
bull increases average CO2 concentration in the atmosphere
bull current level of CO2 in the atmosphere is the highest it has been in almost half a million years
119
Global CO2 levels are rising in
general but they also exhibit a
sharp rise and fall within each
year ndash why
120
121
The Nitrogen Cycle
122
The Nitrogen Cycle
Fertilizers
bull Because it is necessary for the production of every plant
protein and because all nitrogen must first be made
usable by bacteria plant growth is often limited by
nitrogen levels in the soil
bull For this reason most fertilizers contain nitrogen in a
form usable by plants
123
124
125
126
127
Oxygen reduction downstream of a source of
organic pollution
128
Algal growth and eutrophication in an Australian
outback waterway
129
Sulfur Cycle
bull component of protein
bull cycles in both a gas and sedimentary cycle
bull source earths crust
bull enters the atmosphere as hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
during fossil fuel combustion volcanic eruptions
gas exchange at ocean surfaces decomposition
130
Sulfur Cycle
bull H2S is immediately oxidized to sulfur dioxide (SO2)
bull SO2 + water vapor H2SO4 (falls to earth in rain)
bull sulfur in soluble form is taken up by plant roots
incorporated into amino acids such as cysteine
bull travels through food chain
bull eventually released through decomposition
131
How is carbon recycled back to the
atmosphere in the carbon cycle
1 It is ldquofixedrdquo by bacteria
2 It is a product of cellular respiration
3 Burning of fossil fuels
4 2 and 3
5 All of the above
132
Why do commercial fertilizers usually
contain usable forms of nitrogen and
phosphorous
1 These chemicals are not efficiently recycled in
the soil
2 Nitrogen and phosphorous need to be ldquofixedrdquo
by bacteria or the plant
3 Nitrogen and phosphorous are found at high
levels in the atmosphere but not in the soil
4 Nitrogen and phosphorous only enter the soil
through erosion
133
Take-home message
bull Chemicals essential to lifemdashincluding carbon nitrogen and phosphorusmdashcycle through ecosystems
bull They are usually captured from the atmosphere soil or water by growing organisms passed from one trophic level to the next as organisms eat other organisms and returned to the environment through respiration decomposition and erosion
bull These cycles can be disrupted as human activities significantly increase the amounts of the chemicals utilized or released to the environment
134
Symbiotic Relationships
bull Symbiosis close relationship between organisms of
two different species
bull At least one participant gains some sort of benefit
(usually nutritional)
bull Types of symbiosis
bull Parasitism
bull Commensalism
bull Mutualism
bull Predation
135
Symbiotic Relationships in the
Ocean
bull Click here for an explanation of the
relationships of marine animals
including sharks rays and various
fishes
136
Parasitism bull Parasite derives nutrition from the host
bull This harms the host but a true parasite does
not usually kill its host (directly)
137
Ectoparasites
Remain outside the host
Ticks fleas leeches
138
Endoparasites
Live inside the hostrsquos body
Tapeworms malarial parasites
139
Parasite Transmission
bull Many parasites live on or in a single organism
bull Some will alternate between 2 or more host species
bull Vertical transmission ndash from mother offspring
bull Horizontal transmission ndash between members of a
population
bull Direct contact (head lice)
bull Vectors (mosquitos)
140
141
Commensalism
bull Neither species is totally dependent on the other
bull One benefits ndash no effect on the other
bull Feeding or protection
bull Porcelain anemone crabs and anemones
142
Mutualism
bull Both species benefit
bull Food or shelter
bull Examples
bull Plants and microbes (rhizobium in root nodules)
bull Plants and fungi (orchids and mycorrhizae)
bull Protists and fungi (lichen)
bull Plants and insects (pollination)
bull Animals and bacteria (ruminants)
bull Animals and other animals (crocodiles and
plover birds)
143
Mutualism shrimp and moray
Cleaner shrimp cleaning a zebra moray eel Mutualistic
relationships such as these promote the well-being of the
host fishes and provide food for those that do the cleaning 144
Rhizobium
Rhizobium in root nodules of certain plants convert
nitrogen in soil to usable form
145
Orchid Mycorrhizae
Fungi aid the plant in the uptake of nutrients
Fungi ingest some of the food from plant
photosynthesis 146
Lichen
Most of the lichen is composed of fungal filaments
but living among the filaments are algal cells
usually from a green alga or a cyanobacterium
The lichen fungus provides its partner(s) a benefit
(protection) and gains nutrients in return 147
Ruminants
Ruminants are characterized by their four-chambered
stomach and cud-chewing behavior Cud is a food bolus
that is regurgitated rechewed and reswallowed The
rumen is a large fermentation vat containing billions of
microorganisms including bacteria and protozoa which
allow ruminants to digest fibrous feeds such as grass and
hay that other animals cannot efficiently utilize 148
Crocodiles amp
Plover Birds
The bird gets into the crocodiles mouth and picks out
the tiny bits of food stuck in his teeth then eats it (the
tiny bits)
This cleans the crocodiles teeth and keeps his mouth
fresh and free from infections 149
Predation
bull Consumption of one living organism by
another
bull Predators must have offensive strategies
bull ways of finding catching and eating
their prey
bull Prey organisms must have defensive
strategies
bull ways of avoiding or discouraging this
activity
150
Predation
bull Encompasses all levels within an
ecological food chainweb
bull plant-herbivore systems
bull herbivore-carnivore systems
bull three-way interactions of
interdependent plant-herbivore-
carnivore systems
151
This goshawk is the tertiary consumer in his ecosystem
and the mouse in his beak is the secondary consumer
Beneath the mouse on the ecological pyramid lies his
foodsource likely a worm which fed on the primary
producer leafy plants 152
Ecosystem of Life in Floridas
Springs
bull Click here for a close-up look of life
in Floridas springs and the various
predator-prey interactions there
153
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Plant Species
Sassafras
Sassafras albidum
Redbud
Cercis canadensis
53
Temperate Deciduous Forest ndash Succession
bull orderly succession of communities to a climax
community (biome)
bull two main types of succession
bull primary succession begins with bare rock exposed
by geologic activity
bull secondary succession begins on soil from which
previous community has been removed (by fire
agriculture etc)
bull secondary succession can proceed much faster
because the soil has been prepared by the
previous community
54
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
American Toad
Bufo americanus
Box Turtle
55
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
Eastern Chipmunk
Tamias striatus
Eastern Gray Squirrel
Sciurus carolinensis
56
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
Yellow-breasted chat
Icteria virens 57
Tundra
bull annual average temperature lt 5 C
bull precipitation (mostly in the form of snow) lt 100 mmyear
bull summer is brief
bull temperatures above freezing last only a few weeks at
most
bull warm summer coincides with periods of almost 24
hour daylight so plant growth can be explosive
58
Tundra
Anaktuvuk Pass Alaska
59
Tundra ndash Indicator Plant Species
Arctic Tundra Wildflowers - Alaska
60
Tundra ndash Indicator Plant Species
Lichen
Polytrichum Moss
(photographed in Ohio not on the
Tundra)
61
Tundra ndash Indicator Animal Species
Reindeer
Rangifer tarandus
62
Tundra ndash Indicator Animal Species
Caribou On Autumn Tundra Denali National Park Alaska
63
Savanna
bull rolling grassland scattered with shrubs and isolated trees
bull found between a tropical rainforest and desert biome
bull not enough rain falls on a savanna to support forests
bull found in a wide band on either side of the equator on
the edges of tropical rainforests
bull warm temperature year round
bull very long dry season (winter) ~ 10 cm rain none at all
from Dec - Feb
bull very wet season (summer) ~ 35-65 cm rain
64
Savanna
65
Savanna ndash Indicator Plant Species
Baobab
Adansonia digitata Umbrella Thorn Acacia
Acacia tortillis
66
Savanna ndash Indicator Animal Species
Savanna Elephant
Loxodonta africana
Black Mamba
Dendroaspis polylepis
Lion
Panthera leo
67
Chaparral
bull winter mild and moist but not rainy
bull summer very hot and dry
bull annual temperature range between -1deg and 38deg C
bull annual precipitation ~ 25-45 cm mostly in the winter
68
Chaparral
69
Chaparral ndash Indicator Plant Species
Blue Oak
Quercus douglasii
Common Sagebrush
Artemisia tridentata
Olive Tree
Olea europaea
70
Chaparral ndash Indicator Animal Species
Black-tailed Jackrabbit
Lepus californicus Golden Jackal
Canis aureus
Spotted Skunk
Spilogale gracilis
71
The Freshwater Biome
bull low salt concentration mdash usually less than 1
bull plants and animals in freshwater regions are adjusted to
the low salt content and would not be able to survive in
areas of high salt concentration (ie ocean)
bull 3 different types of freshwater regions
bull ponds and lakes
bull streams and rivers
bull wetlands
72
The Freshwater Biome ndash Ponds and Lakes
From left a view across Manzanita Lake toward Mt Lassen California a
forest pond near Donnelly Idaho a Great Blue Heron Paranagat Lake
southeastern Nevada
73
The Freshwater Biome ndash Streams and
Rivers
From left McArthur-Burney Falls State Park California trout Green
River Utah Brooks River Alaska
74
The Freshwater Biome - Wetlands
From left Pescadero Marsh California coastal marsh at Umpqua
Dunes Oregon trees and bogs on Esther Island Alaska
75
The Marine Biome
bull cover about three-fourths of the Earths surface
bull marine algae supply much of the worlds oxygen supply
and take in a huge amount of atmospheric carbon
dioxide
bull evaporation of the seawater provides rainwater for the
land
bull 3 different types of marine regions
bull oceans
bull coral reefs
bull estuaries
76
The Marine Biome - Oceans
From left mussels worms and a spider crab at a hydrocarbon seep
community in the Gulf of Mexico a sea fan and brain coral in the Florida
Keys National Marine Sanctuary a school of Atlantic amberjack off North
Carolina
77
The Marine Biome ndash Coral Reefs
From left reef life in the Gulf of Aqaba Red Sea a reef at Fanning
Island atoll in the central Pacific a reef in the Florida Keys National
Marine Sanctuary
78
The Marine Biome - Estuaries
From left Mangrove roots south Florida wetlands and tidal streams
in the Ashe Island area ACE Basin National Estuarine Research
Reserve South Carolina a salt marsh in Winyah Bay National
Estuarine Research Reserve South Carolina
79
Ecological Notes
These are the biomes in order of their productivity (highest
first)
1 estuaries and tropical rain forest (highest)
2 temperate forest
3 agricultural land
4 temperate grassland
5 lakes and streams
6 coastal zone
7 tundra
8 open ocean
9 desert (lowest)
80
Ecological Notes
In order to be productive and have a lot of living material
standing around (biomass) an ecosystem has to have 4
basic necessities for plant life to thrive (if there are
enough plants the ecosystem will also support a lot of
animals) The four things are
1 Sunlight
2 Nutrients
3 Warm temperatures
4 Water
81
Biomes Video
82
Take-Home Message
bull Biomes are the major ecological communities of earth
characterized mostly by the vegetation present
bull Different biomes result from differences in temperature
and precipitation and the extent to which they vary from
season to season
83
Challenge Question
bull Terrestrial biomes are determined by the temperature
and precipitation amounts as well as whether those
factors are constant or vary by season
bull By contrast how are aquatic biomes determined
84
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy flows from producers to
consumers
85
86
87
First Stop Primary Producers
bull ecosystem producers or consumers
bull primary producers plants algae (some) bacteria
bull convert light energy from sun into chemical energy
through photosynthesis
bull chemical energy = food
bull consumers eat or absorb their food
bull energy stored in chemical bonds of carbohydrate
protein and lipid molecules is captured and
harnessed for consumersrsquo own movement
reproduction and growth
88
Food Chain
89
Food Web
90
Food Web
91
Food Chains amp Food Webs
bull A change in one link in a food chain will affect the other
links
bull The table on the next slide gives one example of a food
chain and the trophic levels represented in it
92
Food Chains amp Food Webs
93
GRASS
GRASSHOPPER
TOAD
SNAKE
HAWK
BACTERIA
IN GENERAL
AUTOTROPHS
(PRODUCERS)
HERBIVORES
(PRIMARY
CONSUMERS)
CARNIVORES
(2 3 ETC)
DECOMPOSERS
94
Chain Reaction Game
95
Energy Flows through a Food Web
bull Losses at every ldquosteprdquo in a food chain
bull Inefficiency of energy transfers
96
Energy flow through a food chain
Energy flow refers to the way that energy is transformed through
a food chain (pictured here) containing a series of levels
including plants consumers predators and decomposers 97
Amount of energy available at each of the
four levels of an ecosystem
Ecological pyramids illustrate the amount of energy
available at each of the four levels of an ecosystem 98
Ecological Pyramid
99
A grasshopper eats a plant A mouse eats the
grasshopper A snake eats the mouse A hawk
could eat the snake or the mouse In this food
web how would we categorize the hawk
1 Producer
2 Primary consumer
3 Secondary consumer
4 Tertiary consumer
5 Quaternary consumer
6 4 and 5
100
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps
bull First it is converted to chemical energy in
photosynthesis
bull Herbivores then consume the primary producers the
herbivores are consumed by carnivores and the
carnivores in turn may be consumed by top carnivores
101
Take-home message
bull Detritivores and decomposers extract energy from
organic waste and the remains of organisms that have
died
bull At each step in a food chain some usable energy is lost
as heat
102
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy pyramids reveal the inefficiency of
food chains
103
Biomass
bull biomass total weight of all living organisms in a given
area
bull only about 10 of the plants in an ecosystem is
converted into biomass
bull Food Energy Pyramid
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
bull African savannas and grasslands sustain more species
of higher-order carnivores than any other terrestrial
ecosystem
104
105
Food Energy Pyramids
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
106
107
108
You go out to eat at a fancy restaurant You
have a salad salmon and for dessert ice
cream Which part of the meal was the most
energy efficient food for you to eat
1 Salad
2 Salmon
3 Ice cream
4 2 and 3
109
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps known as trophic levels
bull Energy pyramids reveal that the biomass of primary
producers in an ecosystem tends to be far greater than
the biomass of herbivores
bull The biomass transferred at each step along the food chain tends to be only about 10 of the biomass of the organisms being consumed due to energy lost in cellular respiration
bull As a consequence of this inefficiency food chains rarely exceed four levels
110
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Essential chemicals cycle through
ecosystems
111
Chemical Reservoirs
bull Each chemical is stored in a non-living part of the environment
bull Organisms acquire the chemical from the reservoir a non-living part of the environment
bull The chemical cycles through the food chain (biogeochemical cycles)
bull Eventually the chemical is returned to the reservoir
112
Hydrologic Cycle and the Florida Springs
bull Click here for a description of how falling rain feeds underground aquifers in Florida and forms springs
113
The Most Important Chemical Cycles
1) Carbon
2) Nitrogen
3) Phosphorus
4) Sulfur
114
115
The
Carbon
Cycle
116
The Carbon Cycle
Keeping Up With Carbon
NASA video provides key information on the carbon cycle
117
118
Carbon Cycle Game
Fossil Fuels
bull created when large numbers of organisms die and are buried in sediment lacking oxygen
bull In absence of oxygen at high pressures and after very long periods of time organic remains are ultimately transformed into coal oil and natural gas
bull burning coal oil and natural gas releases large amounts of carbon dioxide
bull increases average CO2 concentration in the atmosphere
bull current level of CO2 in the atmosphere is the highest it has been in almost half a million years
119
Global CO2 levels are rising in
general but they also exhibit a
sharp rise and fall within each
year ndash why
120
121
The Nitrogen Cycle
122
The Nitrogen Cycle
Fertilizers
bull Because it is necessary for the production of every plant
protein and because all nitrogen must first be made
usable by bacteria plant growth is often limited by
nitrogen levels in the soil
bull For this reason most fertilizers contain nitrogen in a
form usable by plants
123
124
125
126
127
Oxygen reduction downstream of a source of
organic pollution
128
Algal growth and eutrophication in an Australian
outback waterway
129
Sulfur Cycle
bull component of protein
bull cycles in both a gas and sedimentary cycle
bull source earths crust
bull enters the atmosphere as hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
during fossil fuel combustion volcanic eruptions
gas exchange at ocean surfaces decomposition
130
Sulfur Cycle
bull H2S is immediately oxidized to sulfur dioxide (SO2)
bull SO2 + water vapor H2SO4 (falls to earth in rain)
bull sulfur in soluble form is taken up by plant roots
incorporated into amino acids such as cysteine
bull travels through food chain
bull eventually released through decomposition
131
How is carbon recycled back to the
atmosphere in the carbon cycle
1 It is ldquofixedrdquo by bacteria
2 It is a product of cellular respiration
3 Burning of fossil fuels
4 2 and 3
5 All of the above
132
Why do commercial fertilizers usually
contain usable forms of nitrogen and
phosphorous
1 These chemicals are not efficiently recycled in
the soil
2 Nitrogen and phosphorous need to be ldquofixedrdquo
by bacteria or the plant
3 Nitrogen and phosphorous are found at high
levels in the atmosphere but not in the soil
4 Nitrogen and phosphorous only enter the soil
through erosion
133
Take-home message
bull Chemicals essential to lifemdashincluding carbon nitrogen and phosphorusmdashcycle through ecosystems
bull They are usually captured from the atmosphere soil or water by growing organisms passed from one trophic level to the next as organisms eat other organisms and returned to the environment through respiration decomposition and erosion
bull These cycles can be disrupted as human activities significantly increase the amounts of the chemicals utilized or released to the environment
134
Symbiotic Relationships
bull Symbiosis close relationship between organisms of
two different species
bull At least one participant gains some sort of benefit
(usually nutritional)
bull Types of symbiosis
bull Parasitism
bull Commensalism
bull Mutualism
bull Predation
135
Symbiotic Relationships in the
Ocean
bull Click here for an explanation of the
relationships of marine animals
including sharks rays and various
fishes
136
Parasitism bull Parasite derives nutrition from the host
bull This harms the host but a true parasite does
not usually kill its host (directly)
137
Ectoparasites
Remain outside the host
Ticks fleas leeches
138
Endoparasites
Live inside the hostrsquos body
Tapeworms malarial parasites
139
Parasite Transmission
bull Many parasites live on or in a single organism
bull Some will alternate between 2 or more host species
bull Vertical transmission ndash from mother offspring
bull Horizontal transmission ndash between members of a
population
bull Direct contact (head lice)
bull Vectors (mosquitos)
140
141
Commensalism
bull Neither species is totally dependent on the other
bull One benefits ndash no effect on the other
bull Feeding or protection
bull Porcelain anemone crabs and anemones
142
Mutualism
bull Both species benefit
bull Food or shelter
bull Examples
bull Plants and microbes (rhizobium in root nodules)
bull Plants and fungi (orchids and mycorrhizae)
bull Protists and fungi (lichen)
bull Plants and insects (pollination)
bull Animals and bacteria (ruminants)
bull Animals and other animals (crocodiles and
plover birds)
143
Mutualism shrimp and moray
Cleaner shrimp cleaning a zebra moray eel Mutualistic
relationships such as these promote the well-being of the
host fishes and provide food for those that do the cleaning 144
Rhizobium
Rhizobium in root nodules of certain plants convert
nitrogen in soil to usable form
145
Orchid Mycorrhizae
Fungi aid the plant in the uptake of nutrients
Fungi ingest some of the food from plant
photosynthesis 146
Lichen
Most of the lichen is composed of fungal filaments
but living among the filaments are algal cells
usually from a green alga or a cyanobacterium
The lichen fungus provides its partner(s) a benefit
(protection) and gains nutrients in return 147
Ruminants
Ruminants are characterized by their four-chambered
stomach and cud-chewing behavior Cud is a food bolus
that is regurgitated rechewed and reswallowed The
rumen is a large fermentation vat containing billions of
microorganisms including bacteria and protozoa which
allow ruminants to digest fibrous feeds such as grass and
hay that other animals cannot efficiently utilize 148
Crocodiles amp
Plover Birds
The bird gets into the crocodiles mouth and picks out
the tiny bits of food stuck in his teeth then eats it (the
tiny bits)
This cleans the crocodiles teeth and keeps his mouth
fresh and free from infections 149
Predation
bull Consumption of one living organism by
another
bull Predators must have offensive strategies
bull ways of finding catching and eating
their prey
bull Prey organisms must have defensive
strategies
bull ways of avoiding or discouraging this
activity
150
Predation
bull Encompasses all levels within an
ecological food chainweb
bull plant-herbivore systems
bull herbivore-carnivore systems
bull three-way interactions of
interdependent plant-herbivore-
carnivore systems
151
This goshawk is the tertiary consumer in his ecosystem
and the mouse in his beak is the secondary consumer
Beneath the mouse on the ecological pyramid lies his
foodsource likely a worm which fed on the primary
producer leafy plants 152
Ecosystem of Life in Floridas
Springs
bull Click here for a close-up look of life
in Floridas springs and the various
predator-prey interactions there
153
Temperate Deciduous Forest ndash Succession
bull orderly succession of communities to a climax
community (biome)
bull two main types of succession
bull primary succession begins with bare rock exposed
by geologic activity
bull secondary succession begins on soil from which
previous community has been removed (by fire
agriculture etc)
bull secondary succession can proceed much faster
because the soil has been prepared by the
previous community
54
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
American Toad
Bufo americanus
Box Turtle
55
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
Eastern Chipmunk
Tamias striatus
Eastern Gray Squirrel
Sciurus carolinensis
56
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
Yellow-breasted chat
Icteria virens 57
Tundra
bull annual average temperature lt 5 C
bull precipitation (mostly in the form of snow) lt 100 mmyear
bull summer is brief
bull temperatures above freezing last only a few weeks at
most
bull warm summer coincides with periods of almost 24
hour daylight so plant growth can be explosive
58
Tundra
Anaktuvuk Pass Alaska
59
Tundra ndash Indicator Plant Species
Arctic Tundra Wildflowers - Alaska
60
Tundra ndash Indicator Plant Species
Lichen
Polytrichum Moss
(photographed in Ohio not on the
Tundra)
61
Tundra ndash Indicator Animal Species
Reindeer
Rangifer tarandus
62
Tundra ndash Indicator Animal Species
Caribou On Autumn Tundra Denali National Park Alaska
63
Savanna
bull rolling grassland scattered with shrubs and isolated trees
bull found between a tropical rainforest and desert biome
bull not enough rain falls on a savanna to support forests
bull found in a wide band on either side of the equator on
the edges of tropical rainforests
bull warm temperature year round
bull very long dry season (winter) ~ 10 cm rain none at all
from Dec - Feb
bull very wet season (summer) ~ 35-65 cm rain
64
Savanna
65
Savanna ndash Indicator Plant Species
Baobab
Adansonia digitata Umbrella Thorn Acacia
Acacia tortillis
66
Savanna ndash Indicator Animal Species
Savanna Elephant
Loxodonta africana
Black Mamba
Dendroaspis polylepis
Lion
Panthera leo
67
Chaparral
bull winter mild and moist but not rainy
bull summer very hot and dry
bull annual temperature range between -1deg and 38deg C
bull annual precipitation ~ 25-45 cm mostly in the winter
68
Chaparral
69
Chaparral ndash Indicator Plant Species
Blue Oak
Quercus douglasii
Common Sagebrush
Artemisia tridentata
Olive Tree
Olea europaea
70
Chaparral ndash Indicator Animal Species
Black-tailed Jackrabbit
Lepus californicus Golden Jackal
Canis aureus
Spotted Skunk
Spilogale gracilis
71
The Freshwater Biome
bull low salt concentration mdash usually less than 1
bull plants and animals in freshwater regions are adjusted to
the low salt content and would not be able to survive in
areas of high salt concentration (ie ocean)
bull 3 different types of freshwater regions
bull ponds and lakes
bull streams and rivers
bull wetlands
72
The Freshwater Biome ndash Ponds and Lakes
From left a view across Manzanita Lake toward Mt Lassen California a
forest pond near Donnelly Idaho a Great Blue Heron Paranagat Lake
southeastern Nevada
73
The Freshwater Biome ndash Streams and
Rivers
From left McArthur-Burney Falls State Park California trout Green
River Utah Brooks River Alaska
74
The Freshwater Biome - Wetlands
From left Pescadero Marsh California coastal marsh at Umpqua
Dunes Oregon trees and bogs on Esther Island Alaska
75
The Marine Biome
bull cover about three-fourths of the Earths surface
bull marine algae supply much of the worlds oxygen supply
and take in a huge amount of atmospheric carbon
dioxide
bull evaporation of the seawater provides rainwater for the
land
bull 3 different types of marine regions
bull oceans
bull coral reefs
bull estuaries
76
The Marine Biome - Oceans
From left mussels worms and a spider crab at a hydrocarbon seep
community in the Gulf of Mexico a sea fan and brain coral in the Florida
Keys National Marine Sanctuary a school of Atlantic amberjack off North
Carolina
77
The Marine Biome ndash Coral Reefs
From left reef life in the Gulf of Aqaba Red Sea a reef at Fanning
Island atoll in the central Pacific a reef in the Florida Keys National
Marine Sanctuary
78
The Marine Biome - Estuaries
From left Mangrove roots south Florida wetlands and tidal streams
in the Ashe Island area ACE Basin National Estuarine Research
Reserve South Carolina a salt marsh in Winyah Bay National
Estuarine Research Reserve South Carolina
79
Ecological Notes
These are the biomes in order of their productivity (highest
first)
1 estuaries and tropical rain forest (highest)
2 temperate forest
3 agricultural land
4 temperate grassland
5 lakes and streams
6 coastal zone
7 tundra
8 open ocean
9 desert (lowest)
80
Ecological Notes
In order to be productive and have a lot of living material
standing around (biomass) an ecosystem has to have 4
basic necessities for plant life to thrive (if there are
enough plants the ecosystem will also support a lot of
animals) The four things are
1 Sunlight
2 Nutrients
3 Warm temperatures
4 Water
81
Biomes Video
82
Take-Home Message
bull Biomes are the major ecological communities of earth
characterized mostly by the vegetation present
bull Different biomes result from differences in temperature
and precipitation and the extent to which they vary from
season to season
83
Challenge Question
bull Terrestrial biomes are determined by the temperature
and precipitation amounts as well as whether those
factors are constant or vary by season
bull By contrast how are aquatic biomes determined
84
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy flows from producers to
consumers
85
86
87
First Stop Primary Producers
bull ecosystem producers or consumers
bull primary producers plants algae (some) bacteria
bull convert light energy from sun into chemical energy
through photosynthesis
bull chemical energy = food
bull consumers eat or absorb their food
bull energy stored in chemical bonds of carbohydrate
protein and lipid molecules is captured and
harnessed for consumersrsquo own movement
reproduction and growth
88
Food Chain
89
Food Web
90
Food Web
91
Food Chains amp Food Webs
bull A change in one link in a food chain will affect the other
links
bull The table on the next slide gives one example of a food
chain and the trophic levels represented in it
92
Food Chains amp Food Webs
93
GRASS
GRASSHOPPER
TOAD
SNAKE
HAWK
BACTERIA
IN GENERAL
AUTOTROPHS
(PRODUCERS)
HERBIVORES
(PRIMARY
CONSUMERS)
CARNIVORES
(2 3 ETC)
DECOMPOSERS
94
Chain Reaction Game
95
Energy Flows through a Food Web
bull Losses at every ldquosteprdquo in a food chain
bull Inefficiency of energy transfers
96
Energy flow through a food chain
Energy flow refers to the way that energy is transformed through
a food chain (pictured here) containing a series of levels
including plants consumers predators and decomposers 97
Amount of energy available at each of the
four levels of an ecosystem
Ecological pyramids illustrate the amount of energy
available at each of the four levels of an ecosystem 98
Ecological Pyramid
99
A grasshopper eats a plant A mouse eats the
grasshopper A snake eats the mouse A hawk
could eat the snake or the mouse In this food
web how would we categorize the hawk
1 Producer
2 Primary consumer
3 Secondary consumer
4 Tertiary consumer
5 Quaternary consumer
6 4 and 5
100
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps
bull First it is converted to chemical energy in
photosynthesis
bull Herbivores then consume the primary producers the
herbivores are consumed by carnivores and the
carnivores in turn may be consumed by top carnivores
101
Take-home message
bull Detritivores and decomposers extract energy from
organic waste and the remains of organisms that have
died
bull At each step in a food chain some usable energy is lost
as heat
102
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy pyramids reveal the inefficiency of
food chains
103
Biomass
bull biomass total weight of all living organisms in a given
area
bull only about 10 of the plants in an ecosystem is
converted into biomass
bull Food Energy Pyramid
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
bull African savannas and grasslands sustain more species
of higher-order carnivores than any other terrestrial
ecosystem
104
105
Food Energy Pyramids
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
106
107
108
You go out to eat at a fancy restaurant You
have a salad salmon and for dessert ice
cream Which part of the meal was the most
energy efficient food for you to eat
1 Salad
2 Salmon
3 Ice cream
4 2 and 3
109
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps known as trophic levels
bull Energy pyramids reveal that the biomass of primary
producers in an ecosystem tends to be far greater than
the biomass of herbivores
bull The biomass transferred at each step along the food chain tends to be only about 10 of the biomass of the organisms being consumed due to energy lost in cellular respiration
bull As a consequence of this inefficiency food chains rarely exceed four levels
110
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Essential chemicals cycle through
ecosystems
111
Chemical Reservoirs
bull Each chemical is stored in a non-living part of the environment
bull Organisms acquire the chemical from the reservoir a non-living part of the environment
bull The chemical cycles through the food chain (biogeochemical cycles)
bull Eventually the chemical is returned to the reservoir
112
Hydrologic Cycle and the Florida Springs
bull Click here for a description of how falling rain feeds underground aquifers in Florida and forms springs
113
The Most Important Chemical Cycles
1) Carbon
2) Nitrogen
3) Phosphorus
4) Sulfur
114
115
The
Carbon
Cycle
116
The Carbon Cycle
Keeping Up With Carbon
NASA video provides key information on the carbon cycle
117
118
Carbon Cycle Game
Fossil Fuels
bull created when large numbers of organisms die and are buried in sediment lacking oxygen
bull In absence of oxygen at high pressures and after very long periods of time organic remains are ultimately transformed into coal oil and natural gas
bull burning coal oil and natural gas releases large amounts of carbon dioxide
bull increases average CO2 concentration in the atmosphere
bull current level of CO2 in the atmosphere is the highest it has been in almost half a million years
119
Global CO2 levels are rising in
general but they also exhibit a
sharp rise and fall within each
year ndash why
120
121
The Nitrogen Cycle
122
The Nitrogen Cycle
Fertilizers
bull Because it is necessary for the production of every plant
protein and because all nitrogen must first be made
usable by bacteria plant growth is often limited by
nitrogen levels in the soil
bull For this reason most fertilizers contain nitrogen in a
form usable by plants
123
124
125
126
127
Oxygen reduction downstream of a source of
organic pollution
128
Algal growth and eutrophication in an Australian
outback waterway
129
Sulfur Cycle
bull component of protein
bull cycles in both a gas and sedimentary cycle
bull source earths crust
bull enters the atmosphere as hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
during fossil fuel combustion volcanic eruptions
gas exchange at ocean surfaces decomposition
130
Sulfur Cycle
bull H2S is immediately oxidized to sulfur dioxide (SO2)
bull SO2 + water vapor H2SO4 (falls to earth in rain)
bull sulfur in soluble form is taken up by plant roots
incorporated into amino acids such as cysteine
bull travels through food chain
bull eventually released through decomposition
131
How is carbon recycled back to the
atmosphere in the carbon cycle
1 It is ldquofixedrdquo by bacteria
2 It is a product of cellular respiration
3 Burning of fossil fuels
4 2 and 3
5 All of the above
132
Why do commercial fertilizers usually
contain usable forms of nitrogen and
phosphorous
1 These chemicals are not efficiently recycled in
the soil
2 Nitrogen and phosphorous need to be ldquofixedrdquo
by bacteria or the plant
3 Nitrogen and phosphorous are found at high
levels in the atmosphere but not in the soil
4 Nitrogen and phosphorous only enter the soil
through erosion
133
Take-home message
bull Chemicals essential to lifemdashincluding carbon nitrogen and phosphorusmdashcycle through ecosystems
bull They are usually captured from the atmosphere soil or water by growing organisms passed from one trophic level to the next as organisms eat other organisms and returned to the environment through respiration decomposition and erosion
bull These cycles can be disrupted as human activities significantly increase the amounts of the chemicals utilized or released to the environment
134
Symbiotic Relationships
bull Symbiosis close relationship between organisms of
two different species
bull At least one participant gains some sort of benefit
(usually nutritional)
bull Types of symbiosis
bull Parasitism
bull Commensalism
bull Mutualism
bull Predation
135
Symbiotic Relationships in the
Ocean
bull Click here for an explanation of the
relationships of marine animals
including sharks rays and various
fishes
136
Parasitism bull Parasite derives nutrition from the host
bull This harms the host but a true parasite does
not usually kill its host (directly)
137
Ectoparasites
Remain outside the host
Ticks fleas leeches
138
Endoparasites
Live inside the hostrsquos body
Tapeworms malarial parasites
139
Parasite Transmission
bull Many parasites live on or in a single organism
bull Some will alternate between 2 or more host species
bull Vertical transmission ndash from mother offspring
bull Horizontal transmission ndash between members of a
population
bull Direct contact (head lice)
bull Vectors (mosquitos)
140
141
Commensalism
bull Neither species is totally dependent on the other
bull One benefits ndash no effect on the other
bull Feeding or protection
bull Porcelain anemone crabs and anemones
142
Mutualism
bull Both species benefit
bull Food or shelter
bull Examples
bull Plants and microbes (rhizobium in root nodules)
bull Plants and fungi (orchids and mycorrhizae)
bull Protists and fungi (lichen)
bull Plants and insects (pollination)
bull Animals and bacteria (ruminants)
bull Animals and other animals (crocodiles and
plover birds)
143
Mutualism shrimp and moray
Cleaner shrimp cleaning a zebra moray eel Mutualistic
relationships such as these promote the well-being of the
host fishes and provide food for those that do the cleaning 144
Rhizobium
Rhizobium in root nodules of certain plants convert
nitrogen in soil to usable form
145
Orchid Mycorrhizae
Fungi aid the plant in the uptake of nutrients
Fungi ingest some of the food from plant
photosynthesis 146
Lichen
Most of the lichen is composed of fungal filaments
but living among the filaments are algal cells
usually from a green alga or a cyanobacterium
The lichen fungus provides its partner(s) a benefit
(protection) and gains nutrients in return 147
Ruminants
Ruminants are characterized by their four-chambered
stomach and cud-chewing behavior Cud is a food bolus
that is regurgitated rechewed and reswallowed The
rumen is a large fermentation vat containing billions of
microorganisms including bacteria and protozoa which
allow ruminants to digest fibrous feeds such as grass and
hay that other animals cannot efficiently utilize 148
Crocodiles amp
Plover Birds
The bird gets into the crocodiles mouth and picks out
the tiny bits of food stuck in his teeth then eats it (the
tiny bits)
This cleans the crocodiles teeth and keeps his mouth
fresh and free from infections 149
Predation
bull Consumption of one living organism by
another
bull Predators must have offensive strategies
bull ways of finding catching and eating
their prey
bull Prey organisms must have defensive
strategies
bull ways of avoiding or discouraging this
activity
150
Predation
bull Encompasses all levels within an
ecological food chainweb
bull plant-herbivore systems
bull herbivore-carnivore systems
bull three-way interactions of
interdependent plant-herbivore-
carnivore systems
151
This goshawk is the tertiary consumer in his ecosystem
and the mouse in his beak is the secondary consumer
Beneath the mouse on the ecological pyramid lies his
foodsource likely a worm which fed on the primary
producer leafy plants 152
Ecosystem of Life in Floridas
Springs
bull Click here for a close-up look of life
in Floridas springs and the various
predator-prey interactions there
153
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
American Toad
Bufo americanus
Box Turtle
55
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
Eastern Chipmunk
Tamias striatus
Eastern Gray Squirrel
Sciurus carolinensis
56
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
Yellow-breasted chat
Icteria virens 57
Tundra
bull annual average temperature lt 5 C
bull precipitation (mostly in the form of snow) lt 100 mmyear
bull summer is brief
bull temperatures above freezing last only a few weeks at
most
bull warm summer coincides with periods of almost 24
hour daylight so plant growth can be explosive
58
Tundra
Anaktuvuk Pass Alaska
59
Tundra ndash Indicator Plant Species
Arctic Tundra Wildflowers - Alaska
60
Tundra ndash Indicator Plant Species
Lichen
Polytrichum Moss
(photographed in Ohio not on the
Tundra)
61
Tundra ndash Indicator Animal Species
Reindeer
Rangifer tarandus
62
Tundra ndash Indicator Animal Species
Caribou On Autumn Tundra Denali National Park Alaska
63
Savanna
bull rolling grassland scattered with shrubs and isolated trees
bull found between a tropical rainforest and desert biome
bull not enough rain falls on a savanna to support forests
bull found in a wide band on either side of the equator on
the edges of tropical rainforests
bull warm temperature year round
bull very long dry season (winter) ~ 10 cm rain none at all
from Dec - Feb
bull very wet season (summer) ~ 35-65 cm rain
64
Savanna
65
Savanna ndash Indicator Plant Species
Baobab
Adansonia digitata Umbrella Thorn Acacia
Acacia tortillis
66
Savanna ndash Indicator Animal Species
Savanna Elephant
Loxodonta africana
Black Mamba
Dendroaspis polylepis
Lion
Panthera leo
67
Chaparral
bull winter mild and moist but not rainy
bull summer very hot and dry
bull annual temperature range between -1deg and 38deg C
bull annual precipitation ~ 25-45 cm mostly in the winter
68
Chaparral
69
Chaparral ndash Indicator Plant Species
Blue Oak
Quercus douglasii
Common Sagebrush
Artemisia tridentata
Olive Tree
Olea europaea
70
Chaparral ndash Indicator Animal Species
Black-tailed Jackrabbit
Lepus californicus Golden Jackal
Canis aureus
Spotted Skunk
Spilogale gracilis
71
The Freshwater Biome
bull low salt concentration mdash usually less than 1
bull plants and animals in freshwater regions are adjusted to
the low salt content and would not be able to survive in
areas of high salt concentration (ie ocean)
bull 3 different types of freshwater regions
bull ponds and lakes
bull streams and rivers
bull wetlands
72
The Freshwater Biome ndash Ponds and Lakes
From left a view across Manzanita Lake toward Mt Lassen California a
forest pond near Donnelly Idaho a Great Blue Heron Paranagat Lake
southeastern Nevada
73
The Freshwater Biome ndash Streams and
Rivers
From left McArthur-Burney Falls State Park California trout Green
River Utah Brooks River Alaska
74
The Freshwater Biome - Wetlands
From left Pescadero Marsh California coastal marsh at Umpqua
Dunes Oregon trees and bogs on Esther Island Alaska
75
The Marine Biome
bull cover about three-fourths of the Earths surface
bull marine algae supply much of the worlds oxygen supply
and take in a huge amount of atmospheric carbon
dioxide
bull evaporation of the seawater provides rainwater for the
land
bull 3 different types of marine regions
bull oceans
bull coral reefs
bull estuaries
76
The Marine Biome - Oceans
From left mussels worms and a spider crab at a hydrocarbon seep
community in the Gulf of Mexico a sea fan and brain coral in the Florida
Keys National Marine Sanctuary a school of Atlantic amberjack off North
Carolina
77
The Marine Biome ndash Coral Reefs
From left reef life in the Gulf of Aqaba Red Sea a reef at Fanning
Island atoll in the central Pacific a reef in the Florida Keys National
Marine Sanctuary
78
The Marine Biome - Estuaries
From left Mangrove roots south Florida wetlands and tidal streams
in the Ashe Island area ACE Basin National Estuarine Research
Reserve South Carolina a salt marsh in Winyah Bay National
Estuarine Research Reserve South Carolina
79
Ecological Notes
These are the biomes in order of their productivity (highest
first)
1 estuaries and tropical rain forest (highest)
2 temperate forest
3 agricultural land
4 temperate grassland
5 lakes and streams
6 coastal zone
7 tundra
8 open ocean
9 desert (lowest)
80
Ecological Notes
In order to be productive and have a lot of living material
standing around (biomass) an ecosystem has to have 4
basic necessities for plant life to thrive (if there are
enough plants the ecosystem will also support a lot of
animals) The four things are
1 Sunlight
2 Nutrients
3 Warm temperatures
4 Water
81
Biomes Video
82
Take-Home Message
bull Biomes are the major ecological communities of earth
characterized mostly by the vegetation present
bull Different biomes result from differences in temperature
and precipitation and the extent to which they vary from
season to season
83
Challenge Question
bull Terrestrial biomes are determined by the temperature
and precipitation amounts as well as whether those
factors are constant or vary by season
bull By contrast how are aquatic biomes determined
84
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy flows from producers to
consumers
85
86
87
First Stop Primary Producers
bull ecosystem producers or consumers
bull primary producers plants algae (some) bacteria
bull convert light energy from sun into chemical energy
through photosynthesis
bull chemical energy = food
bull consumers eat or absorb their food
bull energy stored in chemical bonds of carbohydrate
protein and lipid molecules is captured and
harnessed for consumersrsquo own movement
reproduction and growth
88
Food Chain
89
Food Web
90
Food Web
91
Food Chains amp Food Webs
bull A change in one link in a food chain will affect the other
links
bull The table on the next slide gives one example of a food
chain and the trophic levels represented in it
92
Food Chains amp Food Webs
93
GRASS
GRASSHOPPER
TOAD
SNAKE
HAWK
BACTERIA
IN GENERAL
AUTOTROPHS
(PRODUCERS)
HERBIVORES
(PRIMARY
CONSUMERS)
CARNIVORES
(2 3 ETC)
DECOMPOSERS
94
Chain Reaction Game
95
Energy Flows through a Food Web
bull Losses at every ldquosteprdquo in a food chain
bull Inefficiency of energy transfers
96
Energy flow through a food chain
Energy flow refers to the way that energy is transformed through
a food chain (pictured here) containing a series of levels
including plants consumers predators and decomposers 97
Amount of energy available at each of the
four levels of an ecosystem
Ecological pyramids illustrate the amount of energy
available at each of the four levels of an ecosystem 98
Ecological Pyramid
99
A grasshopper eats a plant A mouse eats the
grasshopper A snake eats the mouse A hawk
could eat the snake or the mouse In this food
web how would we categorize the hawk
1 Producer
2 Primary consumer
3 Secondary consumer
4 Tertiary consumer
5 Quaternary consumer
6 4 and 5
100
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps
bull First it is converted to chemical energy in
photosynthesis
bull Herbivores then consume the primary producers the
herbivores are consumed by carnivores and the
carnivores in turn may be consumed by top carnivores
101
Take-home message
bull Detritivores and decomposers extract energy from
organic waste and the remains of organisms that have
died
bull At each step in a food chain some usable energy is lost
as heat
102
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy pyramids reveal the inefficiency of
food chains
103
Biomass
bull biomass total weight of all living organisms in a given
area
bull only about 10 of the plants in an ecosystem is
converted into biomass
bull Food Energy Pyramid
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
bull African savannas and grasslands sustain more species
of higher-order carnivores than any other terrestrial
ecosystem
104
105
Food Energy Pyramids
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
106
107
108
You go out to eat at a fancy restaurant You
have a salad salmon and for dessert ice
cream Which part of the meal was the most
energy efficient food for you to eat
1 Salad
2 Salmon
3 Ice cream
4 2 and 3
109
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps known as trophic levels
bull Energy pyramids reveal that the biomass of primary
producers in an ecosystem tends to be far greater than
the biomass of herbivores
bull The biomass transferred at each step along the food chain tends to be only about 10 of the biomass of the organisms being consumed due to energy lost in cellular respiration
bull As a consequence of this inefficiency food chains rarely exceed four levels
110
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Essential chemicals cycle through
ecosystems
111
Chemical Reservoirs
bull Each chemical is stored in a non-living part of the environment
bull Organisms acquire the chemical from the reservoir a non-living part of the environment
bull The chemical cycles through the food chain (biogeochemical cycles)
bull Eventually the chemical is returned to the reservoir
112
Hydrologic Cycle and the Florida Springs
bull Click here for a description of how falling rain feeds underground aquifers in Florida and forms springs
113
The Most Important Chemical Cycles
1) Carbon
2) Nitrogen
3) Phosphorus
4) Sulfur
114
115
The
Carbon
Cycle
116
The Carbon Cycle
Keeping Up With Carbon
NASA video provides key information on the carbon cycle
117
118
Carbon Cycle Game
Fossil Fuels
bull created when large numbers of organisms die and are buried in sediment lacking oxygen
bull In absence of oxygen at high pressures and after very long periods of time organic remains are ultimately transformed into coal oil and natural gas
bull burning coal oil and natural gas releases large amounts of carbon dioxide
bull increases average CO2 concentration in the atmosphere
bull current level of CO2 in the atmosphere is the highest it has been in almost half a million years
119
Global CO2 levels are rising in
general but they also exhibit a
sharp rise and fall within each
year ndash why
120
121
The Nitrogen Cycle
122
The Nitrogen Cycle
Fertilizers
bull Because it is necessary for the production of every plant
protein and because all nitrogen must first be made
usable by bacteria plant growth is often limited by
nitrogen levels in the soil
bull For this reason most fertilizers contain nitrogen in a
form usable by plants
123
124
125
126
127
Oxygen reduction downstream of a source of
organic pollution
128
Algal growth and eutrophication in an Australian
outback waterway
129
Sulfur Cycle
bull component of protein
bull cycles in both a gas and sedimentary cycle
bull source earths crust
bull enters the atmosphere as hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
during fossil fuel combustion volcanic eruptions
gas exchange at ocean surfaces decomposition
130
Sulfur Cycle
bull H2S is immediately oxidized to sulfur dioxide (SO2)
bull SO2 + water vapor H2SO4 (falls to earth in rain)
bull sulfur in soluble form is taken up by plant roots
incorporated into amino acids such as cysteine
bull travels through food chain
bull eventually released through decomposition
131
How is carbon recycled back to the
atmosphere in the carbon cycle
1 It is ldquofixedrdquo by bacteria
2 It is a product of cellular respiration
3 Burning of fossil fuels
4 2 and 3
5 All of the above
132
Why do commercial fertilizers usually
contain usable forms of nitrogen and
phosphorous
1 These chemicals are not efficiently recycled in
the soil
2 Nitrogen and phosphorous need to be ldquofixedrdquo
by bacteria or the plant
3 Nitrogen and phosphorous are found at high
levels in the atmosphere but not in the soil
4 Nitrogen and phosphorous only enter the soil
through erosion
133
Take-home message
bull Chemicals essential to lifemdashincluding carbon nitrogen and phosphorusmdashcycle through ecosystems
bull They are usually captured from the atmosphere soil or water by growing organisms passed from one trophic level to the next as organisms eat other organisms and returned to the environment through respiration decomposition and erosion
bull These cycles can be disrupted as human activities significantly increase the amounts of the chemicals utilized or released to the environment
134
Symbiotic Relationships
bull Symbiosis close relationship between organisms of
two different species
bull At least one participant gains some sort of benefit
(usually nutritional)
bull Types of symbiosis
bull Parasitism
bull Commensalism
bull Mutualism
bull Predation
135
Symbiotic Relationships in the
Ocean
bull Click here for an explanation of the
relationships of marine animals
including sharks rays and various
fishes
136
Parasitism bull Parasite derives nutrition from the host
bull This harms the host but a true parasite does
not usually kill its host (directly)
137
Ectoparasites
Remain outside the host
Ticks fleas leeches
138
Endoparasites
Live inside the hostrsquos body
Tapeworms malarial parasites
139
Parasite Transmission
bull Many parasites live on or in a single organism
bull Some will alternate between 2 or more host species
bull Vertical transmission ndash from mother offspring
bull Horizontal transmission ndash between members of a
population
bull Direct contact (head lice)
bull Vectors (mosquitos)
140
141
Commensalism
bull Neither species is totally dependent on the other
bull One benefits ndash no effect on the other
bull Feeding or protection
bull Porcelain anemone crabs and anemones
142
Mutualism
bull Both species benefit
bull Food or shelter
bull Examples
bull Plants and microbes (rhizobium in root nodules)
bull Plants and fungi (orchids and mycorrhizae)
bull Protists and fungi (lichen)
bull Plants and insects (pollination)
bull Animals and bacteria (ruminants)
bull Animals and other animals (crocodiles and
plover birds)
143
Mutualism shrimp and moray
Cleaner shrimp cleaning a zebra moray eel Mutualistic
relationships such as these promote the well-being of the
host fishes and provide food for those that do the cleaning 144
Rhizobium
Rhizobium in root nodules of certain plants convert
nitrogen in soil to usable form
145
Orchid Mycorrhizae
Fungi aid the plant in the uptake of nutrients
Fungi ingest some of the food from plant
photosynthesis 146
Lichen
Most of the lichen is composed of fungal filaments
but living among the filaments are algal cells
usually from a green alga or a cyanobacterium
The lichen fungus provides its partner(s) a benefit
(protection) and gains nutrients in return 147
Ruminants
Ruminants are characterized by their four-chambered
stomach and cud-chewing behavior Cud is a food bolus
that is regurgitated rechewed and reswallowed The
rumen is a large fermentation vat containing billions of
microorganisms including bacteria and protozoa which
allow ruminants to digest fibrous feeds such as grass and
hay that other animals cannot efficiently utilize 148
Crocodiles amp
Plover Birds
The bird gets into the crocodiles mouth and picks out
the tiny bits of food stuck in his teeth then eats it (the
tiny bits)
This cleans the crocodiles teeth and keeps his mouth
fresh and free from infections 149
Predation
bull Consumption of one living organism by
another
bull Predators must have offensive strategies
bull ways of finding catching and eating
their prey
bull Prey organisms must have defensive
strategies
bull ways of avoiding or discouraging this
activity
150
Predation
bull Encompasses all levels within an
ecological food chainweb
bull plant-herbivore systems
bull herbivore-carnivore systems
bull three-way interactions of
interdependent plant-herbivore-
carnivore systems
151
This goshawk is the tertiary consumer in his ecosystem
and the mouse in his beak is the secondary consumer
Beneath the mouse on the ecological pyramid lies his
foodsource likely a worm which fed on the primary
producer leafy plants 152
Ecosystem of Life in Floridas
Springs
bull Click here for a close-up look of life
in Floridas springs and the various
predator-prey interactions there
153
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
Eastern Chipmunk
Tamias striatus
Eastern Gray Squirrel
Sciurus carolinensis
56
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
Yellow-breasted chat
Icteria virens 57
Tundra
bull annual average temperature lt 5 C
bull precipitation (mostly in the form of snow) lt 100 mmyear
bull summer is brief
bull temperatures above freezing last only a few weeks at
most
bull warm summer coincides with periods of almost 24
hour daylight so plant growth can be explosive
58
Tundra
Anaktuvuk Pass Alaska
59
Tundra ndash Indicator Plant Species
Arctic Tundra Wildflowers - Alaska
60
Tundra ndash Indicator Plant Species
Lichen
Polytrichum Moss
(photographed in Ohio not on the
Tundra)
61
Tundra ndash Indicator Animal Species
Reindeer
Rangifer tarandus
62
Tundra ndash Indicator Animal Species
Caribou On Autumn Tundra Denali National Park Alaska
63
Savanna
bull rolling grassland scattered with shrubs and isolated trees
bull found between a tropical rainforest and desert biome
bull not enough rain falls on a savanna to support forests
bull found in a wide band on either side of the equator on
the edges of tropical rainforests
bull warm temperature year round
bull very long dry season (winter) ~ 10 cm rain none at all
from Dec - Feb
bull very wet season (summer) ~ 35-65 cm rain
64
Savanna
65
Savanna ndash Indicator Plant Species
Baobab
Adansonia digitata Umbrella Thorn Acacia
Acacia tortillis
66
Savanna ndash Indicator Animal Species
Savanna Elephant
Loxodonta africana
Black Mamba
Dendroaspis polylepis
Lion
Panthera leo
67
Chaparral
bull winter mild and moist but not rainy
bull summer very hot and dry
bull annual temperature range between -1deg and 38deg C
bull annual precipitation ~ 25-45 cm mostly in the winter
68
Chaparral
69
Chaparral ndash Indicator Plant Species
Blue Oak
Quercus douglasii
Common Sagebrush
Artemisia tridentata
Olive Tree
Olea europaea
70
Chaparral ndash Indicator Animal Species
Black-tailed Jackrabbit
Lepus californicus Golden Jackal
Canis aureus
Spotted Skunk
Spilogale gracilis
71
The Freshwater Biome
bull low salt concentration mdash usually less than 1
bull plants and animals in freshwater regions are adjusted to
the low salt content and would not be able to survive in
areas of high salt concentration (ie ocean)
bull 3 different types of freshwater regions
bull ponds and lakes
bull streams and rivers
bull wetlands
72
The Freshwater Biome ndash Ponds and Lakes
From left a view across Manzanita Lake toward Mt Lassen California a
forest pond near Donnelly Idaho a Great Blue Heron Paranagat Lake
southeastern Nevada
73
The Freshwater Biome ndash Streams and
Rivers
From left McArthur-Burney Falls State Park California trout Green
River Utah Brooks River Alaska
74
The Freshwater Biome - Wetlands
From left Pescadero Marsh California coastal marsh at Umpqua
Dunes Oregon trees and bogs on Esther Island Alaska
75
The Marine Biome
bull cover about three-fourths of the Earths surface
bull marine algae supply much of the worlds oxygen supply
and take in a huge amount of atmospheric carbon
dioxide
bull evaporation of the seawater provides rainwater for the
land
bull 3 different types of marine regions
bull oceans
bull coral reefs
bull estuaries
76
The Marine Biome - Oceans
From left mussels worms and a spider crab at a hydrocarbon seep
community in the Gulf of Mexico a sea fan and brain coral in the Florida
Keys National Marine Sanctuary a school of Atlantic amberjack off North
Carolina
77
The Marine Biome ndash Coral Reefs
From left reef life in the Gulf of Aqaba Red Sea a reef at Fanning
Island atoll in the central Pacific a reef in the Florida Keys National
Marine Sanctuary
78
The Marine Biome - Estuaries
From left Mangrove roots south Florida wetlands and tidal streams
in the Ashe Island area ACE Basin National Estuarine Research
Reserve South Carolina a salt marsh in Winyah Bay National
Estuarine Research Reserve South Carolina
79
Ecological Notes
These are the biomes in order of their productivity (highest
first)
1 estuaries and tropical rain forest (highest)
2 temperate forest
3 agricultural land
4 temperate grassland
5 lakes and streams
6 coastal zone
7 tundra
8 open ocean
9 desert (lowest)
80
Ecological Notes
In order to be productive and have a lot of living material
standing around (biomass) an ecosystem has to have 4
basic necessities for plant life to thrive (if there are
enough plants the ecosystem will also support a lot of
animals) The four things are
1 Sunlight
2 Nutrients
3 Warm temperatures
4 Water
81
Biomes Video
82
Take-Home Message
bull Biomes are the major ecological communities of earth
characterized mostly by the vegetation present
bull Different biomes result from differences in temperature
and precipitation and the extent to which they vary from
season to season
83
Challenge Question
bull Terrestrial biomes are determined by the temperature
and precipitation amounts as well as whether those
factors are constant or vary by season
bull By contrast how are aquatic biomes determined
84
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy flows from producers to
consumers
85
86
87
First Stop Primary Producers
bull ecosystem producers or consumers
bull primary producers plants algae (some) bacteria
bull convert light energy from sun into chemical energy
through photosynthesis
bull chemical energy = food
bull consumers eat or absorb their food
bull energy stored in chemical bonds of carbohydrate
protein and lipid molecules is captured and
harnessed for consumersrsquo own movement
reproduction and growth
88
Food Chain
89
Food Web
90
Food Web
91
Food Chains amp Food Webs
bull A change in one link in a food chain will affect the other
links
bull The table on the next slide gives one example of a food
chain and the trophic levels represented in it
92
Food Chains amp Food Webs
93
GRASS
GRASSHOPPER
TOAD
SNAKE
HAWK
BACTERIA
IN GENERAL
AUTOTROPHS
(PRODUCERS)
HERBIVORES
(PRIMARY
CONSUMERS)
CARNIVORES
(2 3 ETC)
DECOMPOSERS
94
Chain Reaction Game
95
Energy Flows through a Food Web
bull Losses at every ldquosteprdquo in a food chain
bull Inefficiency of energy transfers
96
Energy flow through a food chain
Energy flow refers to the way that energy is transformed through
a food chain (pictured here) containing a series of levels
including plants consumers predators and decomposers 97
Amount of energy available at each of the
four levels of an ecosystem
Ecological pyramids illustrate the amount of energy
available at each of the four levels of an ecosystem 98
Ecological Pyramid
99
A grasshopper eats a plant A mouse eats the
grasshopper A snake eats the mouse A hawk
could eat the snake or the mouse In this food
web how would we categorize the hawk
1 Producer
2 Primary consumer
3 Secondary consumer
4 Tertiary consumer
5 Quaternary consumer
6 4 and 5
100
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps
bull First it is converted to chemical energy in
photosynthesis
bull Herbivores then consume the primary producers the
herbivores are consumed by carnivores and the
carnivores in turn may be consumed by top carnivores
101
Take-home message
bull Detritivores and decomposers extract energy from
organic waste and the remains of organisms that have
died
bull At each step in a food chain some usable energy is lost
as heat
102
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy pyramids reveal the inefficiency of
food chains
103
Biomass
bull biomass total weight of all living organisms in a given
area
bull only about 10 of the plants in an ecosystem is
converted into biomass
bull Food Energy Pyramid
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
bull African savannas and grasslands sustain more species
of higher-order carnivores than any other terrestrial
ecosystem
104
105
Food Energy Pyramids
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
106
107
108
You go out to eat at a fancy restaurant You
have a salad salmon and for dessert ice
cream Which part of the meal was the most
energy efficient food for you to eat
1 Salad
2 Salmon
3 Ice cream
4 2 and 3
109
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps known as trophic levels
bull Energy pyramids reveal that the biomass of primary
producers in an ecosystem tends to be far greater than
the biomass of herbivores
bull The biomass transferred at each step along the food chain tends to be only about 10 of the biomass of the organisms being consumed due to energy lost in cellular respiration
bull As a consequence of this inefficiency food chains rarely exceed four levels
110
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Essential chemicals cycle through
ecosystems
111
Chemical Reservoirs
bull Each chemical is stored in a non-living part of the environment
bull Organisms acquire the chemical from the reservoir a non-living part of the environment
bull The chemical cycles through the food chain (biogeochemical cycles)
bull Eventually the chemical is returned to the reservoir
112
Hydrologic Cycle and the Florida Springs
bull Click here for a description of how falling rain feeds underground aquifers in Florida and forms springs
113
The Most Important Chemical Cycles
1) Carbon
2) Nitrogen
3) Phosphorus
4) Sulfur
114
115
The
Carbon
Cycle
116
The Carbon Cycle
Keeping Up With Carbon
NASA video provides key information on the carbon cycle
117
118
Carbon Cycle Game
Fossil Fuels
bull created when large numbers of organisms die and are buried in sediment lacking oxygen
bull In absence of oxygen at high pressures and after very long periods of time organic remains are ultimately transformed into coal oil and natural gas
bull burning coal oil and natural gas releases large amounts of carbon dioxide
bull increases average CO2 concentration in the atmosphere
bull current level of CO2 in the atmosphere is the highest it has been in almost half a million years
119
Global CO2 levels are rising in
general but they also exhibit a
sharp rise and fall within each
year ndash why
120
121
The Nitrogen Cycle
122
The Nitrogen Cycle
Fertilizers
bull Because it is necessary for the production of every plant
protein and because all nitrogen must first be made
usable by bacteria plant growth is often limited by
nitrogen levels in the soil
bull For this reason most fertilizers contain nitrogen in a
form usable by plants
123
124
125
126
127
Oxygen reduction downstream of a source of
organic pollution
128
Algal growth and eutrophication in an Australian
outback waterway
129
Sulfur Cycle
bull component of protein
bull cycles in both a gas and sedimentary cycle
bull source earths crust
bull enters the atmosphere as hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
during fossil fuel combustion volcanic eruptions
gas exchange at ocean surfaces decomposition
130
Sulfur Cycle
bull H2S is immediately oxidized to sulfur dioxide (SO2)
bull SO2 + water vapor H2SO4 (falls to earth in rain)
bull sulfur in soluble form is taken up by plant roots
incorporated into amino acids such as cysteine
bull travels through food chain
bull eventually released through decomposition
131
How is carbon recycled back to the
atmosphere in the carbon cycle
1 It is ldquofixedrdquo by bacteria
2 It is a product of cellular respiration
3 Burning of fossil fuels
4 2 and 3
5 All of the above
132
Why do commercial fertilizers usually
contain usable forms of nitrogen and
phosphorous
1 These chemicals are not efficiently recycled in
the soil
2 Nitrogen and phosphorous need to be ldquofixedrdquo
by bacteria or the plant
3 Nitrogen and phosphorous are found at high
levels in the atmosphere but not in the soil
4 Nitrogen and phosphorous only enter the soil
through erosion
133
Take-home message
bull Chemicals essential to lifemdashincluding carbon nitrogen and phosphorusmdashcycle through ecosystems
bull They are usually captured from the atmosphere soil or water by growing organisms passed from one trophic level to the next as organisms eat other organisms and returned to the environment through respiration decomposition and erosion
bull These cycles can be disrupted as human activities significantly increase the amounts of the chemicals utilized or released to the environment
134
Symbiotic Relationships
bull Symbiosis close relationship between organisms of
two different species
bull At least one participant gains some sort of benefit
(usually nutritional)
bull Types of symbiosis
bull Parasitism
bull Commensalism
bull Mutualism
bull Predation
135
Symbiotic Relationships in the
Ocean
bull Click here for an explanation of the
relationships of marine animals
including sharks rays and various
fishes
136
Parasitism bull Parasite derives nutrition from the host
bull This harms the host but a true parasite does
not usually kill its host (directly)
137
Ectoparasites
Remain outside the host
Ticks fleas leeches
138
Endoparasites
Live inside the hostrsquos body
Tapeworms malarial parasites
139
Parasite Transmission
bull Many parasites live on or in a single organism
bull Some will alternate between 2 or more host species
bull Vertical transmission ndash from mother offspring
bull Horizontal transmission ndash between members of a
population
bull Direct contact (head lice)
bull Vectors (mosquitos)
140
141
Commensalism
bull Neither species is totally dependent on the other
bull One benefits ndash no effect on the other
bull Feeding or protection
bull Porcelain anemone crabs and anemones
142
Mutualism
bull Both species benefit
bull Food or shelter
bull Examples
bull Plants and microbes (rhizobium in root nodules)
bull Plants and fungi (orchids and mycorrhizae)
bull Protists and fungi (lichen)
bull Plants and insects (pollination)
bull Animals and bacteria (ruminants)
bull Animals and other animals (crocodiles and
plover birds)
143
Mutualism shrimp and moray
Cleaner shrimp cleaning a zebra moray eel Mutualistic
relationships such as these promote the well-being of the
host fishes and provide food for those that do the cleaning 144
Rhizobium
Rhizobium in root nodules of certain plants convert
nitrogen in soil to usable form
145
Orchid Mycorrhizae
Fungi aid the plant in the uptake of nutrients
Fungi ingest some of the food from plant
photosynthesis 146
Lichen
Most of the lichen is composed of fungal filaments
but living among the filaments are algal cells
usually from a green alga or a cyanobacterium
The lichen fungus provides its partner(s) a benefit
(protection) and gains nutrients in return 147
Ruminants
Ruminants are characterized by their four-chambered
stomach and cud-chewing behavior Cud is a food bolus
that is regurgitated rechewed and reswallowed The
rumen is a large fermentation vat containing billions of
microorganisms including bacteria and protozoa which
allow ruminants to digest fibrous feeds such as grass and
hay that other animals cannot efficiently utilize 148
Crocodiles amp
Plover Birds
The bird gets into the crocodiles mouth and picks out
the tiny bits of food stuck in his teeth then eats it (the
tiny bits)
This cleans the crocodiles teeth and keeps his mouth
fresh and free from infections 149
Predation
bull Consumption of one living organism by
another
bull Predators must have offensive strategies
bull ways of finding catching and eating
their prey
bull Prey organisms must have defensive
strategies
bull ways of avoiding or discouraging this
activity
150
Predation
bull Encompasses all levels within an
ecological food chainweb
bull plant-herbivore systems
bull herbivore-carnivore systems
bull three-way interactions of
interdependent plant-herbivore-
carnivore systems
151
This goshawk is the tertiary consumer in his ecosystem
and the mouse in his beak is the secondary consumer
Beneath the mouse on the ecological pyramid lies his
foodsource likely a worm which fed on the primary
producer leafy plants 152
Ecosystem of Life in Floridas
Springs
bull Click here for a close-up look of life
in Floridas springs and the various
predator-prey interactions there
153
Temperate Deciduous Forest
Indicator Animal Species
Yellow-breasted chat
Icteria virens 57
Tundra
bull annual average temperature lt 5 C
bull precipitation (mostly in the form of snow) lt 100 mmyear
bull summer is brief
bull temperatures above freezing last only a few weeks at
most
bull warm summer coincides with periods of almost 24
hour daylight so plant growth can be explosive
58
Tundra
Anaktuvuk Pass Alaska
59
Tundra ndash Indicator Plant Species
Arctic Tundra Wildflowers - Alaska
60
Tundra ndash Indicator Plant Species
Lichen
Polytrichum Moss
(photographed in Ohio not on the
Tundra)
61
Tundra ndash Indicator Animal Species
Reindeer
Rangifer tarandus
62
Tundra ndash Indicator Animal Species
Caribou On Autumn Tundra Denali National Park Alaska
63
Savanna
bull rolling grassland scattered with shrubs and isolated trees
bull found between a tropical rainforest and desert biome
bull not enough rain falls on a savanna to support forests
bull found in a wide band on either side of the equator on
the edges of tropical rainforests
bull warm temperature year round
bull very long dry season (winter) ~ 10 cm rain none at all
from Dec - Feb
bull very wet season (summer) ~ 35-65 cm rain
64
Savanna
65
Savanna ndash Indicator Plant Species
Baobab
Adansonia digitata Umbrella Thorn Acacia
Acacia tortillis
66
Savanna ndash Indicator Animal Species
Savanna Elephant
Loxodonta africana
Black Mamba
Dendroaspis polylepis
Lion
Panthera leo
67
Chaparral
bull winter mild and moist but not rainy
bull summer very hot and dry
bull annual temperature range between -1deg and 38deg C
bull annual precipitation ~ 25-45 cm mostly in the winter
68
Chaparral
69
Chaparral ndash Indicator Plant Species
Blue Oak
Quercus douglasii
Common Sagebrush
Artemisia tridentata
Olive Tree
Olea europaea
70
Chaparral ndash Indicator Animal Species
Black-tailed Jackrabbit
Lepus californicus Golden Jackal
Canis aureus
Spotted Skunk
Spilogale gracilis
71
The Freshwater Biome
bull low salt concentration mdash usually less than 1
bull plants and animals in freshwater regions are adjusted to
the low salt content and would not be able to survive in
areas of high salt concentration (ie ocean)
bull 3 different types of freshwater regions
bull ponds and lakes
bull streams and rivers
bull wetlands
72
The Freshwater Biome ndash Ponds and Lakes
From left a view across Manzanita Lake toward Mt Lassen California a
forest pond near Donnelly Idaho a Great Blue Heron Paranagat Lake
southeastern Nevada
73
The Freshwater Biome ndash Streams and
Rivers
From left McArthur-Burney Falls State Park California trout Green
River Utah Brooks River Alaska
74
The Freshwater Biome - Wetlands
From left Pescadero Marsh California coastal marsh at Umpqua
Dunes Oregon trees and bogs on Esther Island Alaska
75
The Marine Biome
bull cover about three-fourths of the Earths surface
bull marine algae supply much of the worlds oxygen supply
and take in a huge amount of atmospheric carbon
dioxide
bull evaporation of the seawater provides rainwater for the
land
bull 3 different types of marine regions
bull oceans
bull coral reefs
bull estuaries
76
The Marine Biome - Oceans
From left mussels worms and a spider crab at a hydrocarbon seep
community in the Gulf of Mexico a sea fan and brain coral in the Florida
Keys National Marine Sanctuary a school of Atlantic amberjack off North
Carolina
77
The Marine Biome ndash Coral Reefs
From left reef life in the Gulf of Aqaba Red Sea a reef at Fanning
Island atoll in the central Pacific a reef in the Florida Keys National
Marine Sanctuary
78
The Marine Biome - Estuaries
From left Mangrove roots south Florida wetlands and tidal streams
in the Ashe Island area ACE Basin National Estuarine Research
Reserve South Carolina a salt marsh in Winyah Bay National
Estuarine Research Reserve South Carolina
79
Ecological Notes
These are the biomes in order of their productivity (highest
first)
1 estuaries and tropical rain forest (highest)
2 temperate forest
3 agricultural land
4 temperate grassland
5 lakes and streams
6 coastal zone
7 tundra
8 open ocean
9 desert (lowest)
80
Ecological Notes
In order to be productive and have a lot of living material
standing around (biomass) an ecosystem has to have 4
basic necessities for plant life to thrive (if there are
enough plants the ecosystem will also support a lot of
animals) The four things are
1 Sunlight
2 Nutrients
3 Warm temperatures
4 Water
81
Biomes Video
82
Take-Home Message
bull Biomes are the major ecological communities of earth
characterized mostly by the vegetation present
bull Different biomes result from differences in temperature
and precipitation and the extent to which they vary from
season to season
83
Challenge Question
bull Terrestrial biomes are determined by the temperature
and precipitation amounts as well as whether those
factors are constant or vary by season
bull By contrast how are aquatic biomes determined
84
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy flows from producers to
consumers
85
86
87
First Stop Primary Producers
bull ecosystem producers or consumers
bull primary producers plants algae (some) bacteria
bull convert light energy from sun into chemical energy
through photosynthesis
bull chemical energy = food
bull consumers eat or absorb their food
bull energy stored in chemical bonds of carbohydrate
protein and lipid molecules is captured and
harnessed for consumersrsquo own movement
reproduction and growth
88
Food Chain
89
Food Web
90
Food Web
91
Food Chains amp Food Webs
bull A change in one link in a food chain will affect the other
links
bull The table on the next slide gives one example of a food
chain and the trophic levels represented in it
92
Food Chains amp Food Webs
93
GRASS
GRASSHOPPER
TOAD
SNAKE
HAWK
BACTERIA
IN GENERAL
AUTOTROPHS
(PRODUCERS)
HERBIVORES
(PRIMARY
CONSUMERS)
CARNIVORES
(2 3 ETC)
DECOMPOSERS
94
Chain Reaction Game
95
Energy Flows through a Food Web
bull Losses at every ldquosteprdquo in a food chain
bull Inefficiency of energy transfers
96
Energy flow through a food chain
Energy flow refers to the way that energy is transformed through
a food chain (pictured here) containing a series of levels
including plants consumers predators and decomposers 97
Amount of energy available at each of the
four levels of an ecosystem
Ecological pyramids illustrate the amount of energy
available at each of the four levels of an ecosystem 98
Ecological Pyramid
99
A grasshopper eats a plant A mouse eats the
grasshopper A snake eats the mouse A hawk
could eat the snake or the mouse In this food
web how would we categorize the hawk
1 Producer
2 Primary consumer
3 Secondary consumer
4 Tertiary consumer
5 Quaternary consumer
6 4 and 5
100
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps
bull First it is converted to chemical energy in
photosynthesis
bull Herbivores then consume the primary producers the
herbivores are consumed by carnivores and the
carnivores in turn may be consumed by top carnivores
101
Take-home message
bull Detritivores and decomposers extract energy from
organic waste and the remains of organisms that have
died
bull At each step in a food chain some usable energy is lost
as heat
102
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy pyramids reveal the inefficiency of
food chains
103
Biomass
bull biomass total weight of all living organisms in a given
area
bull only about 10 of the plants in an ecosystem is
converted into biomass
bull Food Energy Pyramid
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
bull African savannas and grasslands sustain more species
of higher-order carnivores than any other terrestrial
ecosystem
104
105
Food Energy Pyramids
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
106
107
108
You go out to eat at a fancy restaurant You
have a salad salmon and for dessert ice
cream Which part of the meal was the most
energy efficient food for you to eat
1 Salad
2 Salmon
3 Ice cream
4 2 and 3
109
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps known as trophic levels
bull Energy pyramids reveal that the biomass of primary
producers in an ecosystem tends to be far greater than
the biomass of herbivores
bull The biomass transferred at each step along the food chain tends to be only about 10 of the biomass of the organisms being consumed due to energy lost in cellular respiration
bull As a consequence of this inefficiency food chains rarely exceed four levels
110
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Essential chemicals cycle through
ecosystems
111
Chemical Reservoirs
bull Each chemical is stored in a non-living part of the environment
bull Organisms acquire the chemical from the reservoir a non-living part of the environment
bull The chemical cycles through the food chain (biogeochemical cycles)
bull Eventually the chemical is returned to the reservoir
112
Hydrologic Cycle and the Florida Springs
bull Click here for a description of how falling rain feeds underground aquifers in Florida and forms springs
113
The Most Important Chemical Cycles
1) Carbon
2) Nitrogen
3) Phosphorus
4) Sulfur
114
115
The
Carbon
Cycle
116
The Carbon Cycle
Keeping Up With Carbon
NASA video provides key information on the carbon cycle
117
118
Carbon Cycle Game
Fossil Fuels
bull created when large numbers of organisms die and are buried in sediment lacking oxygen
bull In absence of oxygen at high pressures and after very long periods of time organic remains are ultimately transformed into coal oil and natural gas
bull burning coal oil and natural gas releases large amounts of carbon dioxide
bull increases average CO2 concentration in the atmosphere
bull current level of CO2 in the atmosphere is the highest it has been in almost half a million years
119
Global CO2 levels are rising in
general but they also exhibit a
sharp rise and fall within each
year ndash why
120
121
The Nitrogen Cycle
122
The Nitrogen Cycle
Fertilizers
bull Because it is necessary for the production of every plant
protein and because all nitrogen must first be made
usable by bacteria plant growth is often limited by
nitrogen levels in the soil
bull For this reason most fertilizers contain nitrogen in a
form usable by plants
123
124
125
126
127
Oxygen reduction downstream of a source of
organic pollution
128
Algal growth and eutrophication in an Australian
outback waterway
129
Sulfur Cycle
bull component of protein
bull cycles in both a gas and sedimentary cycle
bull source earths crust
bull enters the atmosphere as hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
during fossil fuel combustion volcanic eruptions
gas exchange at ocean surfaces decomposition
130
Sulfur Cycle
bull H2S is immediately oxidized to sulfur dioxide (SO2)
bull SO2 + water vapor H2SO4 (falls to earth in rain)
bull sulfur in soluble form is taken up by plant roots
incorporated into amino acids such as cysteine
bull travels through food chain
bull eventually released through decomposition
131
How is carbon recycled back to the
atmosphere in the carbon cycle
1 It is ldquofixedrdquo by bacteria
2 It is a product of cellular respiration
3 Burning of fossil fuels
4 2 and 3
5 All of the above
132
Why do commercial fertilizers usually
contain usable forms of nitrogen and
phosphorous
1 These chemicals are not efficiently recycled in
the soil
2 Nitrogen and phosphorous need to be ldquofixedrdquo
by bacteria or the plant
3 Nitrogen and phosphorous are found at high
levels in the atmosphere but not in the soil
4 Nitrogen and phosphorous only enter the soil
through erosion
133
Take-home message
bull Chemicals essential to lifemdashincluding carbon nitrogen and phosphorusmdashcycle through ecosystems
bull They are usually captured from the atmosphere soil or water by growing organisms passed from one trophic level to the next as organisms eat other organisms and returned to the environment through respiration decomposition and erosion
bull These cycles can be disrupted as human activities significantly increase the amounts of the chemicals utilized or released to the environment
134
Symbiotic Relationships
bull Symbiosis close relationship between organisms of
two different species
bull At least one participant gains some sort of benefit
(usually nutritional)
bull Types of symbiosis
bull Parasitism
bull Commensalism
bull Mutualism
bull Predation
135
Symbiotic Relationships in the
Ocean
bull Click here for an explanation of the
relationships of marine animals
including sharks rays and various
fishes
136
Parasitism bull Parasite derives nutrition from the host
bull This harms the host but a true parasite does
not usually kill its host (directly)
137
Ectoparasites
Remain outside the host
Ticks fleas leeches
138
Endoparasites
Live inside the hostrsquos body
Tapeworms malarial parasites
139
Parasite Transmission
bull Many parasites live on or in a single organism
bull Some will alternate between 2 or more host species
bull Vertical transmission ndash from mother offspring
bull Horizontal transmission ndash between members of a
population
bull Direct contact (head lice)
bull Vectors (mosquitos)
140
141
Commensalism
bull Neither species is totally dependent on the other
bull One benefits ndash no effect on the other
bull Feeding or protection
bull Porcelain anemone crabs and anemones
142
Mutualism
bull Both species benefit
bull Food or shelter
bull Examples
bull Plants and microbes (rhizobium in root nodules)
bull Plants and fungi (orchids and mycorrhizae)
bull Protists and fungi (lichen)
bull Plants and insects (pollination)
bull Animals and bacteria (ruminants)
bull Animals and other animals (crocodiles and
plover birds)
143
Mutualism shrimp and moray
Cleaner shrimp cleaning a zebra moray eel Mutualistic
relationships such as these promote the well-being of the
host fishes and provide food for those that do the cleaning 144
Rhizobium
Rhizobium in root nodules of certain plants convert
nitrogen in soil to usable form
145
Orchid Mycorrhizae
Fungi aid the plant in the uptake of nutrients
Fungi ingest some of the food from plant
photosynthesis 146
Lichen
Most of the lichen is composed of fungal filaments
but living among the filaments are algal cells
usually from a green alga or a cyanobacterium
The lichen fungus provides its partner(s) a benefit
(protection) and gains nutrients in return 147
Ruminants
Ruminants are characterized by their four-chambered
stomach and cud-chewing behavior Cud is a food bolus
that is regurgitated rechewed and reswallowed The
rumen is a large fermentation vat containing billions of
microorganisms including bacteria and protozoa which
allow ruminants to digest fibrous feeds such as grass and
hay that other animals cannot efficiently utilize 148
Crocodiles amp
Plover Birds
The bird gets into the crocodiles mouth and picks out
the tiny bits of food stuck in his teeth then eats it (the
tiny bits)
This cleans the crocodiles teeth and keeps his mouth
fresh and free from infections 149
Predation
bull Consumption of one living organism by
another
bull Predators must have offensive strategies
bull ways of finding catching and eating
their prey
bull Prey organisms must have defensive
strategies
bull ways of avoiding or discouraging this
activity
150
Predation
bull Encompasses all levels within an
ecological food chainweb
bull plant-herbivore systems
bull herbivore-carnivore systems
bull three-way interactions of
interdependent plant-herbivore-
carnivore systems
151
This goshawk is the tertiary consumer in his ecosystem
and the mouse in his beak is the secondary consumer
Beneath the mouse on the ecological pyramid lies his
foodsource likely a worm which fed on the primary
producer leafy plants 152
Ecosystem of Life in Floridas
Springs
bull Click here for a close-up look of life
in Floridas springs and the various
predator-prey interactions there
153
Tundra
bull annual average temperature lt 5 C
bull precipitation (mostly in the form of snow) lt 100 mmyear
bull summer is brief
bull temperatures above freezing last only a few weeks at
most
bull warm summer coincides with periods of almost 24
hour daylight so plant growth can be explosive
58
Tundra
Anaktuvuk Pass Alaska
59
Tundra ndash Indicator Plant Species
Arctic Tundra Wildflowers - Alaska
60
Tundra ndash Indicator Plant Species
Lichen
Polytrichum Moss
(photographed in Ohio not on the
Tundra)
61
Tundra ndash Indicator Animal Species
Reindeer
Rangifer tarandus
62
Tundra ndash Indicator Animal Species
Caribou On Autumn Tundra Denali National Park Alaska
63
Savanna
bull rolling grassland scattered with shrubs and isolated trees
bull found between a tropical rainforest and desert biome
bull not enough rain falls on a savanna to support forests
bull found in a wide band on either side of the equator on
the edges of tropical rainforests
bull warm temperature year round
bull very long dry season (winter) ~ 10 cm rain none at all
from Dec - Feb
bull very wet season (summer) ~ 35-65 cm rain
64
Savanna
65
Savanna ndash Indicator Plant Species
Baobab
Adansonia digitata Umbrella Thorn Acacia
Acacia tortillis
66
Savanna ndash Indicator Animal Species
Savanna Elephant
Loxodonta africana
Black Mamba
Dendroaspis polylepis
Lion
Panthera leo
67
Chaparral
bull winter mild and moist but not rainy
bull summer very hot and dry
bull annual temperature range between -1deg and 38deg C
bull annual precipitation ~ 25-45 cm mostly in the winter
68
Chaparral
69
Chaparral ndash Indicator Plant Species
Blue Oak
Quercus douglasii
Common Sagebrush
Artemisia tridentata
Olive Tree
Olea europaea
70
Chaparral ndash Indicator Animal Species
Black-tailed Jackrabbit
Lepus californicus Golden Jackal
Canis aureus
Spotted Skunk
Spilogale gracilis
71
The Freshwater Biome
bull low salt concentration mdash usually less than 1
bull plants and animals in freshwater regions are adjusted to
the low salt content and would not be able to survive in
areas of high salt concentration (ie ocean)
bull 3 different types of freshwater regions
bull ponds and lakes
bull streams and rivers
bull wetlands
72
The Freshwater Biome ndash Ponds and Lakes
From left a view across Manzanita Lake toward Mt Lassen California a
forest pond near Donnelly Idaho a Great Blue Heron Paranagat Lake
southeastern Nevada
73
The Freshwater Biome ndash Streams and
Rivers
From left McArthur-Burney Falls State Park California trout Green
River Utah Brooks River Alaska
74
The Freshwater Biome - Wetlands
From left Pescadero Marsh California coastal marsh at Umpqua
Dunes Oregon trees and bogs on Esther Island Alaska
75
The Marine Biome
bull cover about three-fourths of the Earths surface
bull marine algae supply much of the worlds oxygen supply
and take in a huge amount of atmospheric carbon
dioxide
bull evaporation of the seawater provides rainwater for the
land
bull 3 different types of marine regions
bull oceans
bull coral reefs
bull estuaries
76
The Marine Biome - Oceans
From left mussels worms and a spider crab at a hydrocarbon seep
community in the Gulf of Mexico a sea fan and brain coral in the Florida
Keys National Marine Sanctuary a school of Atlantic amberjack off North
Carolina
77
The Marine Biome ndash Coral Reefs
From left reef life in the Gulf of Aqaba Red Sea a reef at Fanning
Island atoll in the central Pacific a reef in the Florida Keys National
Marine Sanctuary
78
The Marine Biome - Estuaries
From left Mangrove roots south Florida wetlands and tidal streams
in the Ashe Island area ACE Basin National Estuarine Research
Reserve South Carolina a salt marsh in Winyah Bay National
Estuarine Research Reserve South Carolina
79
Ecological Notes
These are the biomes in order of their productivity (highest
first)
1 estuaries and tropical rain forest (highest)
2 temperate forest
3 agricultural land
4 temperate grassland
5 lakes and streams
6 coastal zone
7 tundra
8 open ocean
9 desert (lowest)
80
Ecological Notes
In order to be productive and have a lot of living material
standing around (biomass) an ecosystem has to have 4
basic necessities for plant life to thrive (if there are
enough plants the ecosystem will also support a lot of
animals) The four things are
1 Sunlight
2 Nutrients
3 Warm temperatures
4 Water
81
Biomes Video
82
Take-Home Message
bull Biomes are the major ecological communities of earth
characterized mostly by the vegetation present
bull Different biomes result from differences in temperature
and precipitation and the extent to which they vary from
season to season
83
Challenge Question
bull Terrestrial biomes are determined by the temperature
and precipitation amounts as well as whether those
factors are constant or vary by season
bull By contrast how are aquatic biomes determined
84
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy flows from producers to
consumers
85
86
87
First Stop Primary Producers
bull ecosystem producers or consumers
bull primary producers plants algae (some) bacteria
bull convert light energy from sun into chemical energy
through photosynthesis
bull chemical energy = food
bull consumers eat or absorb their food
bull energy stored in chemical bonds of carbohydrate
protein and lipid molecules is captured and
harnessed for consumersrsquo own movement
reproduction and growth
88
Food Chain
89
Food Web
90
Food Web
91
Food Chains amp Food Webs
bull A change in one link in a food chain will affect the other
links
bull The table on the next slide gives one example of a food
chain and the trophic levels represented in it
92
Food Chains amp Food Webs
93
GRASS
GRASSHOPPER
TOAD
SNAKE
HAWK
BACTERIA
IN GENERAL
AUTOTROPHS
(PRODUCERS)
HERBIVORES
(PRIMARY
CONSUMERS)
CARNIVORES
(2 3 ETC)
DECOMPOSERS
94
Chain Reaction Game
95
Energy Flows through a Food Web
bull Losses at every ldquosteprdquo in a food chain
bull Inefficiency of energy transfers
96
Energy flow through a food chain
Energy flow refers to the way that energy is transformed through
a food chain (pictured here) containing a series of levels
including plants consumers predators and decomposers 97
Amount of energy available at each of the
four levels of an ecosystem
Ecological pyramids illustrate the amount of energy
available at each of the four levels of an ecosystem 98
Ecological Pyramid
99
A grasshopper eats a plant A mouse eats the
grasshopper A snake eats the mouse A hawk
could eat the snake or the mouse In this food
web how would we categorize the hawk
1 Producer
2 Primary consumer
3 Secondary consumer
4 Tertiary consumer
5 Quaternary consumer
6 4 and 5
100
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps
bull First it is converted to chemical energy in
photosynthesis
bull Herbivores then consume the primary producers the
herbivores are consumed by carnivores and the
carnivores in turn may be consumed by top carnivores
101
Take-home message
bull Detritivores and decomposers extract energy from
organic waste and the remains of organisms that have
died
bull At each step in a food chain some usable energy is lost
as heat
102
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy pyramids reveal the inefficiency of
food chains
103
Biomass
bull biomass total weight of all living organisms in a given
area
bull only about 10 of the plants in an ecosystem is
converted into biomass
bull Food Energy Pyramid
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
bull African savannas and grasslands sustain more species
of higher-order carnivores than any other terrestrial
ecosystem
104
105
Food Energy Pyramids
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
106
107
108
You go out to eat at a fancy restaurant You
have a salad salmon and for dessert ice
cream Which part of the meal was the most
energy efficient food for you to eat
1 Salad
2 Salmon
3 Ice cream
4 2 and 3
109
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps known as trophic levels
bull Energy pyramids reveal that the biomass of primary
producers in an ecosystem tends to be far greater than
the biomass of herbivores
bull The biomass transferred at each step along the food chain tends to be only about 10 of the biomass of the organisms being consumed due to energy lost in cellular respiration
bull As a consequence of this inefficiency food chains rarely exceed four levels
110
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Essential chemicals cycle through
ecosystems
111
Chemical Reservoirs
bull Each chemical is stored in a non-living part of the environment
bull Organisms acquire the chemical from the reservoir a non-living part of the environment
bull The chemical cycles through the food chain (biogeochemical cycles)
bull Eventually the chemical is returned to the reservoir
112
Hydrologic Cycle and the Florida Springs
bull Click here for a description of how falling rain feeds underground aquifers in Florida and forms springs
113
The Most Important Chemical Cycles
1) Carbon
2) Nitrogen
3) Phosphorus
4) Sulfur
114
115
The
Carbon
Cycle
116
The Carbon Cycle
Keeping Up With Carbon
NASA video provides key information on the carbon cycle
117
118
Carbon Cycle Game
Fossil Fuels
bull created when large numbers of organisms die and are buried in sediment lacking oxygen
bull In absence of oxygen at high pressures and after very long periods of time organic remains are ultimately transformed into coal oil and natural gas
bull burning coal oil and natural gas releases large amounts of carbon dioxide
bull increases average CO2 concentration in the atmosphere
bull current level of CO2 in the atmosphere is the highest it has been in almost half a million years
119
Global CO2 levels are rising in
general but they also exhibit a
sharp rise and fall within each
year ndash why
120
121
The Nitrogen Cycle
122
The Nitrogen Cycle
Fertilizers
bull Because it is necessary for the production of every plant
protein and because all nitrogen must first be made
usable by bacteria plant growth is often limited by
nitrogen levels in the soil
bull For this reason most fertilizers contain nitrogen in a
form usable by plants
123
124
125
126
127
Oxygen reduction downstream of a source of
organic pollution
128
Algal growth and eutrophication in an Australian
outback waterway
129
Sulfur Cycle
bull component of protein
bull cycles in both a gas and sedimentary cycle
bull source earths crust
bull enters the atmosphere as hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
during fossil fuel combustion volcanic eruptions
gas exchange at ocean surfaces decomposition
130
Sulfur Cycle
bull H2S is immediately oxidized to sulfur dioxide (SO2)
bull SO2 + water vapor H2SO4 (falls to earth in rain)
bull sulfur in soluble form is taken up by plant roots
incorporated into amino acids such as cysteine
bull travels through food chain
bull eventually released through decomposition
131
How is carbon recycled back to the
atmosphere in the carbon cycle
1 It is ldquofixedrdquo by bacteria
2 It is a product of cellular respiration
3 Burning of fossil fuels
4 2 and 3
5 All of the above
132
Why do commercial fertilizers usually
contain usable forms of nitrogen and
phosphorous
1 These chemicals are not efficiently recycled in
the soil
2 Nitrogen and phosphorous need to be ldquofixedrdquo
by bacteria or the plant
3 Nitrogen and phosphorous are found at high
levels in the atmosphere but not in the soil
4 Nitrogen and phosphorous only enter the soil
through erosion
133
Take-home message
bull Chemicals essential to lifemdashincluding carbon nitrogen and phosphorusmdashcycle through ecosystems
bull They are usually captured from the atmosphere soil or water by growing organisms passed from one trophic level to the next as organisms eat other organisms and returned to the environment through respiration decomposition and erosion
bull These cycles can be disrupted as human activities significantly increase the amounts of the chemicals utilized or released to the environment
134
Symbiotic Relationships
bull Symbiosis close relationship between organisms of
two different species
bull At least one participant gains some sort of benefit
(usually nutritional)
bull Types of symbiosis
bull Parasitism
bull Commensalism
bull Mutualism
bull Predation
135
Symbiotic Relationships in the
Ocean
bull Click here for an explanation of the
relationships of marine animals
including sharks rays and various
fishes
136
Parasitism bull Parasite derives nutrition from the host
bull This harms the host but a true parasite does
not usually kill its host (directly)
137
Ectoparasites
Remain outside the host
Ticks fleas leeches
138
Endoparasites
Live inside the hostrsquos body
Tapeworms malarial parasites
139
Parasite Transmission
bull Many parasites live on or in a single organism
bull Some will alternate between 2 or more host species
bull Vertical transmission ndash from mother offspring
bull Horizontal transmission ndash between members of a
population
bull Direct contact (head lice)
bull Vectors (mosquitos)
140
141
Commensalism
bull Neither species is totally dependent on the other
bull One benefits ndash no effect on the other
bull Feeding or protection
bull Porcelain anemone crabs and anemones
142
Mutualism
bull Both species benefit
bull Food or shelter
bull Examples
bull Plants and microbes (rhizobium in root nodules)
bull Plants and fungi (orchids and mycorrhizae)
bull Protists and fungi (lichen)
bull Plants and insects (pollination)
bull Animals and bacteria (ruminants)
bull Animals and other animals (crocodiles and
plover birds)
143
Mutualism shrimp and moray
Cleaner shrimp cleaning a zebra moray eel Mutualistic
relationships such as these promote the well-being of the
host fishes and provide food for those that do the cleaning 144
Rhizobium
Rhizobium in root nodules of certain plants convert
nitrogen in soil to usable form
145
Orchid Mycorrhizae
Fungi aid the plant in the uptake of nutrients
Fungi ingest some of the food from plant
photosynthesis 146
Lichen
Most of the lichen is composed of fungal filaments
but living among the filaments are algal cells
usually from a green alga or a cyanobacterium
The lichen fungus provides its partner(s) a benefit
(protection) and gains nutrients in return 147
Ruminants
Ruminants are characterized by their four-chambered
stomach and cud-chewing behavior Cud is a food bolus
that is regurgitated rechewed and reswallowed The
rumen is a large fermentation vat containing billions of
microorganisms including bacteria and protozoa which
allow ruminants to digest fibrous feeds such as grass and
hay that other animals cannot efficiently utilize 148
Crocodiles amp
Plover Birds
The bird gets into the crocodiles mouth and picks out
the tiny bits of food stuck in his teeth then eats it (the
tiny bits)
This cleans the crocodiles teeth and keeps his mouth
fresh and free from infections 149
Predation
bull Consumption of one living organism by
another
bull Predators must have offensive strategies
bull ways of finding catching and eating
their prey
bull Prey organisms must have defensive
strategies
bull ways of avoiding or discouraging this
activity
150
Predation
bull Encompasses all levels within an
ecological food chainweb
bull plant-herbivore systems
bull herbivore-carnivore systems
bull three-way interactions of
interdependent plant-herbivore-
carnivore systems
151
This goshawk is the tertiary consumer in his ecosystem
and the mouse in his beak is the secondary consumer
Beneath the mouse on the ecological pyramid lies his
foodsource likely a worm which fed on the primary
producer leafy plants 152
Ecosystem of Life in Floridas
Springs
bull Click here for a close-up look of life
in Floridas springs and the various
predator-prey interactions there
153
Tundra
Anaktuvuk Pass Alaska
59
Tundra ndash Indicator Plant Species
Arctic Tundra Wildflowers - Alaska
60
Tundra ndash Indicator Plant Species
Lichen
Polytrichum Moss
(photographed in Ohio not on the
Tundra)
61
Tundra ndash Indicator Animal Species
Reindeer
Rangifer tarandus
62
Tundra ndash Indicator Animal Species
Caribou On Autumn Tundra Denali National Park Alaska
63
Savanna
bull rolling grassland scattered with shrubs and isolated trees
bull found between a tropical rainforest and desert biome
bull not enough rain falls on a savanna to support forests
bull found in a wide band on either side of the equator on
the edges of tropical rainforests
bull warm temperature year round
bull very long dry season (winter) ~ 10 cm rain none at all
from Dec - Feb
bull very wet season (summer) ~ 35-65 cm rain
64
Savanna
65
Savanna ndash Indicator Plant Species
Baobab
Adansonia digitata Umbrella Thorn Acacia
Acacia tortillis
66
Savanna ndash Indicator Animal Species
Savanna Elephant
Loxodonta africana
Black Mamba
Dendroaspis polylepis
Lion
Panthera leo
67
Chaparral
bull winter mild and moist but not rainy
bull summer very hot and dry
bull annual temperature range between -1deg and 38deg C
bull annual precipitation ~ 25-45 cm mostly in the winter
68
Chaparral
69
Chaparral ndash Indicator Plant Species
Blue Oak
Quercus douglasii
Common Sagebrush
Artemisia tridentata
Olive Tree
Olea europaea
70
Chaparral ndash Indicator Animal Species
Black-tailed Jackrabbit
Lepus californicus Golden Jackal
Canis aureus
Spotted Skunk
Spilogale gracilis
71
The Freshwater Biome
bull low salt concentration mdash usually less than 1
bull plants and animals in freshwater regions are adjusted to
the low salt content and would not be able to survive in
areas of high salt concentration (ie ocean)
bull 3 different types of freshwater regions
bull ponds and lakes
bull streams and rivers
bull wetlands
72
The Freshwater Biome ndash Ponds and Lakes
From left a view across Manzanita Lake toward Mt Lassen California a
forest pond near Donnelly Idaho a Great Blue Heron Paranagat Lake
southeastern Nevada
73
The Freshwater Biome ndash Streams and
Rivers
From left McArthur-Burney Falls State Park California trout Green
River Utah Brooks River Alaska
74
The Freshwater Biome - Wetlands
From left Pescadero Marsh California coastal marsh at Umpqua
Dunes Oregon trees and bogs on Esther Island Alaska
75
The Marine Biome
bull cover about three-fourths of the Earths surface
bull marine algae supply much of the worlds oxygen supply
and take in a huge amount of atmospheric carbon
dioxide
bull evaporation of the seawater provides rainwater for the
land
bull 3 different types of marine regions
bull oceans
bull coral reefs
bull estuaries
76
The Marine Biome - Oceans
From left mussels worms and a spider crab at a hydrocarbon seep
community in the Gulf of Mexico a sea fan and brain coral in the Florida
Keys National Marine Sanctuary a school of Atlantic amberjack off North
Carolina
77
The Marine Biome ndash Coral Reefs
From left reef life in the Gulf of Aqaba Red Sea a reef at Fanning
Island atoll in the central Pacific a reef in the Florida Keys National
Marine Sanctuary
78
The Marine Biome - Estuaries
From left Mangrove roots south Florida wetlands and tidal streams
in the Ashe Island area ACE Basin National Estuarine Research
Reserve South Carolina a salt marsh in Winyah Bay National
Estuarine Research Reserve South Carolina
79
Ecological Notes
These are the biomes in order of their productivity (highest
first)
1 estuaries and tropical rain forest (highest)
2 temperate forest
3 agricultural land
4 temperate grassland
5 lakes and streams
6 coastal zone
7 tundra
8 open ocean
9 desert (lowest)
80
Ecological Notes
In order to be productive and have a lot of living material
standing around (biomass) an ecosystem has to have 4
basic necessities for plant life to thrive (if there are
enough plants the ecosystem will also support a lot of
animals) The four things are
1 Sunlight
2 Nutrients
3 Warm temperatures
4 Water
81
Biomes Video
82
Take-Home Message
bull Biomes are the major ecological communities of earth
characterized mostly by the vegetation present
bull Different biomes result from differences in temperature
and precipitation and the extent to which they vary from
season to season
83
Challenge Question
bull Terrestrial biomes are determined by the temperature
and precipitation amounts as well as whether those
factors are constant or vary by season
bull By contrast how are aquatic biomes determined
84
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy flows from producers to
consumers
85
86
87
First Stop Primary Producers
bull ecosystem producers or consumers
bull primary producers plants algae (some) bacteria
bull convert light energy from sun into chemical energy
through photosynthesis
bull chemical energy = food
bull consumers eat or absorb their food
bull energy stored in chemical bonds of carbohydrate
protein and lipid molecules is captured and
harnessed for consumersrsquo own movement
reproduction and growth
88
Food Chain
89
Food Web
90
Food Web
91
Food Chains amp Food Webs
bull A change in one link in a food chain will affect the other
links
bull The table on the next slide gives one example of a food
chain and the trophic levels represented in it
92
Food Chains amp Food Webs
93
GRASS
GRASSHOPPER
TOAD
SNAKE
HAWK
BACTERIA
IN GENERAL
AUTOTROPHS
(PRODUCERS)
HERBIVORES
(PRIMARY
CONSUMERS)
CARNIVORES
(2 3 ETC)
DECOMPOSERS
94
Chain Reaction Game
95
Energy Flows through a Food Web
bull Losses at every ldquosteprdquo in a food chain
bull Inefficiency of energy transfers
96
Energy flow through a food chain
Energy flow refers to the way that energy is transformed through
a food chain (pictured here) containing a series of levels
including plants consumers predators and decomposers 97
Amount of energy available at each of the
four levels of an ecosystem
Ecological pyramids illustrate the amount of energy
available at each of the four levels of an ecosystem 98
Ecological Pyramid
99
A grasshopper eats a plant A mouse eats the
grasshopper A snake eats the mouse A hawk
could eat the snake or the mouse In this food
web how would we categorize the hawk
1 Producer
2 Primary consumer
3 Secondary consumer
4 Tertiary consumer
5 Quaternary consumer
6 4 and 5
100
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps
bull First it is converted to chemical energy in
photosynthesis
bull Herbivores then consume the primary producers the
herbivores are consumed by carnivores and the
carnivores in turn may be consumed by top carnivores
101
Take-home message
bull Detritivores and decomposers extract energy from
organic waste and the remains of organisms that have
died
bull At each step in a food chain some usable energy is lost
as heat
102
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy pyramids reveal the inefficiency of
food chains
103
Biomass
bull biomass total weight of all living organisms in a given
area
bull only about 10 of the plants in an ecosystem is
converted into biomass
bull Food Energy Pyramid
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
bull African savannas and grasslands sustain more species
of higher-order carnivores than any other terrestrial
ecosystem
104
105
Food Energy Pyramids
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
106
107
108
You go out to eat at a fancy restaurant You
have a salad salmon and for dessert ice
cream Which part of the meal was the most
energy efficient food for you to eat
1 Salad
2 Salmon
3 Ice cream
4 2 and 3
109
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps known as trophic levels
bull Energy pyramids reveal that the biomass of primary
producers in an ecosystem tends to be far greater than
the biomass of herbivores
bull The biomass transferred at each step along the food chain tends to be only about 10 of the biomass of the organisms being consumed due to energy lost in cellular respiration
bull As a consequence of this inefficiency food chains rarely exceed four levels
110
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Essential chemicals cycle through
ecosystems
111
Chemical Reservoirs
bull Each chemical is stored in a non-living part of the environment
bull Organisms acquire the chemical from the reservoir a non-living part of the environment
bull The chemical cycles through the food chain (biogeochemical cycles)
bull Eventually the chemical is returned to the reservoir
112
Hydrologic Cycle and the Florida Springs
bull Click here for a description of how falling rain feeds underground aquifers in Florida and forms springs
113
The Most Important Chemical Cycles
1) Carbon
2) Nitrogen
3) Phosphorus
4) Sulfur
114
115
The
Carbon
Cycle
116
The Carbon Cycle
Keeping Up With Carbon
NASA video provides key information on the carbon cycle
117
118
Carbon Cycle Game
Fossil Fuels
bull created when large numbers of organisms die and are buried in sediment lacking oxygen
bull In absence of oxygen at high pressures and after very long periods of time organic remains are ultimately transformed into coal oil and natural gas
bull burning coal oil and natural gas releases large amounts of carbon dioxide
bull increases average CO2 concentration in the atmosphere
bull current level of CO2 in the atmosphere is the highest it has been in almost half a million years
119
Global CO2 levels are rising in
general but they also exhibit a
sharp rise and fall within each
year ndash why
120
121
The Nitrogen Cycle
122
The Nitrogen Cycle
Fertilizers
bull Because it is necessary for the production of every plant
protein and because all nitrogen must first be made
usable by bacteria plant growth is often limited by
nitrogen levels in the soil
bull For this reason most fertilizers contain nitrogen in a
form usable by plants
123
124
125
126
127
Oxygen reduction downstream of a source of
organic pollution
128
Algal growth and eutrophication in an Australian
outback waterway
129
Sulfur Cycle
bull component of protein
bull cycles in both a gas and sedimentary cycle
bull source earths crust
bull enters the atmosphere as hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
during fossil fuel combustion volcanic eruptions
gas exchange at ocean surfaces decomposition
130
Sulfur Cycle
bull H2S is immediately oxidized to sulfur dioxide (SO2)
bull SO2 + water vapor H2SO4 (falls to earth in rain)
bull sulfur in soluble form is taken up by plant roots
incorporated into amino acids such as cysteine
bull travels through food chain
bull eventually released through decomposition
131
How is carbon recycled back to the
atmosphere in the carbon cycle
1 It is ldquofixedrdquo by bacteria
2 It is a product of cellular respiration
3 Burning of fossil fuels
4 2 and 3
5 All of the above
132
Why do commercial fertilizers usually
contain usable forms of nitrogen and
phosphorous
1 These chemicals are not efficiently recycled in
the soil
2 Nitrogen and phosphorous need to be ldquofixedrdquo
by bacteria or the plant
3 Nitrogen and phosphorous are found at high
levels in the atmosphere but not in the soil
4 Nitrogen and phosphorous only enter the soil
through erosion
133
Take-home message
bull Chemicals essential to lifemdashincluding carbon nitrogen and phosphorusmdashcycle through ecosystems
bull They are usually captured from the atmosphere soil or water by growing organisms passed from one trophic level to the next as organisms eat other organisms and returned to the environment through respiration decomposition and erosion
bull These cycles can be disrupted as human activities significantly increase the amounts of the chemicals utilized or released to the environment
134
Symbiotic Relationships
bull Symbiosis close relationship between organisms of
two different species
bull At least one participant gains some sort of benefit
(usually nutritional)
bull Types of symbiosis
bull Parasitism
bull Commensalism
bull Mutualism
bull Predation
135
Symbiotic Relationships in the
Ocean
bull Click here for an explanation of the
relationships of marine animals
including sharks rays and various
fishes
136
Parasitism bull Parasite derives nutrition from the host
bull This harms the host but a true parasite does
not usually kill its host (directly)
137
Ectoparasites
Remain outside the host
Ticks fleas leeches
138
Endoparasites
Live inside the hostrsquos body
Tapeworms malarial parasites
139
Parasite Transmission
bull Many parasites live on or in a single organism
bull Some will alternate between 2 or more host species
bull Vertical transmission ndash from mother offspring
bull Horizontal transmission ndash between members of a
population
bull Direct contact (head lice)
bull Vectors (mosquitos)
140
141
Commensalism
bull Neither species is totally dependent on the other
bull One benefits ndash no effect on the other
bull Feeding or protection
bull Porcelain anemone crabs and anemones
142
Mutualism
bull Both species benefit
bull Food or shelter
bull Examples
bull Plants and microbes (rhizobium in root nodules)
bull Plants and fungi (orchids and mycorrhizae)
bull Protists and fungi (lichen)
bull Plants and insects (pollination)
bull Animals and bacteria (ruminants)
bull Animals and other animals (crocodiles and
plover birds)
143
Mutualism shrimp and moray
Cleaner shrimp cleaning a zebra moray eel Mutualistic
relationships such as these promote the well-being of the
host fishes and provide food for those that do the cleaning 144
Rhizobium
Rhizobium in root nodules of certain plants convert
nitrogen in soil to usable form
145
Orchid Mycorrhizae
Fungi aid the plant in the uptake of nutrients
Fungi ingest some of the food from plant
photosynthesis 146
Lichen
Most of the lichen is composed of fungal filaments
but living among the filaments are algal cells
usually from a green alga or a cyanobacterium
The lichen fungus provides its partner(s) a benefit
(protection) and gains nutrients in return 147
Ruminants
Ruminants are characterized by their four-chambered
stomach and cud-chewing behavior Cud is a food bolus
that is regurgitated rechewed and reswallowed The
rumen is a large fermentation vat containing billions of
microorganisms including bacteria and protozoa which
allow ruminants to digest fibrous feeds such as grass and
hay that other animals cannot efficiently utilize 148
Crocodiles amp
Plover Birds
The bird gets into the crocodiles mouth and picks out
the tiny bits of food stuck in his teeth then eats it (the
tiny bits)
This cleans the crocodiles teeth and keeps his mouth
fresh and free from infections 149
Predation
bull Consumption of one living organism by
another
bull Predators must have offensive strategies
bull ways of finding catching and eating
their prey
bull Prey organisms must have defensive
strategies
bull ways of avoiding or discouraging this
activity
150
Predation
bull Encompasses all levels within an
ecological food chainweb
bull plant-herbivore systems
bull herbivore-carnivore systems
bull three-way interactions of
interdependent plant-herbivore-
carnivore systems
151
This goshawk is the tertiary consumer in his ecosystem
and the mouse in his beak is the secondary consumer
Beneath the mouse on the ecological pyramid lies his
foodsource likely a worm which fed on the primary
producer leafy plants 152
Ecosystem of Life in Floridas
Springs
bull Click here for a close-up look of life
in Floridas springs and the various
predator-prey interactions there
153
Tundra ndash Indicator Plant Species
Arctic Tundra Wildflowers - Alaska
60
Tundra ndash Indicator Plant Species
Lichen
Polytrichum Moss
(photographed in Ohio not on the
Tundra)
61
Tundra ndash Indicator Animal Species
Reindeer
Rangifer tarandus
62
Tundra ndash Indicator Animal Species
Caribou On Autumn Tundra Denali National Park Alaska
63
Savanna
bull rolling grassland scattered with shrubs and isolated trees
bull found between a tropical rainforest and desert biome
bull not enough rain falls on a savanna to support forests
bull found in a wide band on either side of the equator on
the edges of tropical rainforests
bull warm temperature year round
bull very long dry season (winter) ~ 10 cm rain none at all
from Dec - Feb
bull very wet season (summer) ~ 35-65 cm rain
64
Savanna
65
Savanna ndash Indicator Plant Species
Baobab
Adansonia digitata Umbrella Thorn Acacia
Acacia tortillis
66
Savanna ndash Indicator Animal Species
Savanna Elephant
Loxodonta africana
Black Mamba
Dendroaspis polylepis
Lion
Panthera leo
67
Chaparral
bull winter mild and moist but not rainy
bull summer very hot and dry
bull annual temperature range between -1deg and 38deg C
bull annual precipitation ~ 25-45 cm mostly in the winter
68
Chaparral
69
Chaparral ndash Indicator Plant Species
Blue Oak
Quercus douglasii
Common Sagebrush
Artemisia tridentata
Olive Tree
Olea europaea
70
Chaparral ndash Indicator Animal Species
Black-tailed Jackrabbit
Lepus californicus Golden Jackal
Canis aureus
Spotted Skunk
Spilogale gracilis
71
The Freshwater Biome
bull low salt concentration mdash usually less than 1
bull plants and animals in freshwater regions are adjusted to
the low salt content and would not be able to survive in
areas of high salt concentration (ie ocean)
bull 3 different types of freshwater regions
bull ponds and lakes
bull streams and rivers
bull wetlands
72
The Freshwater Biome ndash Ponds and Lakes
From left a view across Manzanita Lake toward Mt Lassen California a
forest pond near Donnelly Idaho a Great Blue Heron Paranagat Lake
southeastern Nevada
73
The Freshwater Biome ndash Streams and
Rivers
From left McArthur-Burney Falls State Park California trout Green
River Utah Brooks River Alaska
74
The Freshwater Biome - Wetlands
From left Pescadero Marsh California coastal marsh at Umpqua
Dunes Oregon trees and bogs on Esther Island Alaska
75
The Marine Biome
bull cover about three-fourths of the Earths surface
bull marine algae supply much of the worlds oxygen supply
and take in a huge amount of atmospheric carbon
dioxide
bull evaporation of the seawater provides rainwater for the
land
bull 3 different types of marine regions
bull oceans
bull coral reefs
bull estuaries
76
The Marine Biome - Oceans
From left mussels worms and a spider crab at a hydrocarbon seep
community in the Gulf of Mexico a sea fan and brain coral in the Florida
Keys National Marine Sanctuary a school of Atlantic amberjack off North
Carolina
77
The Marine Biome ndash Coral Reefs
From left reef life in the Gulf of Aqaba Red Sea a reef at Fanning
Island atoll in the central Pacific a reef in the Florida Keys National
Marine Sanctuary
78
The Marine Biome - Estuaries
From left Mangrove roots south Florida wetlands and tidal streams
in the Ashe Island area ACE Basin National Estuarine Research
Reserve South Carolina a salt marsh in Winyah Bay National
Estuarine Research Reserve South Carolina
79
Ecological Notes
These are the biomes in order of their productivity (highest
first)
1 estuaries and tropical rain forest (highest)
2 temperate forest
3 agricultural land
4 temperate grassland
5 lakes and streams
6 coastal zone
7 tundra
8 open ocean
9 desert (lowest)
80
Ecological Notes
In order to be productive and have a lot of living material
standing around (biomass) an ecosystem has to have 4
basic necessities for plant life to thrive (if there are
enough plants the ecosystem will also support a lot of
animals) The four things are
1 Sunlight
2 Nutrients
3 Warm temperatures
4 Water
81
Biomes Video
82
Take-Home Message
bull Biomes are the major ecological communities of earth
characterized mostly by the vegetation present
bull Different biomes result from differences in temperature
and precipitation and the extent to which they vary from
season to season
83
Challenge Question
bull Terrestrial biomes are determined by the temperature
and precipitation amounts as well as whether those
factors are constant or vary by season
bull By contrast how are aquatic biomes determined
84
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy flows from producers to
consumers
85
86
87
First Stop Primary Producers
bull ecosystem producers or consumers
bull primary producers plants algae (some) bacteria
bull convert light energy from sun into chemical energy
through photosynthesis
bull chemical energy = food
bull consumers eat or absorb their food
bull energy stored in chemical bonds of carbohydrate
protein and lipid molecules is captured and
harnessed for consumersrsquo own movement
reproduction and growth
88
Food Chain
89
Food Web
90
Food Web
91
Food Chains amp Food Webs
bull A change in one link in a food chain will affect the other
links
bull The table on the next slide gives one example of a food
chain and the trophic levels represented in it
92
Food Chains amp Food Webs
93
GRASS
GRASSHOPPER
TOAD
SNAKE
HAWK
BACTERIA
IN GENERAL
AUTOTROPHS
(PRODUCERS)
HERBIVORES
(PRIMARY
CONSUMERS)
CARNIVORES
(2 3 ETC)
DECOMPOSERS
94
Chain Reaction Game
95
Energy Flows through a Food Web
bull Losses at every ldquosteprdquo in a food chain
bull Inefficiency of energy transfers
96
Energy flow through a food chain
Energy flow refers to the way that energy is transformed through
a food chain (pictured here) containing a series of levels
including plants consumers predators and decomposers 97
Amount of energy available at each of the
four levels of an ecosystem
Ecological pyramids illustrate the amount of energy
available at each of the four levels of an ecosystem 98
Ecological Pyramid
99
A grasshopper eats a plant A mouse eats the
grasshopper A snake eats the mouse A hawk
could eat the snake or the mouse In this food
web how would we categorize the hawk
1 Producer
2 Primary consumer
3 Secondary consumer
4 Tertiary consumer
5 Quaternary consumer
6 4 and 5
100
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps
bull First it is converted to chemical energy in
photosynthesis
bull Herbivores then consume the primary producers the
herbivores are consumed by carnivores and the
carnivores in turn may be consumed by top carnivores
101
Take-home message
bull Detritivores and decomposers extract energy from
organic waste and the remains of organisms that have
died
bull At each step in a food chain some usable energy is lost
as heat
102
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy pyramids reveal the inefficiency of
food chains
103
Biomass
bull biomass total weight of all living organisms in a given
area
bull only about 10 of the plants in an ecosystem is
converted into biomass
bull Food Energy Pyramid
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
bull African savannas and grasslands sustain more species
of higher-order carnivores than any other terrestrial
ecosystem
104
105
Food Energy Pyramids
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
106
107
108
You go out to eat at a fancy restaurant You
have a salad salmon and for dessert ice
cream Which part of the meal was the most
energy efficient food for you to eat
1 Salad
2 Salmon
3 Ice cream
4 2 and 3
109
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps known as trophic levels
bull Energy pyramids reveal that the biomass of primary
producers in an ecosystem tends to be far greater than
the biomass of herbivores
bull The biomass transferred at each step along the food chain tends to be only about 10 of the biomass of the organisms being consumed due to energy lost in cellular respiration
bull As a consequence of this inefficiency food chains rarely exceed four levels
110
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Essential chemicals cycle through
ecosystems
111
Chemical Reservoirs
bull Each chemical is stored in a non-living part of the environment
bull Organisms acquire the chemical from the reservoir a non-living part of the environment
bull The chemical cycles through the food chain (biogeochemical cycles)
bull Eventually the chemical is returned to the reservoir
112
Hydrologic Cycle and the Florida Springs
bull Click here for a description of how falling rain feeds underground aquifers in Florida and forms springs
113
The Most Important Chemical Cycles
1) Carbon
2) Nitrogen
3) Phosphorus
4) Sulfur
114
115
The
Carbon
Cycle
116
The Carbon Cycle
Keeping Up With Carbon
NASA video provides key information on the carbon cycle
117
118
Carbon Cycle Game
Fossil Fuels
bull created when large numbers of organisms die and are buried in sediment lacking oxygen
bull In absence of oxygen at high pressures and after very long periods of time organic remains are ultimately transformed into coal oil and natural gas
bull burning coal oil and natural gas releases large amounts of carbon dioxide
bull increases average CO2 concentration in the atmosphere
bull current level of CO2 in the atmosphere is the highest it has been in almost half a million years
119
Global CO2 levels are rising in
general but they also exhibit a
sharp rise and fall within each
year ndash why
120
121
The Nitrogen Cycle
122
The Nitrogen Cycle
Fertilizers
bull Because it is necessary for the production of every plant
protein and because all nitrogen must first be made
usable by bacteria plant growth is often limited by
nitrogen levels in the soil
bull For this reason most fertilizers contain nitrogen in a
form usable by plants
123
124
125
126
127
Oxygen reduction downstream of a source of
organic pollution
128
Algal growth and eutrophication in an Australian
outback waterway
129
Sulfur Cycle
bull component of protein
bull cycles in both a gas and sedimentary cycle
bull source earths crust
bull enters the atmosphere as hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
during fossil fuel combustion volcanic eruptions
gas exchange at ocean surfaces decomposition
130
Sulfur Cycle
bull H2S is immediately oxidized to sulfur dioxide (SO2)
bull SO2 + water vapor H2SO4 (falls to earth in rain)
bull sulfur in soluble form is taken up by plant roots
incorporated into amino acids such as cysteine
bull travels through food chain
bull eventually released through decomposition
131
How is carbon recycled back to the
atmosphere in the carbon cycle
1 It is ldquofixedrdquo by bacteria
2 It is a product of cellular respiration
3 Burning of fossil fuels
4 2 and 3
5 All of the above
132
Why do commercial fertilizers usually
contain usable forms of nitrogen and
phosphorous
1 These chemicals are not efficiently recycled in
the soil
2 Nitrogen and phosphorous need to be ldquofixedrdquo
by bacteria or the plant
3 Nitrogen and phosphorous are found at high
levels in the atmosphere but not in the soil
4 Nitrogen and phosphorous only enter the soil
through erosion
133
Take-home message
bull Chemicals essential to lifemdashincluding carbon nitrogen and phosphorusmdashcycle through ecosystems
bull They are usually captured from the atmosphere soil or water by growing organisms passed from one trophic level to the next as organisms eat other organisms and returned to the environment through respiration decomposition and erosion
bull These cycles can be disrupted as human activities significantly increase the amounts of the chemicals utilized or released to the environment
134
Symbiotic Relationships
bull Symbiosis close relationship between organisms of
two different species
bull At least one participant gains some sort of benefit
(usually nutritional)
bull Types of symbiosis
bull Parasitism
bull Commensalism
bull Mutualism
bull Predation
135
Symbiotic Relationships in the
Ocean
bull Click here for an explanation of the
relationships of marine animals
including sharks rays and various
fishes
136
Parasitism bull Parasite derives nutrition from the host
bull This harms the host but a true parasite does
not usually kill its host (directly)
137
Ectoparasites
Remain outside the host
Ticks fleas leeches
138
Endoparasites
Live inside the hostrsquos body
Tapeworms malarial parasites
139
Parasite Transmission
bull Many parasites live on or in a single organism
bull Some will alternate between 2 or more host species
bull Vertical transmission ndash from mother offspring
bull Horizontal transmission ndash between members of a
population
bull Direct contact (head lice)
bull Vectors (mosquitos)
140
141
Commensalism
bull Neither species is totally dependent on the other
bull One benefits ndash no effect on the other
bull Feeding or protection
bull Porcelain anemone crabs and anemones
142
Mutualism
bull Both species benefit
bull Food or shelter
bull Examples
bull Plants and microbes (rhizobium in root nodules)
bull Plants and fungi (orchids and mycorrhizae)
bull Protists and fungi (lichen)
bull Plants and insects (pollination)
bull Animals and bacteria (ruminants)
bull Animals and other animals (crocodiles and
plover birds)
143
Mutualism shrimp and moray
Cleaner shrimp cleaning a zebra moray eel Mutualistic
relationships such as these promote the well-being of the
host fishes and provide food for those that do the cleaning 144
Rhizobium
Rhizobium in root nodules of certain plants convert
nitrogen in soil to usable form
145
Orchid Mycorrhizae
Fungi aid the plant in the uptake of nutrients
Fungi ingest some of the food from plant
photosynthesis 146
Lichen
Most of the lichen is composed of fungal filaments
but living among the filaments are algal cells
usually from a green alga or a cyanobacterium
The lichen fungus provides its partner(s) a benefit
(protection) and gains nutrients in return 147
Ruminants
Ruminants are characterized by their four-chambered
stomach and cud-chewing behavior Cud is a food bolus
that is regurgitated rechewed and reswallowed The
rumen is a large fermentation vat containing billions of
microorganisms including bacteria and protozoa which
allow ruminants to digest fibrous feeds such as grass and
hay that other animals cannot efficiently utilize 148
Crocodiles amp
Plover Birds
The bird gets into the crocodiles mouth and picks out
the tiny bits of food stuck in his teeth then eats it (the
tiny bits)
This cleans the crocodiles teeth and keeps his mouth
fresh and free from infections 149
Predation
bull Consumption of one living organism by
another
bull Predators must have offensive strategies
bull ways of finding catching and eating
their prey
bull Prey organisms must have defensive
strategies
bull ways of avoiding or discouraging this
activity
150
Predation
bull Encompasses all levels within an
ecological food chainweb
bull plant-herbivore systems
bull herbivore-carnivore systems
bull three-way interactions of
interdependent plant-herbivore-
carnivore systems
151
This goshawk is the tertiary consumer in his ecosystem
and the mouse in his beak is the secondary consumer
Beneath the mouse on the ecological pyramid lies his
foodsource likely a worm which fed on the primary
producer leafy plants 152
Ecosystem of Life in Floridas
Springs
bull Click here for a close-up look of life
in Floridas springs and the various
predator-prey interactions there
153
Tundra ndash Indicator Plant Species
Lichen
Polytrichum Moss
(photographed in Ohio not on the
Tundra)
61
Tundra ndash Indicator Animal Species
Reindeer
Rangifer tarandus
62
Tundra ndash Indicator Animal Species
Caribou On Autumn Tundra Denali National Park Alaska
63
Savanna
bull rolling grassland scattered with shrubs and isolated trees
bull found between a tropical rainforest and desert biome
bull not enough rain falls on a savanna to support forests
bull found in a wide band on either side of the equator on
the edges of tropical rainforests
bull warm temperature year round
bull very long dry season (winter) ~ 10 cm rain none at all
from Dec - Feb
bull very wet season (summer) ~ 35-65 cm rain
64
Savanna
65
Savanna ndash Indicator Plant Species
Baobab
Adansonia digitata Umbrella Thorn Acacia
Acacia tortillis
66
Savanna ndash Indicator Animal Species
Savanna Elephant
Loxodonta africana
Black Mamba
Dendroaspis polylepis
Lion
Panthera leo
67
Chaparral
bull winter mild and moist but not rainy
bull summer very hot and dry
bull annual temperature range between -1deg and 38deg C
bull annual precipitation ~ 25-45 cm mostly in the winter
68
Chaparral
69
Chaparral ndash Indicator Plant Species
Blue Oak
Quercus douglasii
Common Sagebrush
Artemisia tridentata
Olive Tree
Olea europaea
70
Chaparral ndash Indicator Animal Species
Black-tailed Jackrabbit
Lepus californicus Golden Jackal
Canis aureus
Spotted Skunk
Spilogale gracilis
71
The Freshwater Biome
bull low salt concentration mdash usually less than 1
bull plants and animals in freshwater regions are adjusted to
the low salt content and would not be able to survive in
areas of high salt concentration (ie ocean)
bull 3 different types of freshwater regions
bull ponds and lakes
bull streams and rivers
bull wetlands
72
The Freshwater Biome ndash Ponds and Lakes
From left a view across Manzanita Lake toward Mt Lassen California a
forest pond near Donnelly Idaho a Great Blue Heron Paranagat Lake
southeastern Nevada
73
The Freshwater Biome ndash Streams and
Rivers
From left McArthur-Burney Falls State Park California trout Green
River Utah Brooks River Alaska
74
The Freshwater Biome - Wetlands
From left Pescadero Marsh California coastal marsh at Umpqua
Dunes Oregon trees and bogs on Esther Island Alaska
75
The Marine Biome
bull cover about three-fourths of the Earths surface
bull marine algae supply much of the worlds oxygen supply
and take in a huge amount of atmospheric carbon
dioxide
bull evaporation of the seawater provides rainwater for the
land
bull 3 different types of marine regions
bull oceans
bull coral reefs
bull estuaries
76
The Marine Biome - Oceans
From left mussels worms and a spider crab at a hydrocarbon seep
community in the Gulf of Mexico a sea fan and brain coral in the Florida
Keys National Marine Sanctuary a school of Atlantic amberjack off North
Carolina
77
The Marine Biome ndash Coral Reefs
From left reef life in the Gulf of Aqaba Red Sea a reef at Fanning
Island atoll in the central Pacific a reef in the Florida Keys National
Marine Sanctuary
78
The Marine Biome - Estuaries
From left Mangrove roots south Florida wetlands and tidal streams
in the Ashe Island area ACE Basin National Estuarine Research
Reserve South Carolina a salt marsh in Winyah Bay National
Estuarine Research Reserve South Carolina
79
Ecological Notes
These are the biomes in order of their productivity (highest
first)
1 estuaries and tropical rain forest (highest)
2 temperate forest
3 agricultural land
4 temperate grassland
5 lakes and streams
6 coastal zone
7 tundra
8 open ocean
9 desert (lowest)
80
Ecological Notes
In order to be productive and have a lot of living material
standing around (biomass) an ecosystem has to have 4
basic necessities for plant life to thrive (if there are
enough plants the ecosystem will also support a lot of
animals) The four things are
1 Sunlight
2 Nutrients
3 Warm temperatures
4 Water
81
Biomes Video
82
Take-Home Message
bull Biomes are the major ecological communities of earth
characterized mostly by the vegetation present
bull Different biomes result from differences in temperature
and precipitation and the extent to which they vary from
season to season
83
Challenge Question
bull Terrestrial biomes are determined by the temperature
and precipitation amounts as well as whether those
factors are constant or vary by season
bull By contrast how are aquatic biomes determined
84
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy flows from producers to
consumers
85
86
87
First Stop Primary Producers
bull ecosystem producers or consumers
bull primary producers plants algae (some) bacteria
bull convert light energy from sun into chemical energy
through photosynthesis
bull chemical energy = food
bull consumers eat or absorb their food
bull energy stored in chemical bonds of carbohydrate
protein and lipid molecules is captured and
harnessed for consumersrsquo own movement
reproduction and growth
88
Food Chain
89
Food Web
90
Food Web
91
Food Chains amp Food Webs
bull A change in one link in a food chain will affect the other
links
bull The table on the next slide gives one example of a food
chain and the trophic levels represented in it
92
Food Chains amp Food Webs
93
GRASS
GRASSHOPPER
TOAD
SNAKE
HAWK
BACTERIA
IN GENERAL
AUTOTROPHS
(PRODUCERS)
HERBIVORES
(PRIMARY
CONSUMERS)
CARNIVORES
(2 3 ETC)
DECOMPOSERS
94
Chain Reaction Game
95
Energy Flows through a Food Web
bull Losses at every ldquosteprdquo in a food chain
bull Inefficiency of energy transfers
96
Energy flow through a food chain
Energy flow refers to the way that energy is transformed through
a food chain (pictured here) containing a series of levels
including plants consumers predators and decomposers 97
Amount of energy available at each of the
four levels of an ecosystem
Ecological pyramids illustrate the amount of energy
available at each of the four levels of an ecosystem 98
Ecological Pyramid
99
A grasshopper eats a plant A mouse eats the
grasshopper A snake eats the mouse A hawk
could eat the snake or the mouse In this food
web how would we categorize the hawk
1 Producer
2 Primary consumer
3 Secondary consumer
4 Tertiary consumer
5 Quaternary consumer
6 4 and 5
100
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps
bull First it is converted to chemical energy in
photosynthesis
bull Herbivores then consume the primary producers the
herbivores are consumed by carnivores and the
carnivores in turn may be consumed by top carnivores
101
Take-home message
bull Detritivores and decomposers extract energy from
organic waste and the remains of organisms that have
died
bull At each step in a food chain some usable energy is lost
as heat
102
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy pyramids reveal the inefficiency of
food chains
103
Biomass
bull biomass total weight of all living organisms in a given
area
bull only about 10 of the plants in an ecosystem is
converted into biomass
bull Food Energy Pyramid
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
bull African savannas and grasslands sustain more species
of higher-order carnivores than any other terrestrial
ecosystem
104
105
Food Energy Pyramids
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
106
107
108
You go out to eat at a fancy restaurant You
have a salad salmon and for dessert ice
cream Which part of the meal was the most
energy efficient food for you to eat
1 Salad
2 Salmon
3 Ice cream
4 2 and 3
109
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps known as trophic levels
bull Energy pyramids reveal that the biomass of primary
producers in an ecosystem tends to be far greater than
the biomass of herbivores
bull The biomass transferred at each step along the food chain tends to be only about 10 of the biomass of the organisms being consumed due to energy lost in cellular respiration
bull As a consequence of this inefficiency food chains rarely exceed four levels
110
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Essential chemicals cycle through
ecosystems
111
Chemical Reservoirs
bull Each chemical is stored in a non-living part of the environment
bull Organisms acquire the chemical from the reservoir a non-living part of the environment
bull The chemical cycles through the food chain (biogeochemical cycles)
bull Eventually the chemical is returned to the reservoir
112
Hydrologic Cycle and the Florida Springs
bull Click here for a description of how falling rain feeds underground aquifers in Florida and forms springs
113
The Most Important Chemical Cycles
1) Carbon
2) Nitrogen
3) Phosphorus
4) Sulfur
114
115
The
Carbon
Cycle
116
The Carbon Cycle
Keeping Up With Carbon
NASA video provides key information on the carbon cycle
117
118
Carbon Cycle Game
Fossil Fuels
bull created when large numbers of organisms die and are buried in sediment lacking oxygen
bull In absence of oxygen at high pressures and after very long periods of time organic remains are ultimately transformed into coal oil and natural gas
bull burning coal oil and natural gas releases large amounts of carbon dioxide
bull increases average CO2 concentration in the atmosphere
bull current level of CO2 in the atmosphere is the highest it has been in almost half a million years
119
Global CO2 levels are rising in
general but they also exhibit a
sharp rise and fall within each
year ndash why
120
121
The Nitrogen Cycle
122
The Nitrogen Cycle
Fertilizers
bull Because it is necessary for the production of every plant
protein and because all nitrogen must first be made
usable by bacteria plant growth is often limited by
nitrogen levels in the soil
bull For this reason most fertilizers contain nitrogen in a
form usable by plants
123
124
125
126
127
Oxygen reduction downstream of a source of
organic pollution
128
Algal growth and eutrophication in an Australian
outback waterway
129
Sulfur Cycle
bull component of protein
bull cycles in both a gas and sedimentary cycle
bull source earths crust
bull enters the atmosphere as hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
during fossil fuel combustion volcanic eruptions
gas exchange at ocean surfaces decomposition
130
Sulfur Cycle
bull H2S is immediately oxidized to sulfur dioxide (SO2)
bull SO2 + water vapor H2SO4 (falls to earth in rain)
bull sulfur in soluble form is taken up by plant roots
incorporated into amino acids such as cysteine
bull travels through food chain
bull eventually released through decomposition
131
How is carbon recycled back to the
atmosphere in the carbon cycle
1 It is ldquofixedrdquo by bacteria
2 It is a product of cellular respiration
3 Burning of fossil fuels
4 2 and 3
5 All of the above
132
Why do commercial fertilizers usually
contain usable forms of nitrogen and
phosphorous
1 These chemicals are not efficiently recycled in
the soil
2 Nitrogen and phosphorous need to be ldquofixedrdquo
by bacteria or the plant
3 Nitrogen and phosphorous are found at high
levels in the atmosphere but not in the soil
4 Nitrogen and phosphorous only enter the soil
through erosion
133
Take-home message
bull Chemicals essential to lifemdashincluding carbon nitrogen and phosphorusmdashcycle through ecosystems
bull They are usually captured from the atmosphere soil or water by growing organisms passed from one trophic level to the next as organisms eat other organisms and returned to the environment through respiration decomposition and erosion
bull These cycles can be disrupted as human activities significantly increase the amounts of the chemicals utilized or released to the environment
134
Symbiotic Relationships
bull Symbiosis close relationship between organisms of
two different species
bull At least one participant gains some sort of benefit
(usually nutritional)
bull Types of symbiosis
bull Parasitism
bull Commensalism
bull Mutualism
bull Predation
135
Symbiotic Relationships in the
Ocean
bull Click here for an explanation of the
relationships of marine animals
including sharks rays and various
fishes
136
Parasitism bull Parasite derives nutrition from the host
bull This harms the host but a true parasite does
not usually kill its host (directly)
137
Ectoparasites
Remain outside the host
Ticks fleas leeches
138
Endoparasites
Live inside the hostrsquos body
Tapeworms malarial parasites
139
Parasite Transmission
bull Many parasites live on or in a single organism
bull Some will alternate between 2 or more host species
bull Vertical transmission ndash from mother offspring
bull Horizontal transmission ndash between members of a
population
bull Direct contact (head lice)
bull Vectors (mosquitos)
140
141
Commensalism
bull Neither species is totally dependent on the other
bull One benefits ndash no effect on the other
bull Feeding or protection
bull Porcelain anemone crabs and anemones
142
Mutualism
bull Both species benefit
bull Food or shelter
bull Examples
bull Plants and microbes (rhizobium in root nodules)
bull Plants and fungi (orchids and mycorrhizae)
bull Protists and fungi (lichen)
bull Plants and insects (pollination)
bull Animals and bacteria (ruminants)
bull Animals and other animals (crocodiles and
plover birds)
143
Mutualism shrimp and moray
Cleaner shrimp cleaning a zebra moray eel Mutualistic
relationships such as these promote the well-being of the
host fishes and provide food for those that do the cleaning 144
Rhizobium
Rhizobium in root nodules of certain plants convert
nitrogen in soil to usable form
145
Orchid Mycorrhizae
Fungi aid the plant in the uptake of nutrients
Fungi ingest some of the food from plant
photosynthesis 146
Lichen
Most of the lichen is composed of fungal filaments
but living among the filaments are algal cells
usually from a green alga or a cyanobacterium
The lichen fungus provides its partner(s) a benefit
(protection) and gains nutrients in return 147
Ruminants
Ruminants are characterized by their four-chambered
stomach and cud-chewing behavior Cud is a food bolus
that is regurgitated rechewed and reswallowed The
rumen is a large fermentation vat containing billions of
microorganisms including bacteria and protozoa which
allow ruminants to digest fibrous feeds such as grass and
hay that other animals cannot efficiently utilize 148
Crocodiles amp
Plover Birds
The bird gets into the crocodiles mouth and picks out
the tiny bits of food stuck in his teeth then eats it (the
tiny bits)
This cleans the crocodiles teeth and keeps his mouth
fresh and free from infections 149
Predation
bull Consumption of one living organism by
another
bull Predators must have offensive strategies
bull ways of finding catching and eating
their prey
bull Prey organisms must have defensive
strategies
bull ways of avoiding or discouraging this
activity
150
Predation
bull Encompasses all levels within an
ecological food chainweb
bull plant-herbivore systems
bull herbivore-carnivore systems
bull three-way interactions of
interdependent plant-herbivore-
carnivore systems
151
This goshawk is the tertiary consumer in his ecosystem
and the mouse in his beak is the secondary consumer
Beneath the mouse on the ecological pyramid lies his
foodsource likely a worm which fed on the primary
producer leafy plants 152
Ecosystem of Life in Floridas
Springs
bull Click here for a close-up look of life
in Floridas springs and the various
predator-prey interactions there
153
Tundra ndash Indicator Animal Species
Reindeer
Rangifer tarandus
62
Tundra ndash Indicator Animal Species
Caribou On Autumn Tundra Denali National Park Alaska
63
Savanna
bull rolling grassland scattered with shrubs and isolated trees
bull found between a tropical rainforest and desert biome
bull not enough rain falls on a savanna to support forests
bull found in a wide band on either side of the equator on
the edges of tropical rainforests
bull warm temperature year round
bull very long dry season (winter) ~ 10 cm rain none at all
from Dec - Feb
bull very wet season (summer) ~ 35-65 cm rain
64
Savanna
65
Savanna ndash Indicator Plant Species
Baobab
Adansonia digitata Umbrella Thorn Acacia
Acacia tortillis
66
Savanna ndash Indicator Animal Species
Savanna Elephant
Loxodonta africana
Black Mamba
Dendroaspis polylepis
Lion
Panthera leo
67
Chaparral
bull winter mild and moist but not rainy
bull summer very hot and dry
bull annual temperature range between -1deg and 38deg C
bull annual precipitation ~ 25-45 cm mostly in the winter
68
Chaparral
69
Chaparral ndash Indicator Plant Species
Blue Oak
Quercus douglasii
Common Sagebrush
Artemisia tridentata
Olive Tree
Olea europaea
70
Chaparral ndash Indicator Animal Species
Black-tailed Jackrabbit
Lepus californicus Golden Jackal
Canis aureus
Spotted Skunk
Spilogale gracilis
71
The Freshwater Biome
bull low salt concentration mdash usually less than 1
bull plants and animals in freshwater regions are adjusted to
the low salt content and would not be able to survive in
areas of high salt concentration (ie ocean)
bull 3 different types of freshwater regions
bull ponds and lakes
bull streams and rivers
bull wetlands
72
The Freshwater Biome ndash Ponds and Lakes
From left a view across Manzanita Lake toward Mt Lassen California a
forest pond near Donnelly Idaho a Great Blue Heron Paranagat Lake
southeastern Nevada
73
The Freshwater Biome ndash Streams and
Rivers
From left McArthur-Burney Falls State Park California trout Green
River Utah Brooks River Alaska
74
The Freshwater Biome - Wetlands
From left Pescadero Marsh California coastal marsh at Umpqua
Dunes Oregon trees and bogs on Esther Island Alaska
75
The Marine Biome
bull cover about three-fourths of the Earths surface
bull marine algae supply much of the worlds oxygen supply
and take in a huge amount of atmospheric carbon
dioxide
bull evaporation of the seawater provides rainwater for the
land
bull 3 different types of marine regions
bull oceans
bull coral reefs
bull estuaries
76
The Marine Biome - Oceans
From left mussels worms and a spider crab at a hydrocarbon seep
community in the Gulf of Mexico a sea fan and brain coral in the Florida
Keys National Marine Sanctuary a school of Atlantic amberjack off North
Carolina
77
The Marine Biome ndash Coral Reefs
From left reef life in the Gulf of Aqaba Red Sea a reef at Fanning
Island atoll in the central Pacific a reef in the Florida Keys National
Marine Sanctuary
78
The Marine Biome - Estuaries
From left Mangrove roots south Florida wetlands and tidal streams
in the Ashe Island area ACE Basin National Estuarine Research
Reserve South Carolina a salt marsh in Winyah Bay National
Estuarine Research Reserve South Carolina
79
Ecological Notes
These are the biomes in order of their productivity (highest
first)
1 estuaries and tropical rain forest (highest)
2 temperate forest
3 agricultural land
4 temperate grassland
5 lakes and streams
6 coastal zone
7 tundra
8 open ocean
9 desert (lowest)
80
Ecological Notes
In order to be productive and have a lot of living material
standing around (biomass) an ecosystem has to have 4
basic necessities for plant life to thrive (if there are
enough plants the ecosystem will also support a lot of
animals) The four things are
1 Sunlight
2 Nutrients
3 Warm temperatures
4 Water
81
Biomes Video
82
Take-Home Message
bull Biomes are the major ecological communities of earth
characterized mostly by the vegetation present
bull Different biomes result from differences in temperature
and precipitation and the extent to which they vary from
season to season
83
Challenge Question
bull Terrestrial biomes are determined by the temperature
and precipitation amounts as well as whether those
factors are constant or vary by season
bull By contrast how are aquatic biomes determined
84
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy flows from producers to
consumers
85
86
87
First Stop Primary Producers
bull ecosystem producers or consumers
bull primary producers plants algae (some) bacteria
bull convert light energy from sun into chemical energy
through photosynthesis
bull chemical energy = food
bull consumers eat or absorb their food
bull energy stored in chemical bonds of carbohydrate
protein and lipid molecules is captured and
harnessed for consumersrsquo own movement
reproduction and growth
88
Food Chain
89
Food Web
90
Food Web
91
Food Chains amp Food Webs
bull A change in one link in a food chain will affect the other
links
bull The table on the next slide gives one example of a food
chain and the trophic levels represented in it
92
Food Chains amp Food Webs
93
GRASS
GRASSHOPPER
TOAD
SNAKE
HAWK
BACTERIA
IN GENERAL
AUTOTROPHS
(PRODUCERS)
HERBIVORES
(PRIMARY
CONSUMERS)
CARNIVORES
(2 3 ETC)
DECOMPOSERS
94
Chain Reaction Game
95
Energy Flows through a Food Web
bull Losses at every ldquosteprdquo in a food chain
bull Inefficiency of energy transfers
96
Energy flow through a food chain
Energy flow refers to the way that energy is transformed through
a food chain (pictured here) containing a series of levels
including plants consumers predators and decomposers 97
Amount of energy available at each of the
four levels of an ecosystem
Ecological pyramids illustrate the amount of energy
available at each of the four levels of an ecosystem 98
Ecological Pyramid
99
A grasshopper eats a plant A mouse eats the
grasshopper A snake eats the mouse A hawk
could eat the snake or the mouse In this food
web how would we categorize the hawk
1 Producer
2 Primary consumer
3 Secondary consumer
4 Tertiary consumer
5 Quaternary consumer
6 4 and 5
100
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps
bull First it is converted to chemical energy in
photosynthesis
bull Herbivores then consume the primary producers the
herbivores are consumed by carnivores and the
carnivores in turn may be consumed by top carnivores
101
Take-home message
bull Detritivores and decomposers extract energy from
organic waste and the remains of organisms that have
died
bull At each step in a food chain some usable energy is lost
as heat
102
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy pyramids reveal the inefficiency of
food chains
103
Biomass
bull biomass total weight of all living organisms in a given
area
bull only about 10 of the plants in an ecosystem is
converted into biomass
bull Food Energy Pyramid
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
bull African savannas and grasslands sustain more species
of higher-order carnivores than any other terrestrial
ecosystem
104
105
Food Energy Pyramids
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
106
107
108
You go out to eat at a fancy restaurant You
have a salad salmon and for dessert ice
cream Which part of the meal was the most
energy efficient food for you to eat
1 Salad
2 Salmon
3 Ice cream
4 2 and 3
109
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps known as trophic levels
bull Energy pyramids reveal that the biomass of primary
producers in an ecosystem tends to be far greater than
the biomass of herbivores
bull The biomass transferred at each step along the food chain tends to be only about 10 of the biomass of the organisms being consumed due to energy lost in cellular respiration
bull As a consequence of this inefficiency food chains rarely exceed four levels
110
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Essential chemicals cycle through
ecosystems
111
Chemical Reservoirs
bull Each chemical is stored in a non-living part of the environment
bull Organisms acquire the chemical from the reservoir a non-living part of the environment
bull The chemical cycles through the food chain (biogeochemical cycles)
bull Eventually the chemical is returned to the reservoir
112
Hydrologic Cycle and the Florida Springs
bull Click here for a description of how falling rain feeds underground aquifers in Florida and forms springs
113
The Most Important Chemical Cycles
1) Carbon
2) Nitrogen
3) Phosphorus
4) Sulfur
114
115
The
Carbon
Cycle
116
The Carbon Cycle
Keeping Up With Carbon
NASA video provides key information on the carbon cycle
117
118
Carbon Cycle Game
Fossil Fuels
bull created when large numbers of organisms die and are buried in sediment lacking oxygen
bull In absence of oxygen at high pressures and after very long periods of time organic remains are ultimately transformed into coal oil and natural gas
bull burning coal oil and natural gas releases large amounts of carbon dioxide
bull increases average CO2 concentration in the atmosphere
bull current level of CO2 in the atmosphere is the highest it has been in almost half a million years
119
Global CO2 levels are rising in
general but they also exhibit a
sharp rise and fall within each
year ndash why
120
121
The Nitrogen Cycle
122
The Nitrogen Cycle
Fertilizers
bull Because it is necessary for the production of every plant
protein and because all nitrogen must first be made
usable by bacteria plant growth is often limited by
nitrogen levels in the soil
bull For this reason most fertilizers contain nitrogen in a
form usable by plants
123
124
125
126
127
Oxygen reduction downstream of a source of
organic pollution
128
Algal growth and eutrophication in an Australian
outback waterway
129
Sulfur Cycle
bull component of protein
bull cycles in both a gas and sedimentary cycle
bull source earths crust
bull enters the atmosphere as hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
during fossil fuel combustion volcanic eruptions
gas exchange at ocean surfaces decomposition
130
Sulfur Cycle
bull H2S is immediately oxidized to sulfur dioxide (SO2)
bull SO2 + water vapor H2SO4 (falls to earth in rain)
bull sulfur in soluble form is taken up by plant roots
incorporated into amino acids such as cysteine
bull travels through food chain
bull eventually released through decomposition
131
How is carbon recycled back to the
atmosphere in the carbon cycle
1 It is ldquofixedrdquo by bacteria
2 It is a product of cellular respiration
3 Burning of fossil fuels
4 2 and 3
5 All of the above
132
Why do commercial fertilizers usually
contain usable forms of nitrogen and
phosphorous
1 These chemicals are not efficiently recycled in
the soil
2 Nitrogen and phosphorous need to be ldquofixedrdquo
by bacteria or the plant
3 Nitrogen and phosphorous are found at high
levels in the atmosphere but not in the soil
4 Nitrogen and phosphorous only enter the soil
through erosion
133
Take-home message
bull Chemicals essential to lifemdashincluding carbon nitrogen and phosphorusmdashcycle through ecosystems
bull They are usually captured from the atmosphere soil or water by growing organisms passed from one trophic level to the next as organisms eat other organisms and returned to the environment through respiration decomposition and erosion
bull These cycles can be disrupted as human activities significantly increase the amounts of the chemicals utilized or released to the environment
134
Symbiotic Relationships
bull Symbiosis close relationship between organisms of
two different species
bull At least one participant gains some sort of benefit
(usually nutritional)
bull Types of symbiosis
bull Parasitism
bull Commensalism
bull Mutualism
bull Predation
135
Symbiotic Relationships in the
Ocean
bull Click here for an explanation of the
relationships of marine animals
including sharks rays and various
fishes
136
Parasitism bull Parasite derives nutrition from the host
bull This harms the host but a true parasite does
not usually kill its host (directly)
137
Ectoparasites
Remain outside the host
Ticks fleas leeches
138
Endoparasites
Live inside the hostrsquos body
Tapeworms malarial parasites
139
Parasite Transmission
bull Many parasites live on or in a single organism
bull Some will alternate between 2 or more host species
bull Vertical transmission ndash from mother offspring
bull Horizontal transmission ndash between members of a
population
bull Direct contact (head lice)
bull Vectors (mosquitos)
140
141
Commensalism
bull Neither species is totally dependent on the other
bull One benefits ndash no effect on the other
bull Feeding or protection
bull Porcelain anemone crabs and anemones
142
Mutualism
bull Both species benefit
bull Food or shelter
bull Examples
bull Plants and microbes (rhizobium in root nodules)
bull Plants and fungi (orchids and mycorrhizae)
bull Protists and fungi (lichen)
bull Plants and insects (pollination)
bull Animals and bacteria (ruminants)
bull Animals and other animals (crocodiles and
plover birds)
143
Mutualism shrimp and moray
Cleaner shrimp cleaning a zebra moray eel Mutualistic
relationships such as these promote the well-being of the
host fishes and provide food for those that do the cleaning 144
Rhizobium
Rhizobium in root nodules of certain plants convert
nitrogen in soil to usable form
145
Orchid Mycorrhizae
Fungi aid the plant in the uptake of nutrients
Fungi ingest some of the food from plant
photosynthesis 146
Lichen
Most of the lichen is composed of fungal filaments
but living among the filaments are algal cells
usually from a green alga or a cyanobacterium
The lichen fungus provides its partner(s) a benefit
(protection) and gains nutrients in return 147
Ruminants
Ruminants are characterized by their four-chambered
stomach and cud-chewing behavior Cud is a food bolus
that is regurgitated rechewed and reswallowed The
rumen is a large fermentation vat containing billions of
microorganisms including bacteria and protozoa which
allow ruminants to digest fibrous feeds such as grass and
hay that other animals cannot efficiently utilize 148
Crocodiles amp
Plover Birds
The bird gets into the crocodiles mouth and picks out
the tiny bits of food stuck in his teeth then eats it (the
tiny bits)
This cleans the crocodiles teeth and keeps his mouth
fresh and free from infections 149
Predation
bull Consumption of one living organism by
another
bull Predators must have offensive strategies
bull ways of finding catching and eating
their prey
bull Prey organisms must have defensive
strategies
bull ways of avoiding or discouraging this
activity
150
Predation
bull Encompasses all levels within an
ecological food chainweb
bull plant-herbivore systems
bull herbivore-carnivore systems
bull three-way interactions of
interdependent plant-herbivore-
carnivore systems
151
This goshawk is the tertiary consumer in his ecosystem
and the mouse in his beak is the secondary consumer
Beneath the mouse on the ecological pyramid lies his
foodsource likely a worm which fed on the primary
producer leafy plants 152
Ecosystem of Life in Floridas
Springs
bull Click here for a close-up look of life
in Floridas springs and the various
predator-prey interactions there
153
Tundra ndash Indicator Animal Species
Caribou On Autumn Tundra Denali National Park Alaska
63
Savanna
bull rolling grassland scattered with shrubs and isolated trees
bull found between a tropical rainforest and desert biome
bull not enough rain falls on a savanna to support forests
bull found in a wide band on either side of the equator on
the edges of tropical rainforests
bull warm temperature year round
bull very long dry season (winter) ~ 10 cm rain none at all
from Dec - Feb
bull very wet season (summer) ~ 35-65 cm rain
64
Savanna
65
Savanna ndash Indicator Plant Species
Baobab
Adansonia digitata Umbrella Thorn Acacia
Acacia tortillis
66
Savanna ndash Indicator Animal Species
Savanna Elephant
Loxodonta africana
Black Mamba
Dendroaspis polylepis
Lion
Panthera leo
67
Chaparral
bull winter mild and moist but not rainy
bull summer very hot and dry
bull annual temperature range between -1deg and 38deg C
bull annual precipitation ~ 25-45 cm mostly in the winter
68
Chaparral
69
Chaparral ndash Indicator Plant Species
Blue Oak
Quercus douglasii
Common Sagebrush
Artemisia tridentata
Olive Tree
Olea europaea
70
Chaparral ndash Indicator Animal Species
Black-tailed Jackrabbit
Lepus californicus Golden Jackal
Canis aureus
Spotted Skunk
Spilogale gracilis
71
The Freshwater Biome
bull low salt concentration mdash usually less than 1
bull plants and animals in freshwater regions are adjusted to
the low salt content and would not be able to survive in
areas of high salt concentration (ie ocean)
bull 3 different types of freshwater regions
bull ponds and lakes
bull streams and rivers
bull wetlands
72
The Freshwater Biome ndash Ponds and Lakes
From left a view across Manzanita Lake toward Mt Lassen California a
forest pond near Donnelly Idaho a Great Blue Heron Paranagat Lake
southeastern Nevada
73
The Freshwater Biome ndash Streams and
Rivers
From left McArthur-Burney Falls State Park California trout Green
River Utah Brooks River Alaska
74
The Freshwater Biome - Wetlands
From left Pescadero Marsh California coastal marsh at Umpqua
Dunes Oregon trees and bogs on Esther Island Alaska
75
The Marine Biome
bull cover about three-fourths of the Earths surface
bull marine algae supply much of the worlds oxygen supply
and take in a huge amount of atmospheric carbon
dioxide
bull evaporation of the seawater provides rainwater for the
land
bull 3 different types of marine regions
bull oceans
bull coral reefs
bull estuaries
76
The Marine Biome - Oceans
From left mussels worms and a spider crab at a hydrocarbon seep
community in the Gulf of Mexico a sea fan and brain coral in the Florida
Keys National Marine Sanctuary a school of Atlantic amberjack off North
Carolina
77
The Marine Biome ndash Coral Reefs
From left reef life in the Gulf of Aqaba Red Sea a reef at Fanning
Island atoll in the central Pacific a reef in the Florida Keys National
Marine Sanctuary
78
The Marine Biome - Estuaries
From left Mangrove roots south Florida wetlands and tidal streams
in the Ashe Island area ACE Basin National Estuarine Research
Reserve South Carolina a salt marsh in Winyah Bay National
Estuarine Research Reserve South Carolina
79
Ecological Notes
These are the biomes in order of their productivity (highest
first)
1 estuaries and tropical rain forest (highest)
2 temperate forest
3 agricultural land
4 temperate grassland
5 lakes and streams
6 coastal zone
7 tundra
8 open ocean
9 desert (lowest)
80
Ecological Notes
In order to be productive and have a lot of living material
standing around (biomass) an ecosystem has to have 4
basic necessities for plant life to thrive (if there are
enough plants the ecosystem will also support a lot of
animals) The four things are
1 Sunlight
2 Nutrients
3 Warm temperatures
4 Water
81
Biomes Video
82
Take-Home Message
bull Biomes are the major ecological communities of earth
characterized mostly by the vegetation present
bull Different biomes result from differences in temperature
and precipitation and the extent to which they vary from
season to season
83
Challenge Question
bull Terrestrial biomes are determined by the temperature
and precipitation amounts as well as whether those
factors are constant or vary by season
bull By contrast how are aquatic biomes determined
84
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy flows from producers to
consumers
85
86
87
First Stop Primary Producers
bull ecosystem producers or consumers
bull primary producers plants algae (some) bacteria
bull convert light energy from sun into chemical energy
through photosynthesis
bull chemical energy = food
bull consumers eat or absorb their food
bull energy stored in chemical bonds of carbohydrate
protein and lipid molecules is captured and
harnessed for consumersrsquo own movement
reproduction and growth
88
Food Chain
89
Food Web
90
Food Web
91
Food Chains amp Food Webs
bull A change in one link in a food chain will affect the other
links
bull The table on the next slide gives one example of a food
chain and the trophic levels represented in it
92
Food Chains amp Food Webs
93
GRASS
GRASSHOPPER
TOAD
SNAKE
HAWK
BACTERIA
IN GENERAL
AUTOTROPHS
(PRODUCERS)
HERBIVORES
(PRIMARY
CONSUMERS)
CARNIVORES
(2 3 ETC)
DECOMPOSERS
94
Chain Reaction Game
95
Energy Flows through a Food Web
bull Losses at every ldquosteprdquo in a food chain
bull Inefficiency of energy transfers
96
Energy flow through a food chain
Energy flow refers to the way that energy is transformed through
a food chain (pictured here) containing a series of levels
including plants consumers predators and decomposers 97
Amount of energy available at each of the
four levels of an ecosystem
Ecological pyramids illustrate the amount of energy
available at each of the four levels of an ecosystem 98
Ecological Pyramid
99
A grasshopper eats a plant A mouse eats the
grasshopper A snake eats the mouse A hawk
could eat the snake or the mouse In this food
web how would we categorize the hawk
1 Producer
2 Primary consumer
3 Secondary consumer
4 Tertiary consumer
5 Quaternary consumer
6 4 and 5
100
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps
bull First it is converted to chemical energy in
photosynthesis
bull Herbivores then consume the primary producers the
herbivores are consumed by carnivores and the
carnivores in turn may be consumed by top carnivores
101
Take-home message
bull Detritivores and decomposers extract energy from
organic waste and the remains of organisms that have
died
bull At each step in a food chain some usable energy is lost
as heat
102
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy pyramids reveal the inefficiency of
food chains
103
Biomass
bull biomass total weight of all living organisms in a given
area
bull only about 10 of the plants in an ecosystem is
converted into biomass
bull Food Energy Pyramid
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
bull African savannas and grasslands sustain more species
of higher-order carnivores than any other terrestrial
ecosystem
104
105
Food Energy Pyramids
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
106
107
108
You go out to eat at a fancy restaurant You
have a salad salmon and for dessert ice
cream Which part of the meal was the most
energy efficient food for you to eat
1 Salad
2 Salmon
3 Ice cream
4 2 and 3
109
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps known as trophic levels
bull Energy pyramids reveal that the biomass of primary
producers in an ecosystem tends to be far greater than
the biomass of herbivores
bull The biomass transferred at each step along the food chain tends to be only about 10 of the biomass of the organisms being consumed due to energy lost in cellular respiration
bull As a consequence of this inefficiency food chains rarely exceed four levels
110
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Essential chemicals cycle through
ecosystems
111
Chemical Reservoirs
bull Each chemical is stored in a non-living part of the environment
bull Organisms acquire the chemical from the reservoir a non-living part of the environment
bull The chemical cycles through the food chain (biogeochemical cycles)
bull Eventually the chemical is returned to the reservoir
112
Hydrologic Cycle and the Florida Springs
bull Click here for a description of how falling rain feeds underground aquifers in Florida and forms springs
113
The Most Important Chemical Cycles
1) Carbon
2) Nitrogen
3) Phosphorus
4) Sulfur
114
115
The
Carbon
Cycle
116
The Carbon Cycle
Keeping Up With Carbon
NASA video provides key information on the carbon cycle
117
118
Carbon Cycle Game
Fossil Fuels
bull created when large numbers of organisms die and are buried in sediment lacking oxygen
bull In absence of oxygen at high pressures and after very long periods of time organic remains are ultimately transformed into coal oil and natural gas
bull burning coal oil and natural gas releases large amounts of carbon dioxide
bull increases average CO2 concentration in the atmosphere
bull current level of CO2 in the atmosphere is the highest it has been in almost half a million years
119
Global CO2 levels are rising in
general but they also exhibit a
sharp rise and fall within each
year ndash why
120
121
The Nitrogen Cycle
122
The Nitrogen Cycle
Fertilizers
bull Because it is necessary for the production of every plant
protein and because all nitrogen must first be made
usable by bacteria plant growth is often limited by
nitrogen levels in the soil
bull For this reason most fertilizers contain nitrogen in a
form usable by plants
123
124
125
126
127
Oxygen reduction downstream of a source of
organic pollution
128
Algal growth and eutrophication in an Australian
outback waterway
129
Sulfur Cycle
bull component of protein
bull cycles in both a gas and sedimentary cycle
bull source earths crust
bull enters the atmosphere as hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
during fossil fuel combustion volcanic eruptions
gas exchange at ocean surfaces decomposition
130
Sulfur Cycle
bull H2S is immediately oxidized to sulfur dioxide (SO2)
bull SO2 + water vapor H2SO4 (falls to earth in rain)
bull sulfur in soluble form is taken up by plant roots
incorporated into amino acids such as cysteine
bull travels through food chain
bull eventually released through decomposition
131
How is carbon recycled back to the
atmosphere in the carbon cycle
1 It is ldquofixedrdquo by bacteria
2 It is a product of cellular respiration
3 Burning of fossil fuels
4 2 and 3
5 All of the above
132
Why do commercial fertilizers usually
contain usable forms of nitrogen and
phosphorous
1 These chemicals are not efficiently recycled in
the soil
2 Nitrogen and phosphorous need to be ldquofixedrdquo
by bacteria or the plant
3 Nitrogen and phosphorous are found at high
levels in the atmosphere but not in the soil
4 Nitrogen and phosphorous only enter the soil
through erosion
133
Take-home message
bull Chemicals essential to lifemdashincluding carbon nitrogen and phosphorusmdashcycle through ecosystems
bull They are usually captured from the atmosphere soil or water by growing organisms passed from one trophic level to the next as organisms eat other organisms and returned to the environment through respiration decomposition and erosion
bull These cycles can be disrupted as human activities significantly increase the amounts of the chemicals utilized or released to the environment
134
Symbiotic Relationships
bull Symbiosis close relationship between organisms of
two different species
bull At least one participant gains some sort of benefit
(usually nutritional)
bull Types of symbiosis
bull Parasitism
bull Commensalism
bull Mutualism
bull Predation
135
Symbiotic Relationships in the
Ocean
bull Click here for an explanation of the
relationships of marine animals
including sharks rays and various
fishes
136
Parasitism bull Parasite derives nutrition from the host
bull This harms the host but a true parasite does
not usually kill its host (directly)
137
Ectoparasites
Remain outside the host
Ticks fleas leeches
138
Endoparasites
Live inside the hostrsquos body
Tapeworms malarial parasites
139
Parasite Transmission
bull Many parasites live on or in a single organism
bull Some will alternate between 2 or more host species
bull Vertical transmission ndash from mother offspring
bull Horizontal transmission ndash between members of a
population
bull Direct contact (head lice)
bull Vectors (mosquitos)
140
141
Commensalism
bull Neither species is totally dependent on the other
bull One benefits ndash no effect on the other
bull Feeding or protection
bull Porcelain anemone crabs and anemones
142
Mutualism
bull Both species benefit
bull Food or shelter
bull Examples
bull Plants and microbes (rhizobium in root nodules)
bull Plants and fungi (orchids and mycorrhizae)
bull Protists and fungi (lichen)
bull Plants and insects (pollination)
bull Animals and bacteria (ruminants)
bull Animals and other animals (crocodiles and
plover birds)
143
Mutualism shrimp and moray
Cleaner shrimp cleaning a zebra moray eel Mutualistic
relationships such as these promote the well-being of the
host fishes and provide food for those that do the cleaning 144
Rhizobium
Rhizobium in root nodules of certain plants convert
nitrogen in soil to usable form
145
Orchid Mycorrhizae
Fungi aid the plant in the uptake of nutrients
Fungi ingest some of the food from plant
photosynthesis 146
Lichen
Most of the lichen is composed of fungal filaments
but living among the filaments are algal cells
usually from a green alga or a cyanobacterium
The lichen fungus provides its partner(s) a benefit
(protection) and gains nutrients in return 147
Ruminants
Ruminants are characterized by their four-chambered
stomach and cud-chewing behavior Cud is a food bolus
that is regurgitated rechewed and reswallowed The
rumen is a large fermentation vat containing billions of
microorganisms including bacteria and protozoa which
allow ruminants to digest fibrous feeds such as grass and
hay that other animals cannot efficiently utilize 148
Crocodiles amp
Plover Birds
The bird gets into the crocodiles mouth and picks out
the tiny bits of food stuck in his teeth then eats it (the
tiny bits)
This cleans the crocodiles teeth and keeps his mouth
fresh and free from infections 149
Predation
bull Consumption of one living organism by
another
bull Predators must have offensive strategies
bull ways of finding catching and eating
their prey
bull Prey organisms must have defensive
strategies
bull ways of avoiding or discouraging this
activity
150
Predation
bull Encompasses all levels within an
ecological food chainweb
bull plant-herbivore systems
bull herbivore-carnivore systems
bull three-way interactions of
interdependent plant-herbivore-
carnivore systems
151
This goshawk is the tertiary consumer in his ecosystem
and the mouse in his beak is the secondary consumer
Beneath the mouse on the ecological pyramid lies his
foodsource likely a worm which fed on the primary
producer leafy plants 152
Ecosystem of Life in Floridas
Springs
bull Click here for a close-up look of life
in Floridas springs and the various
predator-prey interactions there
153
Savanna
bull rolling grassland scattered with shrubs and isolated trees
bull found between a tropical rainforest and desert biome
bull not enough rain falls on a savanna to support forests
bull found in a wide band on either side of the equator on
the edges of tropical rainforests
bull warm temperature year round
bull very long dry season (winter) ~ 10 cm rain none at all
from Dec - Feb
bull very wet season (summer) ~ 35-65 cm rain
64
Savanna
65
Savanna ndash Indicator Plant Species
Baobab
Adansonia digitata Umbrella Thorn Acacia
Acacia tortillis
66
Savanna ndash Indicator Animal Species
Savanna Elephant
Loxodonta africana
Black Mamba
Dendroaspis polylepis
Lion
Panthera leo
67
Chaparral
bull winter mild and moist but not rainy
bull summer very hot and dry
bull annual temperature range between -1deg and 38deg C
bull annual precipitation ~ 25-45 cm mostly in the winter
68
Chaparral
69
Chaparral ndash Indicator Plant Species
Blue Oak
Quercus douglasii
Common Sagebrush
Artemisia tridentata
Olive Tree
Olea europaea
70
Chaparral ndash Indicator Animal Species
Black-tailed Jackrabbit
Lepus californicus Golden Jackal
Canis aureus
Spotted Skunk
Spilogale gracilis
71
The Freshwater Biome
bull low salt concentration mdash usually less than 1
bull plants and animals in freshwater regions are adjusted to
the low salt content and would not be able to survive in
areas of high salt concentration (ie ocean)
bull 3 different types of freshwater regions
bull ponds and lakes
bull streams and rivers
bull wetlands
72
The Freshwater Biome ndash Ponds and Lakes
From left a view across Manzanita Lake toward Mt Lassen California a
forest pond near Donnelly Idaho a Great Blue Heron Paranagat Lake
southeastern Nevada
73
The Freshwater Biome ndash Streams and
Rivers
From left McArthur-Burney Falls State Park California trout Green
River Utah Brooks River Alaska
74
The Freshwater Biome - Wetlands
From left Pescadero Marsh California coastal marsh at Umpqua
Dunes Oregon trees and bogs on Esther Island Alaska
75
The Marine Biome
bull cover about three-fourths of the Earths surface
bull marine algae supply much of the worlds oxygen supply
and take in a huge amount of atmospheric carbon
dioxide
bull evaporation of the seawater provides rainwater for the
land
bull 3 different types of marine regions
bull oceans
bull coral reefs
bull estuaries
76
The Marine Biome - Oceans
From left mussels worms and a spider crab at a hydrocarbon seep
community in the Gulf of Mexico a sea fan and brain coral in the Florida
Keys National Marine Sanctuary a school of Atlantic amberjack off North
Carolina
77
The Marine Biome ndash Coral Reefs
From left reef life in the Gulf of Aqaba Red Sea a reef at Fanning
Island atoll in the central Pacific a reef in the Florida Keys National
Marine Sanctuary
78
The Marine Biome - Estuaries
From left Mangrove roots south Florida wetlands and tidal streams
in the Ashe Island area ACE Basin National Estuarine Research
Reserve South Carolina a salt marsh in Winyah Bay National
Estuarine Research Reserve South Carolina
79
Ecological Notes
These are the biomes in order of their productivity (highest
first)
1 estuaries and tropical rain forest (highest)
2 temperate forest
3 agricultural land
4 temperate grassland
5 lakes and streams
6 coastal zone
7 tundra
8 open ocean
9 desert (lowest)
80
Ecological Notes
In order to be productive and have a lot of living material
standing around (biomass) an ecosystem has to have 4
basic necessities for plant life to thrive (if there are
enough plants the ecosystem will also support a lot of
animals) The four things are
1 Sunlight
2 Nutrients
3 Warm temperatures
4 Water
81
Biomes Video
82
Take-Home Message
bull Biomes are the major ecological communities of earth
characterized mostly by the vegetation present
bull Different biomes result from differences in temperature
and precipitation and the extent to which they vary from
season to season
83
Challenge Question
bull Terrestrial biomes are determined by the temperature
and precipitation amounts as well as whether those
factors are constant or vary by season
bull By contrast how are aquatic biomes determined
84
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy flows from producers to
consumers
85
86
87
First Stop Primary Producers
bull ecosystem producers or consumers
bull primary producers plants algae (some) bacteria
bull convert light energy from sun into chemical energy
through photosynthesis
bull chemical energy = food
bull consumers eat or absorb their food
bull energy stored in chemical bonds of carbohydrate
protein and lipid molecules is captured and
harnessed for consumersrsquo own movement
reproduction and growth
88
Food Chain
89
Food Web
90
Food Web
91
Food Chains amp Food Webs
bull A change in one link in a food chain will affect the other
links
bull The table on the next slide gives one example of a food
chain and the trophic levels represented in it
92
Food Chains amp Food Webs
93
GRASS
GRASSHOPPER
TOAD
SNAKE
HAWK
BACTERIA
IN GENERAL
AUTOTROPHS
(PRODUCERS)
HERBIVORES
(PRIMARY
CONSUMERS)
CARNIVORES
(2 3 ETC)
DECOMPOSERS
94
Chain Reaction Game
95
Energy Flows through a Food Web
bull Losses at every ldquosteprdquo in a food chain
bull Inefficiency of energy transfers
96
Energy flow through a food chain
Energy flow refers to the way that energy is transformed through
a food chain (pictured here) containing a series of levels
including plants consumers predators and decomposers 97
Amount of energy available at each of the
four levels of an ecosystem
Ecological pyramids illustrate the amount of energy
available at each of the four levels of an ecosystem 98
Ecological Pyramid
99
A grasshopper eats a plant A mouse eats the
grasshopper A snake eats the mouse A hawk
could eat the snake or the mouse In this food
web how would we categorize the hawk
1 Producer
2 Primary consumer
3 Secondary consumer
4 Tertiary consumer
5 Quaternary consumer
6 4 and 5
100
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps
bull First it is converted to chemical energy in
photosynthesis
bull Herbivores then consume the primary producers the
herbivores are consumed by carnivores and the
carnivores in turn may be consumed by top carnivores
101
Take-home message
bull Detritivores and decomposers extract energy from
organic waste and the remains of organisms that have
died
bull At each step in a food chain some usable energy is lost
as heat
102
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy pyramids reveal the inefficiency of
food chains
103
Biomass
bull biomass total weight of all living organisms in a given
area
bull only about 10 of the plants in an ecosystem is
converted into biomass
bull Food Energy Pyramid
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
bull African savannas and grasslands sustain more species
of higher-order carnivores than any other terrestrial
ecosystem
104
105
Food Energy Pyramids
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
106
107
108
You go out to eat at a fancy restaurant You
have a salad salmon and for dessert ice
cream Which part of the meal was the most
energy efficient food for you to eat
1 Salad
2 Salmon
3 Ice cream
4 2 and 3
109
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps known as trophic levels
bull Energy pyramids reveal that the biomass of primary
producers in an ecosystem tends to be far greater than
the biomass of herbivores
bull The biomass transferred at each step along the food chain tends to be only about 10 of the biomass of the organisms being consumed due to energy lost in cellular respiration
bull As a consequence of this inefficiency food chains rarely exceed four levels
110
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Essential chemicals cycle through
ecosystems
111
Chemical Reservoirs
bull Each chemical is stored in a non-living part of the environment
bull Organisms acquire the chemical from the reservoir a non-living part of the environment
bull The chemical cycles through the food chain (biogeochemical cycles)
bull Eventually the chemical is returned to the reservoir
112
Hydrologic Cycle and the Florida Springs
bull Click here for a description of how falling rain feeds underground aquifers in Florida and forms springs
113
The Most Important Chemical Cycles
1) Carbon
2) Nitrogen
3) Phosphorus
4) Sulfur
114
115
The
Carbon
Cycle
116
The Carbon Cycle
Keeping Up With Carbon
NASA video provides key information on the carbon cycle
117
118
Carbon Cycle Game
Fossil Fuels
bull created when large numbers of organisms die and are buried in sediment lacking oxygen
bull In absence of oxygen at high pressures and after very long periods of time organic remains are ultimately transformed into coal oil and natural gas
bull burning coal oil and natural gas releases large amounts of carbon dioxide
bull increases average CO2 concentration in the atmosphere
bull current level of CO2 in the atmosphere is the highest it has been in almost half a million years
119
Global CO2 levels are rising in
general but they also exhibit a
sharp rise and fall within each
year ndash why
120
121
The Nitrogen Cycle
122
The Nitrogen Cycle
Fertilizers
bull Because it is necessary for the production of every plant
protein and because all nitrogen must first be made
usable by bacteria plant growth is often limited by
nitrogen levels in the soil
bull For this reason most fertilizers contain nitrogen in a
form usable by plants
123
124
125
126
127
Oxygen reduction downstream of a source of
organic pollution
128
Algal growth and eutrophication in an Australian
outback waterway
129
Sulfur Cycle
bull component of protein
bull cycles in both a gas and sedimentary cycle
bull source earths crust
bull enters the atmosphere as hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
during fossil fuel combustion volcanic eruptions
gas exchange at ocean surfaces decomposition
130
Sulfur Cycle
bull H2S is immediately oxidized to sulfur dioxide (SO2)
bull SO2 + water vapor H2SO4 (falls to earth in rain)
bull sulfur in soluble form is taken up by plant roots
incorporated into amino acids such as cysteine
bull travels through food chain
bull eventually released through decomposition
131
How is carbon recycled back to the
atmosphere in the carbon cycle
1 It is ldquofixedrdquo by bacteria
2 It is a product of cellular respiration
3 Burning of fossil fuels
4 2 and 3
5 All of the above
132
Why do commercial fertilizers usually
contain usable forms of nitrogen and
phosphorous
1 These chemicals are not efficiently recycled in
the soil
2 Nitrogen and phosphorous need to be ldquofixedrdquo
by bacteria or the plant
3 Nitrogen and phosphorous are found at high
levels in the atmosphere but not in the soil
4 Nitrogen and phosphorous only enter the soil
through erosion
133
Take-home message
bull Chemicals essential to lifemdashincluding carbon nitrogen and phosphorusmdashcycle through ecosystems
bull They are usually captured from the atmosphere soil or water by growing organisms passed from one trophic level to the next as organisms eat other organisms and returned to the environment through respiration decomposition and erosion
bull These cycles can be disrupted as human activities significantly increase the amounts of the chemicals utilized or released to the environment
134
Symbiotic Relationships
bull Symbiosis close relationship between organisms of
two different species
bull At least one participant gains some sort of benefit
(usually nutritional)
bull Types of symbiosis
bull Parasitism
bull Commensalism
bull Mutualism
bull Predation
135
Symbiotic Relationships in the
Ocean
bull Click here for an explanation of the
relationships of marine animals
including sharks rays and various
fishes
136
Parasitism bull Parasite derives nutrition from the host
bull This harms the host but a true parasite does
not usually kill its host (directly)
137
Ectoparasites
Remain outside the host
Ticks fleas leeches
138
Endoparasites
Live inside the hostrsquos body
Tapeworms malarial parasites
139
Parasite Transmission
bull Many parasites live on or in a single organism
bull Some will alternate between 2 or more host species
bull Vertical transmission ndash from mother offspring
bull Horizontal transmission ndash between members of a
population
bull Direct contact (head lice)
bull Vectors (mosquitos)
140
141
Commensalism
bull Neither species is totally dependent on the other
bull One benefits ndash no effect on the other
bull Feeding or protection
bull Porcelain anemone crabs and anemones
142
Mutualism
bull Both species benefit
bull Food or shelter
bull Examples
bull Plants and microbes (rhizobium in root nodules)
bull Plants and fungi (orchids and mycorrhizae)
bull Protists and fungi (lichen)
bull Plants and insects (pollination)
bull Animals and bacteria (ruminants)
bull Animals and other animals (crocodiles and
plover birds)
143
Mutualism shrimp and moray
Cleaner shrimp cleaning a zebra moray eel Mutualistic
relationships such as these promote the well-being of the
host fishes and provide food for those that do the cleaning 144
Rhizobium
Rhizobium in root nodules of certain plants convert
nitrogen in soil to usable form
145
Orchid Mycorrhizae
Fungi aid the plant in the uptake of nutrients
Fungi ingest some of the food from plant
photosynthesis 146
Lichen
Most of the lichen is composed of fungal filaments
but living among the filaments are algal cells
usually from a green alga or a cyanobacterium
The lichen fungus provides its partner(s) a benefit
(protection) and gains nutrients in return 147
Ruminants
Ruminants are characterized by their four-chambered
stomach and cud-chewing behavior Cud is a food bolus
that is regurgitated rechewed and reswallowed The
rumen is a large fermentation vat containing billions of
microorganisms including bacteria and protozoa which
allow ruminants to digest fibrous feeds such as grass and
hay that other animals cannot efficiently utilize 148
Crocodiles amp
Plover Birds
The bird gets into the crocodiles mouth and picks out
the tiny bits of food stuck in his teeth then eats it (the
tiny bits)
This cleans the crocodiles teeth and keeps his mouth
fresh and free from infections 149
Predation
bull Consumption of one living organism by
another
bull Predators must have offensive strategies
bull ways of finding catching and eating
their prey
bull Prey organisms must have defensive
strategies
bull ways of avoiding or discouraging this
activity
150
Predation
bull Encompasses all levels within an
ecological food chainweb
bull plant-herbivore systems
bull herbivore-carnivore systems
bull three-way interactions of
interdependent plant-herbivore-
carnivore systems
151
This goshawk is the tertiary consumer in his ecosystem
and the mouse in his beak is the secondary consumer
Beneath the mouse on the ecological pyramid lies his
foodsource likely a worm which fed on the primary
producer leafy plants 152
Ecosystem of Life in Floridas
Springs
bull Click here for a close-up look of life
in Floridas springs and the various
predator-prey interactions there
153
Savanna
65
Savanna ndash Indicator Plant Species
Baobab
Adansonia digitata Umbrella Thorn Acacia
Acacia tortillis
66
Savanna ndash Indicator Animal Species
Savanna Elephant
Loxodonta africana
Black Mamba
Dendroaspis polylepis
Lion
Panthera leo
67
Chaparral
bull winter mild and moist but not rainy
bull summer very hot and dry
bull annual temperature range between -1deg and 38deg C
bull annual precipitation ~ 25-45 cm mostly in the winter
68
Chaparral
69
Chaparral ndash Indicator Plant Species
Blue Oak
Quercus douglasii
Common Sagebrush
Artemisia tridentata
Olive Tree
Olea europaea
70
Chaparral ndash Indicator Animal Species
Black-tailed Jackrabbit
Lepus californicus Golden Jackal
Canis aureus
Spotted Skunk
Spilogale gracilis
71
The Freshwater Biome
bull low salt concentration mdash usually less than 1
bull plants and animals in freshwater regions are adjusted to
the low salt content and would not be able to survive in
areas of high salt concentration (ie ocean)
bull 3 different types of freshwater regions
bull ponds and lakes
bull streams and rivers
bull wetlands
72
The Freshwater Biome ndash Ponds and Lakes
From left a view across Manzanita Lake toward Mt Lassen California a
forest pond near Donnelly Idaho a Great Blue Heron Paranagat Lake
southeastern Nevada
73
The Freshwater Biome ndash Streams and
Rivers
From left McArthur-Burney Falls State Park California trout Green
River Utah Brooks River Alaska
74
The Freshwater Biome - Wetlands
From left Pescadero Marsh California coastal marsh at Umpqua
Dunes Oregon trees and bogs on Esther Island Alaska
75
The Marine Biome
bull cover about three-fourths of the Earths surface
bull marine algae supply much of the worlds oxygen supply
and take in a huge amount of atmospheric carbon
dioxide
bull evaporation of the seawater provides rainwater for the
land
bull 3 different types of marine regions
bull oceans
bull coral reefs
bull estuaries
76
The Marine Biome - Oceans
From left mussels worms and a spider crab at a hydrocarbon seep
community in the Gulf of Mexico a sea fan and brain coral in the Florida
Keys National Marine Sanctuary a school of Atlantic amberjack off North
Carolina
77
The Marine Biome ndash Coral Reefs
From left reef life in the Gulf of Aqaba Red Sea a reef at Fanning
Island atoll in the central Pacific a reef in the Florida Keys National
Marine Sanctuary
78
The Marine Biome - Estuaries
From left Mangrove roots south Florida wetlands and tidal streams
in the Ashe Island area ACE Basin National Estuarine Research
Reserve South Carolina a salt marsh in Winyah Bay National
Estuarine Research Reserve South Carolina
79
Ecological Notes
These are the biomes in order of their productivity (highest
first)
1 estuaries and tropical rain forest (highest)
2 temperate forest
3 agricultural land
4 temperate grassland
5 lakes and streams
6 coastal zone
7 tundra
8 open ocean
9 desert (lowest)
80
Ecological Notes
In order to be productive and have a lot of living material
standing around (biomass) an ecosystem has to have 4
basic necessities for plant life to thrive (if there are
enough plants the ecosystem will also support a lot of
animals) The four things are
1 Sunlight
2 Nutrients
3 Warm temperatures
4 Water
81
Biomes Video
82
Take-Home Message
bull Biomes are the major ecological communities of earth
characterized mostly by the vegetation present
bull Different biomes result from differences in temperature
and precipitation and the extent to which they vary from
season to season
83
Challenge Question
bull Terrestrial biomes are determined by the temperature
and precipitation amounts as well as whether those
factors are constant or vary by season
bull By contrast how are aquatic biomes determined
84
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy flows from producers to
consumers
85
86
87
First Stop Primary Producers
bull ecosystem producers or consumers
bull primary producers plants algae (some) bacteria
bull convert light energy from sun into chemical energy
through photosynthesis
bull chemical energy = food
bull consumers eat or absorb their food
bull energy stored in chemical bonds of carbohydrate
protein and lipid molecules is captured and
harnessed for consumersrsquo own movement
reproduction and growth
88
Food Chain
89
Food Web
90
Food Web
91
Food Chains amp Food Webs
bull A change in one link in a food chain will affect the other
links
bull The table on the next slide gives one example of a food
chain and the trophic levels represented in it
92
Food Chains amp Food Webs
93
GRASS
GRASSHOPPER
TOAD
SNAKE
HAWK
BACTERIA
IN GENERAL
AUTOTROPHS
(PRODUCERS)
HERBIVORES
(PRIMARY
CONSUMERS)
CARNIVORES
(2 3 ETC)
DECOMPOSERS
94
Chain Reaction Game
95
Energy Flows through a Food Web
bull Losses at every ldquosteprdquo in a food chain
bull Inefficiency of energy transfers
96
Energy flow through a food chain
Energy flow refers to the way that energy is transformed through
a food chain (pictured here) containing a series of levels
including plants consumers predators and decomposers 97
Amount of energy available at each of the
four levels of an ecosystem
Ecological pyramids illustrate the amount of energy
available at each of the four levels of an ecosystem 98
Ecological Pyramid
99
A grasshopper eats a plant A mouse eats the
grasshopper A snake eats the mouse A hawk
could eat the snake or the mouse In this food
web how would we categorize the hawk
1 Producer
2 Primary consumer
3 Secondary consumer
4 Tertiary consumer
5 Quaternary consumer
6 4 and 5
100
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps
bull First it is converted to chemical energy in
photosynthesis
bull Herbivores then consume the primary producers the
herbivores are consumed by carnivores and the
carnivores in turn may be consumed by top carnivores
101
Take-home message
bull Detritivores and decomposers extract energy from
organic waste and the remains of organisms that have
died
bull At each step in a food chain some usable energy is lost
as heat
102
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy pyramids reveal the inefficiency of
food chains
103
Biomass
bull biomass total weight of all living organisms in a given
area
bull only about 10 of the plants in an ecosystem is
converted into biomass
bull Food Energy Pyramid
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
bull African savannas and grasslands sustain more species
of higher-order carnivores than any other terrestrial
ecosystem
104
105
Food Energy Pyramids
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
106
107
108
You go out to eat at a fancy restaurant You
have a salad salmon and for dessert ice
cream Which part of the meal was the most
energy efficient food for you to eat
1 Salad
2 Salmon
3 Ice cream
4 2 and 3
109
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps known as trophic levels
bull Energy pyramids reveal that the biomass of primary
producers in an ecosystem tends to be far greater than
the biomass of herbivores
bull The biomass transferred at each step along the food chain tends to be only about 10 of the biomass of the organisms being consumed due to energy lost in cellular respiration
bull As a consequence of this inefficiency food chains rarely exceed four levels
110
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Essential chemicals cycle through
ecosystems
111
Chemical Reservoirs
bull Each chemical is stored in a non-living part of the environment
bull Organisms acquire the chemical from the reservoir a non-living part of the environment
bull The chemical cycles through the food chain (biogeochemical cycles)
bull Eventually the chemical is returned to the reservoir
112
Hydrologic Cycle and the Florida Springs
bull Click here for a description of how falling rain feeds underground aquifers in Florida and forms springs
113
The Most Important Chemical Cycles
1) Carbon
2) Nitrogen
3) Phosphorus
4) Sulfur
114
115
The
Carbon
Cycle
116
The Carbon Cycle
Keeping Up With Carbon
NASA video provides key information on the carbon cycle
117
118
Carbon Cycle Game
Fossil Fuels
bull created when large numbers of organisms die and are buried in sediment lacking oxygen
bull In absence of oxygen at high pressures and after very long periods of time organic remains are ultimately transformed into coal oil and natural gas
bull burning coal oil and natural gas releases large amounts of carbon dioxide
bull increases average CO2 concentration in the atmosphere
bull current level of CO2 in the atmosphere is the highest it has been in almost half a million years
119
Global CO2 levels are rising in
general but they also exhibit a
sharp rise and fall within each
year ndash why
120
121
The Nitrogen Cycle
122
The Nitrogen Cycle
Fertilizers
bull Because it is necessary for the production of every plant
protein and because all nitrogen must first be made
usable by bacteria plant growth is often limited by
nitrogen levels in the soil
bull For this reason most fertilizers contain nitrogen in a
form usable by plants
123
124
125
126
127
Oxygen reduction downstream of a source of
organic pollution
128
Algal growth and eutrophication in an Australian
outback waterway
129
Sulfur Cycle
bull component of protein
bull cycles in both a gas and sedimentary cycle
bull source earths crust
bull enters the atmosphere as hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
during fossil fuel combustion volcanic eruptions
gas exchange at ocean surfaces decomposition
130
Sulfur Cycle
bull H2S is immediately oxidized to sulfur dioxide (SO2)
bull SO2 + water vapor H2SO4 (falls to earth in rain)
bull sulfur in soluble form is taken up by plant roots
incorporated into amino acids such as cysteine
bull travels through food chain
bull eventually released through decomposition
131
How is carbon recycled back to the
atmosphere in the carbon cycle
1 It is ldquofixedrdquo by bacteria
2 It is a product of cellular respiration
3 Burning of fossil fuels
4 2 and 3
5 All of the above
132
Why do commercial fertilizers usually
contain usable forms of nitrogen and
phosphorous
1 These chemicals are not efficiently recycled in
the soil
2 Nitrogen and phosphorous need to be ldquofixedrdquo
by bacteria or the plant
3 Nitrogen and phosphorous are found at high
levels in the atmosphere but not in the soil
4 Nitrogen and phosphorous only enter the soil
through erosion
133
Take-home message
bull Chemicals essential to lifemdashincluding carbon nitrogen and phosphorusmdashcycle through ecosystems
bull They are usually captured from the atmosphere soil or water by growing organisms passed from one trophic level to the next as organisms eat other organisms and returned to the environment through respiration decomposition and erosion
bull These cycles can be disrupted as human activities significantly increase the amounts of the chemicals utilized or released to the environment
134
Symbiotic Relationships
bull Symbiosis close relationship between organisms of
two different species
bull At least one participant gains some sort of benefit
(usually nutritional)
bull Types of symbiosis
bull Parasitism
bull Commensalism
bull Mutualism
bull Predation
135
Symbiotic Relationships in the
Ocean
bull Click here for an explanation of the
relationships of marine animals
including sharks rays and various
fishes
136
Parasitism bull Parasite derives nutrition from the host
bull This harms the host but a true parasite does
not usually kill its host (directly)
137
Ectoparasites
Remain outside the host
Ticks fleas leeches
138
Endoparasites
Live inside the hostrsquos body
Tapeworms malarial parasites
139
Parasite Transmission
bull Many parasites live on or in a single organism
bull Some will alternate between 2 or more host species
bull Vertical transmission ndash from mother offspring
bull Horizontal transmission ndash between members of a
population
bull Direct contact (head lice)
bull Vectors (mosquitos)
140
141
Commensalism
bull Neither species is totally dependent on the other
bull One benefits ndash no effect on the other
bull Feeding or protection
bull Porcelain anemone crabs and anemones
142
Mutualism
bull Both species benefit
bull Food or shelter
bull Examples
bull Plants and microbes (rhizobium in root nodules)
bull Plants and fungi (orchids and mycorrhizae)
bull Protists and fungi (lichen)
bull Plants and insects (pollination)
bull Animals and bacteria (ruminants)
bull Animals and other animals (crocodiles and
plover birds)
143
Mutualism shrimp and moray
Cleaner shrimp cleaning a zebra moray eel Mutualistic
relationships such as these promote the well-being of the
host fishes and provide food for those that do the cleaning 144
Rhizobium
Rhizobium in root nodules of certain plants convert
nitrogen in soil to usable form
145
Orchid Mycorrhizae
Fungi aid the plant in the uptake of nutrients
Fungi ingest some of the food from plant
photosynthesis 146
Lichen
Most of the lichen is composed of fungal filaments
but living among the filaments are algal cells
usually from a green alga or a cyanobacterium
The lichen fungus provides its partner(s) a benefit
(protection) and gains nutrients in return 147
Ruminants
Ruminants are characterized by their four-chambered
stomach and cud-chewing behavior Cud is a food bolus
that is regurgitated rechewed and reswallowed The
rumen is a large fermentation vat containing billions of
microorganisms including bacteria and protozoa which
allow ruminants to digest fibrous feeds such as grass and
hay that other animals cannot efficiently utilize 148
Crocodiles amp
Plover Birds
The bird gets into the crocodiles mouth and picks out
the tiny bits of food stuck in his teeth then eats it (the
tiny bits)
This cleans the crocodiles teeth and keeps his mouth
fresh and free from infections 149
Predation
bull Consumption of one living organism by
another
bull Predators must have offensive strategies
bull ways of finding catching and eating
their prey
bull Prey organisms must have defensive
strategies
bull ways of avoiding or discouraging this
activity
150
Predation
bull Encompasses all levels within an
ecological food chainweb
bull plant-herbivore systems
bull herbivore-carnivore systems
bull three-way interactions of
interdependent plant-herbivore-
carnivore systems
151
This goshawk is the tertiary consumer in his ecosystem
and the mouse in his beak is the secondary consumer
Beneath the mouse on the ecological pyramid lies his
foodsource likely a worm which fed on the primary
producer leafy plants 152
Ecosystem of Life in Floridas
Springs
bull Click here for a close-up look of life
in Floridas springs and the various
predator-prey interactions there
153
Savanna ndash Indicator Plant Species
Baobab
Adansonia digitata Umbrella Thorn Acacia
Acacia tortillis
66
Savanna ndash Indicator Animal Species
Savanna Elephant
Loxodonta africana
Black Mamba
Dendroaspis polylepis
Lion
Panthera leo
67
Chaparral
bull winter mild and moist but not rainy
bull summer very hot and dry
bull annual temperature range between -1deg and 38deg C
bull annual precipitation ~ 25-45 cm mostly in the winter
68
Chaparral
69
Chaparral ndash Indicator Plant Species
Blue Oak
Quercus douglasii
Common Sagebrush
Artemisia tridentata
Olive Tree
Olea europaea
70
Chaparral ndash Indicator Animal Species
Black-tailed Jackrabbit
Lepus californicus Golden Jackal
Canis aureus
Spotted Skunk
Spilogale gracilis
71
The Freshwater Biome
bull low salt concentration mdash usually less than 1
bull plants and animals in freshwater regions are adjusted to
the low salt content and would not be able to survive in
areas of high salt concentration (ie ocean)
bull 3 different types of freshwater regions
bull ponds and lakes
bull streams and rivers
bull wetlands
72
The Freshwater Biome ndash Ponds and Lakes
From left a view across Manzanita Lake toward Mt Lassen California a
forest pond near Donnelly Idaho a Great Blue Heron Paranagat Lake
southeastern Nevada
73
The Freshwater Biome ndash Streams and
Rivers
From left McArthur-Burney Falls State Park California trout Green
River Utah Brooks River Alaska
74
The Freshwater Biome - Wetlands
From left Pescadero Marsh California coastal marsh at Umpqua
Dunes Oregon trees and bogs on Esther Island Alaska
75
The Marine Biome
bull cover about three-fourths of the Earths surface
bull marine algae supply much of the worlds oxygen supply
and take in a huge amount of atmospheric carbon
dioxide
bull evaporation of the seawater provides rainwater for the
land
bull 3 different types of marine regions
bull oceans
bull coral reefs
bull estuaries
76
The Marine Biome - Oceans
From left mussels worms and a spider crab at a hydrocarbon seep
community in the Gulf of Mexico a sea fan and brain coral in the Florida
Keys National Marine Sanctuary a school of Atlantic amberjack off North
Carolina
77
The Marine Biome ndash Coral Reefs
From left reef life in the Gulf of Aqaba Red Sea a reef at Fanning
Island atoll in the central Pacific a reef in the Florida Keys National
Marine Sanctuary
78
The Marine Biome - Estuaries
From left Mangrove roots south Florida wetlands and tidal streams
in the Ashe Island area ACE Basin National Estuarine Research
Reserve South Carolina a salt marsh in Winyah Bay National
Estuarine Research Reserve South Carolina
79
Ecological Notes
These are the biomes in order of their productivity (highest
first)
1 estuaries and tropical rain forest (highest)
2 temperate forest
3 agricultural land
4 temperate grassland
5 lakes and streams
6 coastal zone
7 tundra
8 open ocean
9 desert (lowest)
80
Ecological Notes
In order to be productive and have a lot of living material
standing around (biomass) an ecosystem has to have 4
basic necessities for plant life to thrive (if there are
enough plants the ecosystem will also support a lot of
animals) The four things are
1 Sunlight
2 Nutrients
3 Warm temperatures
4 Water
81
Biomes Video
82
Take-Home Message
bull Biomes are the major ecological communities of earth
characterized mostly by the vegetation present
bull Different biomes result from differences in temperature
and precipitation and the extent to which they vary from
season to season
83
Challenge Question
bull Terrestrial biomes are determined by the temperature
and precipitation amounts as well as whether those
factors are constant or vary by season
bull By contrast how are aquatic biomes determined
84
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy flows from producers to
consumers
85
86
87
First Stop Primary Producers
bull ecosystem producers or consumers
bull primary producers plants algae (some) bacteria
bull convert light energy from sun into chemical energy
through photosynthesis
bull chemical energy = food
bull consumers eat or absorb their food
bull energy stored in chemical bonds of carbohydrate
protein and lipid molecules is captured and
harnessed for consumersrsquo own movement
reproduction and growth
88
Food Chain
89
Food Web
90
Food Web
91
Food Chains amp Food Webs
bull A change in one link in a food chain will affect the other
links
bull The table on the next slide gives one example of a food
chain and the trophic levels represented in it
92
Food Chains amp Food Webs
93
GRASS
GRASSHOPPER
TOAD
SNAKE
HAWK
BACTERIA
IN GENERAL
AUTOTROPHS
(PRODUCERS)
HERBIVORES
(PRIMARY
CONSUMERS)
CARNIVORES
(2 3 ETC)
DECOMPOSERS
94
Chain Reaction Game
95
Energy Flows through a Food Web
bull Losses at every ldquosteprdquo in a food chain
bull Inefficiency of energy transfers
96
Energy flow through a food chain
Energy flow refers to the way that energy is transformed through
a food chain (pictured here) containing a series of levels
including plants consumers predators and decomposers 97
Amount of energy available at each of the
four levels of an ecosystem
Ecological pyramids illustrate the amount of energy
available at each of the four levels of an ecosystem 98
Ecological Pyramid
99
A grasshopper eats a plant A mouse eats the
grasshopper A snake eats the mouse A hawk
could eat the snake or the mouse In this food
web how would we categorize the hawk
1 Producer
2 Primary consumer
3 Secondary consumer
4 Tertiary consumer
5 Quaternary consumer
6 4 and 5
100
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps
bull First it is converted to chemical energy in
photosynthesis
bull Herbivores then consume the primary producers the
herbivores are consumed by carnivores and the
carnivores in turn may be consumed by top carnivores
101
Take-home message
bull Detritivores and decomposers extract energy from
organic waste and the remains of organisms that have
died
bull At each step in a food chain some usable energy is lost
as heat
102
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy pyramids reveal the inefficiency of
food chains
103
Biomass
bull biomass total weight of all living organisms in a given
area
bull only about 10 of the plants in an ecosystem is
converted into biomass
bull Food Energy Pyramid
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
bull African savannas and grasslands sustain more species
of higher-order carnivores than any other terrestrial
ecosystem
104
105
Food Energy Pyramids
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
106
107
108
You go out to eat at a fancy restaurant You
have a salad salmon and for dessert ice
cream Which part of the meal was the most
energy efficient food for you to eat
1 Salad
2 Salmon
3 Ice cream
4 2 and 3
109
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps known as trophic levels
bull Energy pyramids reveal that the biomass of primary
producers in an ecosystem tends to be far greater than
the biomass of herbivores
bull The biomass transferred at each step along the food chain tends to be only about 10 of the biomass of the organisms being consumed due to energy lost in cellular respiration
bull As a consequence of this inefficiency food chains rarely exceed four levels
110
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Essential chemicals cycle through
ecosystems
111
Chemical Reservoirs
bull Each chemical is stored in a non-living part of the environment
bull Organisms acquire the chemical from the reservoir a non-living part of the environment
bull The chemical cycles through the food chain (biogeochemical cycles)
bull Eventually the chemical is returned to the reservoir
112
Hydrologic Cycle and the Florida Springs
bull Click here for a description of how falling rain feeds underground aquifers in Florida and forms springs
113
The Most Important Chemical Cycles
1) Carbon
2) Nitrogen
3) Phosphorus
4) Sulfur
114
115
The
Carbon
Cycle
116
The Carbon Cycle
Keeping Up With Carbon
NASA video provides key information on the carbon cycle
117
118
Carbon Cycle Game
Fossil Fuels
bull created when large numbers of organisms die and are buried in sediment lacking oxygen
bull In absence of oxygen at high pressures and after very long periods of time organic remains are ultimately transformed into coal oil and natural gas
bull burning coal oil and natural gas releases large amounts of carbon dioxide
bull increases average CO2 concentration in the atmosphere
bull current level of CO2 in the atmosphere is the highest it has been in almost half a million years
119
Global CO2 levels are rising in
general but they also exhibit a
sharp rise and fall within each
year ndash why
120
121
The Nitrogen Cycle
122
The Nitrogen Cycle
Fertilizers
bull Because it is necessary for the production of every plant
protein and because all nitrogen must first be made
usable by bacteria plant growth is often limited by
nitrogen levels in the soil
bull For this reason most fertilizers contain nitrogen in a
form usable by plants
123
124
125
126
127
Oxygen reduction downstream of a source of
organic pollution
128
Algal growth and eutrophication in an Australian
outback waterway
129
Sulfur Cycle
bull component of protein
bull cycles in both a gas and sedimentary cycle
bull source earths crust
bull enters the atmosphere as hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
during fossil fuel combustion volcanic eruptions
gas exchange at ocean surfaces decomposition
130
Sulfur Cycle
bull H2S is immediately oxidized to sulfur dioxide (SO2)
bull SO2 + water vapor H2SO4 (falls to earth in rain)
bull sulfur in soluble form is taken up by plant roots
incorporated into amino acids such as cysteine
bull travels through food chain
bull eventually released through decomposition
131
How is carbon recycled back to the
atmosphere in the carbon cycle
1 It is ldquofixedrdquo by bacteria
2 It is a product of cellular respiration
3 Burning of fossil fuels
4 2 and 3
5 All of the above
132
Why do commercial fertilizers usually
contain usable forms of nitrogen and
phosphorous
1 These chemicals are not efficiently recycled in
the soil
2 Nitrogen and phosphorous need to be ldquofixedrdquo
by bacteria or the plant
3 Nitrogen and phosphorous are found at high
levels in the atmosphere but not in the soil
4 Nitrogen and phosphorous only enter the soil
through erosion
133
Take-home message
bull Chemicals essential to lifemdashincluding carbon nitrogen and phosphorusmdashcycle through ecosystems
bull They are usually captured from the atmosphere soil or water by growing organisms passed from one trophic level to the next as organisms eat other organisms and returned to the environment through respiration decomposition and erosion
bull These cycles can be disrupted as human activities significantly increase the amounts of the chemicals utilized or released to the environment
134
Symbiotic Relationships
bull Symbiosis close relationship between organisms of
two different species
bull At least one participant gains some sort of benefit
(usually nutritional)
bull Types of symbiosis
bull Parasitism
bull Commensalism
bull Mutualism
bull Predation
135
Symbiotic Relationships in the
Ocean
bull Click here for an explanation of the
relationships of marine animals
including sharks rays and various
fishes
136
Parasitism bull Parasite derives nutrition from the host
bull This harms the host but a true parasite does
not usually kill its host (directly)
137
Ectoparasites
Remain outside the host
Ticks fleas leeches
138
Endoparasites
Live inside the hostrsquos body
Tapeworms malarial parasites
139
Parasite Transmission
bull Many parasites live on or in a single organism
bull Some will alternate between 2 or more host species
bull Vertical transmission ndash from mother offspring
bull Horizontal transmission ndash between members of a
population
bull Direct contact (head lice)
bull Vectors (mosquitos)
140
141
Commensalism
bull Neither species is totally dependent on the other
bull One benefits ndash no effect on the other
bull Feeding or protection
bull Porcelain anemone crabs and anemones
142
Mutualism
bull Both species benefit
bull Food or shelter
bull Examples
bull Plants and microbes (rhizobium in root nodules)
bull Plants and fungi (orchids and mycorrhizae)
bull Protists and fungi (lichen)
bull Plants and insects (pollination)
bull Animals and bacteria (ruminants)
bull Animals and other animals (crocodiles and
plover birds)
143
Mutualism shrimp and moray
Cleaner shrimp cleaning a zebra moray eel Mutualistic
relationships such as these promote the well-being of the
host fishes and provide food for those that do the cleaning 144
Rhizobium
Rhizobium in root nodules of certain plants convert
nitrogen in soil to usable form
145
Orchid Mycorrhizae
Fungi aid the plant in the uptake of nutrients
Fungi ingest some of the food from plant
photosynthesis 146
Lichen
Most of the lichen is composed of fungal filaments
but living among the filaments are algal cells
usually from a green alga or a cyanobacterium
The lichen fungus provides its partner(s) a benefit
(protection) and gains nutrients in return 147
Ruminants
Ruminants are characterized by their four-chambered
stomach and cud-chewing behavior Cud is a food bolus
that is regurgitated rechewed and reswallowed The
rumen is a large fermentation vat containing billions of
microorganisms including bacteria and protozoa which
allow ruminants to digest fibrous feeds such as grass and
hay that other animals cannot efficiently utilize 148
Crocodiles amp
Plover Birds
The bird gets into the crocodiles mouth and picks out
the tiny bits of food stuck in his teeth then eats it (the
tiny bits)
This cleans the crocodiles teeth and keeps his mouth
fresh and free from infections 149
Predation
bull Consumption of one living organism by
another
bull Predators must have offensive strategies
bull ways of finding catching and eating
their prey
bull Prey organisms must have defensive
strategies
bull ways of avoiding or discouraging this
activity
150
Predation
bull Encompasses all levels within an
ecological food chainweb
bull plant-herbivore systems
bull herbivore-carnivore systems
bull three-way interactions of
interdependent plant-herbivore-
carnivore systems
151
This goshawk is the tertiary consumer in his ecosystem
and the mouse in his beak is the secondary consumer
Beneath the mouse on the ecological pyramid lies his
foodsource likely a worm which fed on the primary
producer leafy plants 152
Ecosystem of Life in Floridas
Springs
bull Click here for a close-up look of life
in Floridas springs and the various
predator-prey interactions there
153
Savanna ndash Indicator Animal Species
Savanna Elephant
Loxodonta africana
Black Mamba
Dendroaspis polylepis
Lion
Panthera leo
67
Chaparral
bull winter mild and moist but not rainy
bull summer very hot and dry
bull annual temperature range between -1deg and 38deg C
bull annual precipitation ~ 25-45 cm mostly in the winter
68
Chaparral
69
Chaparral ndash Indicator Plant Species
Blue Oak
Quercus douglasii
Common Sagebrush
Artemisia tridentata
Olive Tree
Olea europaea
70
Chaparral ndash Indicator Animal Species
Black-tailed Jackrabbit
Lepus californicus Golden Jackal
Canis aureus
Spotted Skunk
Spilogale gracilis
71
The Freshwater Biome
bull low salt concentration mdash usually less than 1
bull plants and animals in freshwater regions are adjusted to
the low salt content and would not be able to survive in
areas of high salt concentration (ie ocean)
bull 3 different types of freshwater regions
bull ponds and lakes
bull streams and rivers
bull wetlands
72
The Freshwater Biome ndash Ponds and Lakes
From left a view across Manzanita Lake toward Mt Lassen California a
forest pond near Donnelly Idaho a Great Blue Heron Paranagat Lake
southeastern Nevada
73
The Freshwater Biome ndash Streams and
Rivers
From left McArthur-Burney Falls State Park California trout Green
River Utah Brooks River Alaska
74
The Freshwater Biome - Wetlands
From left Pescadero Marsh California coastal marsh at Umpqua
Dunes Oregon trees and bogs on Esther Island Alaska
75
The Marine Biome
bull cover about three-fourths of the Earths surface
bull marine algae supply much of the worlds oxygen supply
and take in a huge amount of atmospheric carbon
dioxide
bull evaporation of the seawater provides rainwater for the
land
bull 3 different types of marine regions
bull oceans
bull coral reefs
bull estuaries
76
The Marine Biome - Oceans
From left mussels worms and a spider crab at a hydrocarbon seep
community in the Gulf of Mexico a sea fan and brain coral in the Florida
Keys National Marine Sanctuary a school of Atlantic amberjack off North
Carolina
77
The Marine Biome ndash Coral Reefs
From left reef life in the Gulf of Aqaba Red Sea a reef at Fanning
Island atoll in the central Pacific a reef in the Florida Keys National
Marine Sanctuary
78
The Marine Biome - Estuaries
From left Mangrove roots south Florida wetlands and tidal streams
in the Ashe Island area ACE Basin National Estuarine Research
Reserve South Carolina a salt marsh in Winyah Bay National
Estuarine Research Reserve South Carolina
79
Ecological Notes
These are the biomes in order of their productivity (highest
first)
1 estuaries and tropical rain forest (highest)
2 temperate forest
3 agricultural land
4 temperate grassland
5 lakes and streams
6 coastal zone
7 tundra
8 open ocean
9 desert (lowest)
80
Ecological Notes
In order to be productive and have a lot of living material
standing around (biomass) an ecosystem has to have 4
basic necessities for plant life to thrive (if there are
enough plants the ecosystem will also support a lot of
animals) The four things are
1 Sunlight
2 Nutrients
3 Warm temperatures
4 Water
81
Biomes Video
82
Take-Home Message
bull Biomes are the major ecological communities of earth
characterized mostly by the vegetation present
bull Different biomes result from differences in temperature
and precipitation and the extent to which they vary from
season to season
83
Challenge Question
bull Terrestrial biomes are determined by the temperature
and precipitation amounts as well as whether those
factors are constant or vary by season
bull By contrast how are aquatic biomes determined
84
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy flows from producers to
consumers
85
86
87
First Stop Primary Producers
bull ecosystem producers or consumers
bull primary producers plants algae (some) bacteria
bull convert light energy from sun into chemical energy
through photosynthesis
bull chemical energy = food
bull consumers eat or absorb their food
bull energy stored in chemical bonds of carbohydrate
protein and lipid molecules is captured and
harnessed for consumersrsquo own movement
reproduction and growth
88
Food Chain
89
Food Web
90
Food Web
91
Food Chains amp Food Webs
bull A change in one link in a food chain will affect the other
links
bull The table on the next slide gives one example of a food
chain and the trophic levels represented in it
92
Food Chains amp Food Webs
93
GRASS
GRASSHOPPER
TOAD
SNAKE
HAWK
BACTERIA
IN GENERAL
AUTOTROPHS
(PRODUCERS)
HERBIVORES
(PRIMARY
CONSUMERS)
CARNIVORES
(2 3 ETC)
DECOMPOSERS
94
Chain Reaction Game
95
Energy Flows through a Food Web
bull Losses at every ldquosteprdquo in a food chain
bull Inefficiency of energy transfers
96
Energy flow through a food chain
Energy flow refers to the way that energy is transformed through
a food chain (pictured here) containing a series of levels
including plants consumers predators and decomposers 97
Amount of energy available at each of the
four levels of an ecosystem
Ecological pyramids illustrate the amount of energy
available at each of the four levels of an ecosystem 98
Ecological Pyramid
99
A grasshopper eats a plant A mouse eats the
grasshopper A snake eats the mouse A hawk
could eat the snake or the mouse In this food
web how would we categorize the hawk
1 Producer
2 Primary consumer
3 Secondary consumer
4 Tertiary consumer
5 Quaternary consumer
6 4 and 5
100
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps
bull First it is converted to chemical energy in
photosynthesis
bull Herbivores then consume the primary producers the
herbivores are consumed by carnivores and the
carnivores in turn may be consumed by top carnivores
101
Take-home message
bull Detritivores and decomposers extract energy from
organic waste and the remains of organisms that have
died
bull At each step in a food chain some usable energy is lost
as heat
102
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy pyramids reveal the inefficiency of
food chains
103
Biomass
bull biomass total weight of all living organisms in a given
area
bull only about 10 of the plants in an ecosystem is
converted into biomass
bull Food Energy Pyramid
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
bull African savannas and grasslands sustain more species
of higher-order carnivores than any other terrestrial
ecosystem
104
105
Food Energy Pyramids
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
106
107
108
You go out to eat at a fancy restaurant You
have a salad salmon and for dessert ice
cream Which part of the meal was the most
energy efficient food for you to eat
1 Salad
2 Salmon
3 Ice cream
4 2 and 3
109
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps known as trophic levels
bull Energy pyramids reveal that the biomass of primary
producers in an ecosystem tends to be far greater than
the biomass of herbivores
bull The biomass transferred at each step along the food chain tends to be only about 10 of the biomass of the organisms being consumed due to energy lost in cellular respiration
bull As a consequence of this inefficiency food chains rarely exceed four levels
110
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Essential chemicals cycle through
ecosystems
111
Chemical Reservoirs
bull Each chemical is stored in a non-living part of the environment
bull Organisms acquire the chemical from the reservoir a non-living part of the environment
bull The chemical cycles through the food chain (biogeochemical cycles)
bull Eventually the chemical is returned to the reservoir
112
Hydrologic Cycle and the Florida Springs
bull Click here for a description of how falling rain feeds underground aquifers in Florida and forms springs
113
The Most Important Chemical Cycles
1) Carbon
2) Nitrogen
3) Phosphorus
4) Sulfur
114
115
The
Carbon
Cycle
116
The Carbon Cycle
Keeping Up With Carbon
NASA video provides key information on the carbon cycle
117
118
Carbon Cycle Game
Fossil Fuels
bull created when large numbers of organisms die and are buried in sediment lacking oxygen
bull In absence of oxygen at high pressures and after very long periods of time organic remains are ultimately transformed into coal oil and natural gas
bull burning coal oil and natural gas releases large amounts of carbon dioxide
bull increases average CO2 concentration in the atmosphere
bull current level of CO2 in the atmosphere is the highest it has been in almost half a million years
119
Global CO2 levels are rising in
general but they also exhibit a
sharp rise and fall within each
year ndash why
120
121
The Nitrogen Cycle
122
The Nitrogen Cycle
Fertilizers
bull Because it is necessary for the production of every plant
protein and because all nitrogen must first be made
usable by bacteria plant growth is often limited by
nitrogen levels in the soil
bull For this reason most fertilizers contain nitrogen in a
form usable by plants
123
124
125
126
127
Oxygen reduction downstream of a source of
organic pollution
128
Algal growth and eutrophication in an Australian
outback waterway
129
Sulfur Cycle
bull component of protein
bull cycles in both a gas and sedimentary cycle
bull source earths crust
bull enters the atmosphere as hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
during fossil fuel combustion volcanic eruptions
gas exchange at ocean surfaces decomposition
130
Sulfur Cycle
bull H2S is immediately oxidized to sulfur dioxide (SO2)
bull SO2 + water vapor H2SO4 (falls to earth in rain)
bull sulfur in soluble form is taken up by plant roots
incorporated into amino acids such as cysteine
bull travels through food chain
bull eventually released through decomposition
131
How is carbon recycled back to the
atmosphere in the carbon cycle
1 It is ldquofixedrdquo by bacteria
2 It is a product of cellular respiration
3 Burning of fossil fuels
4 2 and 3
5 All of the above
132
Why do commercial fertilizers usually
contain usable forms of nitrogen and
phosphorous
1 These chemicals are not efficiently recycled in
the soil
2 Nitrogen and phosphorous need to be ldquofixedrdquo
by bacteria or the plant
3 Nitrogen and phosphorous are found at high
levels in the atmosphere but not in the soil
4 Nitrogen and phosphorous only enter the soil
through erosion
133
Take-home message
bull Chemicals essential to lifemdashincluding carbon nitrogen and phosphorusmdashcycle through ecosystems
bull They are usually captured from the atmosphere soil or water by growing organisms passed from one trophic level to the next as organisms eat other organisms and returned to the environment through respiration decomposition and erosion
bull These cycles can be disrupted as human activities significantly increase the amounts of the chemicals utilized or released to the environment
134
Symbiotic Relationships
bull Symbiosis close relationship between organisms of
two different species
bull At least one participant gains some sort of benefit
(usually nutritional)
bull Types of symbiosis
bull Parasitism
bull Commensalism
bull Mutualism
bull Predation
135
Symbiotic Relationships in the
Ocean
bull Click here for an explanation of the
relationships of marine animals
including sharks rays and various
fishes
136
Parasitism bull Parasite derives nutrition from the host
bull This harms the host but a true parasite does
not usually kill its host (directly)
137
Ectoparasites
Remain outside the host
Ticks fleas leeches
138
Endoparasites
Live inside the hostrsquos body
Tapeworms malarial parasites
139
Parasite Transmission
bull Many parasites live on or in a single organism
bull Some will alternate between 2 or more host species
bull Vertical transmission ndash from mother offspring
bull Horizontal transmission ndash between members of a
population
bull Direct contact (head lice)
bull Vectors (mosquitos)
140
141
Commensalism
bull Neither species is totally dependent on the other
bull One benefits ndash no effect on the other
bull Feeding or protection
bull Porcelain anemone crabs and anemones
142
Mutualism
bull Both species benefit
bull Food or shelter
bull Examples
bull Plants and microbes (rhizobium in root nodules)
bull Plants and fungi (orchids and mycorrhizae)
bull Protists and fungi (lichen)
bull Plants and insects (pollination)
bull Animals and bacteria (ruminants)
bull Animals and other animals (crocodiles and
plover birds)
143
Mutualism shrimp and moray
Cleaner shrimp cleaning a zebra moray eel Mutualistic
relationships such as these promote the well-being of the
host fishes and provide food for those that do the cleaning 144
Rhizobium
Rhizobium in root nodules of certain plants convert
nitrogen in soil to usable form
145
Orchid Mycorrhizae
Fungi aid the plant in the uptake of nutrients
Fungi ingest some of the food from plant
photosynthesis 146
Lichen
Most of the lichen is composed of fungal filaments
but living among the filaments are algal cells
usually from a green alga or a cyanobacterium
The lichen fungus provides its partner(s) a benefit
(protection) and gains nutrients in return 147
Ruminants
Ruminants are characterized by their four-chambered
stomach and cud-chewing behavior Cud is a food bolus
that is regurgitated rechewed and reswallowed The
rumen is a large fermentation vat containing billions of
microorganisms including bacteria and protozoa which
allow ruminants to digest fibrous feeds such as grass and
hay that other animals cannot efficiently utilize 148
Crocodiles amp
Plover Birds
The bird gets into the crocodiles mouth and picks out
the tiny bits of food stuck in his teeth then eats it (the
tiny bits)
This cleans the crocodiles teeth and keeps his mouth
fresh and free from infections 149
Predation
bull Consumption of one living organism by
another
bull Predators must have offensive strategies
bull ways of finding catching and eating
their prey
bull Prey organisms must have defensive
strategies
bull ways of avoiding or discouraging this
activity
150
Predation
bull Encompasses all levels within an
ecological food chainweb
bull plant-herbivore systems
bull herbivore-carnivore systems
bull three-way interactions of
interdependent plant-herbivore-
carnivore systems
151
This goshawk is the tertiary consumer in his ecosystem
and the mouse in his beak is the secondary consumer
Beneath the mouse on the ecological pyramid lies his
foodsource likely a worm which fed on the primary
producer leafy plants 152
Ecosystem of Life in Floridas
Springs
bull Click here for a close-up look of life
in Floridas springs and the various
predator-prey interactions there
153
Chaparral
bull winter mild and moist but not rainy
bull summer very hot and dry
bull annual temperature range between -1deg and 38deg C
bull annual precipitation ~ 25-45 cm mostly in the winter
68
Chaparral
69
Chaparral ndash Indicator Plant Species
Blue Oak
Quercus douglasii
Common Sagebrush
Artemisia tridentata
Olive Tree
Olea europaea
70
Chaparral ndash Indicator Animal Species
Black-tailed Jackrabbit
Lepus californicus Golden Jackal
Canis aureus
Spotted Skunk
Spilogale gracilis
71
The Freshwater Biome
bull low salt concentration mdash usually less than 1
bull plants and animals in freshwater regions are adjusted to
the low salt content and would not be able to survive in
areas of high salt concentration (ie ocean)
bull 3 different types of freshwater regions
bull ponds and lakes
bull streams and rivers
bull wetlands
72
The Freshwater Biome ndash Ponds and Lakes
From left a view across Manzanita Lake toward Mt Lassen California a
forest pond near Donnelly Idaho a Great Blue Heron Paranagat Lake
southeastern Nevada
73
The Freshwater Biome ndash Streams and
Rivers
From left McArthur-Burney Falls State Park California trout Green
River Utah Brooks River Alaska
74
The Freshwater Biome - Wetlands
From left Pescadero Marsh California coastal marsh at Umpqua
Dunes Oregon trees and bogs on Esther Island Alaska
75
The Marine Biome
bull cover about three-fourths of the Earths surface
bull marine algae supply much of the worlds oxygen supply
and take in a huge amount of atmospheric carbon
dioxide
bull evaporation of the seawater provides rainwater for the
land
bull 3 different types of marine regions
bull oceans
bull coral reefs
bull estuaries
76
The Marine Biome - Oceans
From left mussels worms and a spider crab at a hydrocarbon seep
community in the Gulf of Mexico a sea fan and brain coral in the Florida
Keys National Marine Sanctuary a school of Atlantic amberjack off North
Carolina
77
The Marine Biome ndash Coral Reefs
From left reef life in the Gulf of Aqaba Red Sea a reef at Fanning
Island atoll in the central Pacific a reef in the Florida Keys National
Marine Sanctuary
78
The Marine Biome - Estuaries
From left Mangrove roots south Florida wetlands and tidal streams
in the Ashe Island area ACE Basin National Estuarine Research
Reserve South Carolina a salt marsh in Winyah Bay National
Estuarine Research Reserve South Carolina
79
Ecological Notes
These are the biomes in order of their productivity (highest
first)
1 estuaries and tropical rain forest (highest)
2 temperate forest
3 agricultural land
4 temperate grassland
5 lakes and streams
6 coastal zone
7 tundra
8 open ocean
9 desert (lowest)
80
Ecological Notes
In order to be productive and have a lot of living material
standing around (biomass) an ecosystem has to have 4
basic necessities for plant life to thrive (if there are
enough plants the ecosystem will also support a lot of
animals) The four things are
1 Sunlight
2 Nutrients
3 Warm temperatures
4 Water
81
Biomes Video
82
Take-Home Message
bull Biomes are the major ecological communities of earth
characterized mostly by the vegetation present
bull Different biomes result from differences in temperature
and precipitation and the extent to which they vary from
season to season
83
Challenge Question
bull Terrestrial biomes are determined by the temperature
and precipitation amounts as well as whether those
factors are constant or vary by season
bull By contrast how are aquatic biomes determined
84
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy flows from producers to
consumers
85
86
87
First Stop Primary Producers
bull ecosystem producers or consumers
bull primary producers plants algae (some) bacteria
bull convert light energy from sun into chemical energy
through photosynthesis
bull chemical energy = food
bull consumers eat or absorb their food
bull energy stored in chemical bonds of carbohydrate
protein and lipid molecules is captured and
harnessed for consumersrsquo own movement
reproduction and growth
88
Food Chain
89
Food Web
90
Food Web
91
Food Chains amp Food Webs
bull A change in one link in a food chain will affect the other
links
bull The table on the next slide gives one example of a food
chain and the trophic levels represented in it
92
Food Chains amp Food Webs
93
GRASS
GRASSHOPPER
TOAD
SNAKE
HAWK
BACTERIA
IN GENERAL
AUTOTROPHS
(PRODUCERS)
HERBIVORES
(PRIMARY
CONSUMERS)
CARNIVORES
(2 3 ETC)
DECOMPOSERS
94
Chain Reaction Game
95
Energy Flows through a Food Web
bull Losses at every ldquosteprdquo in a food chain
bull Inefficiency of energy transfers
96
Energy flow through a food chain
Energy flow refers to the way that energy is transformed through
a food chain (pictured here) containing a series of levels
including plants consumers predators and decomposers 97
Amount of energy available at each of the
four levels of an ecosystem
Ecological pyramids illustrate the amount of energy
available at each of the four levels of an ecosystem 98
Ecological Pyramid
99
A grasshopper eats a plant A mouse eats the
grasshopper A snake eats the mouse A hawk
could eat the snake or the mouse In this food
web how would we categorize the hawk
1 Producer
2 Primary consumer
3 Secondary consumer
4 Tertiary consumer
5 Quaternary consumer
6 4 and 5
100
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps
bull First it is converted to chemical energy in
photosynthesis
bull Herbivores then consume the primary producers the
herbivores are consumed by carnivores and the
carnivores in turn may be consumed by top carnivores
101
Take-home message
bull Detritivores and decomposers extract energy from
organic waste and the remains of organisms that have
died
bull At each step in a food chain some usable energy is lost
as heat
102
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy pyramids reveal the inefficiency of
food chains
103
Biomass
bull biomass total weight of all living organisms in a given
area
bull only about 10 of the plants in an ecosystem is
converted into biomass
bull Food Energy Pyramid
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
bull African savannas and grasslands sustain more species
of higher-order carnivores than any other terrestrial
ecosystem
104
105
Food Energy Pyramids
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
106
107
108
You go out to eat at a fancy restaurant You
have a salad salmon and for dessert ice
cream Which part of the meal was the most
energy efficient food for you to eat
1 Salad
2 Salmon
3 Ice cream
4 2 and 3
109
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps known as trophic levels
bull Energy pyramids reveal that the biomass of primary
producers in an ecosystem tends to be far greater than
the biomass of herbivores
bull The biomass transferred at each step along the food chain tends to be only about 10 of the biomass of the organisms being consumed due to energy lost in cellular respiration
bull As a consequence of this inefficiency food chains rarely exceed four levels
110
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Essential chemicals cycle through
ecosystems
111
Chemical Reservoirs
bull Each chemical is stored in a non-living part of the environment
bull Organisms acquire the chemical from the reservoir a non-living part of the environment
bull The chemical cycles through the food chain (biogeochemical cycles)
bull Eventually the chemical is returned to the reservoir
112
Hydrologic Cycle and the Florida Springs
bull Click here for a description of how falling rain feeds underground aquifers in Florida and forms springs
113
The Most Important Chemical Cycles
1) Carbon
2) Nitrogen
3) Phosphorus
4) Sulfur
114
115
The
Carbon
Cycle
116
The Carbon Cycle
Keeping Up With Carbon
NASA video provides key information on the carbon cycle
117
118
Carbon Cycle Game
Fossil Fuels
bull created when large numbers of organisms die and are buried in sediment lacking oxygen
bull In absence of oxygen at high pressures and after very long periods of time organic remains are ultimately transformed into coal oil and natural gas
bull burning coal oil and natural gas releases large amounts of carbon dioxide
bull increases average CO2 concentration in the atmosphere
bull current level of CO2 in the atmosphere is the highest it has been in almost half a million years
119
Global CO2 levels are rising in
general but they also exhibit a
sharp rise and fall within each
year ndash why
120
121
The Nitrogen Cycle
122
The Nitrogen Cycle
Fertilizers
bull Because it is necessary for the production of every plant
protein and because all nitrogen must first be made
usable by bacteria plant growth is often limited by
nitrogen levels in the soil
bull For this reason most fertilizers contain nitrogen in a
form usable by plants
123
124
125
126
127
Oxygen reduction downstream of a source of
organic pollution
128
Algal growth and eutrophication in an Australian
outback waterway
129
Sulfur Cycle
bull component of protein
bull cycles in both a gas and sedimentary cycle
bull source earths crust
bull enters the atmosphere as hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
during fossil fuel combustion volcanic eruptions
gas exchange at ocean surfaces decomposition
130
Sulfur Cycle
bull H2S is immediately oxidized to sulfur dioxide (SO2)
bull SO2 + water vapor H2SO4 (falls to earth in rain)
bull sulfur in soluble form is taken up by plant roots
incorporated into amino acids such as cysteine
bull travels through food chain
bull eventually released through decomposition
131
How is carbon recycled back to the
atmosphere in the carbon cycle
1 It is ldquofixedrdquo by bacteria
2 It is a product of cellular respiration
3 Burning of fossil fuels
4 2 and 3
5 All of the above
132
Why do commercial fertilizers usually
contain usable forms of nitrogen and
phosphorous
1 These chemicals are not efficiently recycled in
the soil
2 Nitrogen and phosphorous need to be ldquofixedrdquo
by bacteria or the plant
3 Nitrogen and phosphorous are found at high
levels in the atmosphere but not in the soil
4 Nitrogen and phosphorous only enter the soil
through erosion
133
Take-home message
bull Chemicals essential to lifemdashincluding carbon nitrogen and phosphorusmdashcycle through ecosystems
bull They are usually captured from the atmosphere soil or water by growing organisms passed from one trophic level to the next as organisms eat other organisms and returned to the environment through respiration decomposition and erosion
bull These cycles can be disrupted as human activities significantly increase the amounts of the chemicals utilized or released to the environment
134
Symbiotic Relationships
bull Symbiosis close relationship between organisms of
two different species
bull At least one participant gains some sort of benefit
(usually nutritional)
bull Types of symbiosis
bull Parasitism
bull Commensalism
bull Mutualism
bull Predation
135
Symbiotic Relationships in the
Ocean
bull Click here for an explanation of the
relationships of marine animals
including sharks rays and various
fishes
136
Parasitism bull Parasite derives nutrition from the host
bull This harms the host but a true parasite does
not usually kill its host (directly)
137
Ectoparasites
Remain outside the host
Ticks fleas leeches
138
Endoparasites
Live inside the hostrsquos body
Tapeworms malarial parasites
139
Parasite Transmission
bull Many parasites live on or in a single organism
bull Some will alternate between 2 or more host species
bull Vertical transmission ndash from mother offspring
bull Horizontal transmission ndash between members of a
population
bull Direct contact (head lice)
bull Vectors (mosquitos)
140
141
Commensalism
bull Neither species is totally dependent on the other
bull One benefits ndash no effect on the other
bull Feeding or protection
bull Porcelain anemone crabs and anemones
142
Mutualism
bull Both species benefit
bull Food or shelter
bull Examples
bull Plants and microbes (rhizobium in root nodules)
bull Plants and fungi (orchids and mycorrhizae)
bull Protists and fungi (lichen)
bull Plants and insects (pollination)
bull Animals and bacteria (ruminants)
bull Animals and other animals (crocodiles and
plover birds)
143
Mutualism shrimp and moray
Cleaner shrimp cleaning a zebra moray eel Mutualistic
relationships such as these promote the well-being of the
host fishes and provide food for those that do the cleaning 144
Rhizobium
Rhizobium in root nodules of certain plants convert
nitrogen in soil to usable form
145
Orchid Mycorrhizae
Fungi aid the plant in the uptake of nutrients
Fungi ingest some of the food from plant
photosynthesis 146
Lichen
Most of the lichen is composed of fungal filaments
but living among the filaments are algal cells
usually from a green alga or a cyanobacterium
The lichen fungus provides its partner(s) a benefit
(protection) and gains nutrients in return 147
Ruminants
Ruminants are characterized by their four-chambered
stomach and cud-chewing behavior Cud is a food bolus
that is regurgitated rechewed and reswallowed The
rumen is a large fermentation vat containing billions of
microorganisms including bacteria and protozoa which
allow ruminants to digest fibrous feeds such as grass and
hay that other animals cannot efficiently utilize 148
Crocodiles amp
Plover Birds
The bird gets into the crocodiles mouth and picks out
the tiny bits of food stuck in his teeth then eats it (the
tiny bits)
This cleans the crocodiles teeth and keeps his mouth
fresh and free from infections 149
Predation
bull Consumption of one living organism by
another
bull Predators must have offensive strategies
bull ways of finding catching and eating
their prey
bull Prey organisms must have defensive
strategies
bull ways of avoiding or discouraging this
activity
150
Predation
bull Encompasses all levels within an
ecological food chainweb
bull plant-herbivore systems
bull herbivore-carnivore systems
bull three-way interactions of
interdependent plant-herbivore-
carnivore systems
151
This goshawk is the tertiary consumer in his ecosystem
and the mouse in his beak is the secondary consumer
Beneath the mouse on the ecological pyramid lies his
foodsource likely a worm which fed on the primary
producer leafy plants 152
Ecosystem of Life in Floridas
Springs
bull Click here for a close-up look of life
in Floridas springs and the various
predator-prey interactions there
153
Chaparral
69
Chaparral ndash Indicator Plant Species
Blue Oak
Quercus douglasii
Common Sagebrush
Artemisia tridentata
Olive Tree
Olea europaea
70
Chaparral ndash Indicator Animal Species
Black-tailed Jackrabbit
Lepus californicus Golden Jackal
Canis aureus
Spotted Skunk
Spilogale gracilis
71
The Freshwater Biome
bull low salt concentration mdash usually less than 1
bull plants and animals in freshwater regions are adjusted to
the low salt content and would not be able to survive in
areas of high salt concentration (ie ocean)
bull 3 different types of freshwater regions
bull ponds and lakes
bull streams and rivers
bull wetlands
72
The Freshwater Biome ndash Ponds and Lakes
From left a view across Manzanita Lake toward Mt Lassen California a
forest pond near Donnelly Idaho a Great Blue Heron Paranagat Lake
southeastern Nevada
73
The Freshwater Biome ndash Streams and
Rivers
From left McArthur-Burney Falls State Park California trout Green
River Utah Brooks River Alaska
74
The Freshwater Biome - Wetlands
From left Pescadero Marsh California coastal marsh at Umpqua
Dunes Oregon trees and bogs on Esther Island Alaska
75
The Marine Biome
bull cover about three-fourths of the Earths surface
bull marine algae supply much of the worlds oxygen supply
and take in a huge amount of atmospheric carbon
dioxide
bull evaporation of the seawater provides rainwater for the
land
bull 3 different types of marine regions
bull oceans
bull coral reefs
bull estuaries
76
The Marine Biome - Oceans
From left mussels worms and a spider crab at a hydrocarbon seep
community in the Gulf of Mexico a sea fan and brain coral in the Florida
Keys National Marine Sanctuary a school of Atlantic amberjack off North
Carolina
77
The Marine Biome ndash Coral Reefs
From left reef life in the Gulf of Aqaba Red Sea a reef at Fanning
Island atoll in the central Pacific a reef in the Florida Keys National
Marine Sanctuary
78
The Marine Biome - Estuaries
From left Mangrove roots south Florida wetlands and tidal streams
in the Ashe Island area ACE Basin National Estuarine Research
Reserve South Carolina a salt marsh in Winyah Bay National
Estuarine Research Reserve South Carolina
79
Ecological Notes
These are the biomes in order of their productivity (highest
first)
1 estuaries and tropical rain forest (highest)
2 temperate forest
3 agricultural land
4 temperate grassland
5 lakes and streams
6 coastal zone
7 tundra
8 open ocean
9 desert (lowest)
80
Ecological Notes
In order to be productive and have a lot of living material
standing around (biomass) an ecosystem has to have 4
basic necessities for plant life to thrive (if there are
enough plants the ecosystem will also support a lot of
animals) The four things are
1 Sunlight
2 Nutrients
3 Warm temperatures
4 Water
81
Biomes Video
82
Take-Home Message
bull Biomes are the major ecological communities of earth
characterized mostly by the vegetation present
bull Different biomes result from differences in temperature
and precipitation and the extent to which they vary from
season to season
83
Challenge Question
bull Terrestrial biomes are determined by the temperature
and precipitation amounts as well as whether those
factors are constant or vary by season
bull By contrast how are aquatic biomes determined
84
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy flows from producers to
consumers
85
86
87
First Stop Primary Producers
bull ecosystem producers or consumers
bull primary producers plants algae (some) bacteria
bull convert light energy from sun into chemical energy
through photosynthesis
bull chemical energy = food
bull consumers eat or absorb their food
bull energy stored in chemical bonds of carbohydrate
protein and lipid molecules is captured and
harnessed for consumersrsquo own movement
reproduction and growth
88
Food Chain
89
Food Web
90
Food Web
91
Food Chains amp Food Webs
bull A change in one link in a food chain will affect the other
links
bull The table on the next slide gives one example of a food
chain and the trophic levels represented in it
92
Food Chains amp Food Webs
93
GRASS
GRASSHOPPER
TOAD
SNAKE
HAWK
BACTERIA
IN GENERAL
AUTOTROPHS
(PRODUCERS)
HERBIVORES
(PRIMARY
CONSUMERS)
CARNIVORES
(2 3 ETC)
DECOMPOSERS
94
Chain Reaction Game
95
Energy Flows through a Food Web
bull Losses at every ldquosteprdquo in a food chain
bull Inefficiency of energy transfers
96
Energy flow through a food chain
Energy flow refers to the way that energy is transformed through
a food chain (pictured here) containing a series of levels
including plants consumers predators and decomposers 97
Amount of energy available at each of the
four levels of an ecosystem
Ecological pyramids illustrate the amount of energy
available at each of the four levels of an ecosystem 98
Ecological Pyramid
99
A grasshopper eats a plant A mouse eats the
grasshopper A snake eats the mouse A hawk
could eat the snake or the mouse In this food
web how would we categorize the hawk
1 Producer
2 Primary consumer
3 Secondary consumer
4 Tertiary consumer
5 Quaternary consumer
6 4 and 5
100
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps
bull First it is converted to chemical energy in
photosynthesis
bull Herbivores then consume the primary producers the
herbivores are consumed by carnivores and the
carnivores in turn may be consumed by top carnivores
101
Take-home message
bull Detritivores and decomposers extract energy from
organic waste and the remains of organisms that have
died
bull At each step in a food chain some usable energy is lost
as heat
102
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy pyramids reveal the inefficiency of
food chains
103
Biomass
bull biomass total weight of all living organisms in a given
area
bull only about 10 of the plants in an ecosystem is
converted into biomass
bull Food Energy Pyramid
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
bull African savannas and grasslands sustain more species
of higher-order carnivores than any other terrestrial
ecosystem
104
105
Food Energy Pyramids
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
106
107
108
You go out to eat at a fancy restaurant You
have a salad salmon and for dessert ice
cream Which part of the meal was the most
energy efficient food for you to eat
1 Salad
2 Salmon
3 Ice cream
4 2 and 3
109
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps known as trophic levels
bull Energy pyramids reveal that the biomass of primary
producers in an ecosystem tends to be far greater than
the biomass of herbivores
bull The biomass transferred at each step along the food chain tends to be only about 10 of the biomass of the organisms being consumed due to energy lost in cellular respiration
bull As a consequence of this inefficiency food chains rarely exceed four levels
110
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Essential chemicals cycle through
ecosystems
111
Chemical Reservoirs
bull Each chemical is stored in a non-living part of the environment
bull Organisms acquire the chemical from the reservoir a non-living part of the environment
bull The chemical cycles through the food chain (biogeochemical cycles)
bull Eventually the chemical is returned to the reservoir
112
Hydrologic Cycle and the Florida Springs
bull Click here for a description of how falling rain feeds underground aquifers in Florida and forms springs
113
The Most Important Chemical Cycles
1) Carbon
2) Nitrogen
3) Phosphorus
4) Sulfur
114
115
The
Carbon
Cycle
116
The Carbon Cycle
Keeping Up With Carbon
NASA video provides key information on the carbon cycle
117
118
Carbon Cycle Game
Fossil Fuels
bull created when large numbers of organisms die and are buried in sediment lacking oxygen
bull In absence of oxygen at high pressures and after very long periods of time organic remains are ultimately transformed into coal oil and natural gas
bull burning coal oil and natural gas releases large amounts of carbon dioxide
bull increases average CO2 concentration in the atmosphere
bull current level of CO2 in the atmosphere is the highest it has been in almost half a million years
119
Global CO2 levels are rising in
general but they also exhibit a
sharp rise and fall within each
year ndash why
120
121
The Nitrogen Cycle
122
The Nitrogen Cycle
Fertilizers
bull Because it is necessary for the production of every plant
protein and because all nitrogen must first be made
usable by bacteria plant growth is often limited by
nitrogen levels in the soil
bull For this reason most fertilizers contain nitrogen in a
form usable by plants
123
124
125
126
127
Oxygen reduction downstream of a source of
organic pollution
128
Algal growth and eutrophication in an Australian
outback waterway
129
Sulfur Cycle
bull component of protein
bull cycles in both a gas and sedimentary cycle
bull source earths crust
bull enters the atmosphere as hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
during fossil fuel combustion volcanic eruptions
gas exchange at ocean surfaces decomposition
130
Sulfur Cycle
bull H2S is immediately oxidized to sulfur dioxide (SO2)
bull SO2 + water vapor H2SO4 (falls to earth in rain)
bull sulfur in soluble form is taken up by plant roots
incorporated into amino acids such as cysteine
bull travels through food chain
bull eventually released through decomposition
131
How is carbon recycled back to the
atmosphere in the carbon cycle
1 It is ldquofixedrdquo by bacteria
2 It is a product of cellular respiration
3 Burning of fossil fuels
4 2 and 3
5 All of the above
132
Why do commercial fertilizers usually
contain usable forms of nitrogen and
phosphorous
1 These chemicals are not efficiently recycled in
the soil
2 Nitrogen and phosphorous need to be ldquofixedrdquo
by bacteria or the plant
3 Nitrogen and phosphorous are found at high
levels in the atmosphere but not in the soil
4 Nitrogen and phosphorous only enter the soil
through erosion
133
Take-home message
bull Chemicals essential to lifemdashincluding carbon nitrogen and phosphorusmdashcycle through ecosystems
bull They are usually captured from the atmosphere soil or water by growing organisms passed from one trophic level to the next as organisms eat other organisms and returned to the environment through respiration decomposition and erosion
bull These cycles can be disrupted as human activities significantly increase the amounts of the chemicals utilized or released to the environment
134
Symbiotic Relationships
bull Symbiosis close relationship between organisms of
two different species
bull At least one participant gains some sort of benefit
(usually nutritional)
bull Types of symbiosis
bull Parasitism
bull Commensalism
bull Mutualism
bull Predation
135
Symbiotic Relationships in the
Ocean
bull Click here for an explanation of the
relationships of marine animals
including sharks rays and various
fishes
136
Parasitism bull Parasite derives nutrition from the host
bull This harms the host but a true parasite does
not usually kill its host (directly)
137
Ectoparasites
Remain outside the host
Ticks fleas leeches
138
Endoparasites
Live inside the hostrsquos body
Tapeworms malarial parasites
139
Parasite Transmission
bull Many parasites live on or in a single organism
bull Some will alternate between 2 or more host species
bull Vertical transmission ndash from mother offspring
bull Horizontal transmission ndash between members of a
population
bull Direct contact (head lice)
bull Vectors (mosquitos)
140
141
Commensalism
bull Neither species is totally dependent on the other
bull One benefits ndash no effect on the other
bull Feeding or protection
bull Porcelain anemone crabs and anemones
142
Mutualism
bull Both species benefit
bull Food or shelter
bull Examples
bull Plants and microbes (rhizobium in root nodules)
bull Plants and fungi (orchids and mycorrhizae)
bull Protists and fungi (lichen)
bull Plants and insects (pollination)
bull Animals and bacteria (ruminants)
bull Animals and other animals (crocodiles and
plover birds)
143
Mutualism shrimp and moray
Cleaner shrimp cleaning a zebra moray eel Mutualistic
relationships such as these promote the well-being of the
host fishes and provide food for those that do the cleaning 144
Rhizobium
Rhizobium in root nodules of certain plants convert
nitrogen in soil to usable form
145
Orchid Mycorrhizae
Fungi aid the plant in the uptake of nutrients
Fungi ingest some of the food from plant
photosynthesis 146
Lichen
Most of the lichen is composed of fungal filaments
but living among the filaments are algal cells
usually from a green alga or a cyanobacterium
The lichen fungus provides its partner(s) a benefit
(protection) and gains nutrients in return 147
Ruminants
Ruminants are characterized by their four-chambered
stomach and cud-chewing behavior Cud is a food bolus
that is regurgitated rechewed and reswallowed The
rumen is a large fermentation vat containing billions of
microorganisms including bacteria and protozoa which
allow ruminants to digest fibrous feeds such as grass and
hay that other animals cannot efficiently utilize 148
Crocodiles amp
Plover Birds
The bird gets into the crocodiles mouth and picks out
the tiny bits of food stuck in his teeth then eats it (the
tiny bits)
This cleans the crocodiles teeth and keeps his mouth
fresh and free from infections 149
Predation
bull Consumption of one living organism by
another
bull Predators must have offensive strategies
bull ways of finding catching and eating
their prey
bull Prey organisms must have defensive
strategies
bull ways of avoiding or discouraging this
activity
150
Predation
bull Encompasses all levels within an
ecological food chainweb
bull plant-herbivore systems
bull herbivore-carnivore systems
bull three-way interactions of
interdependent plant-herbivore-
carnivore systems
151
This goshawk is the tertiary consumer in his ecosystem
and the mouse in his beak is the secondary consumer
Beneath the mouse on the ecological pyramid lies his
foodsource likely a worm which fed on the primary
producer leafy plants 152
Ecosystem of Life in Floridas
Springs
bull Click here for a close-up look of life
in Floridas springs and the various
predator-prey interactions there
153
Chaparral ndash Indicator Plant Species
Blue Oak
Quercus douglasii
Common Sagebrush
Artemisia tridentata
Olive Tree
Olea europaea
70
Chaparral ndash Indicator Animal Species
Black-tailed Jackrabbit
Lepus californicus Golden Jackal
Canis aureus
Spotted Skunk
Spilogale gracilis
71
The Freshwater Biome
bull low salt concentration mdash usually less than 1
bull plants and animals in freshwater regions are adjusted to
the low salt content and would not be able to survive in
areas of high salt concentration (ie ocean)
bull 3 different types of freshwater regions
bull ponds and lakes
bull streams and rivers
bull wetlands
72
The Freshwater Biome ndash Ponds and Lakes
From left a view across Manzanita Lake toward Mt Lassen California a
forest pond near Donnelly Idaho a Great Blue Heron Paranagat Lake
southeastern Nevada
73
The Freshwater Biome ndash Streams and
Rivers
From left McArthur-Burney Falls State Park California trout Green
River Utah Brooks River Alaska
74
The Freshwater Biome - Wetlands
From left Pescadero Marsh California coastal marsh at Umpqua
Dunes Oregon trees and bogs on Esther Island Alaska
75
The Marine Biome
bull cover about three-fourths of the Earths surface
bull marine algae supply much of the worlds oxygen supply
and take in a huge amount of atmospheric carbon
dioxide
bull evaporation of the seawater provides rainwater for the
land
bull 3 different types of marine regions
bull oceans
bull coral reefs
bull estuaries
76
The Marine Biome - Oceans
From left mussels worms and a spider crab at a hydrocarbon seep
community in the Gulf of Mexico a sea fan and brain coral in the Florida
Keys National Marine Sanctuary a school of Atlantic amberjack off North
Carolina
77
The Marine Biome ndash Coral Reefs
From left reef life in the Gulf of Aqaba Red Sea a reef at Fanning
Island atoll in the central Pacific a reef in the Florida Keys National
Marine Sanctuary
78
The Marine Biome - Estuaries
From left Mangrove roots south Florida wetlands and tidal streams
in the Ashe Island area ACE Basin National Estuarine Research
Reserve South Carolina a salt marsh in Winyah Bay National
Estuarine Research Reserve South Carolina
79
Ecological Notes
These are the biomes in order of their productivity (highest
first)
1 estuaries and tropical rain forest (highest)
2 temperate forest
3 agricultural land
4 temperate grassland
5 lakes and streams
6 coastal zone
7 tundra
8 open ocean
9 desert (lowest)
80
Ecological Notes
In order to be productive and have a lot of living material
standing around (biomass) an ecosystem has to have 4
basic necessities for plant life to thrive (if there are
enough plants the ecosystem will also support a lot of
animals) The four things are
1 Sunlight
2 Nutrients
3 Warm temperatures
4 Water
81
Biomes Video
82
Take-Home Message
bull Biomes are the major ecological communities of earth
characterized mostly by the vegetation present
bull Different biomes result from differences in temperature
and precipitation and the extent to which they vary from
season to season
83
Challenge Question
bull Terrestrial biomes are determined by the temperature
and precipitation amounts as well as whether those
factors are constant or vary by season
bull By contrast how are aquatic biomes determined
84
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy flows from producers to
consumers
85
86
87
First Stop Primary Producers
bull ecosystem producers or consumers
bull primary producers plants algae (some) bacteria
bull convert light energy from sun into chemical energy
through photosynthesis
bull chemical energy = food
bull consumers eat or absorb their food
bull energy stored in chemical bonds of carbohydrate
protein and lipid molecules is captured and
harnessed for consumersrsquo own movement
reproduction and growth
88
Food Chain
89
Food Web
90
Food Web
91
Food Chains amp Food Webs
bull A change in one link in a food chain will affect the other
links
bull The table on the next slide gives one example of a food
chain and the trophic levels represented in it
92
Food Chains amp Food Webs
93
GRASS
GRASSHOPPER
TOAD
SNAKE
HAWK
BACTERIA
IN GENERAL
AUTOTROPHS
(PRODUCERS)
HERBIVORES
(PRIMARY
CONSUMERS)
CARNIVORES
(2 3 ETC)
DECOMPOSERS
94
Chain Reaction Game
95
Energy Flows through a Food Web
bull Losses at every ldquosteprdquo in a food chain
bull Inefficiency of energy transfers
96
Energy flow through a food chain
Energy flow refers to the way that energy is transformed through
a food chain (pictured here) containing a series of levels
including plants consumers predators and decomposers 97
Amount of energy available at each of the
four levels of an ecosystem
Ecological pyramids illustrate the amount of energy
available at each of the four levels of an ecosystem 98
Ecological Pyramid
99
A grasshopper eats a plant A mouse eats the
grasshopper A snake eats the mouse A hawk
could eat the snake or the mouse In this food
web how would we categorize the hawk
1 Producer
2 Primary consumer
3 Secondary consumer
4 Tertiary consumer
5 Quaternary consumer
6 4 and 5
100
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps
bull First it is converted to chemical energy in
photosynthesis
bull Herbivores then consume the primary producers the
herbivores are consumed by carnivores and the
carnivores in turn may be consumed by top carnivores
101
Take-home message
bull Detritivores and decomposers extract energy from
organic waste and the remains of organisms that have
died
bull At each step in a food chain some usable energy is lost
as heat
102
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy pyramids reveal the inefficiency of
food chains
103
Biomass
bull biomass total weight of all living organisms in a given
area
bull only about 10 of the plants in an ecosystem is
converted into biomass
bull Food Energy Pyramid
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
bull African savannas and grasslands sustain more species
of higher-order carnivores than any other terrestrial
ecosystem
104
105
Food Energy Pyramids
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
106
107
108
You go out to eat at a fancy restaurant You
have a salad salmon and for dessert ice
cream Which part of the meal was the most
energy efficient food for you to eat
1 Salad
2 Salmon
3 Ice cream
4 2 and 3
109
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps known as trophic levels
bull Energy pyramids reveal that the biomass of primary
producers in an ecosystem tends to be far greater than
the biomass of herbivores
bull The biomass transferred at each step along the food chain tends to be only about 10 of the biomass of the organisms being consumed due to energy lost in cellular respiration
bull As a consequence of this inefficiency food chains rarely exceed four levels
110
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Essential chemicals cycle through
ecosystems
111
Chemical Reservoirs
bull Each chemical is stored in a non-living part of the environment
bull Organisms acquire the chemical from the reservoir a non-living part of the environment
bull The chemical cycles through the food chain (biogeochemical cycles)
bull Eventually the chemical is returned to the reservoir
112
Hydrologic Cycle and the Florida Springs
bull Click here for a description of how falling rain feeds underground aquifers in Florida and forms springs
113
The Most Important Chemical Cycles
1) Carbon
2) Nitrogen
3) Phosphorus
4) Sulfur
114
115
The
Carbon
Cycle
116
The Carbon Cycle
Keeping Up With Carbon
NASA video provides key information on the carbon cycle
117
118
Carbon Cycle Game
Fossil Fuels
bull created when large numbers of organisms die and are buried in sediment lacking oxygen
bull In absence of oxygen at high pressures and after very long periods of time organic remains are ultimately transformed into coal oil and natural gas
bull burning coal oil and natural gas releases large amounts of carbon dioxide
bull increases average CO2 concentration in the atmosphere
bull current level of CO2 in the atmosphere is the highest it has been in almost half a million years
119
Global CO2 levels are rising in
general but they also exhibit a
sharp rise and fall within each
year ndash why
120
121
The Nitrogen Cycle
122
The Nitrogen Cycle
Fertilizers
bull Because it is necessary for the production of every plant
protein and because all nitrogen must first be made
usable by bacteria plant growth is often limited by
nitrogen levels in the soil
bull For this reason most fertilizers contain nitrogen in a
form usable by plants
123
124
125
126
127
Oxygen reduction downstream of a source of
organic pollution
128
Algal growth and eutrophication in an Australian
outback waterway
129
Sulfur Cycle
bull component of protein
bull cycles in both a gas and sedimentary cycle
bull source earths crust
bull enters the atmosphere as hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
during fossil fuel combustion volcanic eruptions
gas exchange at ocean surfaces decomposition
130
Sulfur Cycle
bull H2S is immediately oxidized to sulfur dioxide (SO2)
bull SO2 + water vapor H2SO4 (falls to earth in rain)
bull sulfur in soluble form is taken up by plant roots
incorporated into amino acids such as cysteine
bull travels through food chain
bull eventually released through decomposition
131
How is carbon recycled back to the
atmosphere in the carbon cycle
1 It is ldquofixedrdquo by bacteria
2 It is a product of cellular respiration
3 Burning of fossil fuels
4 2 and 3
5 All of the above
132
Why do commercial fertilizers usually
contain usable forms of nitrogen and
phosphorous
1 These chemicals are not efficiently recycled in
the soil
2 Nitrogen and phosphorous need to be ldquofixedrdquo
by bacteria or the plant
3 Nitrogen and phosphorous are found at high
levels in the atmosphere but not in the soil
4 Nitrogen and phosphorous only enter the soil
through erosion
133
Take-home message
bull Chemicals essential to lifemdashincluding carbon nitrogen and phosphorusmdashcycle through ecosystems
bull They are usually captured from the atmosphere soil or water by growing organisms passed from one trophic level to the next as organisms eat other organisms and returned to the environment through respiration decomposition and erosion
bull These cycles can be disrupted as human activities significantly increase the amounts of the chemicals utilized or released to the environment
134
Symbiotic Relationships
bull Symbiosis close relationship between organisms of
two different species
bull At least one participant gains some sort of benefit
(usually nutritional)
bull Types of symbiosis
bull Parasitism
bull Commensalism
bull Mutualism
bull Predation
135
Symbiotic Relationships in the
Ocean
bull Click here for an explanation of the
relationships of marine animals
including sharks rays and various
fishes
136
Parasitism bull Parasite derives nutrition from the host
bull This harms the host but a true parasite does
not usually kill its host (directly)
137
Ectoparasites
Remain outside the host
Ticks fleas leeches
138
Endoparasites
Live inside the hostrsquos body
Tapeworms malarial parasites
139
Parasite Transmission
bull Many parasites live on or in a single organism
bull Some will alternate between 2 or more host species
bull Vertical transmission ndash from mother offspring
bull Horizontal transmission ndash between members of a
population
bull Direct contact (head lice)
bull Vectors (mosquitos)
140
141
Commensalism
bull Neither species is totally dependent on the other
bull One benefits ndash no effect on the other
bull Feeding or protection
bull Porcelain anemone crabs and anemones
142
Mutualism
bull Both species benefit
bull Food or shelter
bull Examples
bull Plants and microbes (rhizobium in root nodules)
bull Plants and fungi (orchids and mycorrhizae)
bull Protists and fungi (lichen)
bull Plants and insects (pollination)
bull Animals and bacteria (ruminants)
bull Animals and other animals (crocodiles and
plover birds)
143
Mutualism shrimp and moray
Cleaner shrimp cleaning a zebra moray eel Mutualistic
relationships such as these promote the well-being of the
host fishes and provide food for those that do the cleaning 144
Rhizobium
Rhizobium in root nodules of certain plants convert
nitrogen in soil to usable form
145
Orchid Mycorrhizae
Fungi aid the plant in the uptake of nutrients
Fungi ingest some of the food from plant
photosynthesis 146
Lichen
Most of the lichen is composed of fungal filaments
but living among the filaments are algal cells
usually from a green alga or a cyanobacterium
The lichen fungus provides its partner(s) a benefit
(protection) and gains nutrients in return 147
Ruminants
Ruminants are characterized by their four-chambered
stomach and cud-chewing behavior Cud is a food bolus
that is regurgitated rechewed and reswallowed The
rumen is a large fermentation vat containing billions of
microorganisms including bacteria and protozoa which
allow ruminants to digest fibrous feeds such as grass and
hay that other animals cannot efficiently utilize 148
Crocodiles amp
Plover Birds
The bird gets into the crocodiles mouth and picks out
the tiny bits of food stuck in his teeth then eats it (the
tiny bits)
This cleans the crocodiles teeth and keeps his mouth
fresh and free from infections 149
Predation
bull Consumption of one living organism by
another
bull Predators must have offensive strategies
bull ways of finding catching and eating
their prey
bull Prey organisms must have defensive
strategies
bull ways of avoiding or discouraging this
activity
150
Predation
bull Encompasses all levels within an
ecological food chainweb
bull plant-herbivore systems
bull herbivore-carnivore systems
bull three-way interactions of
interdependent plant-herbivore-
carnivore systems
151
This goshawk is the tertiary consumer in his ecosystem
and the mouse in his beak is the secondary consumer
Beneath the mouse on the ecological pyramid lies his
foodsource likely a worm which fed on the primary
producer leafy plants 152
Ecosystem of Life in Floridas
Springs
bull Click here for a close-up look of life
in Floridas springs and the various
predator-prey interactions there
153
Chaparral ndash Indicator Animal Species
Black-tailed Jackrabbit
Lepus californicus Golden Jackal
Canis aureus
Spotted Skunk
Spilogale gracilis
71
The Freshwater Biome
bull low salt concentration mdash usually less than 1
bull plants and animals in freshwater regions are adjusted to
the low salt content and would not be able to survive in
areas of high salt concentration (ie ocean)
bull 3 different types of freshwater regions
bull ponds and lakes
bull streams and rivers
bull wetlands
72
The Freshwater Biome ndash Ponds and Lakes
From left a view across Manzanita Lake toward Mt Lassen California a
forest pond near Donnelly Idaho a Great Blue Heron Paranagat Lake
southeastern Nevada
73
The Freshwater Biome ndash Streams and
Rivers
From left McArthur-Burney Falls State Park California trout Green
River Utah Brooks River Alaska
74
The Freshwater Biome - Wetlands
From left Pescadero Marsh California coastal marsh at Umpqua
Dunes Oregon trees and bogs on Esther Island Alaska
75
The Marine Biome
bull cover about three-fourths of the Earths surface
bull marine algae supply much of the worlds oxygen supply
and take in a huge amount of atmospheric carbon
dioxide
bull evaporation of the seawater provides rainwater for the
land
bull 3 different types of marine regions
bull oceans
bull coral reefs
bull estuaries
76
The Marine Biome - Oceans
From left mussels worms and a spider crab at a hydrocarbon seep
community in the Gulf of Mexico a sea fan and brain coral in the Florida
Keys National Marine Sanctuary a school of Atlantic amberjack off North
Carolina
77
The Marine Biome ndash Coral Reefs
From left reef life in the Gulf of Aqaba Red Sea a reef at Fanning
Island atoll in the central Pacific a reef in the Florida Keys National
Marine Sanctuary
78
The Marine Biome - Estuaries
From left Mangrove roots south Florida wetlands and tidal streams
in the Ashe Island area ACE Basin National Estuarine Research
Reserve South Carolina a salt marsh in Winyah Bay National
Estuarine Research Reserve South Carolina
79
Ecological Notes
These are the biomes in order of their productivity (highest
first)
1 estuaries and tropical rain forest (highest)
2 temperate forest
3 agricultural land
4 temperate grassland
5 lakes and streams
6 coastal zone
7 tundra
8 open ocean
9 desert (lowest)
80
Ecological Notes
In order to be productive and have a lot of living material
standing around (biomass) an ecosystem has to have 4
basic necessities for plant life to thrive (if there are
enough plants the ecosystem will also support a lot of
animals) The four things are
1 Sunlight
2 Nutrients
3 Warm temperatures
4 Water
81
Biomes Video
82
Take-Home Message
bull Biomes are the major ecological communities of earth
characterized mostly by the vegetation present
bull Different biomes result from differences in temperature
and precipitation and the extent to which they vary from
season to season
83
Challenge Question
bull Terrestrial biomes are determined by the temperature
and precipitation amounts as well as whether those
factors are constant or vary by season
bull By contrast how are aquatic biomes determined
84
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy flows from producers to
consumers
85
86
87
First Stop Primary Producers
bull ecosystem producers or consumers
bull primary producers plants algae (some) bacteria
bull convert light energy from sun into chemical energy
through photosynthesis
bull chemical energy = food
bull consumers eat or absorb their food
bull energy stored in chemical bonds of carbohydrate
protein and lipid molecules is captured and
harnessed for consumersrsquo own movement
reproduction and growth
88
Food Chain
89
Food Web
90
Food Web
91
Food Chains amp Food Webs
bull A change in one link in a food chain will affect the other
links
bull The table on the next slide gives one example of a food
chain and the trophic levels represented in it
92
Food Chains amp Food Webs
93
GRASS
GRASSHOPPER
TOAD
SNAKE
HAWK
BACTERIA
IN GENERAL
AUTOTROPHS
(PRODUCERS)
HERBIVORES
(PRIMARY
CONSUMERS)
CARNIVORES
(2 3 ETC)
DECOMPOSERS
94
Chain Reaction Game
95
Energy Flows through a Food Web
bull Losses at every ldquosteprdquo in a food chain
bull Inefficiency of energy transfers
96
Energy flow through a food chain
Energy flow refers to the way that energy is transformed through
a food chain (pictured here) containing a series of levels
including plants consumers predators and decomposers 97
Amount of energy available at each of the
four levels of an ecosystem
Ecological pyramids illustrate the amount of energy
available at each of the four levels of an ecosystem 98
Ecological Pyramid
99
A grasshopper eats a plant A mouse eats the
grasshopper A snake eats the mouse A hawk
could eat the snake or the mouse In this food
web how would we categorize the hawk
1 Producer
2 Primary consumer
3 Secondary consumer
4 Tertiary consumer
5 Quaternary consumer
6 4 and 5
100
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps
bull First it is converted to chemical energy in
photosynthesis
bull Herbivores then consume the primary producers the
herbivores are consumed by carnivores and the
carnivores in turn may be consumed by top carnivores
101
Take-home message
bull Detritivores and decomposers extract energy from
organic waste and the remains of organisms that have
died
bull At each step in a food chain some usable energy is lost
as heat
102
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy pyramids reveal the inefficiency of
food chains
103
Biomass
bull biomass total weight of all living organisms in a given
area
bull only about 10 of the plants in an ecosystem is
converted into biomass
bull Food Energy Pyramid
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
bull African savannas and grasslands sustain more species
of higher-order carnivores than any other terrestrial
ecosystem
104
105
Food Energy Pyramids
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
106
107
108
You go out to eat at a fancy restaurant You
have a salad salmon and for dessert ice
cream Which part of the meal was the most
energy efficient food for you to eat
1 Salad
2 Salmon
3 Ice cream
4 2 and 3
109
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps known as trophic levels
bull Energy pyramids reveal that the biomass of primary
producers in an ecosystem tends to be far greater than
the biomass of herbivores
bull The biomass transferred at each step along the food chain tends to be only about 10 of the biomass of the organisms being consumed due to energy lost in cellular respiration
bull As a consequence of this inefficiency food chains rarely exceed four levels
110
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Essential chemicals cycle through
ecosystems
111
Chemical Reservoirs
bull Each chemical is stored in a non-living part of the environment
bull Organisms acquire the chemical from the reservoir a non-living part of the environment
bull The chemical cycles through the food chain (biogeochemical cycles)
bull Eventually the chemical is returned to the reservoir
112
Hydrologic Cycle and the Florida Springs
bull Click here for a description of how falling rain feeds underground aquifers in Florida and forms springs
113
The Most Important Chemical Cycles
1) Carbon
2) Nitrogen
3) Phosphorus
4) Sulfur
114
115
The
Carbon
Cycle
116
The Carbon Cycle
Keeping Up With Carbon
NASA video provides key information on the carbon cycle
117
118
Carbon Cycle Game
Fossil Fuels
bull created when large numbers of organisms die and are buried in sediment lacking oxygen
bull In absence of oxygen at high pressures and after very long periods of time organic remains are ultimately transformed into coal oil and natural gas
bull burning coal oil and natural gas releases large amounts of carbon dioxide
bull increases average CO2 concentration in the atmosphere
bull current level of CO2 in the atmosphere is the highest it has been in almost half a million years
119
Global CO2 levels are rising in
general but they also exhibit a
sharp rise and fall within each
year ndash why
120
121
The Nitrogen Cycle
122
The Nitrogen Cycle
Fertilizers
bull Because it is necessary for the production of every plant
protein and because all nitrogen must first be made
usable by bacteria plant growth is often limited by
nitrogen levels in the soil
bull For this reason most fertilizers contain nitrogen in a
form usable by plants
123
124
125
126
127
Oxygen reduction downstream of a source of
organic pollution
128
Algal growth and eutrophication in an Australian
outback waterway
129
Sulfur Cycle
bull component of protein
bull cycles in both a gas and sedimentary cycle
bull source earths crust
bull enters the atmosphere as hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
during fossil fuel combustion volcanic eruptions
gas exchange at ocean surfaces decomposition
130
Sulfur Cycle
bull H2S is immediately oxidized to sulfur dioxide (SO2)
bull SO2 + water vapor H2SO4 (falls to earth in rain)
bull sulfur in soluble form is taken up by plant roots
incorporated into amino acids such as cysteine
bull travels through food chain
bull eventually released through decomposition
131
How is carbon recycled back to the
atmosphere in the carbon cycle
1 It is ldquofixedrdquo by bacteria
2 It is a product of cellular respiration
3 Burning of fossil fuels
4 2 and 3
5 All of the above
132
Why do commercial fertilizers usually
contain usable forms of nitrogen and
phosphorous
1 These chemicals are not efficiently recycled in
the soil
2 Nitrogen and phosphorous need to be ldquofixedrdquo
by bacteria or the plant
3 Nitrogen and phosphorous are found at high
levels in the atmosphere but not in the soil
4 Nitrogen and phosphorous only enter the soil
through erosion
133
Take-home message
bull Chemicals essential to lifemdashincluding carbon nitrogen and phosphorusmdashcycle through ecosystems
bull They are usually captured from the atmosphere soil or water by growing organisms passed from one trophic level to the next as organisms eat other organisms and returned to the environment through respiration decomposition and erosion
bull These cycles can be disrupted as human activities significantly increase the amounts of the chemicals utilized or released to the environment
134
Symbiotic Relationships
bull Symbiosis close relationship between organisms of
two different species
bull At least one participant gains some sort of benefit
(usually nutritional)
bull Types of symbiosis
bull Parasitism
bull Commensalism
bull Mutualism
bull Predation
135
Symbiotic Relationships in the
Ocean
bull Click here for an explanation of the
relationships of marine animals
including sharks rays and various
fishes
136
Parasitism bull Parasite derives nutrition from the host
bull This harms the host but a true parasite does
not usually kill its host (directly)
137
Ectoparasites
Remain outside the host
Ticks fleas leeches
138
Endoparasites
Live inside the hostrsquos body
Tapeworms malarial parasites
139
Parasite Transmission
bull Many parasites live on or in a single organism
bull Some will alternate between 2 or more host species
bull Vertical transmission ndash from mother offspring
bull Horizontal transmission ndash between members of a
population
bull Direct contact (head lice)
bull Vectors (mosquitos)
140
141
Commensalism
bull Neither species is totally dependent on the other
bull One benefits ndash no effect on the other
bull Feeding or protection
bull Porcelain anemone crabs and anemones
142
Mutualism
bull Both species benefit
bull Food or shelter
bull Examples
bull Plants and microbes (rhizobium in root nodules)
bull Plants and fungi (orchids and mycorrhizae)
bull Protists and fungi (lichen)
bull Plants and insects (pollination)
bull Animals and bacteria (ruminants)
bull Animals and other animals (crocodiles and
plover birds)
143
Mutualism shrimp and moray
Cleaner shrimp cleaning a zebra moray eel Mutualistic
relationships such as these promote the well-being of the
host fishes and provide food for those that do the cleaning 144
Rhizobium
Rhizobium in root nodules of certain plants convert
nitrogen in soil to usable form
145
Orchid Mycorrhizae
Fungi aid the plant in the uptake of nutrients
Fungi ingest some of the food from plant
photosynthesis 146
Lichen
Most of the lichen is composed of fungal filaments
but living among the filaments are algal cells
usually from a green alga or a cyanobacterium
The lichen fungus provides its partner(s) a benefit
(protection) and gains nutrients in return 147
Ruminants
Ruminants are characterized by their four-chambered
stomach and cud-chewing behavior Cud is a food bolus
that is regurgitated rechewed and reswallowed The
rumen is a large fermentation vat containing billions of
microorganisms including bacteria and protozoa which
allow ruminants to digest fibrous feeds such as grass and
hay that other animals cannot efficiently utilize 148
Crocodiles amp
Plover Birds
The bird gets into the crocodiles mouth and picks out
the tiny bits of food stuck in his teeth then eats it (the
tiny bits)
This cleans the crocodiles teeth and keeps his mouth
fresh and free from infections 149
Predation
bull Consumption of one living organism by
another
bull Predators must have offensive strategies
bull ways of finding catching and eating
their prey
bull Prey organisms must have defensive
strategies
bull ways of avoiding or discouraging this
activity
150
Predation
bull Encompasses all levels within an
ecological food chainweb
bull plant-herbivore systems
bull herbivore-carnivore systems
bull three-way interactions of
interdependent plant-herbivore-
carnivore systems
151
This goshawk is the tertiary consumer in his ecosystem
and the mouse in his beak is the secondary consumer
Beneath the mouse on the ecological pyramid lies his
foodsource likely a worm which fed on the primary
producer leafy plants 152
Ecosystem of Life in Floridas
Springs
bull Click here for a close-up look of life
in Floridas springs and the various
predator-prey interactions there
153
The Freshwater Biome
bull low salt concentration mdash usually less than 1
bull plants and animals in freshwater regions are adjusted to
the low salt content and would not be able to survive in
areas of high salt concentration (ie ocean)
bull 3 different types of freshwater regions
bull ponds and lakes
bull streams and rivers
bull wetlands
72
The Freshwater Biome ndash Ponds and Lakes
From left a view across Manzanita Lake toward Mt Lassen California a
forest pond near Donnelly Idaho a Great Blue Heron Paranagat Lake
southeastern Nevada
73
The Freshwater Biome ndash Streams and
Rivers
From left McArthur-Burney Falls State Park California trout Green
River Utah Brooks River Alaska
74
The Freshwater Biome - Wetlands
From left Pescadero Marsh California coastal marsh at Umpqua
Dunes Oregon trees and bogs on Esther Island Alaska
75
The Marine Biome
bull cover about three-fourths of the Earths surface
bull marine algae supply much of the worlds oxygen supply
and take in a huge amount of atmospheric carbon
dioxide
bull evaporation of the seawater provides rainwater for the
land
bull 3 different types of marine regions
bull oceans
bull coral reefs
bull estuaries
76
The Marine Biome - Oceans
From left mussels worms and a spider crab at a hydrocarbon seep
community in the Gulf of Mexico a sea fan and brain coral in the Florida
Keys National Marine Sanctuary a school of Atlantic amberjack off North
Carolina
77
The Marine Biome ndash Coral Reefs
From left reef life in the Gulf of Aqaba Red Sea a reef at Fanning
Island atoll in the central Pacific a reef in the Florida Keys National
Marine Sanctuary
78
The Marine Biome - Estuaries
From left Mangrove roots south Florida wetlands and tidal streams
in the Ashe Island area ACE Basin National Estuarine Research
Reserve South Carolina a salt marsh in Winyah Bay National
Estuarine Research Reserve South Carolina
79
Ecological Notes
These are the biomes in order of their productivity (highest
first)
1 estuaries and tropical rain forest (highest)
2 temperate forest
3 agricultural land
4 temperate grassland
5 lakes and streams
6 coastal zone
7 tundra
8 open ocean
9 desert (lowest)
80
Ecological Notes
In order to be productive and have a lot of living material
standing around (biomass) an ecosystem has to have 4
basic necessities for plant life to thrive (if there are
enough plants the ecosystem will also support a lot of
animals) The four things are
1 Sunlight
2 Nutrients
3 Warm temperatures
4 Water
81
Biomes Video
82
Take-Home Message
bull Biomes are the major ecological communities of earth
characterized mostly by the vegetation present
bull Different biomes result from differences in temperature
and precipitation and the extent to which they vary from
season to season
83
Challenge Question
bull Terrestrial biomes are determined by the temperature
and precipitation amounts as well as whether those
factors are constant or vary by season
bull By contrast how are aquatic biomes determined
84
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy flows from producers to
consumers
85
86
87
First Stop Primary Producers
bull ecosystem producers or consumers
bull primary producers plants algae (some) bacteria
bull convert light energy from sun into chemical energy
through photosynthesis
bull chemical energy = food
bull consumers eat or absorb their food
bull energy stored in chemical bonds of carbohydrate
protein and lipid molecules is captured and
harnessed for consumersrsquo own movement
reproduction and growth
88
Food Chain
89
Food Web
90
Food Web
91
Food Chains amp Food Webs
bull A change in one link in a food chain will affect the other
links
bull The table on the next slide gives one example of a food
chain and the trophic levels represented in it
92
Food Chains amp Food Webs
93
GRASS
GRASSHOPPER
TOAD
SNAKE
HAWK
BACTERIA
IN GENERAL
AUTOTROPHS
(PRODUCERS)
HERBIVORES
(PRIMARY
CONSUMERS)
CARNIVORES
(2 3 ETC)
DECOMPOSERS
94
Chain Reaction Game
95
Energy Flows through a Food Web
bull Losses at every ldquosteprdquo in a food chain
bull Inefficiency of energy transfers
96
Energy flow through a food chain
Energy flow refers to the way that energy is transformed through
a food chain (pictured here) containing a series of levels
including plants consumers predators and decomposers 97
Amount of energy available at each of the
four levels of an ecosystem
Ecological pyramids illustrate the amount of energy
available at each of the four levels of an ecosystem 98
Ecological Pyramid
99
A grasshopper eats a plant A mouse eats the
grasshopper A snake eats the mouse A hawk
could eat the snake or the mouse In this food
web how would we categorize the hawk
1 Producer
2 Primary consumer
3 Secondary consumer
4 Tertiary consumer
5 Quaternary consumer
6 4 and 5
100
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps
bull First it is converted to chemical energy in
photosynthesis
bull Herbivores then consume the primary producers the
herbivores are consumed by carnivores and the
carnivores in turn may be consumed by top carnivores
101
Take-home message
bull Detritivores and decomposers extract energy from
organic waste and the remains of organisms that have
died
bull At each step in a food chain some usable energy is lost
as heat
102
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy pyramids reveal the inefficiency of
food chains
103
Biomass
bull biomass total weight of all living organisms in a given
area
bull only about 10 of the plants in an ecosystem is
converted into biomass
bull Food Energy Pyramid
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
bull African savannas and grasslands sustain more species
of higher-order carnivores than any other terrestrial
ecosystem
104
105
Food Energy Pyramids
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
106
107
108
You go out to eat at a fancy restaurant You
have a salad salmon and for dessert ice
cream Which part of the meal was the most
energy efficient food for you to eat
1 Salad
2 Salmon
3 Ice cream
4 2 and 3
109
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps known as trophic levels
bull Energy pyramids reveal that the biomass of primary
producers in an ecosystem tends to be far greater than
the biomass of herbivores
bull The biomass transferred at each step along the food chain tends to be only about 10 of the biomass of the organisms being consumed due to energy lost in cellular respiration
bull As a consequence of this inefficiency food chains rarely exceed four levels
110
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Essential chemicals cycle through
ecosystems
111
Chemical Reservoirs
bull Each chemical is stored in a non-living part of the environment
bull Organisms acquire the chemical from the reservoir a non-living part of the environment
bull The chemical cycles through the food chain (biogeochemical cycles)
bull Eventually the chemical is returned to the reservoir
112
Hydrologic Cycle and the Florida Springs
bull Click here for a description of how falling rain feeds underground aquifers in Florida and forms springs
113
The Most Important Chemical Cycles
1) Carbon
2) Nitrogen
3) Phosphorus
4) Sulfur
114
115
The
Carbon
Cycle
116
The Carbon Cycle
Keeping Up With Carbon
NASA video provides key information on the carbon cycle
117
118
Carbon Cycle Game
Fossil Fuels
bull created when large numbers of organisms die and are buried in sediment lacking oxygen
bull In absence of oxygen at high pressures and after very long periods of time organic remains are ultimately transformed into coal oil and natural gas
bull burning coal oil and natural gas releases large amounts of carbon dioxide
bull increases average CO2 concentration in the atmosphere
bull current level of CO2 in the atmosphere is the highest it has been in almost half a million years
119
Global CO2 levels are rising in
general but they also exhibit a
sharp rise and fall within each
year ndash why
120
121
The Nitrogen Cycle
122
The Nitrogen Cycle
Fertilizers
bull Because it is necessary for the production of every plant
protein and because all nitrogen must first be made
usable by bacteria plant growth is often limited by
nitrogen levels in the soil
bull For this reason most fertilizers contain nitrogen in a
form usable by plants
123
124
125
126
127
Oxygen reduction downstream of a source of
organic pollution
128
Algal growth and eutrophication in an Australian
outback waterway
129
Sulfur Cycle
bull component of protein
bull cycles in both a gas and sedimentary cycle
bull source earths crust
bull enters the atmosphere as hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
during fossil fuel combustion volcanic eruptions
gas exchange at ocean surfaces decomposition
130
Sulfur Cycle
bull H2S is immediately oxidized to sulfur dioxide (SO2)
bull SO2 + water vapor H2SO4 (falls to earth in rain)
bull sulfur in soluble form is taken up by plant roots
incorporated into amino acids such as cysteine
bull travels through food chain
bull eventually released through decomposition
131
How is carbon recycled back to the
atmosphere in the carbon cycle
1 It is ldquofixedrdquo by bacteria
2 It is a product of cellular respiration
3 Burning of fossil fuels
4 2 and 3
5 All of the above
132
Why do commercial fertilizers usually
contain usable forms of nitrogen and
phosphorous
1 These chemicals are not efficiently recycled in
the soil
2 Nitrogen and phosphorous need to be ldquofixedrdquo
by bacteria or the plant
3 Nitrogen and phosphorous are found at high
levels in the atmosphere but not in the soil
4 Nitrogen and phosphorous only enter the soil
through erosion
133
Take-home message
bull Chemicals essential to lifemdashincluding carbon nitrogen and phosphorusmdashcycle through ecosystems
bull They are usually captured from the atmosphere soil or water by growing organisms passed from one trophic level to the next as organisms eat other organisms and returned to the environment through respiration decomposition and erosion
bull These cycles can be disrupted as human activities significantly increase the amounts of the chemicals utilized or released to the environment
134
Symbiotic Relationships
bull Symbiosis close relationship between organisms of
two different species
bull At least one participant gains some sort of benefit
(usually nutritional)
bull Types of symbiosis
bull Parasitism
bull Commensalism
bull Mutualism
bull Predation
135
Symbiotic Relationships in the
Ocean
bull Click here for an explanation of the
relationships of marine animals
including sharks rays and various
fishes
136
Parasitism bull Parasite derives nutrition from the host
bull This harms the host but a true parasite does
not usually kill its host (directly)
137
Ectoparasites
Remain outside the host
Ticks fleas leeches
138
Endoparasites
Live inside the hostrsquos body
Tapeworms malarial parasites
139
Parasite Transmission
bull Many parasites live on or in a single organism
bull Some will alternate between 2 or more host species
bull Vertical transmission ndash from mother offspring
bull Horizontal transmission ndash between members of a
population
bull Direct contact (head lice)
bull Vectors (mosquitos)
140
141
Commensalism
bull Neither species is totally dependent on the other
bull One benefits ndash no effect on the other
bull Feeding or protection
bull Porcelain anemone crabs and anemones
142
Mutualism
bull Both species benefit
bull Food or shelter
bull Examples
bull Plants and microbes (rhizobium in root nodules)
bull Plants and fungi (orchids and mycorrhizae)
bull Protists and fungi (lichen)
bull Plants and insects (pollination)
bull Animals and bacteria (ruminants)
bull Animals and other animals (crocodiles and
plover birds)
143
Mutualism shrimp and moray
Cleaner shrimp cleaning a zebra moray eel Mutualistic
relationships such as these promote the well-being of the
host fishes and provide food for those that do the cleaning 144
Rhizobium
Rhizobium in root nodules of certain plants convert
nitrogen in soil to usable form
145
Orchid Mycorrhizae
Fungi aid the plant in the uptake of nutrients
Fungi ingest some of the food from plant
photosynthesis 146
Lichen
Most of the lichen is composed of fungal filaments
but living among the filaments are algal cells
usually from a green alga or a cyanobacterium
The lichen fungus provides its partner(s) a benefit
(protection) and gains nutrients in return 147
Ruminants
Ruminants are characterized by their four-chambered
stomach and cud-chewing behavior Cud is a food bolus
that is regurgitated rechewed and reswallowed The
rumen is a large fermentation vat containing billions of
microorganisms including bacteria and protozoa which
allow ruminants to digest fibrous feeds such as grass and
hay that other animals cannot efficiently utilize 148
Crocodiles amp
Plover Birds
The bird gets into the crocodiles mouth and picks out
the tiny bits of food stuck in his teeth then eats it (the
tiny bits)
This cleans the crocodiles teeth and keeps his mouth
fresh and free from infections 149
Predation
bull Consumption of one living organism by
another
bull Predators must have offensive strategies
bull ways of finding catching and eating
their prey
bull Prey organisms must have defensive
strategies
bull ways of avoiding or discouraging this
activity
150
Predation
bull Encompasses all levels within an
ecological food chainweb
bull plant-herbivore systems
bull herbivore-carnivore systems
bull three-way interactions of
interdependent plant-herbivore-
carnivore systems
151
This goshawk is the tertiary consumer in his ecosystem
and the mouse in his beak is the secondary consumer
Beneath the mouse on the ecological pyramid lies his
foodsource likely a worm which fed on the primary
producer leafy plants 152
Ecosystem of Life in Floridas
Springs
bull Click here for a close-up look of life
in Floridas springs and the various
predator-prey interactions there
153
The Freshwater Biome ndash Ponds and Lakes
From left a view across Manzanita Lake toward Mt Lassen California a
forest pond near Donnelly Idaho a Great Blue Heron Paranagat Lake
southeastern Nevada
73
The Freshwater Biome ndash Streams and
Rivers
From left McArthur-Burney Falls State Park California trout Green
River Utah Brooks River Alaska
74
The Freshwater Biome - Wetlands
From left Pescadero Marsh California coastal marsh at Umpqua
Dunes Oregon trees and bogs on Esther Island Alaska
75
The Marine Biome
bull cover about three-fourths of the Earths surface
bull marine algae supply much of the worlds oxygen supply
and take in a huge amount of atmospheric carbon
dioxide
bull evaporation of the seawater provides rainwater for the
land
bull 3 different types of marine regions
bull oceans
bull coral reefs
bull estuaries
76
The Marine Biome - Oceans
From left mussels worms and a spider crab at a hydrocarbon seep
community in the Gulf of Mexico a sea fan and brain coral in the Florida
Keys National Marine Sanctuary a school of Atlantic amberjack off North
Carolina
77
The Marine Biome ndash Coral Reefs
From left reef life in the Gulf of Aqaba Red Sea a reef at Fanning
Island atoll in the central Pacific a reef in the Florida Keys National
Marine Sanctuary
78
The Marine Biome - Estuaries
From left Mangrove roots south Florida wetlands and tidal streams
in the Ashe Island area ACE Basin National Estuarine Research
Reserve South Carolina a salt marsh in Winyah Bay National
Estuarine Research Reserve South Carolina
79
Ecological Notes
These are the biomes in order of their productivity (highest
first)
1 estuaries and tropical rain forest (highest)
2 temperate forest
3 agricultural land
4 temperate grassland
5 lakes and streams
6 coastal zone
7 tundra
8 open ocean
9 desert (lowest)
80
Ecological Notes
In order to be productive and have a lot of living material
standing around (biomass) an ecosystem has to have 4
basic necessities for plant life to thrive (if there are
enough plants the ecosystem will also support a lot of
animals) The four things are
1 Sunlight
2 Nutrients
3 Warm temperatures
4 Water
81
Biomes Video
82
Take-Home Message
bull Biomes are the major ecological communities of earth
characterized mostly by the vegetation present
bull Different biomes result from differences in temperature
and precipitation and the extent to which they vary from
season to season
83
Challenge Question
bull Terrestrial biomes are determined by the temperature
and precipitation amounts as well as whether those
factors are constant or vary by season
bull By contrast how are aquatic biomes determined
84
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy flows from producers to
consumers
85
86
87
First Stop Primary Producers
bull ecosystem producers or consumers
bull primary producers plants algae (some) bacteria
bull convert light energy from sun into chemical energy
through photosynthesis
bull chemical energy = food
bull consumers eat or absorb their food
bull energy stored in chemical bonds of carbohydrate
protein and lipid molecules is captured and
harnessed for consumersrsquo own movement
reproduction and growth
88
Food Chain
89
Food Web
90
Food Web
91
Food Chains amp Food Webs
bull A change in one link in a food chain will affect the other
links
bull The table on the next slide gives one example of a food
chain and the trophic levels represented in it
92
Food Chains amp Food Webs
93
GRASS
GRASSHOPPER
TOAD
SNAKE
HAWK
BACTERIA
IN GENERAL
AUTOTROPHS
(PRODUCERS)
HERBIVORES
(PRIMARY
CONSUMERS)
CARNIVORES
(2 3 ETC)
DECOMPOSERS
94
Chain Reaction Game
95
Energy Flows through a Food Web
bull Losses at every ldquosteprdquo in a food chain
bull Inefficiency of energy transfers
96
Energy flow through a food chain
Energy flow refers to the way that energy is transformed through
a food chain (pictured here) containing a series of levels
including plants consumers predators and decomposers 97
Amount of energy available at each of the
four levels of an ecosystem
Ecological pyramids illustrate the amount of energy
available at each of the four levels of an ecosystem 98
Ecological Pyramid
99
A grasshopper eats a plant A mouse eats the
grasshopper A snake eats the mouse A hawk
could eat the snake or the mouse In this food
web how would we categorize the hawk
1 Producer
2 Primary consumer
3 Secondary consumer
4 Tertiary consumer
5 Quaternary consumer
6 4 and 5
100
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps
bull First it is converted to chemical energy in
photosynthesis
bull Herbivores then consume the primary producers the
herbivores are consumed by carnivores and the
carnivores in turn may be consumed by top carnivores
101
Take-home message
bull Detritivores and decomposers extract energy from
organic waste and the remains of organisms that have
died
bull At each step in a food chain some usable energy is lost
as heat
102
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy pyramids reveal the inefficiency of
food chains
103
Biomass
bull biomass total weight of all living organisms in a given
area
bull only about 10 of the plants in an ecosystem is
converted into biomass
bull Food Energy Pyramid
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
bull African savannas and grasslands sustain more species
of higher-order carnivores than any other terrestrial
ecosystem
104
105
Food Energy Pyramids
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
106
107
108
You go out to eat at a fancy restaurant You
have a salad salmon and for dessert ice
cream Which part of the meal was the most
energy efficient food for you to eat
1 Salad
2 Salmon
3 Ice cream
4 2 and 3
109
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps known as trophic levels
bull Energy pyramids reveal that the biomass of primary
producers in an ecosystem tends to be far greater than
the biomass of herbivores
bull The biomass transferred at each step along the food chain tends to be only about 10 of the biomass of the organisms being consumed due to energy lost in cellular respiration
bull As a consequence of this inefficiency food chains rarely exceed four levels
110
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Essential chemicals cycle through
ecosystems
111
Chemical Reservoirs
bull Each chemical is stored in a non-living part of the environment
bull Organisms acquire the chemical from the reservoir a non-living part of the environment
bull The chemical cycles through the food chain (biogeochemical cycles)
bull Eventually the chemical is returned to the reservoir
112
Hydrologic Cycle and the Florida Springs
bull Click here for a description of how falling rain feeds underground aquifers in Florida and forms springs
113
The Most Important Chemical Cycles
1) Carbon
2) Nitrogen
3) Phosphorus
4) Sulfur
114
115
The
Carbon
Cycle
116
The Carbon Cycle
Keeping Up With Carbon
NASA video provides key information on the carbon cycle
117
118
Carbon Cycle Game
Fossil Fuels
bull created when large numbers of organisms die and are buried in sediment lacking oxygen
bull In absence of oxygen at high pressures and after very long periods of time organic remains are ultimately transformed into coal oil and natural gas
bull burning coal oil and natural gas releases large amounts of carbon dioxide
bull increases average CO2 concentration in the atmosphere
bull current level of CO2 in the atmosphere is the highest it has been in almost half a million years
119
Global CO2 levels are rising in
general but they also exhibit a
sharp rise and fall within each
year ndash why
120
121
The Nitrogen Cycle
122
The Nitrogen Cycle
Fertilizers
bull Because it is necessary for the production of every plant
protein and because all nitrogen must first be made
usable by bacteria plant growth is often limited by
nitrogen levels in the soil
bull For this reason most fertilizers contain nitrogen in a
form usable by plants
123
124
125
126
127
Oxygen reduction downstream of a source of
organic pollution
128
Algal growth and eutrophication in an Australian
outback waterway
129
Sulfur Cycle
bull component of protein
bull cycles in both a gas and sedimentary cycle
bull source earths crust
bull enters the atmosphere as hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
during fossil fuel combustion volcanic eruptions
gas exchange at ocean surfaces decomposition
130
Sulfur Cycle
bull H2S is immediately oxidized to sulfur dioxide (SO2)
bull SO2 + water vapor H2SO4 (falls to earth in rain)
bull sulfur in soluble form is taken up by plant roots
incorporated into amino acids such as cysteine
bull travels through food chain
bull eventually released through decomposition
131
How is carbon recycled back to the
atmosphere in the carbon cycle
1 It is ldquofixedrdquo by bacteria
2 It is a product of cellular respiration
3 Burning of fossil fuels
4 2 and 3
5 All of the above
132
Why do commercial fertilizers usually
contain usable forms of nitrogen and
phosphorous
1 These chemicals are not efficiently recycled in
the soil
2 Nitrogen and phosphorous need to be ldquofixedrdquo
by bacteria or the plant
3 Nitrogen and phosphorous are found at high
levels in the atmosphere but not in the soil
4 Nitrogen and phosphorous only enter the soil
through erosion
133
Take-home message
bull Chemicals essential to lifemdashincluding carbon nitrogen and phosphorusmdashcycle through ecosystems
bull They are usually captured from the atmosphere soil or water by growing organisms passed from one trophic level to the next as organisms eat other organisms and returned to the environment through respiration decomposition and erosion
bull These cycles can be disrupted as human activities significantly increase the amounts of the chemicals utilized or released to the environment
134
Symbiotic Relationships
bull Symbiosis close relationship between organisms of
two different species
bull At least one participant gains some sort of benefit
(usually nutritional)
bull Types of symbiosis
bull Parasitism
bull Commensalism
bull Mutualism
bull Predation
135
Symbiotic Relationships in the
Ocean
bull Click here for an explanation of the
relationships of marine animals
including sharks rays and various
fishes
136
Parasitism bull Parasite derives nutrition from the host
bull This harms the host but a true parasite does
not usually kill its host (directly)
137
Ectoparasites
Remain outside the host
Ticks fleas leeches
138
Endoparasites
Live inside the hostrsquos body
Tapeworms malarial parasites
139
Parasite Transmission
bull Many parasites live on or in a single organism
bull Some will alternate between 2 or more host species
bull Vertical transmission ndash from mother offspring
bull Horizontal transmission ndash between members of a
population
bull Direct contact (head lice)
bull Vectors (mosquitos)
140
141
Commensalism
bull Neither species is totally dependent on the other
bull One benefits ndash no effect on the other
bull Feeding or protection
bull Porcelain anemone crabs and anemones
142
Mutualism
bull Both species benefit
bull Food or shelter
bull Examples
bull Plants and microbes (rhizobium in root nodules)
bull Plants and fungi (orchids and mycorrhizae)
bull Protists and fungi (lichen)
bull Plants and insects (pollination)
bull Animals and bacteria (ruminants)
bull Animals and other animals (crocodiles and
plover birds)
143
Mutualism shrimp and moray
Cleaner shrimp cleaning a zebra moray eel Mutualistic
relationships such as these promote the well-being of the
host fishes and provide food for those that do the cleaning 144
Rhizobium
Rhizobium in root nodules of certain plants convert
nitrogen in soil to usable form
145
Orchid Mycorrhizae
Fungi aid the plant in the uptake of nutrients
Fungi ingest some of the food from plant
photosynthesis 146
Lichen
Most of the lichen is composed of fungal filaments
but living among the filaments are algal cells
usually from a green alga or a cyanobacterium
The lichen fungus provides its partner(s) a benefit
(protection) and gains nutrients in return 147
Ruminants
Ruminants are characterized by their four-chambered
stomach and cud-chewing behavior Cud is a food bolus
that is regurgitated rechewed and reswallowed The
rumen is a large fermentation vat containing billions of
microorganisms including bacteria and protozoa which
allow ruminants to digest fibrous feeds such as grass and
hay that other animals cannot efficiently utilize 148
Crocodiles amp
Plover Birds
The bird gets into the crocodiles mouth and picks out
the tiny bits of food stuck in his teeth then eats it (the
tiny bits)
This cleans the crocodiles teeth and keeps his mouth
fresh and free from infections 149
Predation
bull Consumption of one living organism by
another
bull Predators must have offensive strategies
bull ways of finding catching and eating
their prey
bull Prey organisms must have defensive
strategies
bull ways of avoiding or discouraging this
activity
150
Predation
bull Encompasses all levels within an
ecological food chainweb
bull plant-herbivore systems
bull herbivore-carnivore systems
bull three-way interactions of
interdependent plant-herbivore-
carnivore systems
151
This goshawk is the tertiary consumer in his ecosystem
and the mouse in his beak is the secondary consumer
Beneath the mouse on the ecological pyramid lies his
foodsource likely a worm which fed on the primary
producer leafy plants 152
Ecosystem of Life in Floridas
Springs
bull Click here for a close-up look of life
in Floridas springs and the various
predator-prey interactions there
153
The Freshwater Biome ndash Streams and
Rivers
From left McArthur-Burney Falls State Park California trout Green
River Utah Brooks River Alaska
74
The Freshwater Biome - Wetlands
From left Pescadero Marsh California coastal marsh at Umpqua
Dunes Oregon trees and bogs on Esther Island Alaska
75
The Marine Biome
bull cover about three-fourths of the Earths surface
bull marine algae supply much of the worlds oxygen supply
and take in a huge amount of atmospheric carbon
dioxide
bull evaporation of the seawater provides rainwater for the
land
bull 3 different types of marine regions
bull oceans
bull coral reefs
bull estuaries
76
The Marine Biome - Oceans
From left mussels worms and a spider crab at a hydrocarbon seep
community in the Gulf of Mexico a sea fan and brain coral in the Florida
Keys National Marine Sanctuary a school of Atlantic amberjack off North
Carolina
77
The Marine Biome ndash Coral Reefs
From left reef life in the Gulf of Aqaba Red Sea a reef at Fanning
Island atoll in the central Pacific a reef in the Florida Keys National
Marine Sanctuary
78
The Marine Biome - Estuaries
From left Mangrove roots south Florida wetlands and tidal streams
in the Ashe Island area ACE Basin National Estuarine Research
Reserve South Carolina a salt marsh in Winyah Bay National
Estuarine Research Reserve South Carolina
79
Ecological Notes
These are the biomes in order of their productivity (highest
first)
1 estuaries and tropical rain forest (highest)
2 temperate forest
3 agricultural land
4 temperate grassland
5 lakes and streams
6 coastal zone
7 tundra
8 open ocean
9 desert (lowest)
80
Ecological Notes
In order to be productive and have a lot of living material
standing around (biomass) an ecosystem has to have 4
basic necessities for plant life to thrive (if there are
enough plants the ecosystem will also support a lot of
animals) The four things are
1 Sunlight
2 Nutrients
3 Warm temperatures
4 Water
81
Biomes Video
82
Take-Home Message
bull Biomes are the major ecological communities of earth
characterized mostly by the vegetation present
bull Different biomes result from differences in temperature
and precipitation and the extent to which they vary from
season to season
83
Challenge Question
bull Terrestrial biomes are determined by the temperature
and precipitation amounts as well as whether those
factors are constant or vary by season
bull By contrast how are aquatic biomes determined
84
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy flows from producers to
consumers
85
86
87
First Stop Primary Producers
bull ecosystem producers or consumers
bull primary producers plants algae (some) bacteria
bull convert light energy from sun into chemical energy
through photosynthesis
bull chemical energy = food
bull consumers eat or absorb their food
bull energy stored in chemical bonds of carbohydrate
protein and lipid molecules is captured and
harnessed for consumersrsquo own movement
reproduction and growth
88
Food Chain
89
Food Web
90
Food Web
91
Food Chains amp Food Webs
bull A change in one link in a food chain will affect the other
links
bull The table on the next slide gives one example of a food
chain and the trophic levels represented in it
92
Food Chains amp Food Webs
93
GRASS
GRASSHOPPER
TOAD
SNAKE
HAWK
BACTERIA
IN GENERAL
AUTOTROPHS
(PRODUCERS)
HERBIVORES
(PRIMARY
CONSUMERS)
CARNIVORES
(2 3 ETC)
DECOMPOSERS
94
Chain Reaction Game
95
Energy Flows through a Food Web
bull Losses at every ldquosteprdquo in a food chain
bull Inefficiency of energy transfers
96
Energy flow through a food chain
Energy flow refers to the way that energy is transformed through
a food chain (pictured here) containing a series of levels
including plants consumers predators and decomposers 97
Amount of energy available at each of the
four levels of an ecosystem
Ecological pyramids illustrate the amount of energy
available at each of the four levels of an ecosystem 98
Ecological Pyramid
99
A grasshopper eats a plant A mouse eats the
grasshopper A snake eats the mouse A hawk
could eat the snake or the mouse In this food
web how would we categorize the hawk
1 Producer
2 Primary consumer
3 Secondary consumer
4 Tertiary consumer
5 Quaternary consumer
6 4 and 5
100
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps
bull First it is converted to chemical energy in
photosynthesis
bull Herbivores then consume the primary producers the
herbivores are consumed by carnivores and the
carnivores in turn may be consumed by top carnivores
101
Take-home message
bull Detritivores and decomposers extract energy from
organic waste and the remains of organisms that have
died
bull At each step in a food chain some usable energy is lost
as heat
102
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy pyramids reveal the inefficiency of
food chains
103
Biomass
bull biomass total weight of all living organisms in a given
area
bull only about 10 of the plants in an ecosystem is
converted into biomass
bull Food Energy Pyramid
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
bull African savannas and grasslands sustain more species
of higher-order carnivores than any other terrestrial
ecosystem
104
105
Food Energy Pyramids
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
106
107
108
You go out to eat at a fancy restaurant You
have a salad salmon and for dessert ice
cream Which part of the meal was the most
energy efficient food for you to eat
1 Salad
2 Salmon
3 Ice cream
4 2 and 3
109
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps known as trophic levels
bull Energy pyramids reveal that the biomass of primary
producers in an ecosystem tends to be far greater than
the biomass of herbivores
bull The biomass transferred at each step along the food chain tends to be only about 10 of the biomass of the organisms being consumed due to energy lost in cellular respiration
bull As a consequence of this inefficiency food chains rarely exceed four levels
110
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Essential chemicals cycle through
ecosystems
111
Chemical Reservoirs
bull Each chemical is stored in a non-living part of the environment
bull Organisms acquire the chemical from the reservoir a non-living part of the environment
bull The chemical cycles through the food chain (biogeochemical cycles)
bull Eventually the chemical is returned to the reservoir
112
Hydrologic Cycle and the Florida Springs
bull Click here for a description of how falling rain feeds underground aquifers in Florida and forms springs
113
The Most Important Chemical Cycles
1) Carbon
2) Nitrogen
3) Phosphorus
4) Sulfur
114
115
The
Carbon
Cycle
116
The Carbon Cycle
Keeping Up With Carbon
NASA video provides key information on the carbon cycle
117
118
Carbon Cycle Game
Fossil Fuels
bull created when large numbers of organisms die and are buried in sediment lacking oxygen
bull In absence of oxygen at high pressures and after very long periods of time organic remains are ultimately transformed into coal oil and natural gas
bull burning coal oil and natural gas releases large amounts of carbon dioxide
bull increases average CO2 concentration in the atmosphere
bull current level of CO2 in the atmosphere is the highest it has been in almost half a million years
119
Global CO2 levels are rising in
general but they also exhibit a
sharp rise and fall within each
year ndash why
120
121
The Nitrogen Cycle
122
The Nitrogen Cycle
Fertilizers
bull Because it is necessary for the production of every plant
protein and because all nitrogen must first be made
usable by bacteria plant growth is often limited by
nitrogen levels in the soil
bull For this reason most fertilizers contain nitrogen in a
form usable by plants
123
124
125
126
127
Oxygen reduction downstream of a source of
organic pollution
128
Algal growth and eutrophication in an Australian
outback waterway
129
Sulfur Cycle
bull component of protein
bull cycles in both a gas and sedimentary cycle
bull source earths crust
bull enters the atmosphere as hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
during fossil fuel combustion volcanic eruptions
gas exchange at ocean surfaces decomposition
130
Sulfur Cycle
bull H2S is immediately oxidized to sulfur dioxide (SO2)
bull SO2 + water vapor H2SO4 (falls to earth in rain)
bull sulfur in soluble form is taken up by plant roots
incorporated into amino acids such as cysteine
bull travels through food chain
bull eventually released through decomposition
131
How is carbon recycled back to the
atmosphere in the carbon cycle
1 It is ldquofixedrdquo by bacteria
2 It is a product of cellular respiration
3 Burning of fossil fuels
4 2 and 3
5 All of the above
132
Why do commercial fertilizers usually
contain usable forms of nitrogen and
phosphorous
1 These chemicals are not efficiently recycled in
the soil
2 Nitrogen and phosphorous need to be ldquofixedrdquo
by bacteria or the plant
3 Nitrogen and phosphorous are found at high
levels in the atmosphere but not in the soil
4 Nitrogen and phosphorous only enter the soil
through erosion
133
Take-home message
bull Chemicals essential to lifemdashincluding carbon nitrogen and phosphorusmdashcycle through ecosystems
bull They are usually captured from the atmosphere soil or water by growing organisms passed from one trophic level to the next as organisms eat other organisms and returned to the environment through respiration decomposition and erosion
bull These cycles can be disrupted as human activities significantly increase the amounts of the chemicals utilized or released to the environment
134
Symbiotic Relationships
bull Symbiosis close relationship between organisms of
two different species
bull At least one participant gains some sort of benefit
(usually nutritional)
bull Types of symbiosis
bull Parasitism
bull Commensalism
bull Mutualism
bull Predation
135
Symbiotic Relationships in the
Ocean
bull Click here for an explanation of the
relationships of marine animals
including sharks rays and various
fishes
136
Parasitism bull Parasite derives nutrition from the host
bull This harms the host but a true parasite does
not usually kill its host (directly)
137
Ectoparasites
Remain outside the host
Ticks fleas leeches
138
Endoparasites
Live inside the hostrsquos body
Tapeworms malarial parasites
139
Parasite Transmission
bull Many parasites live on or in a single organism
bull Some will alternate between 2 or more host species
bull Vertical transmission ndash from mother offspring
bull Horizontal transmission ndash between members of a
population
bull Direct contact (head lice)
bull Vectors (mosquitos)
140
141
Commensalism
bull Neither species is totally dependent on the other
bull One benefits ndash no effect on the other
bull Feeding or protection
bull Porcelain anemone crabs and anemones
142
Mutualism
bull Both species benefit
bull Food or shelter
bull Examples
bull Plants and microbes (rhizobium in root nodules)
bull Plants and fungi (orchids and mycorrhizae)
bull Protists and fungi (lichen)
bull Plants and insects (pollination)
bull Animals and bacteria (ruminants)
bull Animals and other animals (crocodiles and
plover birds)
143
Mutualism shrimp and moray
Cleaner shrimp cleaning a zebra moray eel Mutualistic
relationships such as these promote the well-being of the
host fishes and provide food for those that do the cleaning 144
Rhizobium
Rhizobium in root nodules of certain plants convert
nitrogen in soil to usable form
145
Orchid Mycorrhizae
Fungi aid the plant in the uptake of nutrients
Fungi ingest some of the food from plant
photosynthesis 146
Lichen
Most of the lichen is composed of fungal filaments
but living among the filaments are algal cells
usually from a green alga or a cyanobacterium
The lichen fungus provides its partner(s) a benefit
(protection) and gains nutrients in return 147
Ruminants
Ruminants are characterized by their four-chambered
stomach and cud-chewing behavior Cud is a food bolus
that is regurgitated rechewed and reswallowed The
rumen is a large fermentation vat containing billions of
microorganisms including bacteria and protozoa which
allow ruminants to digest fibrous feeds such as grass and
hay that other animals cannot efficiently utilize 148
Crocodiles amp
Plover Birds
The bird gets into the crocodiles mouth and picks out
the tiny bits of food stuck in his teeth then eats it (the
tiny bits)
This cleans the crocodiles teeth and keeps his mouth
fresh and free from infections 149
Predation
bull Consumption of one living organism by
another
bull Predators must have offensive strategies
bull ways of finding catching and eating
their prey
bull Prey organisms must have defensive
strategies
bull ways of avoiding or discouraging this
activity
150
Predation
bull Encompasses all levels within an
ecological food chainweb
bull plant-herbivore systems
bull herbivore-carnivore systems
bull three-way interactions of
interdependent plant-herbivore-
carnivore systems
151
This goshawk is the tertiary consumer in his ecosystem
and the mouse in his beak is the secondary consumer
Beneath the mouse on the ecological pyramid lies his
foodsource likely a worm which fed on the primary
producer leafy plants 152
Ecosystem of Life in Floridas
Springs
bull Click here for a close-up look of life
in Floridas springs and the various
predator-prey interactions there
153
The Freshwater Biome - Wetlands
From left Pescadero Marsh California coastal marsh at Umpqua
Dunes Oregon trees and bogs on Esther Island Alaska
75
The Marine Biome
bull cover about three-fourths of the Earths surface
bull marine algae supply much of the worlds oxygen supply
and take in a huge amount of atmospheric carbon
dioxide
bull evaporation of the seawater provides rainwater for the
land
bull 3 different types of marine regions
bull oceans
bull coral reefs
bull estuaries
76
The Marine Biome - Oceans
From left mussels worms and a spider crab at a hydrocarbon seep
community in the Gulf of Mexico a sea fan and brain coral in the Florida
Keys National Marine Sanctuary a school of Atlantic amberjack off North
Carolina
77
The Marine Biome ndash Coral Reefs
From left reef life in the Gulf of Aqaba Red Sea a reef at Fanning
Island atoll in the central Pacific a reef in the Florida Keys National
Marine Sanctuary
78
The Marine Biome - Estuaries
From left Mangrove roots south Florida wetlands and tidal streams
in the Ashe Island area ACE Basin National Estuarine Research
Reserve South Carolina a salt marsh in Winyah Bay National
Estuarine Research Reserve South Carolina
79
Ecological Notes
These are the biomes in order of their productivity (highest
first)
1 estuaries and tropical rain forest (highest)
2 temperate forest
3 agricultural land
4 temperate grassland
5 lakes and streams
6 coastal zone
7 tundra
8 open ocean
9 desert (lowest)
80
Ecological Notes
In order to be productive and have a lot of living material
standing around (biomass) an ecosystem has to have 4
basic necessities for plant life to thrive (if there are
enough plants the ecosystem will also support a lot of
animals) The four things are
1 Sunlight
2 Nutrients
3 Warm temperatures
4 Water
81
Biomes Video
82
Take-Home Message
bull Biomes are the major ecological communities of earth
characterized mostly by the vegetation present
bull Different biomes result from differences in temperature
and precipitation and the extent to which they vary from
season to season
83
Challenge Question
bull Terrestrial biomes are determined by the temperature
and precipitation amounts as well as whether those
factors are constant or vary by season
bull By contrast how are aquatic biomes determined
84
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy flows from producers to
consumers
85
86
87
First Stop Primary Producers
bull ecosystem producers or consumers
bull primary producers plants algae (some) bacteria
bull convert light energy from sun into chemical energy
through photosynthesis
bull chemical energy = food
bull consumers eat or absorb their food
bull energy stored in chemical bonds of carbohydrate
protein and lipid molecules is captured and
harnessed for consumersrsquo own movement
reproduction and growth
88
Food Chain
89
Food Web
90
Food Web
91
Food Chains amp Food Webs
bull A change in one link in a food chain will affect the other
links
bull The table on the next slide gives one example of a food
chain and the trophic levels represented in it
92
Food Chains amp Food Webs
93
GRASS
GRASSHOPPER
TOAD
SNAKE
HAWK
BACTERIA
IN GENERAL
AUTOTROPHS
(PRODUCERS)
HERBIVORES
(PRIMARY
CONSUMERS)
CARNIVORES
(2 3 ETC)
DECOMPOSERS
94
Chain Reaction Game
95
Energy Flows through a Food Web
bull Losses at every ldquosteprdquo in a food chain
bull Inefficiency of energy transfers
96
Energy flow through a food chain
Energy flow refers to the way that energy is transformed through
a food chain (pictured here) containing a series of levels
including plants consumers predators and decomposers 97
Amount of energy available at each of the
four levels of an ecosystem
Ecological pyramids illustrate the amount of energy
available at each of the four levels of an ecosystem 98
Ecological Pyramid
99
A grasshopper eats a plant A mouse eats the
grasshopper A snake eats the mouse A hawk
could eat the snake or the mouse In this food
web how would we categorize the hawk
1 Producer
2 Primary consumer
3 Secondary consumer
4 Tertiary consumer
5 Quaternary consumer
6 4 and 5
100
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps
bull First it is converted to chemical energy in
photosynthesis
bull Herbivores then consume the primary producers the
herbivores are consumed by carnivores and the
carnivores in turn may be consumed by top carnivores
101
Take-home message
bull Detritivores and decomposers extract energy from
organic waste and the remains of organisms that have
died
bull At each step in a food chain some usable energy is lost
as heat
102
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy pyramids reveal the inefficiency of
food chains
103
Biomass
bull biomass total weight of all living organisms in a given
area
bull only about 10 of the plants in an ecosystem is
converted into biomass
bull Food Energy Pyramid
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
bull African savannas and grasslands sustain more species
of higher-order carnivores than any other terrestrial
ecosystem
104
105
Food Energy Pyramids
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
106
107
108
You go out to eat at a fancy restaurant You
have a salad salmon and for dessert ice
cream Which part of the meal was the most
energy efficient food for you to eat
1 Salad
2 Salmon
3 Ice cream
4 2 and 3
109
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps known as trophic levels
bull Energy pyramids reveal that the biomass of primary
producers in an ecosystem tends to be far greater than
the biomass of herbivores
bull The biomass transferred at each step along the food chain tends to be only about 10 of the biomass of the organisms being consumed due to energy lost in cellular respiration
bull As a consequence of this inefficiency food chains rarely exceed four levels
110
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Essential chemicals cycle through
ecosystems
111
Chemical Reservoirs
bull Each chemical is stored in a non-living part of the environment
bull Organisms acquire the chemical from the reservoir a non-living part of the environment
bull The chemical cycles through the food chain (biogeochemical cycles)
bull Eventually the chemical is returned to the reservoir
112
Hydrologic Cycle and the Florida Springs
bull Click here for a description of how falling rain feeds underground aquifers in Florida and forms springs
113
The Most Important Chemical Cycles
1) Carbon
2) Nitrogen
3) Phosphorus
4) Sulfur
114
115
The
Carbon
Cycle
116
The Carbon Cycle
Keeping Up With Carbon
NASA video provides key information on the carbon cycle
117
118
Carbon Cycle Game
Fossil Fuels
bull created when large numbers of organisms die and are buried in sediment lacking oxygen
bull In absence of oxygen at high pressures and after very long periods of time organic remains are ultimately transformed into coal oil and natural gas
bull burning coal oil and natural gas releases large amounts of carbon dioxide
bull increases average CO2 concentration in the atmosphere
bull current level of CO2 in the atmosphere is the highest it has been in almost half a million years
119
Global CO2 levels are rising in
general but they also exhibit a
sharp rise and fall within each
year ndash why
120
121
The Nitrogen Cycle
122
The Nitrogen Cycle
Fertilizers
bull Because it is necessary for the production of every plant
protein and because all nitrogen must first be made
usable by bacteria plant growth is often limited by
nitrogen levels in the soil
bull For this reason most fertilizers contain nitrogen in a
form usable by plants
123
124
125
126
127
Oxygen reduction downstream of a source of
organic pollution
128
Algal growth and eutrophication in an Australian
outback waterway
129
Sulfur Cycle
bull component of protein
bull cycles in both a gas and sedimentary cycle
bull source earths crust
bull enters the atmosphere as hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
during fossil fuel combustion volcanic eruptions
gas exchange at ocean surfaces decomposition
130
Sulfur Cycle
bull H2S is immediately oxidized to sulfur dioxide (SO2)
bull SO2 + water vapor H2SO4 (falls to earth in rain)
bull sulfur in soluble form is taken up by plant roots
incorporated into amino acids such as cysteine
bull travels through food chain
bull eventually released through decomposition
131
How is carbon recycled back to the
atmosphere in the carbon cycle
1 It is ldquofixedrdquo by bacteria
2 It is a product of cellular respiration
3 Burning of fossil fuels
4 2 and 3
5 All of the above
132
Why do commercial fertilizers usually
contain usable forms of nitrogen and
phosphorous
1 These chemicals are not efficiently recycled in
the soil
2 Nitrogen and phosphorous need to be ldquofixedrdquo
by bacteria or the plant
3 Nitrogen and phosphorous are found at high
levels in the atmosphere but not in the soil
4 Nitrogen and phosphorous only enter the soil
through erosion
133
Take-home message
bull Chemicals essential to lifemdashincluding carbon nitrogen and phosphorusmdashcycle through ecosystems
bull They are usually captured from the atmosphere soil or water by growing organisms passed from one trophic level to the next as organisms eat other organisms and returned to the environment through respiration decomposition and erosion
bull These cycles can be disrupted as human activities significantly increase the amounts of the chemicals utilized or released to the environment
134
Symbiotic Relationships
bull Symbiosis close relationship between organisms of
two different species
bull At least one participant gains some sort of benefit
(usually nutritional)
bull Types of symbiosis
bull Parasitism
bull Commensalism
bull Mutualism
bull Predation
135
Symbiotic Relationships in the
Ocean
bull Click here for an explanation of the
relationships of marine animals
including sharks rays and various
fishes
136
Parasitism bull Parasite derives nutrition from the host
bull This harms the host but a true parasite does
not usually kill its host (directly)
137
Ectoparasites
Remain outside the host
Ticks fleas leeches
138
Endoparasites
Live inside the hostrsquos body
Tapeworms malarial parasites
139
Parasite Transmission
bull Many parasites live on or in a single organism
bull Some will alternate between 2 or more host species
bull Vertical transmission ndash from mother offspring
bull Horizontal transmission ndash between members of a
population
bull Direct contact (head lice)
bull Vectors (mosquitos)
140
141
Commensalism
bull Neither species is totally dependent on the other
bull One benefits ndash no effect on the other
bull Feeding or protection
bull Porcelain anemone crabs and anemones
142
Mutualism
bull Both species benefit
bull Food or shelter
bull Examples
bull Plants and microbes (rhizobium in root nodules)
bull Plants and fungi (orchids and mycorrhizae)
bull Protists and fungi (lichen)
bull Plants and insects (pollination)
bull Animals and bacteria (ruminants)
bull Animals and other animals (crocodiles and
plover birds)
143
Mutualism shrimp and moray
Cleaner shrimp cleaning a zebra moray eel Mutualistic
relationships such as these promote the well-being of the
host fishes and provide food for those that do the cleaning 144
Rhizobium
Rhizobium in root nodules of certain plants convert
nitrogen in soil to usable form
145
Orchid Mycorrhizae
Fungi aid the plant in the uptake of nutrients
Fungi ingest some of the food from plant
photosynthesis 146
Lichen
Most of the lichen is composed of fungal filaments
but living among the filaments are algal cells
usually from a green alga or a cyanobacterium
The lichen fungus provides its partner(s) a benefit
(protection) and gains nutrients in return 147
Ruminants
Ruminants are characterized by their four-chambered
stomach and cud-chewing behavior Cud is a food bolus
that is regurgitated rechewed and reswallowed The
rumen is a large fermentation vat containing billions of
microorganisms including bacteria and protozoa which
allow ruminants to digest fibrous feeds such as grass and
hay that other animals cannot efficiently utilize 148
Crocodiles amp
Plover Birds
The bird gets into the crocodiles mouth and picks out
the tiny bits of food stuck in his teeth then eats it (the
tiny bits)
This cleans the crocodiles teeth and keeps his mouth
fresh and free from infections 149
Predation
bull Consumption of one living organism by
another
bull Predators must have offensive strategies
bull ways of finding catching and eating
their prey
bull Prey organisms must have defensive
strategies
bull ways of avoiding or discouraging this
activity
150
Predation
bull Encompasses all levels within an
ecological food chainweb
bull plant-herbivore systems
bull herbivore-carnivore systems
bull three-way interactions of
interdependent plant-herbivore-
carnivore systems
151
This goshawk is the tertiary consumer in his ecosystem
and the mouse in his beak is the secondary consumer
Beneath the mouse on the ecological pyramid lies his
foodsource likely a worm which fed on the primary
producer leafy plants 152
Ecosystem of Life in Floridas
Springs
bull Click here for a close-up look of life
in Floridas springs and the various
predator-prey interactions there
153
The Marine Biome
bull cover about three-fourths of the Earths surface
bull marine algae supply much of the worlds oxygen supply
and take in a huge amount of atmospheric carbon
dioxide
bull evaporation of the seawater provides rainwater for the
land
bull 3 different types of marine regions
bull oceans
bull coral reefs
bull estuaries
76
The Marine Biome - Oceans
From left mussels worms and a spider crab at a hydrocarbon seep
community in the Gulf of Mexico a sea fan and brain coral in the Florida
Keys National Marine Sanctuary a school of Atlantic amberjack off North
Carolina
77
The Marine Biome ndash Coral Reefs
From left reef life in the Gulf of Aqaba Red Sea a reef at Fanning
Island atoll in the central Pacific a reef in the Florida Keys National
Marine Sanctuary
78
The Marine Biome - Estuaries
From left Mangrove roots south Florida wetlands and tidal streams
in the Ashe Island area ACE Basin National Estuarine Research
Reserve South Carolina a salt marsh in Winyah Bay National
Estuarine Research Reserve South Carolina
79
Ecological Notes
These are the biomes in order of their productivity (highest
first)
1 estuaries and tropical rain forest (highest)
2 temperate forest
3 agricultural land
4 temperate grassland
5 lakes and streams
6 coastal zone
7 tundra
8 open ocean
9 desert (lowest)
80
Ecological Notes
In order to be productive and have a lot of living material
standing around (biomass) an ecosystem has to have 4
basic necessities for plant life to thrive (if there are
enough plants the ecosystem will also support a lot of
animals) The four things are
1 Sunlight
2 Nutrients
3 Warm temperatures
4 Water
81
Biomes Video
82
Take-Home Message
bull Biomes are the major ecological communities of earth
characterized mostly by the vegetation present
bull Different biomes result from differences in temperature
and precipitation and the extent to which they vary from
season to season
83
Challenge Question
bull Terrestrial biomes are determined by the temperature
and precipitation amounts as well as whether those
factors are constant or vary by season
bull By contrast how are aquatic biomes determined
84
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy flows from producers to
consumers
85
86
87
First Stop Primary Producers
bull ecosystem producers or consumers
bull primary producers plants algae (some) bacteria
bull convert light energy from sun into chemical energy
through photosynthesis
bull chemical energy = food
bull consumers eat or absorb their food
bull energy stored in chemical bonds of carbohydrate
protein and lipid molecules is captured and
harnessed for consumersrsquo own movement
reproduction and growth
88
Food Chain
89
Food Web
90
Food Web
91
Food Chains amp Food Webs
bull A change in one link in a food chain will affect the other
links
bull The table on the next slide gives one example of a food
chain and the trophic levels represented in it
92
Food Chains amp Food Webs
93
GRASS
GRASSHOPPER
TOAD
SNAKE
HAWK
BACTERIA
IN GENERAL
AUTOTROPHS
(PRODUCERS)
HERBIVORES
(PRIMARY
CONSUMERS)
CARNIVORES
(2 3 ETC)
DECOMPOSERS
94
Chain Reaction Game
95
Energy Flows through a Food Web
bull Losses at every ldquosteprdquo in a food chain
bull Inefficiency of energy transfers
96
Energy flow through a food chain
Energy flow refers to the way that energy is transformed through
a food chain (pictured here) containing a series of levels
including plants consumers predators and decomposers 97
Amount of energy available at each of the
four levels of an ecosystem
Ecological pyramids illustrate the amount of energy
available at each of the four levels of an ecosystem 98
Ecological Pyramid
99
A grasshopper eats a plant A mouse eats the
grasshopper A snake eats the mouse A hawk
could eat the snake or the mouse In this food
web how would we categorize the hawk
1 Producer
2 Primary consumer
3 Secondary consumer
4 Tertiary consumer
5 Quaternary consumer
6 4 and 5
100
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps
bull First it is converted to chemical energy in
photosynthesis
bull Herbivores then consume the primary producers the
herbivores are consumed by carnivores and the
carnivores in turn may be consumed by top carnivores
101
Take-home message
bull Detritivores and decomposers extract energy from
organic waste and the remains of organisms that have
died
bull At each step in a food chain some usable energy is lost
as heat
102
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy pyramids reveal the inefficiency of
food chains
103
Biomass
bull biomass total weight of all living organisms in a given
area
bull only about 10 of the plants in an ecosystem is
converted into biomass
bull Food Energy Pyramid
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
bull African savannas and grasslands sustain more species
of higher-order carnivores than any other terrestrial
ecosystem
104
105
Food Energy Pyramids
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
106
107
108
You go out to eat at a fancy restaurant You
have a salad salmon and for dessert ice
cream Which part of the meal was the most
energy efficient food for you to eat
1 Salad
2 Salmon
3 Ice cream
4 2 and 3
109
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps known as trophic levels
bull Energy pyramids reveal that the biomass of primary
producers in an ecosystem tends to be far greater than
the biomass of herbivores
bull The biomass transferred at each step along the food chain tends to be only about 10 of the biomass of the organisms being consumed due to energy lost in cellular respiration
bull As a consequence of this inefficiency food chains rarely exceed four levels
110
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Essential chemicals cycle through
ecosystems
111
Chemical Reservoirs
bull Each chemical is stored in a non-living part of the environment
bull Organisms acquire the chemical from the reservoir a non-living part of the environment
bull The chemical cycles through the food chain (biogeochemical cycles)
bull Eventually the chemical is returned to the reservoir
112
Hydrologic Cycle and the Florida Springs
bull Click here for a description of how falling rain feeds underground aquifers in Florida and forms springs
113
The Most Important Chemical Cycles
1) Carbon
2) Nitrogen
3) Phosphorus
4) Sulfur
114
115
The
Carbon
Cycle
116
The Carbon Cycle
Keeping Up With Carbon
NASA video provides key information on the carbon cycle
117
118
Carbon Cycle Game
Fossil Fuels
bull created when large numbers of organisms die and are buried in sediment lacking oxygen
bull In absence of oxygen at high pressures and after very long periods of time organic remains are ultimately transformed into coal oil and natural gas
bull burning coal oil and natural gas releases large amounts of carbon dioxide
bull increases average CO2 concentration in the atmosphere
bull current level of CO2 in the atmosphere is the highest it has been in almost half a million years
119
Global CO2 levels are rising in
general but they also exhibit a
sharp rise and fall within each
year ndash why
120
121
The Nitrogen Cycle
122
The Nitrogen Cycle
Fertilizers
bull Because it is necessary for the production of every plant
protein and because all nitrogen must first be made
usable by bacteria plant growth is often limited by
nitrogen levels in the soil
bull For this reason most fertilizers contain nitrogen in a
form usable by plants
123
124
125
126
127
Oxygen reduction downstream of a source of
organic pollution
128
Algal growth and eutrophication in an Australian
outback waterway
129
Sulfur Cycle
bull component of protein
bull cycles in both a gas and sedimentary cycle
bull source earths crust
bull enters the atmosphere as hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
during fossil fuel combustion volcanic eruptions
gas exchange at ocean surfaces decomposition
130
Sulfur Cycle
bull H2S is immediately oxidized to sulfur dioxide (SO2)
bull SO2 + water vapor H2SO4 (falls to earth in rain)
bull sulfur in soluble form is taken up by plant roots
incorporated into amino acids such as cysteine
bull travels through food chain
bull eventually released through decomposition
131
How is carbon recycled back to the
atmosphere in the carbon cycle
1 It is ldquofixedrdquo by bacteria
2 It is a product of cellular respiration
3 Burning of fossil fuels
4 2 and 3
5 All of the above
132
Why do commercial fertilizers usually
contain usable forms of nitrogen and
phosphorous
1 These chemicals are not efficiently recycled in
the soil
2 Nitrogen and phosphorous need to be ldquofixedrdquo
by bacteria or the plant
3 Nitrogen and phosphorous are found at high
levels in the atmosphere but not in the soil
4 Nitrogen and phosphorous only enter the soil
through erosion
133
Take-home message
bull Chemicals essential to lifemdashincluding carbon nitrogen and phosphorusmdashcycle through ecosystems
bull They are usually captured from the atmosphere soil or water by growing organisms passed from one trophic level to the next as organisms eat other organisms and returned to the environment through respiration decomposition and erosion
bull These cycles can be disrupted as human activities significantly increase the amounts of the chemicals utilized or released to the environment
134
Symbiotic Relationships
bull Symbiosis close relationship between organisms of
two different species
bull At least one participant gains some sort of benefit
(usually nutritional)
bull Types of symbiosis
bull Parasitism
bull Commensalism
bull Mutualism
bull Predation
135
Symbiotic Relationships in the
Ocean
bull Click here for an explanation of the
relationships of marine animals
including sharks rays and various
fishes
136
Parasitism bull Parasite derives nutrition from the host
bull This harms the host but a true parasite does
not usually kill its host (directly)
137
Ectoparasites
Remain outside the host
Ticks fleas leeches
138
Endoparasites
Live inside the hostrsquos body
Tapeworms malarial parasites
139
Parasite Transmission
bull Many parasites live on or in a single organism
bull Some will alternate between 2 or more host species
bull Vertical transmission ndash from mother offspring
bull Horizontal transmission ndash between members of a
population
bull Direct contact (head lice)
bull Vectors (mosquitos)
140
141
Commensalism
bull Neither species is totally dependent on the other
bull One benefits ndash no effect on the other
bull Feeding or protection
bull Porcelain anemone crabs and anemones
142
Mutualism
bull Both species benefit
bull Food or shelter
bull Examples
bull Plants and microbes (rhizobium in root nodules)
bull Plants and fungi (orchids and mycorrhizae)
bull Protists and fungi (lichen)
bull Plants and insects (pollination)
bull Animals and bacteria (ruminants)
bull Animals and other animals (crocodiles and
plover birds)
143
Mutualism shrimp and moray
Cleaner shrimp cleaning a zebra moray eel Mutualistic
relationships such as these promote the well-being of the
host fishes and provide food for those that do the cleaning 144
Rhizobium
Rhizobium in root nodules of certain plants convert
nitrogen in soil to usable form
145
Orchid Mycorrhizae
Fungi aid the plant in the uptake of nutrients
Fungi ingest some of the food from plant
photosynthesis 146
Lichen
Most of the lichen is composed of fungal filaments
but living among the filaments are algal cells
usually from a green alga or a cyanobacterium
The lichen fungus provides its partner(s) a benefit
(protection) and gains nutrients in return 147
Ruminants
Ruminants are characterized by their four-chambered
stomach and cud-chewing behavior Cud is a food bolus
that is regurgitated rechewed and reswallowed The
rumen is a large fermentation vat containing billions of
microorganisms including bacteria and protozoa which
allow ruminants to digest fibrous feeds such as grass and
hay that other animals cannot efficiently utilize 148
Crocodiles amp
Plover Birds
The bird gets into the crocodiles mouth and picks out
the tiny bits of food stuck in his teeth then eats it (the
tiny bits)
This cleans the crocodiles teeth and keeps his mouth
fresh and free from infections 149
Predation
bull Consumption of one living organism by
another
bull Predators must have offensive strategies
bull ways of finding catching and eating
their prey
bull Prey organisms must have defensive
strategies
bull ways of avoiding or discouraging this
activity
150
Predation
bull Encompasses all levels within an
ecological food chainweb
bull plant-herbivore systems
bull herbivore-carnivore systems
bull three-way interactions of
interdependent plant-herbivore-
carnivore systems
151
This goshawk is the tertiary consumer in his ecosystem
and the mouse in his beak is the secondary consumer
Beneath the mouse on the ecological pyramid lies his
foodsource likely a worm which fed on the primary
producer leafy plants 152
Ecosystem of Life in Floridas
Springs
bull Click here for a close-up look of life
in Floridas springs and the various
predator-prey interactions there
153
The Marine Biome - Oceans
From left mussels worms and a spider crab at a hydrocarbon seep
community in the Gulf of Mexico a sea fan and brain coral in the Florida
Keys National Marine Sanctuary a school of Atlantic amberjack off North
Carolina
77
The Marine Biome ndash Coral Reefs
From left reef life in the Gulf of Aqaba Red Sea a reef at Fanning
Island atoll in the central Pacific a reef in the Florida Keys National
Marine Sanctuary
78
The Marine Biome - Estuaries
From left Mangrove roots south Florida wetlands and tidal streams
in the Ashe Island area ACE Basin National Estuarine Research
Reserve South Carolina a salt marsh in Winyah Bay National
Estuarine Research Reserve South Carolina
79
Ecological Notes
These are the biomes in order of their productivity (highest
first)
1 estuaries and tropical rain forest (highest)
2 temperate forest
3 agricultural land
4 temperate grassland
5 lakes and streams
6 coastal zone
7 tundra
8 open ocean
9 desert (lowest)
80
Ecological Notes
In order to be productive and have a lot of living material
standing around (biomass) an ecosystem has to have 4
basic necessities for plant life to thrive (if there are
enough plants the ecosystem will also support a lot of
animals) The four things are
1 Sunlight
2 Nutrients
3 Warm temperatures
4 Water
81
Biomes Video
82
Take-Home Message
bull Biomes are the major ecological communities of earth
characterized mostly by the vegetation present
bull Different biomes result from differences in temperature
and precipitation and the extent to which they vary from
season to season
83
Challenge Question
bull Terrestrial biomes are determined by the temperature
and precipitation amounts as well as whether those
factors are constant or vary by season
bull By contrast how are aquatic biomes determined
84
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy flows from producers to
consumers
85
86
87
First Stop Primary Producers
bull ecosystem producers or consumers
bull primary producers plants algae (some) bacteria
bull convert light energy from sun into chemical energy
through photosynthesis
bull chemical energy = food
bull consumers eat or absorb their food
bull energy stored in chemical bonds of carbohydrate
protein and lipid molecules is captured and
harnessed for consumersrsquo own movement
reproduction and growth
88
Food Chain
89
Food Web
90
Food Web
91
Food Chains amp Food Webs
bull A change in one link in a food chain will affect the other
links
bull The table on the next slide gives one example of a food
chain and the trophic levels represented in it
92
Food Chains amp Food Webs
93
GRASS
GRASSHOPPER
TOAD
SNAKE
HAWK
BACTERIA
IN GENERAL
AUTOTROPHS
(PRODUCERS)
HERBIVORES
(PRIMARY
CONSUMERS)
CARNIVORES
(2 3 ETC)
DECOMPOSERS
94
Chain Reaction Game
95
Energy Flows through a Food Web
bull Losses at every ldquosteprdquo in a food chain
bull Inefficiency of energy transfers
96
Energy flow through a food chain
Energy flow refers to the way that energy is transformed through
a food chain (pictured here) containing a series of levels
including plants consumers predators and decomposers 97
Amount of energy available at each of the
four levels of an ecosystem
Ecological pyramids illustrate the amount of energy
available at each of the four levels of an ecosystem 98
Ecological Pyramid
99
A grasshopper eats a plant A mouse eats the
grasshopper A snake eats the mouse A hawk
could eat the snake or the mouse In this food
web how would we categorize the hawk
1 Producer
2 Primary consumer
3 Secondary consumer
4 Tertiary consumer
5 Quaternary consumer
6 4 and 5
100
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps
bull First it is converted to chemical energy in
photosynthesis
bull Herbivores then consume the primary producers the
herbivores are consumed by carnivores and the
carnivores in turn may be consumed by top carnivores
101
Take-home message
bull Detritivores and decomposers extract energy from
organic waste and the remains of organisms that have
died
bull At each step in a food chain some usable energy is lost
as heat
102
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy pyramids reveal the inefficiency of
food chains
103
Biomass
bull biomass total weight of all living organisms in a given
area
bull only about 10 of the plants in an ecosystem is
converted into biomass
bull Food Energy Pyramid
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
bull African savannas and grasslands sustain more species
of higher-order carnivores than any other terrestrial
ecosystem
104
105
Food Energy Pyramids
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
106
107
108
You go out to eat at a fancy restaurant You
have a salad salmon and for dessert ice
cream Which part of the meal was the most
energy efficient food for you to eat
1 Salad
2 Salmon
3 Ice cream
4 2 and 3
109
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps known as trophic levels
bull Energy pyramids reveal that the biomass of primary
producers in an ecosystem tends to be far greater than
the biomass of herbivores
bull The biomass transferred at each step along the food chain tends to be only about 10 of the biomass of the organisms being consumed due to energy lost in cellular respiration
bull As a consequence of this inefficiency food chains rarely exceed four levels
110
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Essential chemicals cycle through
ecosystems
111
Chemical Reservoirs
bull Each chemical is stored in a non-living part of the environment
bull Organisms acquire the chemical from the reservoir a non-living part of the environment
bull The chemical cycles through the food chain (biogeochemical cycles)
bull Eventually the chemical is returned to the reservoir
112
Hydrologic Cycle and the Florida Springs
bull Click here for a description of how falling rain feeds underground aquifers in Florida and forms springs
113
The Most Important Chemical Cycles
1) Carbon
2) Nitrogen
3) Phosphorus
4) Sulfur
114
115
The
Carbon
Cycle
116
The Carbon Cycle
Keeping Up With Carbon
NASA video provides key information on the carbon cycle
117
118
Carbon Cycle Game
Fossil Fuels
bull created when large numbers of organisms die and are buried in sediment lacking oxygen
bull In absence of oxygen at high pressures and after very long periods of time organic remains are ultimately transformed into coal oil and natural gas
bull burning coal oil and natural gas releases large amounts of carbon dioxide
bull increases average CO2 concentration in the atmosphere
bull current level of CO2 in the atmosphere is the highest it has been in almost half a million years
119
Global CO2 levels are rising in
general but they also exhibit a
sharp rise and fall within each
year ndash why
120
121
The Nitrogen Cycle
122
The Nitrogen Cycle
Fertilizers
bull Because it is necessary for the production of every plant
protein and because all nitrogen must first be made
usable by bacteria plant growth is often limited by
nitrogen levels in the soil
bull For this reason most fertilizers contain nitrogen in a
form usable by plants
123
124
125
126
127
Oxygen reduction downstream of a source of
organic pollution
128
Algal growth and eutrophication in an Australian
outback waterway
129
Sulfur Cycle
bull component of protein
bull cycles in both a gas and sedimentary cycle
bull source earths crust
bull enters the atmosphere as hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
during fossil fuel combustion volcanic eruptions
gas exchange at ocean surfaces decomposition
130
Sulfur Cycle
bull H2S is immediately oxidized to sulfur dioxide (SO2)
bull SO2 + water vapor H2SO4 (falls to earth in rain)
bull sulfur in soluble form is taken up by plant roots
incorporated into amino acids such as cysteine
bull travels through food chain
bull eventually released through decomposition
131
How is carbon recycled back to the
atmosphere in the carbon cycle
1 It is ldquofixedrdquo by bacteria
2 It is a product of cellular respiration
3 Burning of fossil fuels
4 2 and 3
5 All of the above
132
Why do commercial fertilizers usually
contain usable forms of nitrogen and
phosphorous
1 These chemicals are not efficiently recycled in
the soil
2 Nitrogen and phosphorous need to be ldquofixedrdquo
by bacteria or the plant
3 Nitrogen and phosphorous are found at high
levels in the atmosphere but not in the soil
4 Nitrogen and phosphorous only enter the soil
through erosion
133
Take-home message
bull Chemicals essential to lifemdashincluding carbon nitrogen and phosphorusmdashcycle through ecosystems
bull They are usually captured from the atmosphere soil or water by growing organisms passed from one trophic level to the next as organisms eat other organisms and returned to the environment through respiration decomposition and erosion
bull These cycles can be disrupted as human activities significantly increase the amounts of the chemicals utilized or released to the environment
134
Symbiotic Relationships
bull Symbiosis close relationship between organisms of
two different species
bull At least one participant gains some sort of benefit
(usually nutritional)
bull Types of symbiosis
bull Parasitism
bull Commensalism
bull Mutualism
bull Predation
135
Symbiotic Relationships in the
Ocean
bull Click here for an explanation of the
relationships of marine animals
including sharks rays and various
fishes
136
Parasitism bull Parasite derives nutrition from the host
bull This harms the host but a true parasite does
not usually kill its host (directly)
137
Ectoparasites
Remain outside the host
Ticks fleas leeches
138
Endoparasites
Live inside the hostrsquos body
Tapeworms malarial parasites
139
Parasite Transmission
bull Many parasites live on or in a single organism
bull Some will alternate between 2 or more host species
bull Vertical transmission ndash from mother offspring
bull Horizontal transmission ndash between members of a
population
bull Direct contact (head lice)
bull Vectors (mosquitos)
140
141
Commensalism
bull Neither species is totally dependent on the other
bull One benefits ndash no effect on the other
bull Feeding or protection
bull Porcelain anemone crabs and anemones
142
Mutualism
bull Both species benefit
bull Food or shelter
bull Examples
bull Plants and microbes (rhizobium in root nodules)
bull Plants and fungi (orchids and mycorrhizae)
bull Protists and fungi (lichen)
bull Plants and insects (pollination)
bull Animals and bacteria (ruminants)
bull Animals and other animals (crocodiles and
plover birds)
143
Mutualism shrimp and moray
Cleaner shrimp cleaning a zebra moray eel Mutualistic
relationships such as these promote the well-being of the
host fishes and provide food for those that do the cleaning 144
Rhizobium
Rhizobium in root nodules of certain plants convert
nitrogen in soil to usable form
145
Orchid Mycorrhizae
Fungi aid the plant in the uptake of nutrients
Fungi ingest some of the food from plant
photosynthesis 146
Lichen
Most of the lichen is composed of fungal filaments
but living among the filaments are algal cells
usually from a green alga or a cyanobacterium
The lichen fungus provides its partner(s) a benefit
(protection) and gains nutrients in return 147
Ruminants
Ruminants are characterized by their four-chambered
stomach and cud-chewing behavior Cud is a food bolus
that is regurgitated rechewed and reswallowed The
rumen is a large fermentation vat containing billions of
microorganisms including bacteria and protozoa which
allow ruminants to digest fibrous feeds such as grass and
hay that other animals cannot efficiently utilize 148
Crocodiles amp
Plover Birds
The bird gets into the crocodiles mouth and picks out
the tiny bits of food stuck in his teeth then eats it (the
tiny bits)
This cleans the crocodiles teeth and keeps his mouth
fresh and free from infections 149
Predation
bull Consumption of one living organism by
another
bull Predators must have offensive strategies
bull ways of finding catching and eating
their prey
bull Prey organisms must have defensive
strategies
bull ways of avoiding or discouraging this
activity
150
Predation
bull Encompasses all levels within an
ecological food chainweb
bull plant-herbivore systems
bull herbivore-carnivore systems
bull three-way interactions of
interdependent plant-herbivore-
carnivore systems
151
This goshawk is the tertiary consumer in his ecosystem
and the mouse in his beak is the secondary consumer
Beneath the mouse on the ecological pyramid lies his
foodsource likely a worm which fed on the primary
producer leafy plants 152
Ecosystem of Life in Floridas
Springs
bull Click here for a close-up look of life
in Floridas springs and the various
predator-prey interactions there
153
The Marine Biome ndash Coral Reefs
From left reef life in the Gulf of Aqaba Red Sea a reef at Fanning
Island atoll in the central Pacific a reef in the Florida Keys National
Marine Sanctuary
78
The Marine Biome - Estuaries
From left Mangrove roots south Florida wetlands and tidal streams
in the Ashe Island area ACE Basin National Estuarine Research
Reserve South Carolina a salt marsh in Winyah Bay National
Estuarine Research Reserve South Carolina
79
Ecological Notes
These are the biomes in order of their productivity (highest
first)
1 estuaries and tropical rain forest (highest)
2 temperate forest
3 agricultural land
4 temperate grassland
5 lakes and streams
6 coastal zone
7 tundra
8 open ocean
9 desert (lowest)
80
Ecological Notes
In order to be productive and have a lot of living material
standing around (biomass) an ecosystem has to have 4
basic necessities for plant life to thrive (if there are
enough plants the ecosystem will also support a lot of
animals) The four things are
1 Sunlight
2 Nutrients
3 Warm temperatures
4 Water
81
Biomes Video
82
Take-Home Message
bull Biomes are the major ecological communities of earth
characterized mostly by the vegetation present
bull Different biomes result from differences in temperature
and precipitation and the extent to which they vary from
season to season
83
Challenge Question
bull Terrestrial biomes are determined by the temperature
and precipitation amounts as well as whether those
factors are constant or vary by season
bull By contrast how are aquatic biomes determined
84
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy flows from producers to
consumers
85
86
87
First Stop Primary Producers
bull ecosystem producers or consumers
bull primary producers plants algae (some) bacteria
bull convert light energy from sun into chemical energy
through photosynthesis
bull chemical energy = food
bull consumers eat or absorb their food
bull energy stored in chemical bonds of carbohydrate
protein and lipid molecules is captured and
harnessed for consumersrsquo own movement
reproduction and growth
88
Food Chain
89
Food Web
90
Food Web
91
Food Chains amp Food Webs
bull A change in one link in a food chain will affect the other
links
bull The table on the next slide gives one example of a food
chain and the trophic levels represented in it
92
Food Chains amp Food Webs
93
GRASS
GRASSHOPPER
TOAD
SNAKE
HAWK
BACTERIA
IN GENERAL
AUTOTROPHS
(PRODUCERS)
HERBIVORES
(PRIMARY
CONSUMERS)
CARNIVORES
(2 3 ETC)
DECOMPOSERS
94
Chain Reaction Game
95
Energy Flows through a Food Web
bull Losses at every ldquosteprdquo in a food chain
bull Inefficiency of energy transfers
96
Energy flow through a food chain
Energy flow refers to the way that energy is transformed through
a food chain (pictured here) containing a series of levels
including plants consumers predators and decomposers 97
Amount of energy available at each of the
four levels of an ecosystem
Ecological pyramids illustrate the amount of energy
available at each of the four levels of an ecosystem 98
Ecological Pyramid
99
A grasshopper eats a plant A mouse eats the
grasshopper A snake eats the mouse A hawk
could eat the snake or the mouse In this food
web how would we categorize the hawk
1 Producer
2 Primary consumer
3 Secondary consumer
4 Tertiary consumer
5 Quaternary consumer
6 4 and 5
100
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps
bull First it is converted to chemical energy in
photosynthesis
bull Herbivores then consume the primary producers the
herbivores are consumed by carnivores and the
carnivores in turn may be consumed by top carnivores
101
Take-home message
bull Detritivores and decomposers extract energy from
organic waste and the remains of organisms that have
died
bull At each step in a food chain some usable energy is lost
as heat
102
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy pyramids reveal the inefficiency of
food chains
103
Biomass
bull biomass total weight of all living organisms in a given
area
bull only about 10 of the plants in an ecosystem is
converted into biomass
bull Food Energy Pyramid
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
bull African savannas and grasslands sustain more species
of higher-order carnivores than any other terrestrial
ecosystem
104
105
Food Energy Pyramids
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
106
107
108
You go out to eat at a fancy restaurant You
have a salad salmon and for dessert ice
cream Which part of the meal was the most
energy efficient food for you to eat
1 Salad
2 Salmon
3 Ice cream
4 2 and 3
109
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps known as trophic levels
bull Energy pyramids reveal that the biomass of primary
producers in an ecosystem tends to be far greater than
the biomass of herbivores
bull The biomass transferred at each step along the food chain tends to be only about 10 of the biomass of the organisms being consumed due to energy lost in cellular respiration
bull As a consequence of this inefficiency food chains rarely exceed four levels
110
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Essential chemicals cycle through
ecosystems
111
Chemical Reservoirs
bull Each chemical is stored in a non-living part of the environment
bull Organisms acquire the chemical from the reservoir a non-living part of the environment
bull The chemical cycles through the food chain (biogeochemical cycles)
bull Eventually the chemical is returned to the reservoir
112
Hydrologic Cycle and the Florida Springs
bull Click here for a description of how falling rain feeds underground aquifers in Florida and forms springs
113
The Most Important Chemical Cycles
1) Carbon
2) Nitrogen
3) Phosphorus
4) Sulfur
114
115
The
Carbon
Cycle
116
The Carbon Cycle
Keeping Up With Carbon
NASA video provides key information on the carbon cycle
117
118
Carbon Cycle Game
Fossil Fuels
bull created when large numbers of organisms die and are buried in sediment lacking oxygen
bull In absence of oxygen at high pressures and after very long periods of time organic remains are ultimately transformed into coal oil and natural gas
bull burning coal oil and natural gas releases large amounts of carbon dioxide
bull increases average CO2 concentration in the atmosphere
bull current level of CO2 in the atmosphere is the highest it has been in almost half a million years
119
Global CO2 levels are rising in
general but they also exhibit a
sharp rise and fall within each
year ndash why
120
121
The Nitrogen Cycle
122
The Nitrogen Cycle
Fertilizers
bull Because it is necessary for the production of every plant
protein and because all nitrogen must first be made
usable by bacteria plant growth is often limited by
nitrogen levels in the soil
bull For this reason most fertilizers contain nitrogen in a
form usable by plants
123
124
125
126
127
Oxygen reduction downstream of a source of
organic pollution
128
Algal growth and eutrophication in an Australian
outback waterway
129
Sulfur Cycle
bull component of protein
bull cycles in both a gas and sedimentary cycle
bull source earths crust
bull enters the atmosphere as hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
during fossil fuel combustion volcanic eruptions
gas exchange at ocean surfaces decomposition
130
Sulfur Cycle
bull H2S is immediately oxidized to sulfur dioxide (SO2)
bull SO2 + water vapor H2SO4 (falls to earth in rain)
bull sulfur in soluble form is taken up by plant roots
incorporated into amino acids such as cysteine
bull travels through food chain
bull eventually released through decomposition
131
How is carbon recycled back to the
atmosphere in the carbon cycle
1 It is ldquofixedrdquo by bacteria
2 It is a product of cellular respiration
3 Burning of fossil fuels
4 2 and 3
5 All of the above
132
Why do commercial fertilizers usually
contain usable forms of nitrogen and
phosphorous
1 These chemicals are not efficiently recycled in
the soil
2 Nitrogen and phosphorous need to be ldquofixedrdquo
by bacteria or the plant
3 Nitrogen and phosphorous are found at high
levels in the atmosphere but not in the soil
4 Nitrogen and phosphorous only enter the soil
through erosion
133
Take-home message
bull Chemicals essential to lifemdashincluding carbon nitrogen and phosphorusmdashcycle through ecosystems
bull They are usually captured from the atmosphere soil or water by growing organisms passed from one trophic level to the next as organisms eat other organisms and returned to the environment through respiration decomposition and erosion
bull These cycles can be disrupted as human activities significantly increase the amounts of the chemicals utilized or released to the environment
134
Symbiotic Relationships
bull Symbiosis close relationship between organisms of
two different species
bull At least one participant gains some sort of benefit
(usually nutritional)
bull Types of symbiosis
bull Parasitism
bull Commensalism
bull Mutualism
bull Predation
135
Symbiotic Relationships in the
Ocean
bull Click here for an explanation of the
relationships of marine animals
including sharks rays and various
fishes
136
Parasitism bull Parasite derives nutrition from the host
bull This harms the host but a true parasite does
not usually kill its host (directly)
137
Ectoparasites
Remain outside the host
Ticks fleas leeches
138
Endoparasites
Live inside the hostrsquos body
Tapeworms malarial parasites
139
Parasite Transmission
bull Many parasites live on or in a single organism
bull Some will alternate between 2 or more host species
bull Vertical transmission ndash from mother offspring
bull Horizontal transmission ndash between members of a
population
bull Direct contact (head lice)
bull Vectors (mosquitos)
140
141
Commensalism
bull Neither species is totally dependent on the other
bull One benefits ndash no effect on the other
bull Feeding or protection
bull Porcelain anemone crabs and anemones
142
Mutualism
bull Both species benefit
bull Food or shelter
bull Examples
bull Plants and microbes (rhizobium in root nodules)
bull Plants and fungi (orchids and mycorrhizae)
bull Protists and fungi (lichen)
bull Plants and insects (pollination)
bull Animals and bacteria (ruminants)
bull Animals and other animals (crocodiles and
plover birds)
143
Mutualism shrimp and moray
Cleaner shrimp cleaning a zebra moray eel Mutualistic
relationships such as these promote the well-being of the
host fishes and provide food for those that do the cleaning 144
Rhizobium
Rhizobium in root nodules of certain plants convert
nitrogen in soil to usable form
145
Orchid Mycorrhizae
Fungi aid the plant in the uptake of nutrients
Fungi ingest some of the food from plant
photosynthesis 146
Lichen
Most of the lichen is composed of fungal filaments
but living among the filaments are algal cells
usually from a green alga or a cyanobacterium
The lichen fungus provides its partner(s) a benefit
(protection) and gains nutrients in return 147
Ruminants
Ruminants are characterized by their four-chambered
stomach and cud-chewing behavior Cud is a food bolus
that is regurgitated rechewed and reswallowed The
rumen is a large fermentation vat containing billions of
microorganisms including bacteria and protozoa which
allow ruminants to digest fibrous feeds such as grass and
hay that other animals cannot efficiently utilize 148
Crocodiles amp
Plover Birds
The bird gets into the crocodiles mouth and picks out
the tiny bits of food stuck in his teeth then eats it (the
tiny bits)
This cleans the crocodiles teeth and keeps his mouth
fresh and free from infections 149
Predation
bull Consumption of one living organism by
another
bull Predators must have offensive strategies
bull ways of finding catching and eating
their prey
bull Prey organisms must have defensive
strategies
bull ways of avoiding or discouraging this
activity
150
Predation
bull Encompasses all levels within an
ecological food chainweb
bull plant-herbivore systems
bull herbivore-carnivore systems
bull three-way interactions of
interdependent plant-herbivore-
carnivore systems
151
This goshawk is the tertiary consumer in his ecosystem
and the mouse in his beak is the secondary consumer
Beneath the mouse on the ecological pyramid lies his
foodsource likely a worm which fed on the primary
producer leafy plants 152
Ecosystem of Life in Floridas
Springs
bull Click here for a close-up look of life
in Floridas springs and the various
predator-prey interactions there
153
The Marine Biome - Estuaries
From left Mangrove roots south Florida wetlands and tidal streams
in the Ashe Island area ACE Basin National Estuarine Research
Reserve South Carolina a salt marsh in Winyah Bay National
Estuarine Research Reserve South Carolina
79
Ecological Notes
These are the biomes in order of their productivity (highest
first)
1 estuaries and tropical rain forest (highest)
2 temperate forest
3 agricultural land
4 temperate grassland
5 lakes and streams
6 coastal zone
7 tundra
8 open ocean
9 desert (lowest)
80
Ecological Notes
In order to be productive and have a lot of living material
standing around (biomass) an ecosystem has to have 4
basic necessities for plant life to thrive (if there are
enough plants the ecosystem will also support a lot of
animals) The four things are
1 Sunlight
2 Nutrients
3 Warm temperatures
4 Water
81
Biomes Video
82
Take-Home Message
bull Biomes are the major ecological communities of earth
characterized mostly by the vegetation present
bull Different biomes result from differences in temperature
and precipitation and the extent to which they vary from
season to season
83
Challenge Question
bull Terrestrial biomes are determined by the temperature
and precipitation amounts as well as whether those
factors are constant or vary by season
bull By contrast how are aquatic biomes determined
84
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy flows from producers to
consumers
85
86
87
First Stop Primary Producers
bull ecosystem producers or consumers
bull primary producers plants algae (some) bacteria
bull convert light energy from sun into chemical energy
through photosynthesis
bull chemical energy = food
bull consumers eat or absorb their food
bull energy stored in chemical bonds of carbohydrate
protein and lipid molecules is captured and
harnessed for consumersrsquo own movement
reproduction and growth
88
Food Chain
89
Food Web
90
Food Web
91
Food Chains amp Food Webs
bull A change in one link in a food chain will affect the other
links
bull The table on the next slide gives one example of a food
chain and the trophic levels represented in it
92
Food Chains amp Food Webs
93
GRASS
GRASSHOPPER
TOAD
SNAKE
HAWK
BACTERIA
IN GENERAL
AUTOTROPHS
(PRODUCERS)
HERBIVORES
(PRIMARY
CONSUMERS)
CARNIVORES
(2 3 ETC)
DECOMPOSERS
94
Chain Reaction Game
95
Energy Flows through a Food Web
bull Losses at every ldquosteprdquo in a food chain
bull Inefficiency of energy transfers
96
Energy flow through a food chain
Energy flow refers to the way that energy is transformed through
a food chain (pictured here) containing a series of levels
including plants consumers predators and decomposers 97
Amount of energy available at each of the
four levels of an ecosystem
Ecological pyramids illustrate the amount of energy
available at each of the four levels of an ecosystem 98
Ecological Pyramid
99
A grasshopper eats a plant A mouse eats the
grasshopper A snake eats the mouse A hawk
could eat the snake or the mouse In this food
web how would we categorize the hawk
1 Producer
2 Primary consumer
3 Secondary consumer
4 Tertiary consumer
5 Quaternary consumer
6 4 and 5
100
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps
bull First it is converted to chemical energy in
photosynthesis
bull Herbivores then consume the primary producers the
herbivores are consumed by carnivores and the
carnivores in turn may be consumed by top carnivores
101
Take-home message
bull Detritivores and decomposers extract energy from
organic waste and the remains of organisms that have
died
bull At each step in a food chain some usable energy is lost
as heat
102
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy pyramids reveal the inefficiency of
food chains
103
Biomass
bull biomass total weight of all living organisms in a given
area
bull only about 10 of the plants in an ecosystem is
converted into biomass
bull Food Energy Pyramid
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
bull African savannas and grasslands sustain more species
of higher-order carnivores than any other terrestrial
ecosystem
104
105
Food Energy Pyramids
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
106
107
108
You go out to eat at a fancy restaurant You
have a salad salmon and for dessert ice
cream Which part of the meal was the most
energy efficient food for you to eat
1 Salad
2 Salmon
3 Ice cream
4 2 and 3
109
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps known as trophic levels
bull Energy pyramids reveal that the biomass of primary
producers in an ecosystem tends to be far greater than
the biomass of herbivores
bull The biomass transferred at each step along the food chain tends to be only about 10 of the biomass of the organisms being consumed due to energy lost in cellular respiration
bull As a consequence of this inefficiency food chains rarely exceed four levels
110
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Essential chemicals cycle through
ecosystems
111
Chemical Reservoirs
bull Each chemical is stored in a non-living part of the environment
bull Organisms acquire the chemical from the reservoir a non-living part of the environment
bull The chemical cycles through the food chain (biogeochemical cycles)
bull Eventually the chemical is returned to the reservoir
112
Hydrologic Cycle and the Florida Springs
bull Click here for a description of how falling rain feeds underground aquifers in Florida and forms springs
113
The Most Important Chemical Cycles
1) Carbon
2) Nitrogen
3) Phosphorus
4) Sulfur
114
115
The
Carbon
Cycle
116
The Carbon Cycle
Keeping Up With Carbon
NASA video provides key information on the carbon cycle
117
118
Carbon Cycle Game
Fossil Fuels
bull created when large numbers of organisms die and are buried in sediment lacking oxygen
bull In absence of oxygen at high pressures and after very long periods of time organic remains are ultimately transformed into coal oil and natural gas
bull burning coal oil and natural gas releases large amounts of carbon dioxide
bull increases average CO2 concentration in the atmosphere
bull current level of CO2 in the atmosphere is the highest it has been in almost half a million years
119
Global CO2 levels are rising in
general but they also exhibit a
sharp rise and fall within each
year ndash why
120
121
The Nitrogen Cycle
122
The Nitrogen Cycle
Fertilizers
bull Because it is necessary for the production of every plant
protein and because all nitrogen must first be made
usable by bacteria plant growth is often limited by
nitrogen levels in the soil
bull For this reason most fertilizers contain nitrogen in a
form usable by plants
123
124
125
126
127
Oxygen reduction downstream of a source of
organic pollution
128
Algal growth and eutrophication in an Australian
outback waterway
129
Sulfur Cycle
bull component of protein
bull cycles in both a gas and sedimentary cycle
bull source earths crust
bull enters the atmosphere as hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
during fossil fuel combustion volcanic eruptions
gas exchange at ocean surfaces decomposition
130
Sulfur Cycle
bull H2S is immediately oxidized to sulfur dioxide (SO2)
bull SO2 + water vapor H2SO4 (falls to earth in rain)
bull sulfur in soluble form is taken up by plant roots
incorporated into amino acids such as cysteine
bull travels through food chain
bull eventually released through decomposition
131
How is carbon recycled back to the
atmosphere in the carbon cycle
1 It is ldquofixedrdquo by bacteria
2 It is a product of cellular respiration
3 Burning of fossil fuels
4 2 and 3
5 All of the above
132
Why do commercial fertilizers usually
contain usable forms of nitrogen and
phosphorous
1 These chemicals are not efficiently recycled in
the soil
2 Nitrogen and phosphorous need to be ldquofixedrdquo
by bacteria or the plant
3 Nitrogen and phosphorous are found at high
levels in the atmosphere but not in the soil
4 Nitrogen and phosphorous only enter the soil
through erosion
133
Take-home message
bull Chemicals essential to lifemdashincluding carbon nitrogen and phosphorusmdashcycle through ecosystems
bull They are usually captured from the atmosphere soil or water by growing organisms passed from one trophic level to the next as organisms eat other organisms and returned to the environment through respiration decomposition and erosion
bull These cycles can be disrupted as human activities significantly increase the amounts of the chemicals utilized or released to the environment
134
Symbiotic Relationships
bull Symbiosis close relationship between organisms of
two different species
bull At least one participant gains some sort of benefit
(usually nutritional)
bull Types of symbiosis
bull Parasitism
bull Commensalism
bull Mutualism
bull Predation
135
Symbiotic Relationships in the
Ocean
bull Click here for an explanation of the
relationships of marine animals
including sharks rays and various
fishes
136
Parasitism bull Parasite derives nutrition from the host
bull This harms the host but a true parasite does
not usually kill its host (directly)
137
Ectoparasites
Remain outside the host
Ticks fleas leeches
138
Endoparasites
Live inside the hostrsquos body
Tapeworms malarial parasites
139
Parasite Transmission
bull Many parasites live on or in a single organism
bull Some will alternate between 2 or more host species
bull Vertical transmission ndash from mother offspring
bull Horizontal transmission ndash between members of a
population
bull Direct contact (head lice)
bull Vectors (mosquitos)
140
141
Commensalism
bull Neither species is totally dependent on the other
bull One benefits ndash no effect on the other
bull Feeding or protection
bull Porcelain anemone crabs and anemones
142
Mutualism
bull Both species benefit
bull Food or shelter
bull Examples
bull Plants and microbes (rhizobium in root nodules)
bull Plants and fungi (orchids and mycorrhizae)
bull Protists and fungi (lichen)
bull Plants and insects (pollination)
bull Animals and bacteria (ruminants)
bull Animals and other animals (crocodiles and
plover birds)
143
Mutualism shrimp and moray
Cleaner shrimp cleaning a zebra moray eel Mutualistic
relationships such as these promote the well-being of the
host fishes and provide food for those that do the cleaning 144
Rhizobium
Rhizobium in root nodules of certain plants convert
nitrogen in soil to usable form
145
Orchid Mycorrhizae
Fungi aid the plant in the uptake of nutrients
Fungi ingest some of the food from plant
photosynthesis 146
Lichen
Most of the lichen is composed of fungal filaments
but living among the filaments are algal cells
usually from a green alga or a cyanobacterium
The lichen fungus provides its partner(s) a benefit
(protection) and gains nutrients in return 147
Ruminants
Ruminants are characterized by their four-chambered
stomach and cud-chewing behavior Cud is a food bolus
that is regurgitated rechewed and reswallowed The
rumen is a large fermentation vat containing billions of
microorganisms including bacteria and protozoa which
allow ruminants to digest fibrous feeds such as grass and
hay that other animals cannot efficiently utilize 148
Crocodiles amp
Plover Birds
The bird gets into the crocodiles mouth and picks out
the tiny bits of food stuck in his teeth then eats it (the
tiny bits)
This cleans the crocodiles teeth and keeps his mouth
fresh and free from infections 149
Predation
bull Consumption of one living organism by
another
bull Predators must have offensive strategies
bull ways of finding catching and eating
their prey
bull Prey organisms must have defensive
strategies
bull ways of avoiding or discouraging this
activity
150
Predation
bull Encompasses all levels within an
ecological food chainweb
bull plant-herbivore systems
bull herbivore-carnivore systems
bull three-way interactions of
interdependent plant-herbivore-
carnivore systems
151
This goshawk is the tertiary consumer in his ecosystem
and the mouse in his beak is the secondary consumer
Beneath the mouse on the ecological pyramid lies his
foodsource likely a worm which fed on the primary
producer leafy plants 152
Ecosystem of Life in Floridas
Springs
bull Click here for a close-up look of life
in Floridas springs and the various
predator-prey interactions there
153
Ecological Notes
These are the biomes in order of their productivity (highest
first)
1 estuaries and tropical rain forest (highest)
2 temperate forest
3 agricultural land
4 temperate grassland
5 lakes and streams
6 coastal zone
7 tundra
8 open ocean
9 desert (lowest)
80
Ecological Notes
In order to be productive and have a lot of living material
standing around (biomass) an ecosystem has to have 4
basic necessities for plant life to thrive (if there are
enough plants the ecosystem will also support a lot of
animals) The four things are
1 Sunlight
2 Nutrients
3 Warm temperatures
4 Water
81
Biomes Video
82
Take-Home Message
bull Biomes are the major ecological communities of earth
characterized mostly by the vegetation present
bull Different biomes result from differences in temperature
and precipitation and the extent to which they vary from
season to season
83
Challenge Question
bull Terrestrial biomes are determined by the temperature
and precipitation amounts as well as whether those
factors are constant or vary by season
bull By contrast how are aquatic biomes determined
84
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy flows from producers to
consumers
85
86
87
First Stop Primary Producers
bull ecosystem producers or consumers
bull primary producers plants algae (some) bacteria
bull convert light energy from sun into chemical energy
through photosynthesis
bull chemical energy = food
bull consumers eat or absorb their food
bull energy stored in chemical bonds of carbohydrate
protein and lipid molecules is captured and
harnessed for consumersrsquo own movement
reproduction and growth
88
Food Chain
89
Food Web
90
Food Web
91
Food Chains amp Food Webs
bull A change in one link in a food chain will affect the other
links
bull The table on the next slide gives one example of a food
chain and the trophic levels represented in it
92
Food Chains amp Food Webs
93
GRASS
GRASSHOPPER
TOAD
SNAKE
HAWK
BACTERIA
IN GENERAL
AUTOTROPHS
(PRODUCERS)
HERBIVORES
(PRIMARY
CONSUMERS)
CARNIVORES
(2 3 ETC)
DECOMPOSERS
94
Chain Reaction Game
95
Energy Flows through a Food Web
bull Losses at every ldquosteprdquo in a food chain
bull Inefficiency of energy transfers
96
Energy flow through a food chain
Energy flow refers to the way that energy is transformed through
a food chain (pictured here) containing a series of levels
including plants consumers predators and decomposers 97
Amount of energy available at each of the
four levels of an ecosystem
Ecological pyramids illustrate the amount of energy
available at each of the four levels of an ecosystem 98
Ecological Pyramid
99
A grasshopper eats a plant A mouse eats the
grasshopper A snake eats the mouse A hawk
could eat the snake or the mouse In this food
web how would we categorize the hawk
1 Producer
2 Primary consumer
3 Secondary consumer
4 Tertiary consumer
5 Quaternary consumer
6 4 and 5
100
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps
bull First it is converted to chemical energy in
photosynthesis
bull Herbivores then consume the primary producers the
herbivores are consumed by carnivores and the
carnivores in turn may be consumed by top carnivores
101
Take-home message
bull Detritivores and decomposers extract energy from
organic waste and the remains of organisms that have
died
bull At each step in a food chain some usable energy is lost
as heat
102
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy pyramids reveal the inefficiency of
food chains
103
Biomass
bull biomass total weight of all living organisms in a given
area
bull only about 10 of the plants in an ecosystem is
converted into biomass
bull Food Energy Pyramid
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
bull African savannas and grasslands sustain more species
of higher-order carnivores than any other terrestrial
ecosystem
104
105
Food Energy Pyramids
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
106
107
108
You go out to eat at a fancy restaurant You
have a salad salmon and for dessert ice
cream Which part of the meal was the most
energy efficient food for you to eat
1 Salad
2 Salmon
3 Ice cream
4 2 and 3
109
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps known as trophic levels
bull Energy pyramids reveal that the biomass of primary
producers in an ecosystem tends to be far greater than
the biomass of herbivores
bull The biomass transferred at each step along the food chain tends to be only about 10 of the biomass of the organisms being consumed due to energy lost in cellular respiration
bull As a consequence of this inefficiency food chains rarely exceed four levels
110
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Essential chemicals cycle through
ecosystems
111
Chemical Reservoirs
bull Each chemical is stored in a non-living part of the environment
bull Organisms acquire the chemical from the reservoir a non-living part of the environment
bull The chemical cycles through the food chain (biogeochemical cycles)
bull Eventually the chemical is returned to the reservoir
112
Hydrologic Cycle and the Florida Springs
bull Click here for a description of how falling rain feeds underground aquifers in Florida and forms springs
113
The Most Important Chemical Cycles
1) Carbon
2) Nitrogen
3) Phosphorus
4) Sulfur
114
115
The
Carbon
Cycle
116
The Carbon Cycle
Keeping Up With Carbon
NASA video provides key information on the carbon cycle
117
118
Carbon Cycle Game
Fossil Fuels
bull created when large numbers of organisms die and are buried in sediment lacking oxygen
bull In absence of oxygen at high pressures and after very long periods of time organic remains are ultimately transformed into coal oil and natural gas
bull burning coal oil and natural gas releases large amounts of carbon dioxide
bull increases average CO2 concentration in the atmosphere
bull current level of CO2 in the atmosphere is the highest it has been in almost half a million years
119
Global CO2 levels are rising in
general but they also exhibit a
sharp rise and fall within each
year ndash why
120
121
The Nitrogen Cycle
122
The Nitrogen Cycle
Fertilizers
bull Because it is necessary for the production of every plant
protein and because all nitrogen must first be made
usable by bacteria plant growth is often limited by
nitrogen levels in the soil
bull For this reason most fertilizers contain nitrogen in a
form usable by plants
123
124
125
126
127
Oxygen reduction downstream of a source of
organic pollution
128
Algal growth and eutrophication in an Australian
outback waterway
129
Sulfur Cycle
bull component of protein
bull cycles in both a gas and sedimentary cycle
bull source earths crust
bull enters the atmosphere as hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
during fossil fuel combustion volcanic eruptions
gas exchange at ocean surfaces decomposition
130
Sulfur Cycle
bull H2S is immediately oxidized to sulfur dioxide (SO2)
bull SO2 + water vapor H2SO4 (falls to earth in rain)
bull sulfur in soluble form is taken up by plant roots
incorporated into amino acids such as cysteine
bull travels through food chain
bull eventually released through decomposition
131
How is carbon recycled back to the
atmosphere in the carbon cycle
1 It is ldquofixedrdquo by bacteria
2 It is a product of cellular respiration
3 Burning of fossil fuels
4 2 and 3
5 All of the above
132
Why do commercial fertilizers usually
contain usable forms of nitrogen and
phosphorous
1 These chemicals are not efficiently recycled in
the soil
2 Nitrogen and phosphorous need to be ldquofixedrdquo
by bacteria or the plant
3 Nitrogen and phosphorous are found at high
levels in the atmosphere but not in the soil
4 Nitrogen and phosphorous only enter the soil
through erosion
133
Take-home message
bull Chemicals essential to lifemdashincluding carbon nitrogen and phosphorusmdashcycle through ecosystems
bull They are usually captured from the atmosphere soil or water by growing organisms passed from one trophic level to the next as organisms eat other organisms and returned to the environment through respiration decomposition and erosion
bull These cycles can be disrupted as human activities significantly increase the amounts of the chemicals utilized or released to the environment
134
Symbiotic Relationships
bull Symbiosis close relationship between organisms of
two different species
bull At least one participant gains some sort of benefit
(usually nutritional)
bull Types of symbiosis
bull Parasitism
bull Commensalism
bull Mutualism
bull Predation
135
Symbiotic Relationships in the
Ocean
bull Click here for an explanation of the
relationships of marine animals
including sharks rays and various
fishes
136
Parasitism bull Parasite derives nutrition from the host
bull This harms the host but a true parasite does
not usually kill its host (directly)
137
Ectoparasites
Remain outside the host
Ticks fleas leeches
138
Endoparasites
Live inside the hostrsquos body
Tapeworms malarial parasites
139
Parasite Transmission
bull Many parasites live on or in a single organism
bull Some will alternate between 2 or more host species
bull Vertical transmission ndash from mother offspring
bull Horizontal transmission ndash between members of a
population
bull Direct contact (head lice)
bull Vectors (mosquitos)
140
141
Commensalism
bull Neither species is totally dependent on the other
bull One benefits ndash no effect on the other
bull Feeding or protection
bull Porcelain anemone crabs and anemones
142
Mutualism
bull Both species benefit
bull Food or shelter
bull Examples
bull Plants and microbes (rhizobium in root nodules)
bull Plants and fungi (orchids and mycorrhizae)
bull Protists and fungi (lichen)
bull Plants and insects (pollination)
bull Animals and bacteria (ruminants)
bull Animals and other animals (crocodiles and
plover birds)
143
Mutualism shrimp and moray
Cleaner shrimp cleaning a zebra moray eel Mutualistic
relationships such as these promote the well-being of the
host fishes and provide food for those that do the cleaning 144
Rhizobium
Rhizobium in root nodules of certain plants convert
nitrogen in soil to usable form
145
Orchid Mycorrhizae
Fungi aid the plant in the uptake of nutrients
Fungi ingest some of the food from plant
photosynthesis 146
Lichen
Most of the lichen is composed of fungal filaments
but living among the filaments are algal cells
usually from a green alga or a cyanobacterium
The lichen fungus provides its partner(s) a benefit
(protection) and gains nutrients in return 147
Ruminants
Ruminants are characterized by their four-chambered
stomach and cud-chewing behavior Cud is a food bolus
that is regurgitated rechewed and reswallowed The
rumen is a large fermentation vat containing billions of
microorganisms including bacteria and protozoa which
allow ruminants to digest fibrous feeds such as grass and
hay that other animals cannot efficiently utilize 148
Crocodiles amp
Plover Birds
The bird gets into the crocodiles mouth and picks out
the tiny bits of food stuck in his teeth then eats it (the
tiny bits)
This cleans the crocodiles teeth and keeps his mouth
fresh and free from infections 149
Predation
bull Consumption of one living organism by
another
bull Predators must have offensive strategies
bull ways of finding catching and eating
their prey
bull Prey organisms must have defensive
strategies
bull ways of avoiding or discouraging this
activity
150
Predation
bull Encompasses all levels within an
ecological food chainweb
bull plant-herbivore systems
bull herbivore-carnivore systems
bull three-way interactions of
interdependent plant-herbivore-
carnivore systems
151
This goshawk is the tertiary consumer in his ecosystem
and the mouse in his beak is the secondary consumer
Beneath the mouse on the ecological pyramid lies his
foodsource likely a worm which fed on the primary
producer leafy plants 152
Ecosystem of Life in Floridas
Springs
bull Click here for a close-up look of life
in Floridas springs and the various
predator-prey interactions there
153
Ecological Notes
In order to be productive and have a lot of living material
standing around (biomass) an ecosystem has to have 4
basic necessities for plant life to thrive (if there are
enough plants the ecosystem will also support a lot of
animals) The four things are
1 Sunlight
2 Nutrients
3 Warm temperatures
4 Water
81
Biomes Video
82
Take-Home Message
bull Biomes are the major ecological communities of earth
characterized mostly by the vegetation present
bull Different biomes result from differences in temperature
and precipitation and the extent to which they vary from
season to season
83
Challenge Question
bull Terrestrial biomes are determined by the temperature
and precipitation amounts as well as whether those
factors are constant or vary by season
bull By contrast how are aquatic biomes determined
84
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy flows from producers to
consumers
85
86
87
First Stop Primary Producers
bull ecosystem producers or consumers
bull primary producers plants algae (some) bacteria
bull convert light energy from sun into chemical energy
through photosynthesis
bull chemical energy = food
bull consumers eat or absorb their food
bull energy stored in chemical bonds of carbohydrate
protein and lipid molecules is captured and
harnessed for consumersrsquo own movement
reproduction and growth
88
Food Chain
89
Food Web
90
Food Web
91
Food Chains amp Food Webs
bull A change in one link in a food chain will affect the other
links
bull The table on the next slide gives one example of a food
chain and the trophic levels represented in it
92
Food Chains amp Food Webs
93
GRASS
GRASSHOPPER
TOAD
SNAKE
HAWK
BACTERIA
IN GENERAL
AUTOTROPHS
(PRODUCERS)
HERBIVORES
(PRIMARY
CONSUMERS)
CARNIVORES
(2 3 ETC)
DECOMPOSERS
94
Chain Reaction Game
95
Energy Flows through a Food Web
bull Losses at every ldquosteprdquo in a food chain
bull Inefficiency of energy transfers
96
Energy flow through a food chain
Energy flow refers to the way that energy is transformed through
a food chain (pictured here) containing a series of levels
including plants consumers predators and decomposers 97
Amount of energy available at each of the
four levels of an ecosystem
Ecological pyramids illustrate the amount of energy
available at each of the four levels of an ecosystem 98
Ecological Pyramid
99
A grasshopper eats a plant A mouse eats the
grasshopper A snake eats the mouse A hawk
could eat the snake or the mouse In this food
web how would we categorize the hawk
1 Producer
2 Primary consumer
3 Secondary consumer
4 Tertiary consumer
5 Quaternary consumer
6 4 and 5
100
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps
bull First it is converted to chemical energy in
photosynthesis
bull Herbivores then consume the primary producers the
herbivores are consumed by carnivores and the
carnivores in turn may be consumed by top carnivores
101
Take-home message
bull Detritivores and decomposers extract energy from
organic waste and the remains of organisms that have
died
bull At each step in a food chain some usable energy is lost
as heat
102
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy pyramids reveal the inefficiency of
food chains
103
Biomass
bull biomass total weight of all living organisms in a given
area
bull only about 10 of the plants in an ecosystem is
converted into biomass
bull Food Energy Pyramid
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
bull African savannas and grasslands sustain more species
of higher-order carnivores than any other terrestrial
ecosystem
104
105
Food Energy Pyramids
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
106
107
108
You go out to eat at a fancy restaurant You
have a salad salmon and for dessert ice
cream Which part of the meal was the most
energy efficient food for you to eat
1 Salad
2 Salmon
3 Ice cream
4 2 and 3
109
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps known as trophic levels
bull Energy pyramids reveal that the biomass of primary
producers in an ecosystem tends to be far greater than
the biomass of herbivores
bull The biomass transferred at each step along the food chain tends to be only about 10 of the biomass of the organisms being consumed due to energy lost in cellular respiration
bull As a consequence of this inefficiency food chains rarely exceed four levels
110
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Essential chemicals cycle through
ecosystems
111
Chemical Reservoirs
bull Each chemical is stored in a non-living part of the environment
bull Organisms acquire the chemical from the reservoir a non-living part of the environment
bull The chemical cycles through the food chain (biogeochemical cycles)
bull Eventually the chemical is returned to the reservoir
112
Hydrologic Cycle and the Florida Springs
bull Click here for a description of how falling rain feeds underground aquifers in Florida and forms springs
113
The Most Important Chemical Cycles
1) Carbon
2) Nitrogen
3) Phosphorus
4) Sulfur
114
115
The
Carbon
Cycle
116
The Carbon Cycle
Keeping Up With Carbon
NASA video provides key information on the carbon cycle
117
118
Carbon Cycle Game
Fossil Fuels
bull created when large numbers of organisms die and are buried in sediment lacking oxygen
bull In absence of oxygen at high pressures and after very long periods of time organic remains are ultimately transformed into coal oil and natural gas
bull burning coal oil and natural gas releases large amounts of carbon dioxide
bull increases average CO2 concentration in the atmosphere
bull current level of CO2 in the atmosphere is the highest it has been in almost half a million years
119
Global CO2 levels are rising in
general but they also exhibit a
sharp rise and fall within each
year ndash why
120
121
The Nitrogen Cycle
122
The Nitrogen Cycle
Fertilizers
bull Because it is necessary for the production of every plant
protein and because all nitrogen must first be made
usable by bacteria plant growth is often limited by
nitrogen levels in the soil
bull For this reason most fertilizers contain nitrogen in a
form usable by plants
123
124
125
126
127
Oxygen reduction downstream of a source of
organic pollution
128
Algal growth and eutrophication in an Australian
outback waterway
129
Sulfur Cycle
bull component of protein
bull cycles in both a gas and sedimentary cycle
bull source earths crust
bull enters the atmosphere as hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
during fossil fuel combustion volcanic eruptions
gas exchange at ocean surfaces decomposition
130
Sulfur Cycle
bull H2S is immediately oxidized to sulfur dioxide (SO2)
bull SO2 + water vapor H2SO4 (falls to earth in rain)
bull sulfur in soluble form is taken up by plant roots
incorporated into amino acids such as cysteine
bull travels through food chain
bull eventually released through decomposition
131
How is carbon recycled back to the
atmosphere in the carbon cycle
1 It is ldquofixedrdquo by bacteria
2 It is a product of cellular respiration
3 Burning of fossil fuels
4 2 and 3
5 All of the above
132
Why do commercial fertilizers usually
contain usable forms of nitrogen and
phosphorous
1 These chemicals are not efficiently recycled in
the soil
2 Nitrogen and phosphorous need to be ldquofixedrdquo
by bacteria or the plant
3 Nitrogen and phosphorous are found at high
levels in the atmosphere but not in the soil
4 Nitrogen and phosphorous only enter the soil
through erosion
133
Take-home message
bull Chemicals essential to lifemdashincluding carbon nitrogen and phosphorusmdashcycle through ecosystems
bull They are usually captured from the atmosphere soil or water by growing organisms passed from one trophic level to the next as organisms eat other organisms and returned to the environment through respiration decomposition and erosion
bull These cycles can be disrupted as human activities significantly increase the amounts of the chemicals utilized or released to the environment
134
Symbiotic Relationships
bull Symbiosis close relationship between organisms of
two different species
bull At least one participant gains some sort of benefit
(usually nutritional)
bull Types of symbiosis
bull Parasitism
bull Commensalism
bull Mutualism
bull Predation
135
Symbiotic Relationships in the
Ocean
bull Click here for an explanation of the
relationships of marine animals
including sharks rays and various
fishes
136
Parasitism bull Parasite derives nutrition from the host
bull This harms the host but a true parasite does
not usually kill its host (directly)
137
Ectoparasites
Remain outside the host
Ticks fleas leeches
138
Endoparasites
Live inside the hostrsquos body
Tapeworms malarial parasites
139
Parasite Transmission
bull Many parasites live on or in a single organism
bull Some will alternate between 2 or more host species
bull Vertical transmission ndash from mother offspring
bull Horizontal transmission ndash between members of a
population
bull Direct contact (head lice)
bull Vectors (mosquitos)
140
141
Commensalism
bull Neither species is totally dependent on the other
bull One benefits ndash no effect on the other
bull Feeding or protection
bull Porcelain anemone crabs and anemones
142
Mutualism
bull Both species benefit
bull Food or shelter
bull Examples
bull Plants and microbes (rhizobium in root nodules)
bull Plants and fungi (orchids and mycorrhizae)
bull Protists and fungi (lichen)
bull Plants and insects (pollination)
bull Animals and bacteria (ruminants)
bull Animals and other animals (crocodiles and
plover birds)
143
Mutualism shrimp and moray
Cleaner shrimp cleaning a zebra moray eel Mutualistic
relationships such as these promote the well-being of the
host fishes and provide food for those that do the cleaning 144
Rhizobium
Rhizobium in root nodules of certain plants convert
nitrogen in soil to usable form
145
Orchid Mycorrhizae
Fungi aid the plant in the uptake of nutrients
Fungi ingest some of the food from plant
photosynthesis 146
Lichen
Most of the lichen is composed of fungal filaments
but living among the filaments are algal cells
usually from a green alga or a cyanobacterium
The lichen fungus provides its partner(s) a benefit
(protection) and gains nutrients in return 147
Ruminants
Ruminants are characterized by their four-chambered
stomach and cud-chewing behavior Cud is a food bolus
that is regurgitated rechewed and reswallowed The
rumen is a large fermentation vat containing billions of
microorganisms including bacteria and protozoa which
allow ruminants to digest fibrous feeds such as grass and
hay that other animals cannot efficiently utilize 148
Crocodiles amp
Plover Birds
The bird gets into the crocodiles mouth and picks out
the tiny bits of food stuck in his teeth then eats it (the
tiny bits)
This cleans the crocodiles teeth and keeps his mouth
fresh and free from infections 149
Predation
bull Consumption of one living organism by
another
bull Predators must have offensive strategies
bull ways of finding catching and eating
their prey
bull Prey organisms must have defensive
strategies
bull ways of avoiding or discouraging this
activity
150
Predation
bull Encompasses all levels within an
ecological food chainweb
bull plant-herbivore systems
bull herbivore-carnivore systems
bull three-way interactions of
interdependent plant-herbivore-
carnivore systems
151
This goshawk is the tertiary consumer in his ecosystem
and the mouse in his beak is the secondary consumer
Beneath the mouse on the ecological pyramid lies his
foodsource likely a worm which fed on the primary
producer leafy plants 152
Ecosystem of Life in Floridas
Springs
bull Click here for a close-up look of life
in Floridas springs and the various
predator-prey interactions there
153
Biomes Video
82
Take-Home Message
bull Biomes are the major ecological communities of earth
characterized mostly by the vegetation present
bull Different biomes result from differences in temperature
and precipitation and the extent to which they vary from
season to season
83
Challenge Question
bull Terrestrial biomes are determined by the temperature
and precipitation amounts as well as whether those
factors are constant or vary by season
bull By contrast how are aquatic biomes determined
84
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy flows from producers to
consumers
85
86
87
First Stop Primary Producers
bull ecosystem producers or consumers
bull primary producers plants algae (some) bacteria
bull convert light energy from sun into chemical energy
through photosynthesis
bull chemical energy = food
bull consumers eat or absorb their food
bull energy stored in chemical bonds of carbohydrate
protein and lipid molecules is captured and
harnessed for consumersrsquo own movement
reproduction and growth
88
Food Chain
89
Food Web
90
Food Web
91
Food Chains amp Food Webs
bull A change in one link in a food chain will affect the other
links
bull The table on the next slide gives one example of a food
chain and the trophic levels represented in it
92
Food Chains amp Food Webs
93
GRASS
GRASSHOPPER
TOAD
SNAKE
HAWK
BACTERIA
IN GENERAL
AUTOTROPHS
(PRODUCERS)
HERBIVORES
(PRIMARY
CONSUMERS)
CARNIVORES
(2 3 ETC)
DECOMPOSERS
94
Chain Reaction Game
95
Energy Flows through a Food Web
bull Losses at every ldquosteprdquo in a food chain
bull Inefficiency of energy transfers
96
Energy flow through a food chain
Energy flow refers to the way that energy is transformed through
a food chain (pictured here) containing a series of levels
including plants consumers predators and decomposers 97
Amount of energy available at each of the
four levels of an ecosystem
Ecological pyramids illustrate the amount of energy
available at each of the four levels of an ecosystem 98
Ecological Pyramid
99
A grasshopper eats a plant A mouse eats the
grasshopper A snake eats the mouse A hawk
could eat the snake or the mouse In this food
web how would we categorize the hawk
1 Producer
2 Primary consumer
3 Secondary consumer
4 Tertiary consumer
5 Quaternary consumer
6 4 and 5
100
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps
bull First it is converted to chemical energy in
photosynthesis
bull Herbivores then consume the primary producers the
herbivores are consumed by carnivores and the
carnivores in turn may be consumed by top carnivores
101
Take-home message
bull Detritivores and decomposers extract energy from
organic waste and the remains of organisms that have
died
bull At each step in a food chain some usable energy is lost
as heat
102
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy pyramids reveal the inefficiency of
food chains
103
Biomass
bull biomass total weight of all living organisms in a given
area
bull only about 10 of the plants in an ecosystem is
converted into biomass
bull Food Energy Pyramid
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
bull African savannas and grasslands sustain more species
of higher-order carnivores than any other terrestrial
ecosystem
104
105
Food Energy Pyramids
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
106
107
108
You go out to eat at a fancy restaurant You
have a salad salmon and for dessert ice
cream Which part of the meal was the most
energy efficient food for you to eat
1 Salad
2 Salmon
3 Ice cream
4 2 and 3
109
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps known as trophic levels
bull Energy pyramids reveal that the biomass of primary
producers in an ecosystem tends to be far greater than
the biomass of herbivores
bull The biomass transferred at each step along the food chain tends to be only about 10 of the biomass of the organisms being consumed due to energy lost in cellular respiration
bull As a consequence of this inefficiency food chains rarely exceed four levels
110
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Essential chemicals cycle through
ecosystems
111
Chemical Reservoirs
bull Each chemical is stored in a non-living part of the environment
bull Organisms acquire the chemical from the reservoir a non-living part of the environment
bull The chemical cycles through the food chain (biogeochemical cycles)
bull Eventually the chemical is returned to the reservoir
112
Hydrologic Cycle and the Florida Springs
bull Click here for a description of how falling rain feeds underground aquifers in Florida and forms springs
113
The Most Important Chemical Cycles
1) Carbon
2) Nitrogen
3) Phosphorus
4) Sulfur
114
115
The
Carbon
Cycle
116
The Carbon Cycle
Keeping Up With Carbon
NASA video provides key information on the carbon cycle
117
118
Carbon Cycle Game
Fossil Fuels
bull created when large numbers of organisms die and are buried in sediment lacking oxygen
bull In absence of oxygen at high pressures and after very long periods of time organic remains are ultimately transformed into coal oil and natural gas
bull burning coal oil and natural gas releases large amounts of carbon dioxide
bull increases average CO2 concentration in the atmosphere
bull current level of CO2 in the atmosphere is the highest it has been in almost half a million years
119
Global CO2 levels are rising in
general but they also exhibit a
sharp rise and fall within each
year ndash why
120
121
The Nitrogen Cycle
122
The Nitrogen Cycle
Fertilizers
bull Because it is necessary for the production of every plant
protein and because all nitrogen must first be made
usable by bacteria plant growth is often limited by
nitrogen levels in the soil
bull For this reason most fertilizers contain nitrogen in a
form usable by plants
123
124
125
126
127
Oxygen reduction downstream of a source of
organic pollution
128
Algal growth and eutrophication in an Australian
outback waterway
129
Sulfur Cycle
bull component of protein
bull cycles in both a gas and sedimentary cycle
bull source earths crust
bull enters the atmosphere as hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
during fossil fuel combustion volcanic eruptions
gas exchange at ocean surfaces decomposition
130
Sulfur Cycle
bull H2S is immediately oxidized to sulfur dioxide (SO2)
bull SO2 + water vapor H2SO4 (falls to earth in rain)
bull sulfur in soluble form is taken up by plant roots
incorporated into amino acids such as cysteine
bull travels through food chain
bull eventually released through decomposition
131
How is carbon recycled back to the
atmosphere in the carbon cycle
1 It is ldquofixedrdquo by bacteria
2 It is a product of cellular respiration
3 Burning of fossil fuels
4 2 and 3
5 All of the above
132
Why do commercial fertilizers usually
contain usable forms of nitrogen and
phosphorous
1 These chemicals are not efficiently recycled in
the soil
2 Nitrogen and phosphorous need to be ldquofixedrdquo
by bacteria or the plant
3 Nitrogen and phosphorous are found at high
levels in the atmosphere but not in the soil
4 Nitrogen and phosphorous only enter the soil
through erosion
133
Take-home message
bull Chemicals essential to lifemdashincluding carbon nitrogen and phosphorusmdashcycle through ecosystems
bull They are usually captured from the atmosphere soil or water by growing organisms passed from one trophic level to the next as organisms eat other organisms and returned to the environment through respiration decomposition and erosion
bull These cycles can be disrupted as human activities significantly increase the amounts of the chemicals utilized or released to the environment
134
Symbiotic Relationships
bull Symbiosis close relationship between organisms of
two different species
bull At least one participant gains some sort of benefit
(usually nutritional)
bull Types of symbiosis
bull Parasitism
bull Commensalism
bull Mutualism
bull Predation
135
Symbiotic Relationships in the
Ocean
bull Click here for an explanation of the
relationships of marine animals
including sharks rays and various
fishes
136
Parasitism bull Parasite derives nutrition from the host
bull This harms the host but a true parasite does
not usually kill its host (directly)
137
Ectoparasites
Remain outside the host
Ticks fleas leeches
138
Endoparasites
Live inside the hostrsquos body
Tapeworms malarial parasites
139
Parasite Transmission
bull Many parasites live on or in a single organism
bull Some will alternate between 2 or more host species
bull Vertical transmission ndash from mother offspring
bull Horizontal transmission ndash between members of a
population
bull Direct contact (head lice)
bull Vectors (mosquitos)
140
141
Commensalism
bull Neither species is totally dependent on the other
bull One benefits ndash no effect on the other
bull Feeding or protection
bull Porcelain anemone crabs and anemones
142
Mutualism
bull Both species benefit
bull Food or shelter
bull Examples
bull Plants and microbes (rhizobium in root nodules)
bull Plants and fungi (orchids and mycorrhizae)
bull Protists and fungi (lichen)
bull Plants and insects (pollination)
bull Animals and bacteria (ruminants)
bull Animals and other animals (crocodiles and
plover birds)
143
Mutualism shrimp and moray
Cleaner shrimp cleaning a zebra moray eel Mutualistic
relationships such as these promote the well-being of the
host fishes and provide food for those that do the cleaning 144
Rhizobium
Rhizobium in root nodules of certain plants convert
nitrogen in soil to usable form
145
Orchid Mycorrhizae
Fungi aid the plant in the uptake of nutrients
Fungi ingest some of the food from plant
photosynthesis 146
Lichen
Most of the lichen is composed of fungal filaments
but living among the filaments are algal cells
usually from a green alga or a cyanobacterium
The lichen fungus provides its partner(s) a benefit
(protection) and gains nutrients in return 147
Ruminants
Ruminants are characterized by their four-chambered
stomach and cud-chewing behavior Cud is a food bolus
that is regurgitated rechewed and reswallowed The
rumen is a large fermentation vat containing billions of
microorganisms including bacteria and protozoa which
allow ruminants to digest fibrous feeds such as grass and
hay that other animals cannot efficiently utilize 148
Crocodiles amp
Plover Birds
The bird gets into the crocodiles mouth and picks out
the tiny bits of food stuck in his teeth then eats it (the
tiny bits)
This cleans the crocodiles teeth and keeps his mouth
fresh and free from infections 149
Predation
bull Consumption of one living organism by
another
bull Predators must have offensive strategies
bull ways of finding catching and eating
their prey
bull Prey organisms must have defensive
strategies
bull ways of avoiding or discouraging this
activity
150
Predation
bull Encompasses all levels within an
ecological food chainweb
bull plant-herbivore systems
bull herbivore-carnivore systems
bull three-way interactions of
interdependent plant-herbivore-
carnivore systems
151
This goshawk is the tertiary consumer in his ecosystem
and the mouse in his beak is the secondary consumer
Beneath the mouse on the ecological pyramid lies his
foodsource likely a worm which fed on the primary
producer leafy plants 152
Ecosystem of Life in Floridas
Springs
bull Click here for a close-up look of life
in Floridas springs and the various
predator-prey interactions there
153
Take-Home Message
bull Biomes are the major ecological communities of earth
characterized mostly by the vegetation present
bull Different biomes result from differences in temperature
and precipitation and the extent to which they vary from
season to season
83
Challenge Question
bull Terrestrial biomes are determined by the temperature
and precipitation amounts as well as whether those
factors are constant or vary by season
bull By contrast how are aquatic biomes determined
84
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy flows from producers to
consumers
85
86
87
First Stop Primary Producers
bull ecosystem producers or consumers
bull primary producers plants algae (some) bacteria
bull convert light energy from sun into chemical energy
through photosynthesis
bull chemical energy = food
bull consumers eat or absorb their food
bull energy stored in chemical bonds of carbohydrate
protein and lipid molecules is captured and
harnessed for consumersrsquo own movement
reproduction and growth
88
Food Chain
89
Food Web
90
Food Web
91
Food Chains amp Food Webs
bull A change in one link in a food chain will affect the other
links
bull The table on the next slide gives one example of a food
chain and the trophic levels represented in it
92
Food Chains amp Food Webs
93
GRASS
GRASSHOPPER
TOAD
SNAKE
HAWK
BACTERIA
IN GENERAL
AUTOTROPHS
(PRODUCERS)
HERBIVORES
(PRIMARY
CONSUMERS)
CARNIVORES
(2 3 ETC)
DECOMPOSERS
94
Chain Reaction Game
95
Energy Flows through a Food Web
bull Losses at every ldquosteprdquo in a food chain
bull Inefficiency of energy transfers
96
Energy flow through a food chain
Energy flow refers to the way that energy is transformed through
a food chain (pictured here) containing a series of levels
including plants consumers predators and decomposers 97
Amount of energy available at each of the
four levels of an ecosystem
Ecological pyramids illustrate the amount of energy
available at each of the four levels of an ecosystem 98
Ecological Pyramid
99
A grasshopper eats a plant A mouse eats the
grasshopper A snake eats the mouse A hawk
could eat the snake or the mouse In this food
web how would we categorize the hawk
1 Producer
2 Primary consumer
3 Secondary consumer
4 Tertiary consumer
5 Quaternary consumer
6 4 and 5
100
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps
bull First it is converted to chemical energy in
photosynthesis
bull Herbivores then consume the primary producers the
herbivores are consumed by carnivores and the
carnivores in turn may be consumed by top carnivores
101
Take-home message
bull Detritivores and decomposers extract energy from
organic waste and the remains of organisms that have
died
bull At each step in a food chain some usable energy is lost
as heat
102
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy pyramids reveal the inefficiency of
food chains
103
Biomass
bull biomass total weight of all living organisms in a given
area
bull only about 10 of the plants in an ecosystem is
converted into biomass
bull Food Energy Pyramid
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
bull African savannas and grasslands sustain more species
of higher-order carnivores than any other terrestrial
ecosystem
104
105
Food Energy Pyramids
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
106
107
108
You go out to eat at a fancy restaurant You
have a salad salmon and for dessert ice
cream Which part of the meal was the most
energy efficient food for you to eat
1 Salad
2 Salmon
3 Ice cream
4 2 and 3
109
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps known as trophic levels
bull Energy pyramids reveal that the biomass of primary
producers in an ecosystem tends to be far greater than
the biomass of herbivores
bull The biomass transferred at each step along the food chain tends to be only about 10 of the biomass of the organisms being consumed due to energy lost in cellular respiration
bull As a consequence of this inefficiency food chains rarely exceed four levels
110
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Essential chemicals cycle through
ecosystems
111
Chemical Reservoirs
bull Each chemical is stored in a non-living part of the environment
bull Organisms acquire the chemical from the reservoir a non-living part of the environment
bull The chemical cycles through the food chain (biogeochemical cycles)
bull Eventually the chemical is returned to the reservoir
112
Hydrologic Cycle and the Florida Springs
bull Click here for a description of how falling rain feeds underground aquifers in Florida and forms springs
113
The Most Important Chemical Cycles
1) Carbon
2) Nitrogen
3) Phosphorus
4) Sulfur
114
115
The
Carbon
Cycle
116
The Carbon Cycle
Keeping Up With Carbon
NASA video provides key information on the carbon cycle
117
118
Carbon Cycle Game
Fossil Fuels
bull created when large numbers of organisms die and are buried in sediment lacking oxygen
bull In absence of oxygen at high pressures and after very long periods of time organic remains are ultimately transformed into coal oil and natural gas
bull burning coal oil and natural gas releases large amounts of carbon dioxide
bull increases average CO2 concentration in the atmosphere
bull current level of CO2 in the atmosphere is the highest it has been in almost half a million years
119
Global CO2 levels are rising in
general but they also exhibit a
sharp rise and fall within each
year ndash why
120
121
The Nitrogen Cycle
122
The Nitrogen Cycle
Fertilizers
bull Because it is necessary for the production of every plant
protein and because all nitrogen must first be made
usable by bacteria plant growth is often limited by
nitrogen levels in the soil
bull For this reason most fertilizers contain nitrogen in a
form usable by plants
123
124
125
126
127
Oxygen reduction downstream of a source of
organic pollution
128
Algal growth and eutrophication in an Australian
outback waterway
129
Sulfur Cycle
bull component of protein
bull cycles in both a gas and sedimentary cycle
bull source earths crust
bull enters the atmosphere as hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
during fossil fuel combustion volcanic eruptions
gas exchange at ocean surfaces decomposition
130
Sulfur Cycle
bull H2S is immediately oxidized to sulfur dioxide (SO2)
bull SO2 + water vapor H2SO4 (falls to earth in rain)
bull sulfur in soluble form is taken up by plant roots
incorporated into amino acids such as cysteine
bull travels through food chain
bull eventually released through decomposition
131
How is carbon recycled back to the
atmosphere in the carbon cycle
1 It is ldquofixedrdquo by bacteria
2 It is a product of cellular respiration
3 Burning of fossil fuels
4 2 and 3
5 All of the above
132
Why do commercial fertilizers usually
contain usable forms of nitrogen and
phosphorous
1 These chemicals are not efficiently recycled in
the soil
2 Nitrogen and phosphorous need to be ldquofixedrdquo
by bacteria or the plant
3 Nitrogen and phosphorous are found at high
levels in the atmosphere but not in the soil
4 Nitrogen and phosphorous only enter the soil
through erosion
133
Take-home message
bull Chemicals essential to lifemdashincluding carbon nitrogen and phosphorusmdashcycle through ecosystems
bull They are usually captured from the atmosphere soil or water by growing organisms passed from one trophic level to the next as organisms eat other organisms and returned to the environment through respiration decomposition and erosion
bull These cycles can be disrupted as human activities significantly increase the amounts of the chemicals utilized or released to the environment
134
Symbiotic Relationships
bull Symbiosis close relationship between organisms of
two different species
bull At least one participant gains some sort of benefit
(usually nutritional)
bull Types of symbiosis
bull Parasitism
bull Commensalism
bull Mutualism
bull Predation
135
Symbiotic Relationships in the
Ocean
bull Click here for an explanation of the
relationships of marine animals
including sharks rays and various
fishes
136
Parasitism bull Parasite derives nutrition from the host
bull This harms the host but a true parasite does
not usually kill its host (directly)
137
Ectoparasites
Remain outside the host
Ticks fleas leeches
138
Endoparasites
Live inside the hostrsquos body
Tapeworms malarial parasites
139
Parasite Transmission
bull Many parasites live on or in a single organism
bull Some will alternate between 2 or more host species
bull Vertical transmission ndash from mother offspring
bull Horizontal transmission ndash between members of a
population
bull Direct contact (head lice)
bull Vectors (mosquitos)
140
141
Commensalism
bull Neither species is totally dependent on the other
bull One benefits ndash no effect on the other
bull Feeding or protection
bull Porcelain anemone crabs and anemones
142
Mutualism
bull Both species benefit
bull Food or shelter
bull Examples
bull Plants and microbes (rhizobium in root nodules)
bull Plants and fungi (orchids and mycorrhizae)
bull Protists and fungi (lichen)
bull Plants and insects (pollination)
bull Animals and bacteria (ruminants)
bull Animals and other animals (crocodiles and
plover birds)
143
Mutualism shrimp and moray
Cleaner shrimp cleaning a zebra moray eel Mutualistic
relationships such as these promote the well-being of the
host fishes and provide food for those that do the cleaning 144
Rhizobium
Rhizobium in root nodules of certain plants convert
nitrogen in soil to usable form
145
Orchid Mycorrhizae
Fungi aid the plant in the uptake of nutrients
Fungi ingest some of the food from plant
photosynthesis 146
Lichen
Most of the lichen is composed of fungal filaments
but living among the filaments are algal cells
usually from a green alga or a cyanobacterium
The lichen fungus provides its partner(s) a benefit
(protection) and gains nutrients in return 147
Ruminants
Ruminants are characterized by their four-chambered
stomach and cud-chewing behavior Cud is a food bolus
that is regurgitated rechewed and reswallowed The
rumen is a large fermentation vat containing billions of
microorganisms including bacteria and protozoa which
allow ruminants to digest fibrous feeds such as grass and
hay that other animals cannot efficiently utilize 148
Crocodiles amp
Plover Birds
The bird gets into the crocodiles mouth and picks out
the tiny bits of food stuck in his teeth then eats it (the
tiny bits)
This cleans the crocodiles teeth and keeps his mouth
fresh and free from infections 149
Predation
bull Consumption of one living organism by
another
bull Predators must have offensive strategies
bull ways of finding catching and eating
their prey
bull Prey organisms must have defensive
strategies
bull ways of avoiding or discouraging this
activity
150
Predation
bull Encompasses all levels within an
ecological food chainweb
bull plant-herbivore systems
bull herbivore-carnivore systems
bull three-way interactions of
interdependent plant-herbivore-
carnivore systems
151
This goshawk is the tertiary consumer in his ecosystem
and the mouse in his beak is the secondary consumer
Beneath the mouse on the ecological pyramid lies his
foodsource likely a worm which fed on the primary
producer leafy plants 152
Ecosystem of Life in Floridas
Springs
bull Click here for a close-up look of life
in Floridas springs and the various
predator-prey interactions there
153
Challenge Question
bull Terrestrial biomes are determined by the temperature
and precipitation amounts as well as whether those
factors are constant or vary by season
bull By contrast how are aquatic biomes determined
84
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy flows from producers to
consumers
85
86
87
First Stop Primary Producers
bull ecosystem producers or consumers
bull primary producers plants algae (some) bacteria
bull convert light energy from sun into chemical energy
through photosynthesis
bull chemical energy = food
bull consumers eat or absorb their food
bull energy stored in chemical bonds of carbohydrate
protein and lipid molecules is captured and
harnessed for consumersrsquo own movement
reproduction and growth
88
Food Chain
89
Food Web
90
Food Web
91
Food Chains amp Food Webs
bull A change in one link in a food chain will affect the other
links
bull The table on the next slide gives one example of a food
chain and the trophic levels represented in it
92
Food Chains amp Food Webs
93
GRASS
GRASSHOPPER
TOAD
SNAKE
HAWK
BACTERIA
IN GENERAL
AUTOTROPHS
(PRODUCERS)
HERBIVORES
(PRIMARY
CONSUMERS)
CARNIVORES
(2 3 ETC)
DECOMPOSERS
94
Chain Reaction Game
95
Energy Flows through a Food Web
bull Losses at every ldquosteprdquo in a food chain
bull Inefficiency of energy transfers
96
Energy flow through a food chain
Energy flow refers to the way that energy is transformed through
a food chain (pictured here) containing a series of levels
including plants consumers predators and decomposers 97
Amount of energy available at each of the
four levels of an ecosystem
Ecological pyramids illustrate the amount of energy
available at each of the four levels of an ecosystem 98
Ecological Pyramid
99
A grasshopper eats a plant A mouse eats the
grasshopper A snake eats the mouse A hawk
could eat the snake or the mouse In this food
web how would we categorize the hawk
1 Producer
2 Primary consumer
3 Secondary consumer
4 Tertiary consumer
5 Quaternary consumer
6 4 and 5
100
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps
bull First it is converted to chemical energy in
photosynthesis
bull Herbivores then consume the primary producers the
herbivores are consumed by carnivores and the
carnivores in turn may be consumed by top carnivores
101
Take-home message
bull Detritivores and decomposers extract energy from
organic waste and the remains of organisms that have
died
bull At each step in a food chain some usable energy is lost
as heat
102
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy pyramids reveal the inefficiency of
food chains
103
Biomass
bull biomass total weight of all living organisms in a given
area
bull only about 10 of the plants in an ecosystem is
converted into biomass
bull Food Energy Pyramid
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
bull African savannas and grasslands sustain more species
of higher-order carnivores than any other terrestrial
ecosystem
104
105
Food Energy Pyramids
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
106
107
108
You go out to eat at a fancy restaurant You
have a salad salmon and for dessert ice
cream Which part of the meal was the most
energy efficient food for you to eat
1 Salad
2 Salmon
3 Ice cream
4 2 and 3
109
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps known as trophic levels
bull Energy pyramids reveal that the biomass of primary
producers in an ecosystem tends to be far greater than
the biomass of herbivores
bull The biomass transferred at each step along the food chain tends to be only about 10 of the biomass of the organisms being consumed due to energy lost in cellular respiration
bull As a consequence of this inefficiency food chains rarely exceed four levels
110
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Essential chemicals cycle through
ecosystems
111
Chemical Reservoirs
bull Each chemical is stored in a non-living part of the environment
bull Organisms acquire the chemical from the reservoir a non-living part of the environment
bull The chemical cycles through the food chain (biogeochemical cycles)
bull Eventually the chemical is returned to the reservoir
112
Hydrologic Cycle and the Florida Springs
bull Click here for a description of how falling rain feeds underground aquifers in Florida and forms springs
113
The Most Important Chemical Cycles
1) Carbon
2) Nitrogen
3) Phosphorus
4) Sulfur
114
115
The
Carbon
Cycle
116
The Carbon Cycle
Keeping Up With Carbon
NASA video provides key information on the carbon cycle
117
118
Carbon Cycle Game
Fossil Fuels
bull created when large numbers of organisms die and are buried in sediment lacking oxygen
bull In absence of oxygen at high pressures and after very long periods of time organic remains are ultimately transformed into coal oil and natural gas
bull burning coal oil and natural gas releases large amounts of carbon dioxide
bull increases average CO2 concentration in the atmosphere
bull current level of CO2 in the atmosphere is the highest it has been in almost half a million years
119
Global CO2 levels are rising in
general but they also exhibit a
sharp rise and fall within each
year ndash why
120
121
The Nitrogen Cycle
122
The Nitrogen Cycle
Fertilizers
bull Because it is necessary for the production of every plant
protein and because all nitrogen must first be made
usable by bacteria plant growth is often limited by
nitrogen levels in the soil
bull For this reason most fertilizers contain nitrogen in a
form usable by plants
123
124
125
126
127
Oxygen reduction downstream of a source of
organic pollution
128
Algal growth and eutrophication in an Australian
outback waterway
129
Sulfur Cycle
bull component of protein
bull cycles in both a gas and sedimentary cycle
bull source earths crust
bull enters the atmosphere as hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
during fossil fuel combustion volcanic eruptions
gas exchange at ocean surfaces decomposition
130
Sulfur Cycle
bull H2S is immediately oxidized to sulfur dioxide (SO2)
bull SO2 + water vapor H2SO4 (falls to earth in rain)
bull sulfur in soluble form is taken up by plant roots
incorporated into amino acids such as cysteine
bull travels through food chain
bull eventually released through decomposition
131
How is carbon recycled back to the
atmosphere in the carbon cycle
1 It is ldquofixedrdquo by bacteria
2 It is a product of cellular respiration
3 Burning of fossil fuels
4 2 and 3
5 All of the above
132
Why do commercial fertilizers usually
contain usable forms of nitrogen and
phosphorous
1 These chemicals are not efficiently recycled in
the soil
2 Nitrogen and phosphorous need to be ldquofixedrdquo
by bacteria or the plant
3 Nitrogen and phosphorous are found at high
levels in the atmosphere but not in the soil
4 Nitrogen and phosphorous only enter the soil
through erosion
133
Take-home message
bull Chemicals essential to lifemdashincluding carbon nitrogen and phosphorusmdashcycle through ecosystems
bull They are usually captured from the atmosphere soil or water by growing organisms passed from one trophic level to the next as organisms eat other organisms and returned to the environment through respiration decomposition and erosion
bull These cycles can be disrupted as human activities significantly increase the amounts of the chemicals utilized or released to the environment
134
Symbiotic Relationships
bull Symbiosis close relationship between organisms of
two different species
bull At least one participant gains some sort of benefit
(usually nutritional)
bull Types of symbiosis
bull Parasitism
bull Commensalism
bull Mutualism
bull Predation
135
Symbiotic Relationships in the
Ocean
bull Click here for an explanation of the
relationships of marine animals
including sharks rays and various
fishes
136
Parasitism bull Parasite derives nutrition from the host
bull This harms the host but a true parasite does
not usually kill its host (directly)
137
Ectoparasites
Remain outside the host
Ticks fleas leeches
138
Endoparasites
Live inside the hostrsquos body
Tapeworms malarial parasites
139
Parasite Transmission
bull Many parasites live on or in a single organism
bull Some will alternate between 2 or more host species
bull Vertical transmission ndash from mother offspring
bull Horizontal transmission ndash between members of a
population
bull Direct contact (head lice)
bull Vectors (mosquitos)
140
141
Commensalism
bull Neither species is totally dependent on the other
bull One benefits ndash no effect on the other
bull Feeding or protection
bull Porcelain anemone crabs and anemones
142
Mutualism
bull Both species benefit
bull Food or shelter
bull Examples
bull Plants and microbes (rhizobium in root nodules)
bull Plants and fungi (orchids and mycorrhizae)
bull Protists and fungi (lichen)
bull Plants and insects (pollination)
bull Animals and bacteria (ruminants)
bull Animals and other animals (crocodiles and
plover birds)
143
Mutualism shrimp and moray
Cleaner shrimp cleaning a zebra moray eel Mutualistic
relationships such as these promote the well-being of the
host fishes and provide food for those that do the cleaning 144
Rhizobium
Rhizobium in root nodules of certain plants convert
nitrogen in soil to usable form
145
Orchid Mycorrhizae
Fungi aid the plant in the uptake of nutrients
Fungi ingest some of the food from plant
photosynthesis 146
Lichen
Most of the lichen is composed of fungal filaments
but living among the filaments are algal cells
usually from a green alga or a cyanobacterium
The lichen fungus provides its partner(s) a benefit
(protection) and gains nutrients in return 147
Ruminants
Ruminants are characterized by their four-chambered
stomach and cud-chewing behavior Cud is a food bolus
that is regurgitated rechewed and reswallowed The
rumen is a large fermentation vat containing billions of
microorganisms including bacteria and protozoa which
allow ruminants to digest fibrous feeds such as grass and
hay that other animals cannot efficiently utilize 148
Crocodiles amp
Plover Birds
The bird gets into the crocodiles mouth and picks out
the tiny bits of food stuck in his teeth then eats it (the
tiny bits)
This cleans the crocodiles teeth and keeps his mouth
fresh and free from infections 149
Predation
bull Consumption of one living organism by
another
bull Predators must have offensive strategies
bull ways of finding catching and eating
their prey
bull Prey organisms must have defensive
strategies
bull ways of avoiding or discouraging this
activity
150
Predation
bull Encompasses all levels within an
ecological food chainweb
bull plant-herbivore systems
bull herbivore-carnivore systems
bull three-way interactions of
interdependent plant-herbivore-
carnivore systems
151
This goshawk is the tertiary consumer in his ecosystem
and the mouse in his beak is the secondary consumer
Beneath the mouse on the ecological pyramid lies his
foodsource likely a worm which fed on the primary
producer leafy plants 152
Ecosystem of Life in Floridas
Springs
bull Click here for a close-up look of life
in Floridas springs and the various
predator-prey interactions there
153
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy flows from producers to
consumers
85
86
87
First Stop Primary Producers
bull ecosystem producers or consumers
bull primary producers plants algae (some) bacteria
bull convert light energy from sun into chemical energy
through photosynthesis
bull chemical energy = food
bull consumers eat or absorb their food
bull energy stored in chemical bonds of carbohydrate
protein and lipid molecules is captured and
harnessed for consumersrsquo own movement
reproduction and growth
88
Food Chain
89
Food Web
90
Food Web
91
Food Chains amp Food Webs
bull A change in one link in a food chain will affect the other
links
bull The table on the next slide gives one example of a food
chain and the trophic levels represented in it
92
Food Chains amp Food Webs
93
GRASS
GRASSHOPPER
TOAD
SNAKE
HAWK
BACTERIA
IN GENERAL
AUTOTROPHS
(PRODUCERS)
HERBIVORES
(PRIMARY
CONSUMERS)
CARNIVORES
(2 3 ETC)
DECOMPOSERS
94
Chain Reaction Game
95
Energy Flows through a Food Web
bull Losses at every ldquosteprdquo in a food chain
bull Inefficiency of energy transfers
96
Energy flow through a food chain
Energy flow refers to the way that energy is transformed through
a food chain (pictured here) containing a series of levels
including plants consumers predators and decomposers 97
Amount of energy available at each of the
four levels of an ecosystem
Ecological pyramids illustrate the amount of energy
available at each of the four levels of an ecosystem 98
Ecological Pyramid
99
A grasshopper eats a plant A mouse eats the
grasshopper A snake eats the mouse A hawk
could eat the snake or the mouse In this food
web how would we categorize the hawk
1 Producer
2 Primary consumer
3 Secondary consumer
4 Tertiary consumer
5 Quaternary consumer
6 4 and 5
100
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps
bull First it is converted to chemical energy in
photosynthesis
bull Herbivores then consume the primary producers the
herbivores are consumed by carnivores and the
carnivores in turn may be consumed by top carnivores
101
Take-home message
bull Detritivores and decomposers extract energy from
organic waste and the remains of organisms that have
died
bull At each step in a food chain some usable energy is lost
as heat
102
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy pyramids reveal the inefficiency of
food chains
103
Biomass
bull biomass total weight of all living organisms in a given
area
bull only about 10 of the plants in an ecosystem is
converted into biomass
bull Food Energy Pyramid
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
bull African savannas and grasslands sustain more species
of higher-order carnivores than any other terrestrial
ecosystem
104
105
Food Energy Pyramids
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
106
107
108
You go out to eat at a fancy restaurant You
have a salad salmon and for dessert ice
cream Which part of the meal was the most
energy efficient food for you to eat
1 Salad
2 Salmon
3 Ice cream
4 2 and 3
109
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps known as trophic levels
bull Energy pyramids reveal that the biomass of primary
producers in an ecosystem tends to be far greater than
the biomass of herbivores
bull The biomass transferred at each step along the food chain tends to be only about 10 of the biomass of the organisms being consumed due to energy lost in cellular respiration
bull As a consequence of this inefficiency food chains rarely exceed four levels
110
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Essential chemicals cycle through
ecosystems
111
Chemical Reservoirs
bull Each chemical is stored in a non-living part of the environment
bull Organisms acquire the chemical from the reservoir a non-living part of the environment
bull The chemical cycles through the food chain (biogeochemical cycles)
bull Eventually the chemical is returned to the reservoir
112
Hydrologic Cycle and the Florida Springs
bull Click here for a description of how falling rain feeds underground aquifers in Florida and forms springs
113
The Most Important Chemical Cycles
1) Carbon
2) Nitrogen
3) Phosphorus
4) Sulfur
114
115
The
Carbon
Cycle
116
The Carbon Cycle
Keeping Up With Carbon
NASA video provides key information on the carbon cycle
117
118
Carbon Cycle Game
Fossil Fuels
bull created when large numbers of organisms die and are buried in sediment lacking oxygen
bull In absence of oxygen at high pressures and after very long periods of time organic remains are ultimately transformed into coal oil and natural gas
bull burning coal oil and natural gas releases large amounts of carbon dioxide
bull increases average CO2 concentration in the atmosphere
bull current level of CO2 in the atmosphere is the highest it has been in almost half a million years
119
Global CO2 levels are rising in
general but they also exhibit a
sharp rise and fall within each
year ndash why
120
121
The Nitrogen Cycle
122
The Nitrogen Cycle
Fertilizers
bull Because it is necessary for the production of every plant
protein and because all nitrogen must first be made
usable by bacteria plant growth is often limited by
nitrogen levels in the soil
bull For this reason most fertilizers contain nitrogen in a
form usable by plants
123
124
125
126
127
Oxygen reduction downstream of a source of
organic pollution
128
Algal growth and eutrophication in an Australian
outback waterway
129
Sulfur Cycle
bull component of protein
bull cycles in both a gas and sedimentary cycle
bull source earths crust
bull enters the atmosphere as hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
during fossil fuel combustion volcanic eruptions
gas exchange at ocean surfaces decomposition
130
Sulfur Cycle
bull H2S is immediately oxidized to sulfur dioxide (SO2)
bull SO2 + water vapor H2SO4 (falls to earth in rain)
bull sulfur in soluble form is taken up by plant roots
incorporated into amino acids such as cysteine
bull travels through food chain
bull eventually released through decomposition
131
How is carbon recycled back to the
atmosphere in the carbon cycle
1 It is ldquofixedrdquo by bacteria
2 It is a product of cellular respiration
3 Burning of fossil fuels
4 2 and 3
5 All of the above
132
Why do commercial fertilizers usually
contain usable forms of nitrogen and
phosphorous
1 These chemicals are not efficiently recycled in
the soil
2 Nitrogen and phosphorous need to be ldquofixedrdquo
by bacteria or the plant
3 Nitrogen and phosphorous are found at high
levels in the atmosphere but not in the soil
4 Nitrogen and phosphorous only enter the soil
through erosion
133
Take-home message
bull Chemicals essential to lifemdashincluding carbon nitrogen and phosphorusmdashcycle through ecosystems
bull They are usually captured from the atmosphere soil or water by growing organisms passed from one trophic level to the next as organisms eat other organisms and returned to the environment through respiration decomposition and erosion
bull These cycles can be disrupted as human activities significantly increase the amounts of the chemicals utilized or released to the environment
134
Symbiotic Relationships
bull Symbiosis close relationship between organisms of
two different species
bull At least one participant gains some sort of benefit
(usually nutritional)
bull Types of symbiosis
bull Parasitism
bull Commensalism
bull Mutualism
bull Predation
135
Symbiotic Relationships in the
Ocean
bull Click here for an explanation of the
relationships of marine animals
including sharks rays and various
fishes
136
Parasitism bull Parasite derives nutrition from the host
bull This harms the host but a true parasite does
not usually kill its host (directly)
137
Ectoparasites
Remain outside the host
Ticks fleas leeches
138
Endoparasites
Live inside the hostrsquos body
Tapeworms malarial parasites
139
Parasite Transmission
bull Many parasites live on or in a single organism
bull Some will alternate between 2 or more host species
bull Vertical transmission ndash from mother offspring
bull Horizontal transmission ndash between members of a
population
bull Direct contact (head lice)
bull Vectors (mosquitos)
140
141
Commensalism
bull Neither species is totally dependent on the other
bull One benefits ndash no effect on the other
bull Feeding or protection
bull Porcelain anemone crabs and anemones
142
Mutualism
bull Both species benefit
bull Food or shelter
bull Examples
bull Plants and microbes (rhizobium in root nodules)
bull Plants and fungi (orchids and mycorrhizae)
bull Protists and fungi (lichen)
bull Plants and insects (pollination)
bull Animals and bacteria (ruminants)
bull Animals and other animals (crocodiles and
plover birds)
143
Mutualism shrimp and moray
Cleaner shrimp cleaning a zebra moray eel Mutualistic
relationships such as these promote the well-being of the
host fishes and provide food for those that do the cleaning 144
Rhizobium
Rhizobium in root nodules of certain plants convert
nitrogen in soil to usable form
145
Orchid Mycorrhizae
Fungi aid the plant in the uptake of nutrients
Fungi ingest some of the food from plant
photosynthesis 146
Lichen
Most of the lichen is composed of fungal filaments
but living among the filaments are algal cells
usually from a green alga or a cyanobacterium
The lichen fungus provides its partner(s) a benefit
(protection) and gains nutrients in return 147
Ruminants
Ruminants are characterized by their four-chambered
stomach and cud-chewing behavior Cud is a food bolus
that is regurgitated rechewed and reswallowed The
rumen is a large fermentation vat containing billions of
microorganisms including bacteria and protozoa which
allow ruminants to digest fibrous feeds such as grass and
hay that other animals cannot efficiently utilize 148
Crocodiles amp
Plover Birds
The bird gets into the crocodiles mouth and picks out
the tiny bits of food stuck in his teeth then eats it (the
tiny bits)
This cleans the crocodiles teeth and keeps his mouth
fresh and free from infections 149
Predation
bull Consumption of one living organism by
another
bull Predators must have offensive strategies
bull ways of finding catching and eating
their prey
bull Prey organisms must have defensive
strategies
bull ways of avoiding or discouraging this
activity
150
Predation
bull Encompasses all levels within an
ecological food chainweb
bull plant-herbivore systems
bull herbivore-carnivore systems
bull three-way interactions of
interdependent plant-herbivore-
carnivore systems
151
This goshawk is the tertiary consumer in his ecosystem
and the mouse in his beak is the secondary consumer
Beneath the mouse on the ecological pyramid lies his
foodsource likely a worm which fed on the primary
producer leafy plants 152
Ecosystem of Life in Floridas
Springs
bull Click here for a close-up look of life
in Floridas springs and the various
predator-prey interactions there
153
86
87
First Stop Primary Producers
bull ecosystem producers or consumers
bull primary producers plants algae (some) bacteria
bull convert light energy from sun into chemical energy
through photosynthesis
bull chemical energy = food
bull consumers eat or absorb their food
bull energy stored in chemical bonds of carbohydrate
protein and lipid molecules is captured and
harnessed for consumersrsquo own movement
reproduction and growth
88
Food Chain
89
Food Web
90
Food Web
91
Food Chains amp Food Webs
bull A change in one link in a food chain will affect the other
links
bull The table on the next slide gives one example of a food
chain and the trophic levels represented in it
92
Food Chains amp Food Webs
93
GRASS
GRASSHOPPER
TOAD
SNAKE
HAWK
BACTERIA
IN GENERAL
AUTOTROPHS
(PRODUCERS)
HERBIVORES
(PRIMARY
CONSUMERS)
CARNIVORES
(2 3 ETC)
DECOMPOSERS
94
Chain Reaction Game
95
Energy Flows through a Food Web
bull Losses at every ldquosteprdquo in a food chain
bull Inefficiency of energy transfers
96
Energy flow through a food chain
Energy flow refers to the way that energy is transformed through
a food chain (pictured here) containing a series of levels
including plants consumers predators and decomposers 97
Amount of energy available at each of the
four levels of an ecosystem
Ecological pyramids illustrate the amount of energy
available at each of the four levels of an ecosystem 98
Ecological Pyramid
99
A grasshopper eats a plant A mouse eats the
grasshopper A snake eats the mouse A hawk
could eat the snake or the mouse In this food
web how would we categorize the hawk
1 Producer
2 Primary consumer
3 Secondary consumer
4 Tertiary consumer
5 Quaternary consumer
6 4 and 5
100
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps
bull First it is converted to chemical energy in
photosynthesis
bull Herbivores then consume the primary producers the
herbivores are consumed by carnivores and the
carnivores in turn may be consumed by top carnivores
101
Take-home message
bull Detritivores and decomposers extract energy from
organic waste and the remains of organisms that have
died
bull At each step in a food chain some usable energy is lost
as heat
102
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy pyramids reveal the inefficiency of
food chains
103
Biomass
bull biomass total weight of all living organisms in a given
area
bull only about 10 of the plants in an ecosystem is
converted into biomass
bull Food Energy Pyramid
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
bull African savannas and grasslands sustain more species
of higher-order carnivores than any other terrestrial
ecosystem
104
105
Food Energy Pyramids
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
106
107
108
You go out to eat at a fancy restaurant You
have a salad salmon and for dessert ice
cream Which part of the meal was the most
energy efficient food for you to eat
1 Salad
2 Salmon
3 Ice cream
4 2 and 3
109
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps known as trophic levels
bull Energy pyramids reveal that the biomass of primary
producers in an ecosystem tends to be far greater than
the biomass of herbivores
bull The biomass transferred at each step along the food chain tends to be only about 10 of the biomass of the organisms being consumed due to energy lost in cellular respiration
bull As a consequence of this inefficiency food chains rarely exceed four levels
110
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Essential chemicals cycle through
ecosystems
111
Chemical Reservoirs
bull Each chemical is stored in a non-living part of the environment
bull Organisms acquire the chemical from the reservoir a non-living part of the environment
bull The chemical cycles through the food chain (biogeochemical cycles)
bull Eventually the chemical is returned to the reservoir
112
Hydrologic Cycle and the Florida Springs
bull Click here for a description of how falling rain feeds underground aquifers in Florida and forms springs
113
The Most Important Chemical Cycles
1) Carbon
2) Nitrogen
3) Phosphorus
4) Sulfur
114
115
The
Carbon
Cycle
116
The Carbon Cycle
Keeping Up With Carbon
NASA video provides key information on the carbon cycle
117
118
Carbon Cycle Game
Fossil Fuels
bull created when large numbers of organisms die and are buried in sediment lacking oxygen
bull In absence of oxygen at high pressures and after very long periods of time organic remains are ultimately transformed into coal oil and natural gas
bull burning coal oil and natural gas releases large amounts of carbon dioxide
bull increases average CO2 concentration in the atmosphere
bull current level of CO2 in the atmosphere is the highest it has been in almost half a million years
119
Global CO2 levels are rising in
general but they also exhibit a
sharp rise and fall within each
year ndash why
120
121
The Nitrogen Cycle
122
The Nitrogen Cycle
Fertilizers
bull Because it is necessary for the production of every plant
protein and because all nitrogen must first be made
usable by bacteria plant growth is often limited by
nitrogen levels in the soil
bull For this reason most fertilizers contain nitrogen in a
form usable by plants
123
124
125
126
127
Oxygen reduction downstream of a source of
organic pollution
128
Algal growth and eutrophication in an Australian
outback waterway
129
Sulfur Cycle
bull component of protein
bull cycles in both a gas and sedimentary cycle
bull source earths crust
bull enters the atmosphere as hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
during fossil fuel combustion volcanic eruptions
gas exchange at ocean surfaces decomposition
130
Sulfur Cycle
bull H2S is immediately oxidized to sulfur dioxide (SO2)
bull SO2 + water vapor H2SO4 (falls to earth in rain)
bull sulfur in soluble form is taken up by plant roots
incorporated into amino acids such as cysteine
bull travels through food chain
bull eventually released through decomposition
131
How is carbon recycled back to the
atmosphere in the carbon cycle
1 It is ldquofixedrdquo by bacteria
2 It is a product of cellular respiration
3 Burning of fossil fuels
4 2 and 3
5 All of the above
132
Why do commercial fertilizers usually
contain usable forms of nitrogen and
phosphorous
1 These chemicals are not efficiently recycled in
the soil
2 Nitrogen and phosphorous need to be ldquofixedrdquo
by bacteria or the plant
3 Nitrogen and phosphorous are found at high
levels in the atmosphere but not in the soil
4 Nitrogen and phosphorous only enter the soil
through erosion
133
Take-home message
bull Chemicals essential to lifemdashincluding carbon nitrogen and phosphorusmdashcycle through ecosystems
bull They are usually captured from the atmosphere soil or water by growing organisms passed from one trophic level to the next as organisms eat other organisms and returned to the environment through respiration decomposition and erosion
bull These cycles can be disrupted as human activities significantly increase the amounts of the chemicals utilized or released to the environment
134
Symbiotic Relationships
bull Symbiosis close relationship between organisms of
two different species
bull At least one participant gains some sort of benefit
(usually nutritional)
bull Types of symbiosis
bull Parasitism
bull Commensalism
bull Mutualism
bull Predation
135
Symbiotic Relationships in the
Ocean
bull Click here for an explanation of the
relationships of marine animals
including sharks rays and various
fishes
136
Parasitism bull Parasite derives nutrition from the host
bull This harms the host but a true parasite does
not usually kill its host (directly)
137
Ectoparasites
Remain outside the host
Ticks fleas leeches
138
Endoparasites
Live inside the hostrsquos body
Tapeworms malarial parasites
139
Parasite Transmission
bull Many parasites live on or in a single organism
bull Some will alternate between 2 or more host species
bull Vertical transmission ndash from mother offspring
bull Horizontal transmission ndash between members of a
population
bull Direct contact (head lice)
bull Vectors (mosquitos)
140
141
Commensalism
bull Neither species is totally dependent on the other
bull One benefits ndash no effect on the other
bull Feeding or protection
bull Porcelain anemone crabs and anemones
142
Mutualism
bull Both species benefit
bull Food or shelter
bull Examples
bull Plants and microbes (rhizobium in root nodules)
bull Plants and fungi (orchids and mycorrhizae)
bull Protists and fungi (lichen)
bull Plants and insects (pollination)
bull Animals and bacteria (ruminants)
bull Animals and other animals (crocodiles and
plover birds)
143
Mutualism shrimp and moray
Cleaner shrimp cleaning a zebra moray eel Mutualistic
relationships such as these promote the well-being of the
host fishes and provide food for those that do the cleaning 144
Rhizobium
Rhizobium in root nodules of certain plants convert
nitrogen in soil to usable form
145
Orchid Mycorrhizae
Fungi aid the plant in the uptake of nutrients
Fungi ingest some of the food from plant
photosynthesis 146
Lichen
Most of the lichen is composed of fungal filaments
but living among the filaments are algal cells
usually from a green alga or a cyanobacterium
The lichen fungus provides its partner(s) a benefit
(protection) and gains nutrients in return 147
Ruminants
Ruminants are characterized by their four-chambered
stomach and cud-chewing behavior Cud is a food bolus
that is regurgitated rechewed and reswallowed The
rumen is a large fermentation vat containing billions of
microorganisms including bacteria and protozoa which
allow ruminants to digest fibrous feeds such as grass and
hay that other animals cannot efficiently utilize 148
Crocodiles amp
Plover Birds
The bird gets into the crocodiles mouth and picks out
the tiny bits of food stuck in his teeth then eats it (the
tiny bits)
This cleans the crocodiles teeth and keeps his mouth
fresh and free from infections 149
Predation
bull Consumption of one living organism by
another
bull Predators must have offensive strategies
bull ways of finding catching and eating
their prey
bull Prey organisms must have defensive
strategies
bull ways of avoiding or discouraging this
activity
150
Predation
bull Encompasses all levels within an
ecological food chainweb
bull plant-herbivore systems
bull herbivore-carnivore systems
bull three-way interactions of
interdependent plant-herbivore-
carnivore systems
151
This goshawk is the tertiary consumer in his ecosystem
and the mouse in his beak is the secondary consumer
Beneath the mouse on the ecological pyramid lies his
foodsource likely a worm which fed on the primary
producer leafy plants 152
Ecosystem of Life in Floridas
Springs
bull Click here for a close-up look of life
in Floridas springs and the various
predator-prey interactions there
153
87
First Stop Primary Producers
bull ecosystem producers or consumers
bull primary producers plants algae (some) bacteria
bull convert light energy from sun into chemical energy
through photosynthesis
bull chemical energy = food
bull consumers eat or absorb their food
bull energy stored in chemical bonds of carbohydrate
protein and lipid molecules is captured and
harnessed for consumersrsquo own movement
reproduction and growth
88
Food Chain
89
Food Web
90
Food Web
91
Food Chains amp Food Webs
bull A change in one link in a food chain will affect the other
links
bull The table on the next slide gives one example of a food
chain and the trophic levels represented in it
92
Food Chains amp Food Webs
93
GRASS
GRASSHOPPER
TOAD
SNAKE
HAWK
BACTERIA
IN GENERAL
AUTOTROPHS
(PRODUCERS)
HERBIVORES
(PRIMARY
CONSUMERS)
CARNIVORES
(2 3 ETC)
DECOMPOSERS
94
Chain Reaction Game
95
Energy Flows through a Food Web
bull Losses at every ldquosteprdquo in a food chain
bull Inefficiency of energy transfers
96
Energy flow through a food chain
Energy flow refers to the way that energy is transformed through
a food chain (pictured here) containing a series of levels
including plants consumers predators and decomposers 97
Amount of energy available at each of the
four levels of an ecosystem
Ecological pyramids illustrate the amount of energy
available at each of the four levels of an ecosystem 98
Ecological Pyramid
99
A grasshopper eats a plant A mouse eats the
grasshopper A snake eats the mouse A hawk
could eat the snake or the mouse In this food
web how would we categorize the hawk
1 Producer
2 Primary consumer
3 Secondary consumer
4 Tertiary consumer
5 Quaternary consumer
6 4 and 5
100
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps
bull First it is converted to chemical energy in
photosynthesis
bull Herbivores then consume the primary producers the
herbivores are consumed by carnivores and the
carnivores in turn may be consumed by top carnivores
101
Take-home message
bull Detritivores and decomposers extract energy from
organic waste and the remains of organisms that have
died
bull At each step in a food chain some usable energy is lost
as heat
102
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy pyramids reveal the inefficiency of
food chains
103
Biomass
bull biomass total weight of all living organisms in a given
area
bull only about 10 of the plants in an ecosystem is
converted into biomass
bull Food Energy Pyramid
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
bull African savannas and grasslands sustain more species
of higher-order carnivores than any other terrestrial
ecosystem
104
105
Food Energy Pyramids
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
106
107
108
You go out to eat at a fancy restaurant You
have a salad salmon and for dessert ice
cream Which part of the meal was the most
energy efficient food for you to eat
1 Salad
2 Salmon
3 Ice cream
4 2 and 3
109
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps known as trophic levels
bull Energy pyramids reveal that the biomass of primary
producers in an ecosystem tends to be far greater than
the biomass of herbivores
bull The biomass transferred at each step along the food chain tends to be only about 10 of the biomass of the organisms being consumed due to energy lost in cellular respiration
bull As a consequence of this inefficiency food chains rarely exceed four levels
110
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Essential chemicals cycle through
ecosystems
111
Chemical Reservoirs
bull Each chemical is stored in a non-living part of the environment
bull Organisms acquire the chemical from the reservoir a non-living part of the environment
bull The chemical cycles through the food chain (biogeochemical cycles)
bull Eventually the chemical is returned to the reservoir
112
Hydrologic Cycle and the Florida Springs
bull Click here for a description of how falling rain feeds underground aquifers in Florida and forms springs
113
The Most Important Chemical Cycles
1) Carbon
2) Nitrogen
3) Phosphorus
4) Sulfur
114
115
The
Carbon
Cycle
116
The Carbon Cycle
Keeping Up With Carbon
NASA video provides key information on the carbon cycle
117
118
Carbon Cycle Game
Fossil Fuels
bull created when large numbers of organisms die and are buried in sediment lacking oxygen
bull In absence of oxygen at high pressures and after very long periods of time organic remains are ultimately transformed into coal oil and natural gas
bull burning coal oil and natural gas releases large amounts of carbon dioxide
bull increases average CO2 concentration in the atmosphere
bull current level of CO2 in the atmosphere is the highest it has been in almost half a million years
119
Global CO2 levels are rising in
general but they also exhibit a
sharp rise and fall within each
year ndash why
120
121
The Nitrogen Cycle
122
The Nitrogen Cycle
Fertilizers
bull Because it is necessary for the production of every plant
protein and because all nitrogen must first be made
usable by bacteria plant growth is often limited by
nitrogen levels in the soil
bull For this reason most fertilizers contain nitrogen in a
form usable by plants
123
124
125
126
127
Oxygen reduction downstream of a source of
organic pollution
128
Algal growth and eutrophication in an Australian
outback waterway
129
Sulfur Cycle
bull component of protein
bull cycles in both a gas and sedimentary cycle
bull source earths crust
bull enters the atmosphere as hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
during fossil fuel combustion volcanic eruptions
gas exchange at ocean surfaces decomposition
130
Sulfur Cycle
bull H2S is immediately oxidized to sulfur dioxide (SO2)
bull SO2 + water vapor H2SO4 (falls to earth in rain)
bull sulfur in soluble form is taken up by plant roots
incorporated into amino acids such as cysteine
bull travels through food chain
bull eventually released through decomposition
131
How is carbon recycled back to the
atmosphere in the carbon cycle
1 It is ldquofixedrdquo by bacteria
2 It is a product of cellular respiration
3 Burning of fossil fuels
4 2 and 3
5 All of the above
132
Why do commercial fertilizers usually
contain usable forms of nitrogen and
phosphorous
1 These chemicals are not efficiently recycled in
the soil
2 Nitrogen and phosphorous need to be ldquofixedrdquo
by bacteria or the plant
3 Nitrogen and phosphorous are found at high
levels in the atmosphere but not in the soil
4 Nitrogen and phosphorous only enter the soil
through erosion
133
Take-home message
bull Chemicals essential to lifemdashincluding carbon nitrogen and phosphorusmdashcycle through ecosystems
bull They are usually captured from the atmosphere soil or water by growing organisms passed from one trophic level to the next as organisms eat other organisms and returned to the environment through respiration decomposition and erosion
bull These cycles can be disrupted as human activities significantly increase the amounts of the chemicals utilized or released to the environment
134
Symbiotic Relationships
bull Symbiosis close relationship between organisms of
two different species
bull At least one participant gains some sort of benefit
(usually nutritional)
bull Types of symbiosis
bull Parasitism
bull Commensalism
bull Mutualism
bull Predation
135
Symbiotic Relationships in the
Ocean
bull Click here for an explanation of the
relationships of marine animals
including sharks rays and various
fishes
136
Parasitism bull Parasite derives nutrition from the host
bull This harms the host but a true parasite does
not usually kill its host (directly)
137
Ectoparasites
Remain outside the host
Ticks fleas leeches
138
Endoparasites
Live inside the hostrsquos body
Tapeworms malarial parasites
139
Parasite Transmission
bull Many parasites live on or in a single organism
bull Some will alternate between 2 or more host species
bull Vertical transmission ndash from mother offspring
bull Horizontal transmission ndash between members of a
population
bull Direct contact (head lice)
bull Vectors (mosquitos)
140
141
Commensalism
bull Neither species is totally dependent on the other
bull One benefits ndash no effect on the other
bull Feeding or protection
bull Porcelain anemone crabs and anemones
142
Mutualism
bull Both species benefit
bull Food or shelter
bull Examples
bull Plants and microbes (rhizobium in root nodules)
bull Plants and fungi (orchids and mycorrhizae)
bull Protists and fungi (lichen)
bull Plants and insects (pollination)
bull Animals and bacteria (ruminants)
bull Animals and other animals (crocodiles and
plover birds)
143
Mutualism shrimp and moray
Cleaner shrimp cleaning a zebra moray eel Mutualistic
relationships such as these promote the well-being of the
host fishes and provide food for those that do the cleaning 144
Rhizobium
Rhizobium in root nodules of certain plants convert
nitrogen in soil to usable form
145
Orchid Mycorrhizae
Fungi aid the plant in the uptake of nutrients
Fungi ingest some of the food from plant
photosynthesis 146
Lichen
Most of the lichen is composed of fungal filaments
but living among the filaments are algal cells
usually from a green alga or a cyanobacterium
The lichen fungus provides its partner(s) a benefit
(protection) and gains nutrients in return 147
Ruminants
Ruminants are characterized by their four-chambered
stomach and cud-chewing behavior Cud is a food bolus
that is regurgitated rechewed and reswallowed The
rumen is a large fermentation vat containing billions of
microorganisms including bacteria and protozoa which
allow ruminants to digest fibrous feeds such as grass and
hay that other animals cannot efficiently utilize 148
Crocodiles amp
Plover Birds
The bird gets into the crocodiles mouth and picks out
the tiny bits of food stuck in his teeth then eats it (the
tiny bits)
This cleans the crocodiles teeth and keeps his mouth
fresh and free from infections 149
Predation
bull Consumption of one living organism by
another
bull Predators must have offensive strategies
bull ways of finding catching and eating
their prey
bull Prey organisms must have defensive
strategies
bull ways of avoiding or discouraging this
activity
150
Predation
bull Encompasses all levels within an
ecological food chainweb
bull plant-herbivore systems
bull herbivore-carnivore systems
bull three-way interactions of
interdependent plant-herbivore-
carnivore systems
151
This goshawk is the tertiary consumer in his ecosystem
and the mouse in his beak is the secondary consumer
Beneath the mouse on the ecological pyramid lies his
foodsource likely a worm which fed on the primary
producer leafy plants 152
Ecosystem of Life in Floridas
Springs
bull Click here for a close-up look of life
in Floridas springs and the various
predator-prey interactions there
153
First Stop Primary Producers
bull ecosystem producers or consumers
bull primary producers plants algae (some) bacteria
bull convert light energy from sun into chemical energy
through photosynthesis
bull chemical energy = food
bull consumers eat or absorb their food
bull energy stored in chemical bonds of carbohydrate
protein and lipid molecules is captured and
harnessed for consumersrsquo own movement
reproduction and growth
88
Food Chain
89
Food Web
90
Food Web
91
Food Chains amp Food Webs
bull A change in one link in a food chain will affect the other
links
bull The table on the next slide gives one example of a food
chain and the trophic levels represented in it
92
Food Chains amp Food Webs
93
GRASS
GRASSHOPPER
TOAD
SNAKE
HAWK
BACTERIA
IN GENERAL
AUTOTROPHS
(PRODUCERS)
HERBIVORES
(PRIMARY
CONSUMERS)
CARNIVORES
(2 3 ETC)
DECOMPOSERS
94
Chain Reaction Game
95
Energy Flows through a Food Web
bull Losses at every ldquosteprdquo in a food chain
bull Inefficiency of energy transfers
96
Energy flow through a food chain
Energy flow refers to the way that energy is transformed through
a food chain (pictured here) containing a series of levels
including plants consumers predators and decomposers 97
Amount of energy available at each of the
four levels of an ecosystem
Ecological pyramids illustrate the amount of energy
available at each of the four levels of an ecosystem 98
Ecological Pyramid
99
A grasshopper eats a plant A mouse eats the
grasshopper A snake eats the mouse A hawk
could eat the snake or the mouse In this food
web how would we categorize the hawk
1 Producer
2 Primary consumer
3 Secondary consumer
4 Tertiary consumer
5 Quaternary consumer
6 4 and 5
100
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps
bull First it is converted to chemical energy in
photosynthesis
bull Herbivores then consume the primary producers the
herbivores are consumed by carnivores and the
carnivores in turn may be consumed by top carnivores
101
Take-home message
bull Detritivores and decomposers extract energy from
organic waste and the remains of organisms that have
died
bull At each step in a food chain some usable energy is lost
as heat
102
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy pyramids reveal the inefficiency of
food chains
103
Biomass
bull biomass total weight of all living organisms in a given
area
bull only about 10 of the plants in an ecosystem is
converted into biomass
bull Food Energy Pyramid
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
bull African savannas and grasslands sustain more species
of higher-order carnivores than any other terrestrial
ecosystem
104
105
Food Energy Pyramids
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
106
107
108
You go out to eat at a fancy restaurant You
have a salad salmon and for dessert ice
cream Which part of the meal was the most
energy efficient food for you to eat
1 Salad
2 Salmon
3 Ice cream
4 2 and 3
109
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps known as trophic levels
bull Energy pyramids reveal that the biomass of primary
producers in an ecosystem tends to be far greater than
the biomass of herbivores
bull The biomass transferred at each step along the food chain tends to be only about 10 of the biomass of the organisms being consumed due to energy lost in cellular respiration
bull As a consequence of this inefficiency food chains rarely exceed four levels
110
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Essential chemicals cycle through
ecosystems
111
Chemical Reservoirs
bull Each chemical is stored in a non-living part of the environment
bull Organisms acquire the chemical from the reservoir a non-living part of the environment
bull The chemical cycles through the food chain (biogeochemical cycles)
bull Eventually the chemical is returned to the reservoir
112
Hydrologic Cycle and the Florida Springs
bull Click here for a description of how falling rain feeds underground aquifers in Florida and forms springs
113
The Most Important Chemical Cycles
1) Carbon
2) Nitrogen
3) Phosphorus
4) Sulfur
114
115
The
Carbon
Cycle
116
The Carbon Cycle
Keeping Up With Carbon
NASA video provides key information on the carbon cycle
117
118
Carbon Cycle Game
Fossil Fuels
bull created when large numbers of organisms die and are buried in sediment lacking oxygen
bull In absence of oxygen at high pressures and after very long periods of time organic remains are ultimately transformed into coal oil and natural gas
bull burning coal oil and natural gas releases large amounts of carbon dioxide
bull increases average CO2 concentration in the atmosphere
bull current level of CO2 in the atmosphere is the highest it has been in almost half a million years
119
Global CO2 levels are rising in
general but they also exhibit a
sharp rise and fall within each
year ndash why
120
121
The Nitrogen Cycle
122
The Nitrogen Cycle
Fertilizers
bull Because it is necessary for the production of every plant
protein and because all nitrogen must first be made
usable by bacteria plant growth is often limited by
nitrogen levels in the soil
bull For this reason most fertilizers contain nitrogen in a
form usable by plants
123
124
125
126
127
Oxygen reduction downstream of a source of
organic pollution
128
Algal growth and eutrophication in an Australian
outback waterway
129
Sulfur Cycle
bull component of protein
bull cycles in both a gas and sedimentary cycle
bull source earths crust
bull enters the atmosphere as hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
during fossil fuel combustion volcanic eruptions
gas exchange at ocean surfaces decomposition
130
Sulfur Cycle
bull H2S is immediately oxidized to sulfur dioxide (SO2)
bull SO2 + water vapor H2SO4 (falls to earth in rain)
bull sulfur in soluble form is taken up by plant roots
incorporated into amino acids such as cysteine
bull travels through food chain
bull eventually released through decomposition
131
How is carbon recycled back to the
atmosphere in the carbon cycle
1 It is ldquofixedrdquo by bacteria
2 It is a product of cellular respiration
3 Burning of fossil fuels
4 2 and 3
5 All of the above
132
Why do commercial fertilizers usually
contain usable forms of nitrogen and
phosphorous
1 These chemicals are not efficiently recycled in
the soil
2 Nitrogen and phosphorous need to be ldquofixedrdquo
by bacteria or the plant
3 Nitrogen and phosphorous are found at high
levels in the atmosphere but not in the soil
4 Nitrogen and phosphorous only enter the soil
through erosion
133
Take-home message
bull Chemicals essential to lifemdashincluding carbon nitrogen and phosphorusmdashcycle through ecosystems
bull They are usually captured from the atmosphere soil or water by growing organisms passed from one trophic level to the next as organisms eat other organisms and returned to the environment through respiration decomposition and erosion
bull These cycles can be disrupted as human activities significantly increase the amounts of the chemicals utilized or released to the environment
134
Symbiotic Relationships
bull Symbiosis close relationship between organisms of
two different species
bull At least one participant gains some sort of benefit
(usually nutritional)
bull Types of symbiosis
bull Parasitism
bull Commensalism
bull Mutualism
bull Predation
135
Symbiotic Relationships in the
Ocean
bull Click here for an explanation of the
relationships of marine animals
including sharks rays and various
fishes
136
Parasitism bull Parasite derives nutrition from the host
bull This harms the host but a true parasite does
not usually kill its host (directly)
137
Ectoparasites
Remain outside the host
Ticks fleas leeches
138
Endoparasites
Live inside the hostrsquos body
Tapeworms malarial parasites
139
Parasite Transmission
bull Many parasites live on or in a single organism
bull Some will alternate between 2 or more host species
bull Vertical transmission ndash from mother offspring
bull Horizontal transmission ndash between members of a
population
bull Direct contact (head lice)
bull Vectors (mosquitos)
140
141
Commensalism
bull Neither species is totally dependent on the other
bull One benefits ndash no effect on the other
bull Feeding or protection
bull Porcelain anemone crabs and anemones
142
Mutualism
bull Both species benefit
bull Food or shelter
bull Examples
bull Plants and microbes (rhizobium in root nodules)
bull Plants and fungi (orchids and mycorrhizae)
bull Protists and fungi (lichen)
bull Plants and insects (pollination)
bull Animals and bacteria (ruminants)
bull Animals and other animals (crocodiles and
plover birds)
143
Mutualism shrimp and moray
Cleaner shrimp cleaning a zebra moray eel Mutualistic
relationships such as these promote the well-being of the
host fishes and provide food for those that do the cleaning 144
Rhizobium
Rhizobium in root nodules of certain plants convert
nitrogen in soil to usable form
145
Orchid Mycorrhizae
Fungi aid the plant in the uptake of nutrients
Fungi ingest some of the food from plant
photosynthesis 146
Lichen
Most of the lichen is composed of fungal filaments
but living among the filaments are algal cells
usually from a green alga or a cyanobacterium
The lichen fungus provides its partner(s) a benefit
(protection) and gains nutrients in return 147
Ruminants
Ruminants are characterized by their four-chambered
stomach and cud-chewing behavior Cud is a food bolus
that is regurgitated rechewed and reswallowed The
rumen is a large fermentation vat containing billions of
microorganisms including bacteria and protozoa which
allow ruminants to digest fibrous feeds such as grass and
hay that other animals cannot efficiently utilize 148
Crocodiles amp
Plover Birds
The bird gets into the crocodiles mouth and picks out
the tiny bits of food stuck in his teeth then eats it (the
tiny bits)
This cleans the crocodiles teeth and keeps his mouth
fresh and free from infections 149
Predation
bull Consumption of one living organism by
another
bull Predators must have offensive strategies
bull ways of finding catching and eating
their prey
bull Prey organisms must have defensive
strategies
bull ways of avoiding or discouraging this
activity
150
Predation
bull Encompasses all levels within an
ecological food chainweb
bull plant-herbivore systems
bull herbivore-carnivore systems
bull three-way interactions of
interdependent plant-herbivore-
carnivore systems
151
This goshawk is the tertiary consumer in his ecosystem
and the mouse in his beak is the secondary consumer
Beneath the mouse on the ecological pyramid lies his
foodsource likely a worm which fed on the primary
producer leafy plants 152
Ecosystem of Life in Floridas
Springs
bull Click here for a close-up look of life
in Floridas springs and the various
predator-prey interactions there
153
Food Chain
89
Food Web
90
Food Web
91
Food Chains amp Food Webs
bull A change in one link in a food chain will affect the other
links
bull The table on the next slide gives one example of a food
chain and the trophic levels represented in it
92
Food Chains amp Food Webs
93
GRASS
GRASSHOPPER
TOAD
SNAKE
HAWK
BACTERIA
IN GENERAL
AUTOTROPHS
(PRODUCERS)
HERBIVORES
(PRIMARY
CONSUMERS)
CARNIVORES
(2 3 ETC)
DECOMPOSERS
94
Chain Reaction Game
95
Energy Flows through a Food Web
bull Losses at every ldquosteprdquo in a food chain
bull Inefficiency of energy transfers
96
Energy flow through a food chain
Energy flow refers to the way that energy is transformed through
a food chain (pictured here) containing a series of levels
including plants consumers predators and decomposers 97
Amount of energy available at each of the
four levels of an ecosystem
Ecological pyramids illustrate the amount of energy
available at each of the four levels of an ecosystem 98
Ecological Pyramid
99
A grasshopper eats a plant A mouse eats the
grasshopper A snake eats the mouse A hawk
could eat the snake or the mouse In this food
web how would we categorize the hawk
1 Producer
2 Primary consumer
3 Secondary consumer
4 Tertiary consumer
5 Quaternary consumer
6 4 and 5
100
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps
bull First it is converted to chemical energy in
photosynthesis
bull Herbivores then consume the primary producers the
herbivores are consumed by carnivores and the
carnivores in turn may be consumed by top carnivores
101
Take-home message
bull Detritivores and decomposers extract energy from
organic waste and the remains of organisms that have
died
bull At each step in a food chain some usable energy is lost
as heat
102
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy pyramids reveal the inefficiency of
food chains
103
Biomass
bull biomass total weight of all living organisms in a given
area
bull only about 10 of the plants in an ecosystem is
converted into biomass
bull Food Energy Pyramid
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
bull African savannas and grasslands sustain more species
of higher-order carnivores than any other terrestrial
ecosystem
104
105
Food Energy Pyramids
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
106
107
108
You go out to eat at a fancy restaurant You
have a salad salmon and for dessert ice
cream Which part of the meal was the most
energy efficient food for you to eat
1 Salad
2 Salmon
3 Ice cream
4 2 and 3
109
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps known as trophic levels
bull Energy pyramids reveal that the biomass of primary
producers in an ecosystem tends to be far greater than
the biomass of herbivores
bull The biomass transferred at each step along the food chain tends to be only about 10 of the biomass of the organisms being consumed due to energy lost in cellular respiration
bull As a consequence of this inefficiency food chains rarely exceed four levels
110
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Essential chemicals cycle through
ecosystems
111
Chemical Reservoirs
bull Each chemical is stored in a non-living part of the environment
bull Organisms acquire the chemical from the reservoir a non-living part of the environment
bull The chemical cycles through the food chain (biogeochemical cycles)
bull Eventually the chemical is returned to the reservoir
112
Hydrologic Cycle and the Florida Springs
bull Click here for a description of how falling rain feeds underground aquifers in Florida and forms springs
113
The Most Important Chemical Cycles
1) Carbon
2) Nitrogen
3) Phosphorus
4) Sulfur
114
115
The
Carbon
Cycle
116
The Carbon Cycle
Keeping Up With Carbon
NASA video provides key information on the carbon cycle
117
118
Carbon Cycle Game
Fossil Fuels
bull created when large numbers of organisms die and are buried in sediment lacking oxygen
bull In absence of oxygen at high pressures and after very long periods of time organic remains are ultimately transformed into coal oil and natural gas
bull burning coal oil and natural gas releases large amounts of carbon dioxide
bull increases average CO2 concentration in the atmosphere
bull current level of CO2 in the atmosphere is the highest it has been in almost half a million years
119
Global CO2 levels are rising in
general but they also exhibit a
sharp rise and fall within each
year ndash why
120
121
The Nitrogen Cycle
122
The Nitrogen Cycle
Fertilizers
bull Because it is necessary for the production of every plant
protein and because all nitrogen must first be made
usable by bacteria plant growth is often limited by
nitrogen levels in the soil
bull For this reason most fertilizers contain nitrogen in a
form usable by plants
123
124
125
126
127
Oxygen reduction downstream of a source of
organic pollution
128
Algal growth and eutrophication in an Australian
outback waterway
129
Sulfur Cycle
bull component of protein
bull cycles in both a gas and sedimentary cycle
bull source earths crust
bull enters the atmosphere as hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
during fossil fuel combustion volcanic eruptions
gas exchange at ocean surfaces decomposition
130
Sulfur Cycle
bull H2S is immediately oxidized to sulfur dioxide (SO2)
bull SO2 + water vapor H2SO4 (falls to earth in rain)
bull sulfur in soluble form is taken up by plant roots
incorporated into amino acids such as cysteine
bull travels through food chain
bull eventually released through decomposition
131
How is carbon recycled back to the
atmosphere in the carbon cycle
1 It is ldquofixedrdquo by bacteria
2 It is a product of cellular respiration
3 Burning of fossil fuels
4 2 and 3
5 All of the above
132
Why do commercial fertilizers usually
contain usable forms of nitrogen and
phosphorous
1 These chemicals are not efficiently recycled in
the soil
2 Nitrogen and phosphorous need to be ldquofixedrdquo
by bacteria or the plant
3 Nitrogen and phosphorous are found at high
levels in the atmosphere but not in the soil
4 Nitrogen and phosphorous only enter the soil
through erosion
133
Take-home message
bull Chemicals essential to lifemdashincluding carbon nitrogen and phosphorusmdashcycle through ecosystems
bull They are usually captured from the atmosphere soil or water by growing organisms passed from one trophic level to the next as organisms eat other organisms and returned to the environment through respiration decomposition and erosion
bull These cycles can be disrupted as human activities significantly increase the amounts of the chemicals utilized or released to the environment
134
Symbiotic Relationships
bull Symbiosis close relationship between organisms of
two different species
bull At least one participant gains some sort of benefit
(usually nutritional)
bull Types of symbiosis
bull Parasitism
bull Commensalism
bull Mutualism
bull Predation
135
Symbiotic Relationships in the
Ocean
bull Click here for an explanation of the
relationships of marine animals
including sharks rays and various
fishes
136
Parasitism bull Parasite derives nutrition from the host
bull This harms the host but a true parasite does
not usually kill its host (directly)
137
Ectoparasites
Remain outside the host
Ticks fleas leeches
138
Endoparasites
Live inside the hostrsquos body
Tapeworms malarial parasites
139
Parasite Transmission
bull Many parasites live on or in a single organism
bull Some will alternate between 2 or more host species
bull Vertical transmission ndash from mother offspring
bull Horizontal transmission ndash between members of a
population
bull Direct contact (head lice)
bull Vectors (mosquitos)
140
141
Commensalism
bull Neither species is totally dependent on the other
bull One benefits ndash no effect on the other
bull Feeding or protection
bull Porcelain anemone crabs and anemones
142
Mutualism
bull Both species benefit
bull Food or shelter
bull Examples
bull Plants and microbes (rhizobium in root nodules)
bull Plants and fungi (orchids and mycorrhizae)
bull Protists and fungi (lichen)
bull Plants and insects (pollination)
bull Animals and bacteria (ruminants)
bull Animals and other animals (crocodiles and
plover birds)
143
Mutualism shrimp and moray
Cleaner shrimp cleaning a zebra moray eel Mutualistic
relationships such as these promote the well-being of the
host fishes and provide food for those that do the cleaning 144
Rhizobium
Rhizobium in root nodules of certain plants convert
nitrogen in soil to usable form
145
Orchid Mycorrhizae
Fungi aid the plant in the uptake of nutrients
Fungi ingest some of the food from plant
photosynthesis 146
Lichen
Most of the lichen is composed of fungal filaments
but living among the filaments are algal cells
usually from a green alga or a cyanobacterium
The lichen fungus provides its partner(s) a benefit
(protection) and gains nutrients in return 147
Ruminants
Ruminants are characterized by their four-chambered
stomach and cud-chewing behavior Cud is a food bolus
that is regurgitated rechewed and reswallowed The
rumen is a large fermentation vat containing billions of
microorganisms including bacteria and protozoa which
allow ruminants to digest fibrous feeds such as grass and
hay that other animals cannot efficiently utilize 148
Crocodiles amp
Plover Birds
The bird gets into the crocodiles mouth and picks out
the tiny bits of food stuck in his teeth then eats it (the
tiny bits)
This cleans the crocodiles teeth and keeps his mouth
fresh and free from infections 149
Predation
bull Consumption of one living organism by
another
bull Predators must have offensive strategies
bull ways of finding catching and eating
their prey
bull Prey organisms must have defensive
strategies
bull ways of avoiding or discouraging this
activity
150
Predation
bull Encompasses all levels within an
ecological food chainweb
bull plant-herbivore systems
bull herbivore-carnivore systems
bull three-way interactions of
interdependent plant-herbivore-
carnivore systems
151
This goshawk is the tertiary consumer in his ecosystem
and the mouse in his beak is the secondary consumer
Beneath the mouse on the ecological pyramid lies his
foodsource likely a worm which fed on the primary
producer leafy plants 152
Ecosystem of Life in Floridas
Springs
bull Click here for a close-up look of life
in Floridas springs and the various
predator-prey interactions there
153
Food Web
90
Food Web
91
Food Chains amp Food Webs
bull A change in one link in a food chain will affect the other
links
bull The table on the next slide gives one example of a food
chain and the trophic levels represented in it
92
Food Chains amp Food Webs
93
GRASS
GRASSHOPPER
TOAD
SNAKE
HAWK
BACTERIA
IN GENERAL
AUTOTROPHS
(PRODUCERS)
HERBIVORES
(PRIMARY
CONSUMERS)
CARNIVORES
(2 3 ETC)
DECOMPOSERS
94
Chain Reaction Game
95
Energy Flows through a Food Web
bull Losses at every ldquosteprdquo in a food chain
bull Inefficiency of energy transfers
96
Energy flow through a food chain
Energy flow refers to the way that energy is transformed through
a food chain (pictured here) containing a series of levels
including plants consumers predators and decomposers 97
Amount of energy available at each of the
four levels of an ecosystem
Ecological pyramids illustrate the amount of energy
available at each of the four levels of an ecosystem 98
Ecological Pyramid
99
A grasshopper eats a plant A mouse eats the
grasshopper A snake eats the mouse A hawk
could eat the snake or the mouse In this food
web how would we categorize the hawk
1 Producer
2 Primary consumer
3 Secondary consumer
4 Tertiary consumer
5 Quaternary consumer
6 4 and 5
100
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps
bull First it is converted to chemical energy in
photosynthesis
bull Herbivores then consume the primary producers the
herbivores are consumed by carnivores and the
carnivores in turn may be consumed by top carnivores
101
Take-home message
bull Detritivores and decomposers extract energy from
organic waste and the remains of organisms that have
died
bull At each step in a food chain some usable energy is lost
as heat
102
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy pyramids reveal the inefficiency of
food chains
103
Biomass
bull biomass total weight of all living organisms in a given
area
bull only about 10 of the plants in an ecosystem is
converted into biomass
bull Food Energy Pyramid
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
bull African savannas and grasslands sustain more species
of higher-order carnivores than any other terrestrial
ecosystem
104
105
Food Energy Pyramids
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
106
107
108
You go out to eat at a fancy restaurant You
have a salad salmon and for dessert ice
cream Which part of the meal was the most
energy efficient food for you to eat
1 Salad
2 Salmon
3 Ice cream
4 2 and 3
109
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps known as trophic levels
bull Energy pyramids reveal that the biomass of primary
producers in an ecosystem tends to be far greater than
the biomass of herbivores
bull The biomass transferred at each step along the food chain tends to be only about 10 of the biomass of the organisms being consumed due to energy lost in cellular respiration
bull As a consequence of this inefficiency food chains rarely exceed four levels
110
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Essential chemicals cycle through
ecosystems
111
Chemical Reservoirs
bull Each chemical is stored in a non-living part of the environment
bull Organisms acquire the chemical from the reservoir a non-living part of the environment
bull The chemical cycles through the food chain (biogeochemical cycles)
bull Eventually the chemical is returned to the reservoir
112
Hydrologic Cycle and the Florida Springs
bull Click here for a description of how falling rain feeds underground aquifers in Florida and forms springs
113
The Most Important Chemical Cycles
1) Carbon
2) Nitrogen
3) Phosphorus
4) Sulfur
114
115
The
Carbon
Cycle
116
The Carbon Cycle
Keeping Up With Carbon
NASA video provides key information on the carbon cycle
117
118
Carbon Cycle Game
Fossil Fuels
bull created when large numbers of organisms die and are buried in sediment lacking oxygen
bull In absence of oxygen at high pressures and after very long periods of time organic remains are ultimately transformed into coal oil and natural gas
bull burning coal oil and natural gas releases large amounts of carbon dioxide
bull increases average CO2 concentration in the atmosphere
bull current level of CO2 in the atmosphere is the highest it has been in almost half a million years
119
Global CO2 levels are rising in
general but they also exhibit a
sharp rise and fall within each
year ndash why
120
121
The Nitrogen Cycle
122
The Nitrogen Cycle
Fertilizers
bull Because it is necessary for the production of every plant
protein and because all nitrogen must first be made
usable by bacteria plant growth is often limited by
nitrogen levels in the soil
bull For this reason most fertilizers contain nitrogen in a
form usable by plants
123
124
125
126
127
Oxygen reduction downstream of a source of
organic pollution
128
Algal growth and eutrophication in an Australian
outback waterway
129
Sulfur Cycle
bull component of protein
bull cycles in both a gas and sedimentary cycle
bull source earths crust
bull enters the atmosphere as hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
during fossil fuel combustion volcanic eruptions
gas exchange at ocean surfaces decomposition
130
Sulfur Cycle
bull H2S is immediately oxidized to sulfur dioxide (SO2)
bull SO2 + water vapor H2SO4 (falls to earth in rain)
bull sulfur in soluble form is taken up by plant roots
incorporated into amino acids such as cysteine
bull travels through food chain
bull eventually released through decomposition
131
How is carbon recycled back to the
atmosphere in the carbon cycle
1 It is ldquofixedrdquo by bacteria
2 It is a product of cellular respiration
3 Burning of fossil fuels
4 2 and 3
5 All of the above
132
Why do commercial fertilizers usually
contain usable forms of nitrogen and
phosphorous
1 These chemicals are not efficiently recycled in
the soil
2 Nitrogen and phosphorous need to be ldquofixedrdquo
by bacteria or the plant
3 Nitrogen and phosphorous are found at high
levels in the atmosphere but not in the soil
4 Nitrogen and phosphorous only enter the soil
through erosion
133
Take-home message
bull Chemicals essential to lifemdashincluding carbon nitrogen and phosphorusmdashcycle through ecosystems
bull They are usually captured from the atmosphere soil or water by growing organisms passed from one trophic level to the next as organisms eat other organisms and returned to the environment through respiration decomposition and erosion
bull These cycles can be disrupted as human activities significantly increase the amounts of the chemicals utilized or released to the environment
134
Symbiotic Relationships
bull Symbiosis close relationship between organisms of
two different species
bull At least one participant gains some sort of benefit
(usually nutritional)
bull Types of symbiosis
bull Parasitism
bull Commensalism
bull Mutualism
bull Predation
135
Symbiotic Relationships in the
Ocean
bull Click here for an explanation of the
relationships of marine animals
including sharks rays and various
fishes
136
Parasitism bull Parasite derives nutrition from the host
bull This harms the host but a true parasite does
not usually kill its host (directly)
137
Ectoparasites
Remain outside the host
Ticks fleas leeches
138
Endoparasites
Live inside the hostrsquos body
Tapeworms malarial parasites
139
Parasite Transmission
bull Many parasites live on or in a single organism
bull Some will alternate between 2 or more host species
bull Vertical transmission ndash from mother offspring
bull Horizontal transmission ndash between members of a
population
bull Direct contact (head lice)
bull Vectors (mosquitos)
140
141
Commensalism
bull Neither species is totally dependent on the other
bull One benefits ndash no effect on the other
bull Feeding or protection
bull Porcelain anemone crabs and anemones
142
Mutualism
bull Both species benefit
bull Food or shelter
bull Examples
bull Plants and microbes (rhizobium in root nodules)
bull Plants and fungi (orchids and mycorrhizae)
bull Protists and fungi (lichen)
bull Plants and insects (pollination)
bull Animals and bacteria (ruminants)
bull Animals and other animals (crocodiles and
plover birds)
143
Mutualism shrimp and moray
Cleaner shrimp cleaning a zebra moray eel Mutualistic
relationships such as these promote the well-being of the
host fishes and provide food for those that do the cleaning 144
Rhizobium
Rhizobium in root nodules of certain plants convert
nitrogen in soil to usable form
145
Orchid Mycorrhizae
Fungi aid the plant in the uptake of nutrients
Fungi ingest some of the food from plant
photosynthesis 146
Lichen
Most of the lichen is composed of fungal filaments
but living among the filaments are algal cells
usually from a green alga or a cyanobacterium
The lichen fungus provides its partner(s) a benefit
(protection) and gains nutrients in return 147
Ruminants
Ruminants are characterized by their four-chambered
stomach and cud-chewing behavior Cud is a food bolus
that is regurgitated rechewed and reswallowed The
rumen is a large fermentation vat containing billions of
microorganisms including bacteria and protozoa which
allow ruminants to digest fibrous feeds such as grass and
hay that other animals cannot efficiently utilize 148
Crocodiles amp
Plover Birds
The bird gets into the crocodiles mouth and picks out
the tiny bits of food stuck in his teeth then eats it (the
tiny bits)
This cleans the crocodiles teeth and keeps his mouth
fresh and free from infections 149
Predation
bull Consumption of one living organism by
another
bull Predators must have offensive strategies
bull ways of finding catching and eating
their prey
bull Prey organisms must have defensive
strategies
bull ways of avoiding or discouraging this
activity
150
Predation
bull Encompasses all levels within an
ecological food chainweb
bull plant-herbivore systems
bull herbivore-carnivore systems
bull three-way interactions of
interdependent plant-herbivore-
carnivore systems
151
This goshawk is the tertiary consumer in his ecosystem
and the mouse in his beak is the secondary consumer
Beneath the mouse on the ecological pyramid lies his
foodsource likely a worm which fed on the primary
producer leafy plants 152
Ecosystem of Life in Floridas
Springs
bull Click here for a close-up look of life
in Floridas springs and the various
predator-prey interactions there
153
Food Web
91
Food Chains amp Food Webs
bull A change in one link in a food chain will affect the other
links
bull The table on the next slide gives one example of a food
chain and the trophic levels represented in it
92
Food Chains amp Food Webs
93
GRASS
GRASSHOPPER
TOAD
SNAKE
HAWK
BACTERIA
IN GENERAL
AUTOTROPHS
(PRODUCERS)
HERBIVORES
(PRIMARY
CONSUMERS)
CARNIVORES
(2 3 ETC)
DECOMPOSERS
94
Chain Reaction Game
95
Energy Flows through a Food Web
bull Losses at every ldquosteprdquo in a food chain
bull Inefficiency of energy transfers
96
Energy flow through a food chain
Energy flow refers to the way that energy is transformed through
a food chain (pictured here) containing a series of levels
including plants consumers predators and decomposers 97
Amount of energy available at each of the
four levels of an ecosystem
Ecological pyramids illustrate the amount of energy
available at each of the four levels of an ecosystem 98
Ecological Pyramid
99
A grasshopper eats a plant A mouse eats the
grasshopper A snake eats the mouse A hawk
could eat the snake or the mouse In this food
web how would we categorize the hawk
1 Producer
2 Primary consumer
3 Secondary consumer
4 Tertiary consumer
5 Quaternary consumer
6 4 and 5
100
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps
bull First it is converted to chemical energy in
photosynthesis
bull Herbivores then consume the primary producers the
herbivores are consumed by carnivores and the
carnivores in turn may be consumed by top carnivores
101
Take-home message
bull Detritivores and decomposers extract energy from
organic waste and the remains of organisms that have
died
bull At each step in a food chain some usable energy is lost
as heat
102
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy pyramids reveal the inefficiency of
food chains
103
Biomass
bull biomass total weight of all living organisms in a given
area
bull only about 10 of the plants in an ecosystem is
converted into biomass
bull Food Energy Pyramid
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
bull African savannas and grasslands sustain more species
of higher-order carnivores than any other terrestrial
ecosystem
104
105
Food Energy Pyramids
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
106
107
108
You go out to eat at a fancy restaurant You
have a salad salmon and for dessert ice
cream Which part of the meal was the most
energy efficient food for you to eat
1 Salad
2 Salmon
3 Ice cream
4 2 and 3
109
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps known as trophic levels
bull Energy pyramids reveal that the biomass of primary
producers in an ecosystem tends to be far greater than
the biomass of herbivores
bull The biomass transferred at each step along the food chain tends to be only about 10 of the biomass of the organisms being consumed due to energy lost in cellular respiration
bull As a consequence of this inefficiency food chains rarely exceed four levels
110
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Essential chemicals cycle through
ecosystems
111
Chemical Reservoirs
bull Each chemical is stored in a non-living part of the environment
bull Organisms acquire the chemical from the reservoir a non-living part of the environment
bull The chemical cycles through the food chain (biogeochemical cycles)
bull Eventually the chemical is returned to the reservoir
112
Hydrologic Cycle and the Florida Springs
bull Click here for a description of how falling rain feeds underground aquifers in Florida and forms springs
113
The Most Important Chemical Cycles
1) Carbon
2) Nitrogen
3) Phosphorus
4) Sulfur
114
115
The
Carbon
Cycle
116
The Carbon Cycle
Keeping Up With Carbon
NASA video provides key information on the carbon cycle
117
118
Carbon Cycle Game
Fossil Fuels
bull created when large numbers of organisms die and are buried in sediment lacking oxygen
bull In absence of oxygen at high pressures and after very long periods of time organic remains are ultimately transformed into coal oil and natural gas
bull burning coal oil and natural gas releases large amounts of carbon dioxide
bull increases average CO2 concentration in the atmosphere
bull current level of CO2 in the atmosphere is the highest it has been in almost half a million years
119
Global CO2 levels are rising in
general but they also exhibit a
sharp rise and fall within each
year ndash why
120
121
The Nitrogen Cycle
122
The Nitrogen Cycle
Fertilizers
bull Because it is necessary for the production of every plant
protein and because all nitrogen must first be made
usable by bacteria plant growth is often limited by
nitrogen levels in the soil
bull For this reason most fertilizers contain nitrogen in a
form usable by plants
123
124
125
126
127
Oxygen reduction downstream of a source of
organic pollution
128
Algal growth and eutrophication in an Australian
outback waterway
129
Sulfur Cycle
bull component of protein
bull cycles in both a gas and sedimentary cycle
bull source earths crust
bull enters the atmosphere as hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
during fossil fuel combustion volcanic eruptions
gas exchange at ocean surfaces decomposition
130
Sulfur Cycle
bull H2S is immediately oxidized to sulfur dioxide (SO2)
bull SO2 + water vapor H2SO4 (falls to earth in rain)
bull sulfur in soluble form is taken up by plant roots
incorporated into amino acids such as cysteine
bull travels through food chain
bull eventually released through decomposition
131
How is carbon recycled back to the
atmosphere in the carbon cycle
1 It is ldquofixedrdquo by bacteria
2 It is a product of cellular respiration
3 Burning of fossil fuels
4 2 and 3
5 All of the above
132
Why do commercial fertilizers usually
contain usable forms of nitrogen and
phosphorous
1 These chemicals are not efficiently recycled in
the soil
2 Nitrogen and phosphorous need to be ldquofixedrdquo
by bacteria or the plant
3 Nitrogen and phosphorous are found at high
levels in the atmosphere but not in the soil
4 Nitrogen and phosphorous only enter the soil
through erosion
133
Take-home message
bull Chemicals essential to lifemdashincluding carbon nitrogen and phosphorusmdashcycle through ecosystems
bull They are usually captured from the atmosphere soil or water by growing organisms passed from one trophic level to the next as organisms eat other organisms and returned to the environment through respiration decomposition and erosion
bull These cycles can be disrupted as human activities significantly increase the amounts of the chemicals utilized or released to the environment
134
Symbiotic Relationships
bull Symbiosis close relationship between organisms of
two different species
bull At least one participant gains some sort of benefit
(usually nutritional)
bull Types of symbiosis
bull Parasitism
bull Commensalism
bull Mutualism
bull Predation
135
Symbiotic Relationships in the
Ocean
bull Click here for an explanation of the
relationships of marine animals
including sharks rays and various
fishes
136
Parasitism bull Parasite derives nutrition from the host
bull This harms the host but a true parasite does
not usually kill its host (directly)
137
Ectoparasites
Remain outside the host
Ticks fleas leeches
138
Endoparasites
Live inside the hostrsquos body
Tapeworms malarial parasites
139
Parasite Transmission
bull Many parasites live on or in a single organism
bull Some will alternate between 2 or more host species
bull Vertical transmission ndash from mother offspring
bull Horizontal transmission ndash between members of a
population
bull Direct contact (head lice)
bull Vectors (mosquitos)
140
141
Commensalism
bull Neither species is totally dependent on the other
bull One benefits ndash no effect on the other
bull Feeding or protection
bull Porcelain anemone crabs and anemones
142
Mutualism
bull Both species benefit
bull Food or shelter
bull Examples
bull Plants and microbes (rhizobium in root nodules)
bull Plants and fungi (orchids and mycorrhizae)
bull Protists and fungi (lichen)
bull Plants and insects (pollination)
bull Animals and bacteria (ruminants)
bull Animals and other animals (crocodiles and
plover birds)
143
Mutualism shrimp and moray
Cleaner shrimp cleaning a zebra moray eel Mutualistic
relationships such as these promote the well-being of the
host fishes and provide food for those that do the cleaning 144
Rhizobium
Rhizobium in root nodules of certain plants convert
nitrogen in soil to usable form
145
Orchid Mycorrhizae
Fungi aid the plant in the uptake of nutrients
Fungi ingest some of the food from plant
photosynthesis 146
Lichen
Most of the lichen is composed of fungal filaments
but living among the filaments are algal cells
usually from a green alga or a cyanobacterium
The lichen fungus provides its partner(s) a benefit
(protection) and gains nutrients in return 147
Ruminants
Ruminants are characterized by their four-chambered
stomach and cud-chewing behavior Cud is a food bolus
that is regurgitated rechewed and reswallowed The
rumen is a large fermentation vat containing billions of
microorganisms including bacteria and protozoa which
allow ruminants to digest fibrous feeds such as grass and
hay that other animals cannot efficiently utilize 148
Crocodiles amp
Plover Birds
The bird gets into the crocodiles mouth and picks out
the tiny bits of food stuck in his teeth then eats it (the
tiny bits)
This cleans the crocodiles teeth and keeps his mouth
fresh and free from infections 149
Predation
bull Consumption of one living organism by
another
bull Predators must have offensive strategies
bull ways of finding catching and eating
their prey
bull Prey organisms must have defensive
strategies
bull ways of avoiding or discouraging this
activity
150
Predation
bull Encompasses all levels within an
ecological food chainweb
bull plant-herbivore systems
bull herbivore-carnivore systems
bull three-way interactions of
interdependent plant-herbivore-
carnivore systems
151
This goshawk is the tertiary consumer in his ecosystem
and the mouse in his beak is the secondary consumer
Beneath the mouse on the ecological pyramid lies his
foodsource likely a worm which fed on the primary
producer leafy plants 152
Ecosystem of Life in Floridas
Springs
bull Click here for a close-up look of life
in Floridas springs and the various
predator-prey interactions there
153
Food Chains amp Food Webs
bull A change in one link in a food chain will affect the other
links
bull The table on the next slide gives one example of a food
chain and the trophic levels represented in it
92
Food Chains amp Food Webs
93
GRASS
GRASSHOPPER
TOAD
SNAKE
HAWK
BACTERIA
IN GENERAL
AUTOTROPHS
(PRODUCERS)
HERBIVORES
(PRIMARY
CONSUMERS)
CARNIVORES
(2 3 ETC)
DECOMPOSERS
94
Chain Reaction Game
95
Energy Flows through a Food Web
bull Losses at every ldquosteprdquo in a food chain
bull Inefficiency of energy transfers
96
Energy flow through a food chain
Energy flow refers to the way that energy is transformed through
a food chain (pictured here) containing a series of levels
including plants consumers predators and decomposers 97
Amount of energy available at each of the
four levels of an ecosystem
Ecological pyramids illustrate the amount of energy
available at each of the four levels of an ecosystem 98
Ecological Pyramid
99
A grasshopper eats a plant A mouse eats the
grasshopper A snake eats the mouse A hawk
could eat the snake or the mouse In this food
web how would we categorize the hawk
1 Producer
2 Primary consumer
3 Secondary consumer
4 Tertiary consumer
5 Quaternary consumer
6 4 and 5
100
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps
bull First it is converted to chemical energy in
photosynthesis
bull Herbivores then consume the primary producers the
herbivores are consumed by carnivores and the
carnivores in turn may be consumed by top carnivores
101
Take-home message
bull Detritivores and decomposers extract energy from
organic waste and the remains of organisms that have
died
bull At each step in a food chain some usable energy is lost
as heat
102
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy pyramids reveal the inefficiency of
food chains
103
Biomass
bull biomass total weight of all living organisms in a given
area
bull only about 10 of the plants in an ecosystem is
converted into biomass
bull Food Energy Pyramid
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
bull African savannas and grasslands sustain more species
of higher-order carnivores than any other terrestrial
ecosystem
104
105
Food Energy Pyramids
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
106
107
108
You go out to eat at a fancy restaurant You
have a salad salmon and for dessert ice
cream Which part of the meal was the most
energy efficient food for you to eat
1 Salad
2 Salmon
3 Ice cream
4 2 and 3
109
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps known as trophic levels
bull Energy pyramids reveal that the biomass of primary
producers in an ecosystem tends to be far greater than
the biomass of herbivores
bull The biomass transferred at each step along the food chain tends to be only about 10 of the biomass of the organisms being consumed due to energy lost in cellular respiration
bull As a consequence of this inefficiency food chains rarely exceed four levels
110
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Essential chemicals cycle through
ecosystems
111
Chemical Reservoirs
bull Each chemical is stored in a non-living part of the environment
bull Organisms acquire the chemical from the reservoir a non-living part of the environment
bull The chemical cycles through the food chain (biogeochemical cycles)
bull Eventually the chemical is returned to the reservoir
112
Hydrologic Cycle and the Florida Springs
bull Click here for a description of how falling rain feeds underground aquifers in Florida and forms springs
113
The Most Important Chemical Cycles
1) Carbon
2) Nitrogen
3) Phosphorus
4) Sulfur
114
115
The
Carbon
Cycle
116
The Carbon Cycle
Keeping Up With Carbon
NASA video provides key information on the carbon cycle
117
118
Carbon Cycle Game
Fossil Fuels
bull created when large numbers of organisms die and are buried in sediment lacking oxygen
bull In absence of oxygen at high pressures and after very long periods of time organic remains are ultimately transformed into coal oil and natural gas
bull burning coal oil and natural gas releases large amounts of carbon dioxide
bull increases average CO2 concentration in the atmosphere
bull current level of CO2 in the atmosphere is the highest it has been in almost half a million years
119
Global CO2 levels are rising in
general but they also exhibit a
sharp rise and fall within each
year ndash why
120
121
The Nitrogen Cycle
122
The Nitrogen Cycle
Fertilizers
bull Because it is necessary for the production of every plant
protein and because all nitrogen must first be made
usable by bacteria plant growth is often limited by
nitrogen levels in the soil
bull For this reason most fertilizers contain nitrogen in a
form usable by plants
123
124
125
126
127
Oxygen reduction downstream of a source of
organic pollution
128
Algal growth and eutrophication in an Australian
outback waterway
129
Sulfur Cycle
bull component of protein
bull cycles in both a gas and sedimentary cycle
bull source earths crust
bull enters the atmosphere as hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
during fossil fuel combustion volcanic eruptions
gas exchange at ocean surfaces decomposition
130
Sulfur Cycle
bull H2S is immediately oxidized to sulfur dioxide (SO2)
bull SO2 + water vapor H2SO4 (falls to earth in rain)
bull sulfur in soluble form is taken up by plant roots
incorporated into amino acids such as cysteine
bull travels through food chain
bull eventually released through decomposition
131
How is carbon recycled back to the
atmosphere in the carbon cycle
1 It is ldquofixedrdquo by bacteria
2 It is a product of cellular respiration
3 Burning of fossil fuels
4 2 and 3
5 All of the above
132
Why do commercial fertilizers usually
contain usable forms of nitrogen and
phosphorous
1 These chemicals are not efficiently recycled in
the soil
2 Nitrogen and phosphorous need to be ldquofixedrdquo
by bacteria or the plant
3 Nitrogen and phosphorous are found at high
levels in the atmosphere but not in the soil
4 Nitrogen and phosphorous only enter the soil
through erosion
133
Take-home message
bull Chemicals essential to lifemdashincluding carbon nitrogen and phosphorusmdashcycle through ecosystems
bull They are usually captured from the atmosphere soil or water by growing organisms passed from one trophic level to the next as organisms eat other organisms and returned to the environment through respiration decomposition and erosion
bull These cycles can be disrupted as human activities significantly increase the amounts of the chemicals utilized or released to the environment
134
Symbiotic Relationships
bull Symbiosis close relationship between organisms of
two different species
bull At least one participant gains some sort of benefit
(usually nutritional)
bull Types of symbiosis
bull Parasitism
bull Commensalism
bull Mutualism
bull Predation
135
Symbiotic Relationships in the
Ocean
bull Click here for an explanation of the
relationships of marine animals
including sharks rays and various
fishes
136
Parasitism bull Parasite derives nutrition from the host
bull This harms the host but a true parasite does
not usually kill its host (directly)
137
Ectoparasites
Remain outside the host
Ticks fleas leeches
138
Endoparasites
Live inside the hostrsquos body
Tapeworms malarial parasites
139
Parasite Transmission
bull Many parasites live on or in a single organism
bull Some will alternate between 2 or more host species
bull Vertical transmission ndash from mother offspring
bull Horizontal transmission ndash between members of a
population
bull Direct contact (head lice)
bull Vectors (mosquitos)
140
141
Commensalism
bull Neither species is totally dependent on the other
bull One benefits ndash no effect on the other
bull Feeding or protection
bull Porcelain anemone crabs and anemones
142
Mutualism
bull Both species benefit
bull Food or shelter
bull Examples
bull Plants and microbes (rhizobium in root nodules)
bull Plants and fungi (orchids and mycorrhizae)
bull Protists and fungi (lichen)
bull Plants and insects (pollination)
bull Animals and bacteria (ruminants)
bull Animals and other animals (crocodiles and
plover birds)
143
Mutualism shrimp and moray
Cleaner shrimp cleaning a zebra moray eel Mutualistic
relationships such as these promote the well-being of the
host fishes and provide food for those that do the cleaning 144
Rhizobium
Rhizobium in root nodules of certain plants convert
nitrogen in soil to usable form
145
Orchid Mycorrhizae
Fungi aid the plant in the uptake of nutrients
Fungi ingest some of the food from plant
photosynthesis 146
Lichen
Most of the lichen is composed of fungal filaments
but living among the filaments are algal cells
usually from a green alga or a cyanobacterium
The lichen fungus provides its partner(s) a benefit
(protection) and gains nutrients in return 147
Ruminants
Ruminants are characterized by their four-chambered
stomach and cud-chewing behavior Cud is a food bolus
that is regurgitated rechewed and reswallowed The
rumen is a large fermentation vat containing billions of
microorganisms including bacteria and protozoa which
allow ruminants to digest fibrous feeds such as grass and
hay that other animals cannot efficiently utilize 148
Crocodiles amp
Plover Birds
The bird gets into the crocodiles mouth and picks out
the tiny bits of food stuck in his teeth then eats it (the
tiny bits)
This cleans the crocodiles teeth and keeps his mouth
fresh and free from infections 149
Predation
bull Consumption of one living organism by
another
bull Predators must have offensive strategies
bull ways of finding catching and eating
their prey
bull Prey organisms must have defensive
strategies
bull ways of avoiding or discouraging this
activity
150
Predation
bull Encompasses all levels within an
ecological food chainweb
bull plant-herbivore systems
bull herbivore-carnivore systems
bull three-way interactions of
interdependent plant-herbivore-
carnivore systems
151
This goshawk is the tertiary consumer in his ecosystem
and the mouse in his beak is the secondary consumer
Beneath the mouse on the ecological pyramid lies his
foodsource likely a worm which fed on the primary
producer leafy plants 152
Ecosystem of Life in Floridas
Springs
bull Click here for a close-up look of life
in Floridas springs and the various
predator-prey interactions there
153
Food Chains amp Food Webs
93
GRASS
GRASSHOPPER
TOAD
SNAKE
HAWK
BACTERIA
IN GENERAL
AUTOTROPHS
(PRODUCERS)
HERBIVORES
(PRIMARY
CONSUMERS)
CARNIVORES
(2 3 ETC)
DECOMPOSERS
94
Chain Reaction Game
95
Energy Flows through a Food Web
bull Losses at every ldquosteprdquo in a food chain
bull Inefficiency of energy transfers
96
Energy flow through a food chain
Energy flow refers to the way that energy is transformed through
a food chain (pictured here) containing a series of levels
including plants consumers predators and decomposers 97
Amount of energy available at each of the
four levels of an ecosystem
Ecological pyramids illustrate the amount of energy
available at each of the four levels of an ecosystem 98
Ecological Pyramid
99
A grasshopper eats a plant A mouse eats the
grasshopper A snake eats the mouse A hawk
could eat the snake or the mouse In this food
web how would we categorize the hawk
1 Producer
2 Primary consumer
3 Secondary consumer
4 Tertiary consumer
5 Quaternary consumer
6 4 and 5
100
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps
bull First it is converted to chemical energy in
photosynthesis
bull Herbivores then consume the primary producers the
herbivores are consumed by carnivores and the
carnivores in turn may be consumed by top carnivores
101
Take-home message
bull Detritivores and decomposers extract energy from
organic waste and the remains of organisms that have
died
bull At each step in a food chain some usable energy is lost
as heat
102
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy pyramids reveal the inefficiency of
food chains
103
Biomass
bull biomass total weight of all living organisms in a given
area
bull only about 10 of the plants in an ecosystem is
converted into biomass
bull Food Energy Pyramid
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
bull African savannas and grasslands sustain more species
of higher-order carnivores than any other terrestrial
ecosystem
104
105
Food Energy Pyramids
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
106
107
108
You go out to eat at a fancy restaurant You
have a salad salmon and for dessert ice
cream Which part of the meal was the most
energy efficient food for you to eat
1 Salad
2 Salmon
3 Ice cream
4 2 and 3
109
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps known as trophic levels
bull Energy pyramids reveal that the biomass of primary
producers in an ecosystem tends to be far greater than
the biomass of herbivores
bull The biomass transferred at each step along the food chain tends to be only about 10 of the biomass of the organisms being consumed due to energy lost in cellular respiration
bull As a consequence of this inefficiency food chains rarely exceed four levels
110
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Essential chemicals cycle through
ecosystems
111
Chemical Reservoirs
bull Each chemical is stored in a non-living part of the environment
bull Organisms acquire the chemical from the reservoir a non-living part of the environment
bull The chemical cycles through the food chain (biogeochemical cycles)
bull Eventually the chemical is returned to the reservoir
112
Hydrologic Cycle and the Florida Springs
bull Click here for a description of how falling rain feeds underground aquifers in Florida and forms springs
113
The Most Important Chemical Cycles
1) Carbon
2) Nitrogen
3) Phosphorus
4) Sulfur
114
115
The
Carbon
Cycle
116
The Carbon Cycle
Keeping Up With Carbon
NASA video provides key information on the carbon cycle
117
118
Carbon Cycle Game
Fossil Fuels
bull created when large numbers of organisms die and are buried in sediment lacking oxygen
bull In absence of oxygen at high pressures and after very long periods of time organic remains are ultimately transformed into coal oil and natural gas
bull burning coal oil and natural gas releases large amounts of carbon dioxide
bull increases average CO2 concentration in the atmosphere
bull current level of CO2 in the atmosphere is the highest it has been in almost half a million years
119
Global CO2 levels are rising in
general but they also exhibit a
sharp rise and fall within each
year ndash why
120
121
The Nitrogen Cycle
122
The Nitrogen Cycle
Fertilizers
bull Because it is necessary for the production of every plant
protein and because all nitrogen must first be made
usable by bacteria plant growth is often limited by
nitrogen levels in the soil
bull For this reason most fertilizers contain nitrogen in a
form usable by plants
123
124
125
126
127
Oxygen reduction downstream of a source of
organic pollution
128
Algal growth and eutrophication in an Australian
outback waterway
129
Sulfur Cycle
bull component of protein
bull cycles in both a gas and sedimentary cycle
bull source earths crust
bull enters the atmosphere as hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
during fossil fuel combustion volcanic eruptions
gas exchange at ocean surfaces decomposition
130
Sulfur Cycle
bull H2S is immediately oxidized to sulfur dioxide (SO2)
bull SO2 + water vapor H2SO4 (falls to earth in rain)
bull sulfur in soluble form is taken up by plant roots
incorporated into amino acids such as cysteine
bull travels through food chain
bull eventually released through decomposition
131
How is carbon recycled back to the
atmosphere in the carbon cycle
1 It is ldquofixedrdquo by bacteria
2 It is a product of cellular respiration
3 Burning of fossil fuels
4 2 and 3
5 All of the above
132
Why do commercial fertilizers usually
contain usable forms of nitrogen and
phosphorous
1 These chemicals are not efficiently recycled in
the soil
2 Nitrogen and phosphorous need to be ldquofixedrdquo
by bacteria or the plant
3 Nitrogen and phosphorous are found at high
levels in the atmosphere but not in the soil
4 Nitrogen and phosphorous only enter the soil
through erosion
133
Take-home message
bull Chemicals essential to lifemdashincluding carbon nitrogen and phosphorusmdashcycle through ecosystems
bull They are usually captured from the atmosphere soil or water by growing organisms passed from one trophic level to the next as organisms eat other organisms and returned to the environment through respiration decomposition and erosion
bull These cycles can be disrupted as human activities significantly increase the amounts of the chemicals utilized or released to the environment
134
Symbiotic Relationships
bull Symbiosis close relationship between organisms of
two different species
bull At least one participant gains some sort of benefit
(usually nutritional)
bull Types of symbiosis
bull Parasitism
bull Commensalism
bull Mutualism
bull Predation
135
Symbiotic Relationships in the
Ocean
bull Click here for an explanation of the
relationships of marine animals
including sharks rays and various
fishes
136
Parasitism bull Parasite derives nutrition from the host
bull This harms the host but a true parasite does
not usually kill its host (directly)
137
Ectoparasites
Remain outside the host
Ticks fleas leeches
138
Endoparasites
Live inside the hostrsquos body
Tapeworms malarial parasites
139
Parasite Transmission
bull Many parasites live on or in a single organism
bull Some will alternate between 2 or more host species
bull Vertical transmission ndash from mother offspring
bull Horizontal transmission ndash between members of a
population
bull Direct contact (head lice)
bull Vectors (mosquitos)
140
141
Commensalism
bull Neither species is totally dependent on the other
bull One benefits ndash no effect on the other
bull Feeding or protection
bull Porcelain anemone crabs and anemones
142
Mutualism
bull Both species benefit
bull Food or shelter
bull Examples
bull Plants and microbes (rhizobium in root nodules)
bull Plants and fungi (orchids and mycorrhizae)
bull Protists and fungi (lichen)
bull Plants and insects (pollination)
bull Animals and bacteria (ruminants)
bull Animals and other animals (crocodiles and
plover birds)
143
Mutualism shrimp and moray
Cleaner shrimp cleaning a zebra moray eel Mutualistic
relationships such as these promote the well-being of the
host fishes and provide food for those that do the cleaning 144
Rhizobium
Rhizobium in root nodules of certain plants convert
nitrogen in soil to usable form
145
Orchid Mycorrhizae
Fungi aid the plant in the uptake of nutrients
Fungi ingest some of the food from plant
photosynthesis 146
Lichen
Most of the lichen is composed of fungal filaments
but living among the filaments are algal cells
usually from a green alga or a cyanobacterium
The lichen fungus provides its partner(s) a benefit
(protection) and gains nutrients in return 147
Ruminants
Ruminants are characterized by their four-chambered
stomach and cud-chewing behavior Cud is a food bolus
that is regurgitated rechewed and reswallowed The
rumen is a large fermentation vat containing billions of
microorganisms including bacteria and protozoa which
allow ruminants to digest fibrous feeds such as grass and
hay that other animals cannot efficiently utilize 148
Crocodiles amp
Plover Birds
The bird gets into the crocodiles mouth and picks out
the tiny bits of food stuck in his teeth then eats it (the
tiny bits)
This cleans the crocodiles teeth and keeps his mouth
fresh and free from infections 149
Predation
bull Consumption of one living organism by
another
bull Predators must have offensive strategies
bull ways of finding catching and eating
their prey
bull Prey organisms must have defensive
strategies
bull ways of avoiding or discouraging this
activity
150
Predation
bull Encompasses all levels within an
ecological food chainweb
bull plant-herbivore systems
bull herbivore-carnivore systems
bull three-way interactions of
interdependent plant-herbivore-
carnivore systems
151
This goshawk is the tertiary consumer in his ecosystem
and the mouse in his beak is the secondary consumer
Beneath the mouse on the ecological pyramid lies his
foodsource likely a worm which fed on the primary
producer leafy plants 152
Ecosystem of Life in Floridas
Springs
bull Click here for a close-up look of life
in Floridas springs and the various
predator-prey interactions there
153
94
Chain Reaction Game
95
Energy Flows through a Food Web
bull Losses at every ldquosteprdquo in a food chain
bull Inefficiency of energy transfers
96
Energy flow through a food chain
Energy flow refers to the way that energy is transformed through
a food chain (pictured here) containing a series of levels
including plants consumers predators and decomposers 97
Amount of energy available at each of the
four levels of an ecosystem
Ecological pyramids illustrate the amount of energy
available at each of the four levels of an ecosystem 98
Ecological Pyramid
99
A grasshopper eats a plant A mouse eats the
grasshopper A snake eats the mouse A hawk
could eat the snake or the mouse In this food
web how would we categorize the hawk
1 Producer
2 Primary consumer
3 Secondary consumer
4 Tertiary consumer
5 Quaternary consumer
6 4 and 5
100
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps
bull First it is converted to chemical energy in
photosynthesis
bull Herbivores then consume the primary producers the
herbivores are consumed by carnivores and the
carnivores in turn may be consumed by top carnivores
101
Take-home message
bull Detritivores and decomposers extract energy from
organic waste and the remains of organisms that have
died
bull At each step in a food chain some usable energy is lost
as heat
102
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy pyramids reveal the inefficiency of
food chains
103
Biomass
bull biomass total weight of all living organisms in a given
area
bull only about 10 of the plants in an ecosystem is
converted into biomass
bull Food Energy Pyramid
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
bull African savannas and grasslands sustain more species
of higher-order carnivores than any other terrestrial
ecosystem
104
105
Food Energy Pyramids
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
106
107
108
You go out to eat at a fancy restaurant You
have a salad salmon and for dessert ice
cream Which part of the meal was the most
energy efficient food for you to eat
1 Salad
2 Salmon
3 Ice cream
4 2 and 3
109
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps known as trophic levels
bull Energy pyramids reveal that the biomass of primary
producers in an ecosystem tends to be far greater than
the biomass of herbivores
bull The biomass transferred at each step along the food chain tends to be only about 10 of the biomass of the organisms being consumed due to energy lost in cellular respiration
bull As a consequence of this inefficiency food chains rarely exceed four levels
110
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Essential chemicals cycle through
ecosystems
111
Chemical Reservoirs
bull Each chemical is stored in a non-living part of the environment
bull Organisms acquire the chemical from the reservoir a non-living part of the environment
bull The chemical cycles through the food chain (biogeochemical cycles)
bull Eventually the chemical is returned to the reservoir
112
Hydrologic Cycle and the Florida Springs
bull Click here for a description of how falling rain feeds underground aquifers in Florida and forms springs
113
The Most Important Chemical Cycles
1) Carbon
2) Nitrogen
3) Phosphorus
4) Sulfur
114
115
The
Carbon
Cycle
116
The Carbon Cycle
Keeping Up With Carbon
NASA video provides key information on the carbon cycle
117
118
Carbon Cycle Game
Fossil Fuels
bull created when large numbers of organisms die and are buried in sediment lacking oxygen
bull In absence of oxygen at high pressures and after very long periods of time organic remains are ultimately transformed into coal oil and natural gas
bull burning coal oil and natural gas releases large amounts of carbon dioxide
bull increases average CO2 concentration in the atmosphere
bull current level of CO2 in the atmosphere is the highest it has been in almost half a million years
119
Global CO2 levels are rising in
general but they also exhibit a
sharp rise and fall within each
year ndash why
120
121
The Nitrogen Cycle
122
The Nitrogen Cycle
Fertilizers
bull Because it is necessary for the production of every plant
protein and because all nitrogen must first be made
usable by bacteria plant growth is often limited by
nitrogen levels in the soil
bull For this reason most fertilizers contain nitrogen in a
form usable by plants
123
124
125
126
127
Oxygen reduction downstream of a source of
organic pollution
128
Algal growth and eutrophication in an Australian
outback waterway
129
Sulfur Cycle
bull component of protein
bull cycles in both a gas and sedimentary cycle
bull source earths crust
bull enters the atmosphere as hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
during fossil fuel combustion volcanic eruptions
gas exchange at ocean surfaces decomposition
130
Sulfur Cycle
bull H2S is immediately oxidized to sulfur dioxide (SO2)
bull SO2 + water vapor H2SO4 (falls to earth in rain)
bull sulfur in soluble form is taken up by plant roots
incorporated into amino acids such as cysteine
bull travels through food chain
bull eventually released through decomposition
131
How is carbon recycled back to the
atmosphere in the carbon cycle
1 It is ldquofixedrdquo by bacteria
2 It is a product of cellular respiration
3 Burning of fossil fuels
4 2 and 3
5 All of the above
132
Why do commercial fertilizers usually
contain usable forms of nitrogen and
phosphorous
1 These chemicals are not efficiently recycled in
the soil
2 Nitrogen and phosphorous need to be ldquofixedrdquo
by bacteria or the plant
3 Nitrogen and phosphorous are found at high
levels in the atmosphere but not in the soil
4 Nitrogen and phosphorous only enter the soil
through erosion
133
Take-home message
bull Chemicals essential to lifemdashincluding carbon nitrogen and phosphorusmdashcycle through ecosystems
bull They are usually captured from the atmosphere soil or water by growing organisms passed from one trophic level to the next as organisms eat other organisms and returned to the environment through respiration decomposition and erosion
bull These cycles can be disrupted as human activities significantly increase the amounts of the chemicals utilized or released to the environment
134
Symbiotic Relationships
bull Symbiosis close relationship between organisms of
two different species
bull At least one participant gains some sort of benefit
(usually nutritional)
bull Types of symbiosis
bull Parasitism
bull Commensalism
bull Mutualism
bull Predation
135
Symbiotic Relationships in the
Ocean
bull Click here for an explanation of the
relationships of marine animals
including sharks rays and various
fishes
136
Parasitism bull Parasite derives nutrition from the host
bull This harms the host but a true parasite does
not usually kill its host (directly)
137
Ectoparasites
Remain outside the host
Ticks fleas leeches
138
Endoparasites
Live inside the hostrsquos body
Tapeworms malarial parasites
139
Parasite Transmission
bull Many parasites live on or in a single organism
bull Some will alternate between 2 or more host species
bull Vertical transmission ndash from mother offspring
bull Horizontal transmission ndash between members of a
population
bull Direct contact (head lice)
bull Vectors (mosquitos)
140
141
Commensalism
bull Neither species is totally dependent on the other
bull One benefits ndash no effect on the other
bull Feeding or protection
bull Porcelain anemone crabs and anemones
142
Mutualism
bull Both species benefit
bull Food or shelter
bull Examples
bull Plants and microbes (rhizobium in root nodules)
bull Plants and fungi (orchids and mycorrhizae)
bull Protists and fungi (lichen)
bull Plants and insects (pollination)
bull Animals and bacteria (ruminants)
bull Animals and other animals (crocodiles and
plover birds)
143
Mutualism shrimp and moray
Cleaner shrimp cleaning a zebra moray eel Mutualistic
relationships such as these promote the well-being of the
host fishes and provide food for those that do the cleaning 144
Rhizobium
Rhizobium in root nodules of certain plants convert
nitrogen in soil to usable form
145
Orchid Mycorrhizae
Fungi aid the plant in the uptake of nutrients
Fungi ingest some of the food from plant
photosynthesis 146
Lichen
Most of the lichen is composed of fungal filaments
but living among the filaments are algal cells
usually from a green alga or a cyanobacterium
The lichen fungus provides its partner(s) a benefit
(protection) and gains nutrients in return 147
Ruminants
Ruminants are characterized by their four-chambered
stomach and cud-chewing behavior Cud is a food bolus
that is regurgitated rechewed and reswallowed The
rumen is a large fermentation vat containing billions of
microorganisms including bacteria and protozoa which
allow ruminants to digest fibrous feeds such as grass and
hay that other animals cannot efficiently utilize 148
Crocodiles amp
Plover Birds
The bird gets into the crocodiles mouth and picks out
the tiny bits of food stuck in his teeth then eats it (the
tiny bits)
This cleans the crocodiles teeth and keeps his mouth
fresh and free from infections 149
Predation
bull Consumption of one living organism by
another
bull Predators must have offensive strategies
bull ways of finding catching and eating
their prey
bull Prey organisms must have defensive
strategies
bull ways of avoiding or discouraging this
activity
150
Predation
bull Encompasses all levels within an
ecological food chainweb
bull plant-herbivore systems
bull herbivore-carnivore systems
bull three-way interactions of
interdependent plant-herbivore-
carnivore systems
151
This goshawk is the tertiary consumer in his ecosystem
and the mouse in his beak is the secondary consumer
Beneath the mouse on the ecological pyramid lies his
foodsource likely a worm which fed on the primary
producer leafy plants 152
Ecosystem of Life in Floridas
Springs
bull Click here for a close-up look of life
in Floridas springs and the various
predator-prey interactions there
153
95
Energy Flows through a Food Web
bull Losses at every ldquosteprdquo in a food chain
bull Inefficiency of energy transfers
96
Energy flow through a food chain
Energy flow refers to the way that energy is transformed through
a food chain (pictured here) containing a series of levels
including plants consumers predators and decomposers 97
Amount of energy available at each of the
four levels of an ecosystem
Ecological pyramids illustrate the amount of energy
available at each of the four levels of an ecosystem 98
Ecological Pyramid
99
A grasshopper eats a plant A mouse eats the
grasshopper A snake eats the mouse A hawk
could eat the snake or the mouse In this food
web how would we categorize the hawk
1 Producer
2 Primary consumer
3 Secondary consumer
4 Tertiary consumer
5 Quaternary consumer
6 4 and 5
100
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps
bull First it is converted to chemical energy in
photosynthesis
bull Herbivores then consume the primary producers the
herbivores are consumed by carnivores and the
carnivores in turn may be consumed by top carnivores
101
Take-home message
bull Detritivores and decomposers extract energy from
organic waste and the remains of organisms that have
died
bull At each step in a food chain some usable energy is lost
as heat
102
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy pyramids reveal the inefficiency of
food chains
103
Biomass
bull biomass total weight of all living organisms in a given
area
bull only about 10 of the plants in an ecosystem is
converted into biomass
bull Food Energy Pyramid
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
bull African savannas and grasslands sustain more species
of higher-order carnivores than any other terrestrial
ecosystem
104
105
Food Energy Pyramids
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
106
107
108
You go out to eat at a fancy restaurant You
have a salad salmon and for dessert ice
cream Which part of the meal was the most
energy efficient food for you to eat
1 Salad
2 Salmon
3 Ice cream
4 2 and 3
109
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps known as trophic levels
bull Energy pyramids reveal that the biomass of primary
producers in an ecosystem tends to be far greater than
the biomass of herbivores
bull The biomass transferred at each step along the food chain tends to be only about 10 of the biomass of the organisms being consumed due to energy lost in cellular respiration
bull As a consequence of this inefficiency food chains rarely exceed four levels
110
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Essential chemicals cycle through
ecosystems
111
Chemical Reservoirs
bull Each chemical is stored in a non-living part of the environment
bull Organisms acquire the chemical from the reservoir a non-living part of the environment
bull The chemical cycles through the food chain (biogeochemical cycles)
bull Eventually the chemical is returned to the reservoir
112
Hydrologic Cycle and the Florida Springs
bull Click here for a description of how falling rain feeds underground aquifers in Florida and forms springs
113
The Most Important Chemical Cycles
1) Carbon
2) Nitrogen
3) Phosphorus
4) Sulfur
114
115
The
Carbon
Cycle
116
The Carbon Cycle
Keeping Up With Carbon
NASA video provides key information on the carbon cycle
117
118
Carbon Cycle Game
Fossil Fuels
bull created when large numbers of organisms die and are buried in sediment lacking oxygen
bull In absence of oxygen at high pressures and after very long periods of time organic remains are ultimately transformed into coal oil and natural gas
bull burning coal oil and natural gas releases large amounts of carbon dioxide
bull increases average CO2 concentration in the atmosphere
bull current level of CO2 in the atmosphere is the highest it has been in almost half a million years
119
Global CO2 levels are rising in
general but they also exhibit a
sharp rise and fall within each
year ndash why
120
121
The Nitrogen Cycle
122
The Nitrogen Cycle
Fertilizers
bull Because it is necessary for the production of every plant
protein and because all nitrogen must first be made
usable by bacteria plant growth is often limited by
nitrogen levels in the soil
bull For this reason most fertilizers contain nitrogen in a
form usable by plants
123
124
125
126
127
Oxygen reduction downstream of a source of
organic pollution
128
Algal growth and eutrophication in an Australian
outback waterway
129
Sulfur Cycle
bull component of protein
bull cycles in both a gas and sedimentary cycle
bull source earths crust
bull enters the atmosphere as hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
during fossil fuel combustion volcanic eruptions
gas exchange at ocean surfaces decomposition
130
Sulfur Cycle
bull H2S is immediately oxidized to sulfur dioxide (SO2)
bull SO2 + water vapor H2SO4 (falls to earth in rain)
bull sulfur in soluble form is taken up by plant roots
incorporated into amino acids such as cysteine
bull travels through food chain
bull eventually released through decomposition
131
How is carbon recycled back to the
atmosphere in the carbon cycle
1 It is ldquofixedrdquo by bacteria
2 It is a product of cellular respiration
3 Burning of fossil fuels
4 2 and 3
5 All of the above
132
Why do commercial fertilizers usually
contain usable forms of nitrogen and
phosphorous
1 These chemicals are not efficiently recycled in
the soil
2 Nitrogen and phosphorous need to be ldquofixedrdquo
by bacteria or the plant
3 Nitrogen and phosphorous are found at high
levels in the atmosphere but not in the soil
4 Nitrogen and phosphorous only enter the soil
through erosion
133
Take-home message
bull Chemicals essential to lifemdashincluding carbon nitrogen and phosphorusmdashcycle through ecosystems
bull They are usually captured from the atmosphere soil or water by growing organisms passed from one trophic level to the next as organisms eat other organisms and returned to the environment through respiration decomposition and erosion
bull These cycles can be disrupted as human activities significantly increase the amounts of the chemicals utilized or released to the environment
134
Symbiotic Relationships
bull Symbiosis close relationship between organisms of
two different species
bull At least one participant gains some sort of benefit
(usually nutritional)
bull Types of symbiosis
bull Parasitism
bull Commensalism
bull Mutualism
bull Predation
135
Symbiotic Relationships in the
Ocean
bull Click here for an explanation of the
relationships of marine animals
including sharks rays and various
fishes
136
Parasitism bull Parasite derives nutrition from the host
bull This harms the host but a true parasite does
not usually kill its host (directly)
137
Ectoparasites
Remain outside the host
Ticks fleas leeches
138
Endoparasites
Live inside the hostrsquos body
Tapeworms malarial parasites
139
Parasite Transmission
bull Many parasites live on or in a single organism
bull Some will alternate between 2 or more host species
bull Vertical transmission ndash from mother offspring
bull Horizontal transmission ndash between members of a
population
bull Direct contact (head lice)
bull Vectors (mosquitos)
140
141
Commensalism
bull Neither species is totally dependent on the other
bull One benefits ndash no effect on the other
bull Feeding or protection
bull Porcelain anemone crabs and anemones
142
Mutualism
bull Both species benefit
bull Food or shelter
bull Examples
bull Plants and microbes (rhizobium in root nodules)
bull Plants and fungi (orchids and mycorrhizae)
bull Protists and fungi (lichen)
bull Plants and insects (pollination)
bull Animals and bacteria (ruminants)
bull Animals and other animals (crocodiles and
plover birds)
143
Mutualism shrimp and moray
Cleaner shrimp cleaning a zebra moray eel Mutualistic
relationships such as these promote the well-being of the
host fishes and provide food for those that do the cleaning 144
Rhizobium
Rhizobium in root nodules of certain plants convert
nitrogen in soil to usable form
145
Orchid Mycorrhizae
Fungi aid the plant in the uptake of nutrients
Fungi ingest some of the food from plant
photosynthesis 146
Lichen
Most of the lichen is composed of fungal filaments
but living among the filaments are algal cells
usually from a green alga or a cyanobacterium
The lichen fungus provides its partner(s) a benefit
(protection) and gains nutrients in return 147
Ruminants
Ruminants are characterized by their four-chambered
stomach and cud-chewing behavior Cud is a food bolus
that is regurgitated rechewed and reswallowed The
rumen is a large fermentation vat containing billions of
microorganisms including bacteria and protozoa which
allow ruminants to digest fibrous feeds such as grass and
hay that other animals cannot efficiently utilize 148
Crocodiles amp
Plover Birds
The bird gets into the crocodiles mouth and picks out
the tiny bits of food stuck in his teeth then eats it (the
tiny bits)
This cleans the crocodiles teeth and keeps his mouth
fresh and free from infections 149
Predation
bull Consumption of one living organism by
another
bull Predators must have offensive strategies
bull ways of finding catching and eating
their prey
bull Prey organisms must have defensive
strategies
bull ways of avoiding or discouraging this
activity
150
Predation
bull Encompasses all levels within an
ecological food chainweb
bull plant-herbivore systems
bull herbivore-carnivore systems
bull three-way interactions of
interdependent plant-herbivore-
carnivore systems
151
This goshawk is the tertiary consumer in his ecosystem
and the mouse in his beak is the secondary consumer
Beneath the mouse on the ecological pyramid lies his
foodsource likely a worm which fed on the primary
producer leafy plants 152
Ecosystem of Life in Floridas
Springs
bull Click here for a close-up look of life
in Floridas springs and the various
predator-prey interactions there
153
Energy Flows through a Food Web
bull Losses at every ldquosteprdquo in a food chain
bull Inefficiency of energy transfers
96
Energy flow through a food chain
Energy flow refers to the way that energy is transformed through
a food chain (pictured here) containing a series of levels
including plants consumers predators and decomposers 97
Amount of energy available at each of the
four levels of an ecosystem
Ecological pyramids illustrate the amount of energy
available at each of the four levels of an ecosystem 98
Ecological Pyramid
99
A grasshopper eats a plant A mouse eats the
grasshopper A snake eats the mouse A hawk
could eat the snake or the mouse In this food
web how would we categorize the hawk
1 Producer
2 Primary consumer
3 Secondary consumer
4 Tertiary consumer
5 Quaternary consumer
6 4 and 5
100
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps
bull First it is converted to chemical energy in
photosynthesis
bull Herbivores then consume the primary producers the
herbivores are consumed by carnivores and the
carnivores in turn may be consumed by top carnivores
101
Take-home message
bull Detritivores and decomposers extract energy from
organic waste and the remains of organisms that have
died
bull At each step in a food chain some usable energy is lost
as heat
102
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy pyramids reveal the inefficiency of
food chains
103
Biomass
bull biomass total weight of all living organisms in a given
area
bull only about 10 of the plants in an ecosystem is
converted into biomass
bull Food Energy Pyramid
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
bull African savannas and grasslands sustain more species
of higher-order carnivores than any other terrestrial
ecosystem
104
105
Food Energy Pyramids
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
106
107
108
You go out to eat at a fancy restaurant You
have a salad salmon and for dessert ice
cream Which part of the meal was the most
energy efficient food for you to eat
1 Salad
2 Salmon
3 Ice cream
4 2 and 3
109
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps known as trophic levels
bull Energy pyramids reveal that the biomass of primary
producers in an ecosystem tends to be far greater than
the biomass of herbivores
bull The biomass transferred at each step along the food chain tends to be only about 10 of the biomass of the organisms being consumed due to energy lost in cellular respiration
bull As a consequence of this inefficiency food chains rarely exceed four levels
110
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Essential chemicals cycle through
ecosystems
111
Chemical Reservoirs
bull Each chemical is stored in a non-living part of the environment
bull Organisms acquire the chemical from the reservoir a non-living part of the environment
bull The chemical cycles through the food chain (biogeochemical cycles)
bull Eventually the chemical is returned to the reservoir
112
Hydrologic Cycle and the Florida Springs
bull Click here for a description of how falling rain feeds underground aquifers in Florida and forms springs
113
The Most Important Chemical Cycles
1) Carbon
2) Nitrogen
3) Phosphorus
4) Sulfur
114
115
The
Carbon
Cycle
116
The Carbon Cycle
Keeping Up With Carbon
NASA video provides key information on the carbon cycle
117
118
Carbon Cycle Game
Fossil Fuels
bull created when large numbers of organisms die and are buried in sediment lacking oxygen
bull In absence of oxygen at high pressures and after very long periods of time organic remains are ultimately transformed into coal oil and natural gas
bull burning coal oil and natural gas releases large amounts of carbon dioxide
bull increases average CO2 concentration in the atmosphere
bull current level of CO2 in the atmosphere is the highest it has been in almost half a million years
119
Global CO2 levels are rising in
general but they also exhibit a
sharp rise and fall within each
year ndash why
120
121
The Nitrogen Cycle
122
The Nitrogen Cycle
Fertilizers
bull Because it is necessary for the production of every plant
protein and because all nitrogen must first be made
usable by bacteria plant growth is often limited by
nitrogen levels in the soil
bull For this reason most fertilizers contain nitrogen in a
form usable by plants
123
124
125
126
127
Oxygen reduction downstream of a source of
organic pollution
128
Algal growth and eutrophication in an Australian
outback waterway
129
Sulfur Cycle
bull component of protein
bull cycles in both a gas and sedimentary cycle
bull source earths crust
bull enters the atmosphere as hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
during fossil fuel combustion volcanic eruptions
gas exchange at ocean surfaces decomposition
130
Sulfur Cycle
bull H2S is immediately oxidized to sulfur dioxide (SO2)
bull SO2 + water vapor H2SO4 (falls to earth in rain)
bull sulfur in soluble form is taken up by plant roots
incorporated into amino acids such as cysteine
bull travels through food chain
bull eventually released through decomposition
131
How is carbon recycled back to the
atmosphere in the carbon cycle
1 It is ldquofixedrdquo by bacteria
2 It is a product of cellular respiration
3 Burning of fossil fuels
4 2 and 3
5 All of the above
132
Why do commercial fertilizers usually
contain usable forms of nitrogen and
phosphorous
1 These chemicals are not efficiently recycled in
the soil
2 Nitrogen and phosphorous need to be ldquofixedrdquo
by bacteria or the plant
3 Nitrogen and phosphorous are found at high
levels in the atmosphere but not in the soil
4 Nitrogen and phosphorous only enter the soil
through erosion
133
Take-home message
bull Chemicals essential to lifemdashincluding carbon nitrogen and phosphorusmdashcycle through ecosystems
bull They are usually captured from the atmosphere soil or water by growing organisms passed from one trophic level to the next as organisms eat other organisms and returned to the environment through respiration decomposition and erosion
bull These cycles can be disrupted as human activities significantly increase the amounts of the chemicals utilized or released to the environment
134
Symbiotic Relationships
bull Symbiosis close relationship between organisms of
two different species
bull At least one participant gains some sort of benefit
(usually nutritional)
bull Types of symbiosis
bull Parasitism
bull Commensalism
bull Mutualism
bull Predation
135
Symbiotic Relationships in the
Ocean
bull Click here for an explanation of the
relationships of marine animals
including sharks rays and various
fishes
136
Parasitism bull Parasite derives nutrition from the host
bull This harms the host but a true parasite does
not usually kill its host (directly)
137
Ectoparasites
Remain outside the host
Ticks fleas leeches
138
Endoparasites
Live inside the hostrsquos body
Tapeworms malarial parasites
139
Parasite Transmission
bull Many parasites live on or in a single organism
bull Some will alternate between 2 or more host species
bull Vertical transmission ndash from mother offspring
bull Horizontal transmission ndash between members of a
population
bull Direct contact (head lice)
bull Vectors (mosquitos)
140
141
Commensalism
bull Neither species is totally dependent on the other
bull One benefits ndash no effect on the other
bull Feeding or protection
bull Porcelain anemone crabs and anemones
142
Mutualism
bull Both species benefit
bull Food or shelter
bull Examples
bull Plants and microbes (rhizobium in root nodules)
bull Plants and fungi (orchids and mycorrhizae)
bull Protists and fungi (lichen)
bull Plants and insects (pollination)
bull Animals and bacteria (ruminants)
bull Animals and other animals (crocodiles and
plover birds)
143
Mutualism shrimp and moray
Cleaner shrimp cleaning a zebra moray eel Mutualistic
relationships such as these promote the well-being of the
host fishes and provide food for those that do the cleaning 144
Rhizobium
Rhizobium in root nodules of certain plants convert
nitrogen in soil to usable form
145
Orchid Mycorrhizae
Fungi aid the plant in the uptake of nutrients
Fungi ingest some of the food from plant
photosynthesis 146
Lichen
Most of the lichen is composed of fungal filaments
but living among the filaments are algal cells
usually from a green alga or a cyanobacterium
The lichen fungus provides its partner(s) a benefit
(protection) and gains nutrients in return 147
Ruminants
Ruminants are characterized by their four-chambered
stomach and cud-chewing behavior Cud is a food bolus
that is regurgitated rechewed and reswallowed The
rumen is a large fermentation vat containing billions of
microorganisms including bacteria and protozoa which
allow ruminants to digest fibrous feeds such as grass and
hay that other animals cannot efficiently utilize 148
Crocodiles amp
Plover Birds
The bird gets into the crocodiles mouth and picks out
the tiny bits of food stuck in his teeth then eats it (the
tiny bits)
This cleans the crocodiles teeth and keeps his mouth
fresh and free from infections 149
Predation
bull Consumption of one living organism by
another
bull Predators must have offensive strategies
bull ways of finding catching and eating
their prey
bull Prey organisms must have defensive
strategies
bull ways of avoiding or discouraging this
activity
150
Predation
bull Encompasses all levels within an
ecological food chainweb
bull plant-herbivore systems
bull herbivore-carnivore systems
bull three-way interactions of
interdependent plant-herbivore-
carnivore systems
151
This goshawk is the tertiary consumer in his ecosystem
and the mouse in his beak is the secondary consumer
Beneath the mouse on the ecological pyramid lies his
foodsource likely a worm which fed on the primary
producer leafy plants 152
Ecosystem of Life in Floridas
Springs
bull Click here for a close-up look of life
in Floridas springs and the various
predator-prey interactions there
153
Energy flow through a food chain
Energy flow refers to the way that energy is transformed through
a food chain (pictured here) containing a series of levels
including plants consumers predators and decomposers 97
Amount of energy available at each of the
four levels of an ecosystem
Ecological pyramids illustrate the amount of energy
available at each of the four levels of an ecosystem 98
Ecological Pyramid
99
A grasshopper eats a plant A mouse eats the
grasshopper A snake eats the mouse A hawk
could eat the snake or the mouse In this food
web how would we categorize the hawk
1 Producer
2 Primary consumer
3 Secondary consumer
4 Tertiary consumer
5 Quaternary consumer
6 4 and 5
100
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps
bull First it is converted to chemical energy in
photosynthesis
bull Herbivores then consume the primary producers the
herbivores are consumed by carnivores and the
carnivores in turn may be consumed by top carnivores
101
Take-home message
bull Detritivores and decomposers extract energy from
organic waste and the remains of organisms that have
died
bull At each step in a food chain some usable energy is lost
as heat
102
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy pyramids reveal the inefficiency of
food chains
103
Biomass
bull biomass total weight of all living organisms in a given
area
bull only about 10 of the plants in an ecosystem is
converted into biomass
bull Food Energy Pyramid
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
bull African savannas and grasslands sustain more species
of higher-order carnivores than any other terrestrial
ecosystem
104
105
Food Energy Pyramids
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
106
107
108
You go out to eat at a fancy restaurant You
have a salad salmon and for dessert ice
cream Which part of the meal was the most
energy efficient food for you to eat
1 Salad
2 Salmon
3 Ice cream
4 2 and 3
109
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps known as trophic levels
bull Energy pyramids reveal that the biomass of primary
producers in an ecosystem tends to be far greater than
the biomass of herbivores
bull The biomass transferred at each step along the food chain tends to be only about 10 of the biomass of the organisms being consumed due to energy lost in cellular respiration
bull As a consequence of this inefficiency food chains rarely exceed four levels
110
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Essential chemicals cycle through
ecosystems
111
Chemical Reservoirs
bull Each chemical is stored in a non-living part of the environment
bull Organisms acquire the chemical from the reservoir a non-living part of the environment
bull The chemical cycles through the food chain (biogeochemical cycles)
bull Eventually the chemical is returned to the reservoir
112
Hydrologic Cycle and the Florida Springs
bull Click here for a description of how falling rain feeds underground aquifers in Florida and forms springs
113
The Most Important Chemical Cycles
1) Carbon
2) Nitrogen
3) Phosphorus
4) Sulfur
114
115
The
Carbon
Cycle
116
The Carbon Cycle
Keeping Up With Carbon
NASA video provides key information on the carbon cycle
117
118
Carbon Cycle Game
Fossil Fuels
bull created when large numbers of organisms die and are buried in sediment lacking oxygen
bull In absence of oxygen at high pressures and after very long periods of time organic remains are ultimately transformed into coal oil and natural gas
bull burning coal oil and natural gas releases large amounts of carbon dioxide
bull increases average CO2 concentration in the atmosphere
bull current level of CO2 in the atmosphere is the highest it has been in almost half a million years
119
Global CO2 levels are rising in
general but they also exhibit a
sharp rise and fall within each
year ndash why
120
121
The Nitrogen Cycle
122
The Nitrogen Cycle
Fertilizers
bull Because it is necessary for the production of every plant
protein and because all nitrogen must first be made
usable by bacteria plant growth is often limited by
nitrogen levels in the soil
bull For this reason most fertilizers contain nitrogen in a
form usable by plants
123
124
125
126
127
Oxygen reduction downstream of a source of
organic pollution
128
Algal growth and eutrophication in an Australian
outback waterway
129
Sulfur Cycle
bull component of protein
bull cycles in both a gas and sedimentary cycle
bull source earths crust
bull enters the atmosphere as hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
during fossil fuel combustion volcanic eruptions
gas exchange at ocean surfaces decomposition
130
Sulfur Cycle
bull H2S is immediately oxidized to sulfur dioxide (SO2)
bull SO2 + water vapor H2SO4 (falls to earth in rain)
bull sulfur in soluble form is taken up by plant roots
incorporated into amino acids such as cysteine
bull travels through food chain
bull eventually released through decomposition
131
How is carbon recycled back to the
atmosphere in the carbon cycle
1 It is ldquofixedrdquo by bacteria
2 It is a product of cellular respiration
3 Burning of fossil fuels
4 2 and 3
5 All of the above
132
Why do commercial fertilizers usually
contain usable forms of nitrogen and
phosphorous
1 These chemicals are not efficiently recycled in
the soil
2 Nitrogen and phosphorous need to be ldquofixedrdquo
by bacteria or the plant
3 Nitrogen and phosphorous are found at high
levels in the atmosphere but not in the soil
4 Nitrogen and phosphorous only enter the soil
through erosion
133
Take-home message
bull Chemicals essential to lifemdashincluding carbon nitrogen and phosphorusmdashcycle through ecosystems
bull They are usually captured from the atmosphere soil or water by growing organisms passed from one trophic level to the next as organisms eat other organisms and returned to the environment through respiration decomposition and erosion
bull These cycles can be disrupted as human activities significantly increase the amounts of the chemicals utilized or released to the environment
134
Symbiotic Relationships
bull Symbiosis close relationship between organisms of
two different species
bull At least one participant gains some sort of benefit
(usually nutritional)
bull Types of symbiosis
bull Parasitism
bull Commensalism
bull Mutualism
bull Predation
135
Symbiotic Relationships in the
Ocean
bull Click here for an explanation of the
relationships of marine animals
including sharks rays and various
fishes
136
Parasitism bull Parasite derives nutrition from the host
bull This harms the host but a true parasite does
not usually kill its host (directly)
137
Ectoparasites
Remain outside the host
Ticks fleas leeches
138
Endoparasites
Live inside the hostrsquos body
Tapeworms malarial parasites
139
Parasite Transmission
bull Many parasites live on or in a single organism
bull Some will alternate between 2 or more host species
bull Vertical transmission ndash from mother offspring
bull Horizontal transmission ndash between members of a
population
bull Direct contact (head lice)
bull Vectors (mosquitos)
140
141
Commensalism
bull Neither species is totally dependent on the other
bull One benefits ndash no effect on the other
bull Feeding or protection
bull Porcelain anemone crabs and anemones
142
Mutualism
bull Both species benefit
bull Food or shelter
bull Examples
bull Plants and microbes (rhizobium in root nodules)
bull Plants and fungi (orchids and mycorrhizae)
bull Protists and fungi (lichen)
bull Plants and insects (pollination)
bull Animals and bacteria (ruminants)
bull Animals and other animals (crocodiles and
plover birds)
143
Mutualism shrimp and moray
Cleaner shrimp cleaning a zebra moray eel Mutualistic
relationships such as these promote the well-being of the
host fishes and provide food for those that do the cleaning 144
Rhizobium
Rhizobium in root nodules of certain plants convert
nitrogen in soil to usable form
145
Orchid Mycorrhizae
Fungi aid the plant in the uptake of nutrients
Fungi ingest some of the food from plant
photosynthesis 146
Lichen
Most of the lichen is composed of fungal filaments
but living among the filaments are algal cells
usually from a green alga or a cyanobacterium
The lichen fungus provides its partner(s) a benefit
(protection) and gains nutrients in return 147
Ruminants
Ruminants are characterized by their four-chambered
stomach and cud-chewing behavior Cud is a food bolus
that is regurgitated rechewed and reswallowed The
rumen is a large fermentation vat containing billions of
microorganisms including bacteria and protozoa which
allow ruminants to digest fibrous feeds such as grass and
hay that other animals cannot efficiently utilize 148
Crocodiles amp
Plover Birds
The bird gets into the crocodiles mouth and picks out
the tiny bits of food stuck in his teeth then eats it (the
tiny bits)
This cleans the crocodiles teeth and keeps his mouth
fresh and free from infections 149
Predation
bull Consumption of one living organism by
another
bull Predators must have offensive strategies
bull ways of finding catching and eating
their prey
bull Prey organisms must have defensive
strategies
bull ways of avoiding or discouraging this
activity
150
Predation
bull Encompasses all levels within an
ecological food chainweb
bull plant-herbivore systems
bull herbivore-carnivore systems
bull three-way interactions of
interdependent plant-herbivore-
carnivore systems
151
This goshawk is the tertiary consumer in his ecosystem
and the mouse in his beak is the secondary consumer
Beneath the mouse on the ecological pyramid lies his
foodsource likely a worm which fed on the primary
producer leafy plants 152
Ecosystem of Life in Floridas
Springs
bull Click here for a close-up look of life
in Floridas springs and the various
predator-prey interactions there
153
Amount of energy available at each of the
four levels of an ecosystem
Ecological pyramids illustrate the amount of energy
available at each of the four levels of an ecosystem 98
Ecological Pyramid
99
A grasshopper eats a plant A mouse eats the
grasshopper A snake eats the mouse A hawk
could eat the snake or the mouse In this food
web how would we categorize the hawk
1 Producer
2 Primary consumer
3 Secondary consumer
4 Tertiary consumer
5 Quaternary consumer
6 4 and 5
100
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps
bull First it is converted to chemical energy in
photosynthesis
bull Herbivores then consume the primary producers the
herbivores are consumed by carnivores and the
carnivores in turn may be consumed by top carnivores
101
Take-home message
bull Detritivores and decomposers extract energy from
organic waste and the remains of organisms that have
died
bull At each step in a food chain some usable energy is lost
as heat
102
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy pyramids reveal the inefficiency of
food chains
103
Biomass
bull biomass total weight of all living organisms in a given
area
bull only about 10 of the plants in an ecosystem is
converted into biomass
bull Food Energy Pyramid
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
bull African savannas and grasslands sustain more species
of higher-order carnivores than any other terrestrial
ecosystem
104
105
Food Energy Pyramids
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
106
107
108
You go out to eat at a fancy restaurant You
have a salad salmon and for dessert ice
cream Which part of the meal was the most
energy efficient food for you to eat
1 Salad
2 Salmon
3 Ice cream
4 2 and 3
109
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps known as trophic levels
bull Energy pyramids reveal that the biomass of primary
producers in an ecosystem tends to be far greater than
the biomass of herbivores
bull The biomass transferred at each step along the food chain tends to be only about 10 of the biomass of the organisms being consumed due to energy lost in cellular respiration
bull As a consequence of this inefficiency food chains rarely exceed four levels
110
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Essential chemicals cycle through
ecosystems
111
Chemical Reservoirs
bull Each chemical is stored in a non-living part of the environment
bull Organisms acquire the chemical from the reservoir a non-living part of the environment
bull The chemical cycles through the food chain (biogeochemical cycles)
bull Eventually the chemical is returned to the reservoir
112
Hydrologic Cycle and the Florida Springs
bull Click here for a description of how falling rain feeds underground aquifers in Florida and forms springs
113
The Most Important Chemical Cycles
1) Carbon
2) Nitrogen
3) Phosphorus
4) Sulfur
114
115
The
Carbon
Cycle
116
The Carbon Cycle
Keeping Up With Carbon
NASA video provides key information on the carbon cycle
117
118
Carbon Cycle Game
Fossil Fuels
bull created when large numbers of organisms die and are buried in sediment lacking oxygen
bull In absence of oxygen at high pressures and after very long periods of time organic remains are ultimately transformed into coal oil and natural gas
bull burning coal oil and natural gas releases large amounts of carbon dioxide
bull increases average CO2 concentration in the atmosphere
bull current level of CO2 in the atmosphere is the highest it has been in almost half a million years
119
Global CO2 levels are rising in
general but they also exhibit a
sharp rise and fall within each
year ndash why
120
121
The Nitrogen Cycle
122
The Nitrogen Cycle
Fertilizers
bull Because it is necessary for the production of every plant
protein and because all nitrogen must first be made
usable by bacteria plant growth is often limited by
nitrogen levels in the soil
bull For this reason most fertilizers contain nitrogen in a
form usable by plants
123
124
125
126
127
Oxygen reduction downstream of a source of
organic pollution
128
Algal growth and eutrophication in an Australian
outback waterway
129
Sulfur Cycle
bull component of protein
bull cycles in both a gas and sedimentary cycle
bull source earths crust
bull enters the atmosphere as hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
during fossil fuel combustion volcanic eruptions
gas exchange at ocean surfaces decomposition
130
Sulfur Cycle
bull H2S is immediately oxidized to sulfur dioxide (SO2)
bull SO2 + water vapor H2SO4 (falls to earth in rain)
bull sulfur in soluble form is taken up by plant roots
incorporated into amino acids such as cysteine
bull travels through food chain
bull eventually released through decomposition
131
How is carbon recycled back to the
atmosphere in the carbon cycle
1 It is ldquofixedrdquo by bacteria
2 It is a product of cellular respiration
3 Burning of fossil fuels
4 2 and 3
5 All of the above
132
Why do commercial fertilizers usually
contain usable forms of nitrogen and
phosphorous
1 These chemicals are not efficiently recycled in
the soil
2 Nitrogen and phosphorous need to be ldquofixedrdquo
by bacteria or the plant
3 Nitrogen and phosphorous are found at high
levels in the atmosphere but not in the soil
4 Nitrogen and phosphorous only enter the soil
through erosion
133
Take-home message
bull Chemicals essential to lifemdashincluding carbon nitrogen and phosphorusmdashcycle through ecosystems
bull They are usually captured from the atmosphere soil or water by growing organisms passed from one trophic level to the next as organisms eat other organisms and returned to the environment through respiration decomposition and erosion
bull These cycles can be disrupted as human activities significantly increase the amounts of the chemicals utilized or released to the environment
134
Symbiotic Relationships
bull Symbiosis close relationship between organisms of
two different species
bull At least one participant gains some sort of benefit
(usually nutritional)
bull Types of symbiosis
bull Parasitism
bull Commensalism
bull Mutualism
bull Predation
135
Symbiotic Relationships in the
Ocean
bull Click here for an explanation of the
relationships of marine animals
including sharks rays and various
fishes
136
Parasitism bull Parasite derives nutrition from the host
bull This harms the host but a true parasite does
not usually kill its host (directly)
137
Ectoparasites
Remain outside the host
Ticks fleas leeches
138
Endoparasites
Live inside the hostrsquos body
Tapeworms malarial parasites
139
Parasite Transmission
bull Many parasites live on or in a single organism
bull Some will alternate between 2 or more host species
bull Vertical transmission ndash from mother offspring
bull Horizontal transmission ndash between members of a
population
bull Direct contact (head lice)
bull Vectors (mosquitos)
140
141
Commensalism
bull Neither species is totally dependent on the other
bull One benefits ndash no effect on the other
bull Feeding or protection
bull Porcelain anemone crabs and anemones
142
Mutualism
bull Both species benefit
bull Food or shelter
bull Examples
bull Plants and microbes (rhizobium in root nodules)
bull Plants and fungi (orchids and mycorrhizae)
bull Protists and fungi (lichen)
bull Plants and insects (pollination)
bull Animals and bacteria (ruminants)
bull Animals and other animals (crocodiles and
plover birds)
143
Mutualism shrimp and moray
Cleaner shrimp cleaning a zebra moray eel Mutualistic
relationships such as these promote the well-being of the
host fishes and provide food for those that do the cleaning 144
Rhizobium
Rhizobium in root nodules of certain plants convert
nitrogen in soil to usable form
145
Orchid Mycorrhizae
Fungi aid the plant in the uptake of nutrients
Fungi ingest some of the food from plant
photosynthesis 146
Lichen
Most of the lichen is composed of fungal filaments
but living among the filaments are algal cells
usually from a green alga or a cyanobacterium
The lichen fungus provides its partner(s) a benefit
(protection) and gains nutrients in return 147
Ruminants
Ruminants are characterized by their four-chambered
stomach and cud-chewing behavior Cud is a food bolus
that is regurgitated rechewed and reswallowed The
rumen is a large fermentation vat containing billions of
microorganisms including bacteria and protozoa which
allow ruminants to digest fibrous feeds such as grass and
hay that other animals cannot efficiently utilize 148
Crocodiles amp
Plover Birds
The bird gets into the crocodiles mouth and picks out
the tiny bits of food stuck in his teeth then eats it (the
tiny bits)
This cleans the crocodiles teeth and keeps his mouth
fresh and free from infections 149
Predation
bull Consumption of one living organism by
another
bull Predators must have offensive strategies
bull ways of finding catching and eating
their prey
bull Prey organisms must have defensive
strategies
bull ways of avoiding or discouraging this
activity
150
Predation
bull Encompasses all levels within an
ecological food chainweb
bull plant-herbivore systems
bull herbivore-carnivore systems
bull three-way interactions of
interdependent plant-herbivore-
carnivore systems
151
This goshawk is the tertiary consumer in his ecosystem
and the mouse in his beak is the secondary consumer
Beneath the mouse on the ecological pyramid lies his
foodsource likely a worm which fed on the primary
producer leafy plants 152
Ecosystem of Life in Floridas
Springs
bull Click here for a close-up look of life
in Floridas springs and the various
predator-prey interactions there
153
Ecological Pyramid
99
A grasshopper eats a plant A mouse eats the
grasshopper A snake eats the mouse A hawk
could eat the snake or the mouse In this food
web how would we categorize the hawk
1 Producer
2 Primary consumer
3 Secondary consumer
4 Tertiary consumer
5 Quaternary consumer
6 4 and 5
100
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps
bull First it is converted to chemical energy in
photosynthesis
bull Herbivores then consume the primary producers the
herbivores are consumed by carnivores and the
carnivores in turn may be consumed by top carnivores
101
Take-home message
bull Detritivores and decomposers extract energy from
organic waste and the remains of organisms that have
died
bull At each step in a food chain some usable energy is lost
as heat
102
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy pyramids reveal the inefficiency of
food chains
103
Biomass
bull biomass total weight of all living organisms in a given
area
bull only about 10 of the plants in an ecosystem is
converted into biomass
bull Food Energy Pyramid
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
bull African savannas and grasslands sustain more species
of higher-order carnivores than any other terrestrial
ecosystem
104
105
Food Energy Pyramids
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
106
107
108
You go out to eat at a fancy restaurant You
have a salad salmon and for dessert ice
cream Which part of the meal was the most
energy efficient food for you to eat
1 Salad
2 Salmon
3 Ice cream
4 2 and 3
109
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps known as trophic levels
bull Energy pyramids reveal that the biomass of primary
producers in an ecosystem tends to be far greater than
the biomass of herbivores
bull The biomass transferred at each step along the food chain tends to be only about 10 of the biomass of the organisms being consumed due to energy lost in cellular respiration
bull As a consequence of this inefficiency food chains rarely exceed four levels
110
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Essential chemicals cycle through
ecosystems
111
Chemical Reservoirs
bull Each chemical is stored in a non-living part of the environment
bull Organisms acquire the chemical from the reservoir a non-living part of the environment
bull The chemical cycles through the food chain (biogeochemical cycles)
bull Eventually the chemical is returned to the reservoir
112
Hydrologic Cycle and the Florida Springs
bull Click here for a description of how falling rain feeds underground aquifers in Florida and forms springs
113
The Most Important Chemical Cycles
1) Carbon
2) Nitrogen
3) Phosphorus
4) Sulfur
114
115
The
Carbon
Cycle
116
The Carbon Cycle
Keeping Up With Carbon
NASA video provides key information on the carbon cycle
117
118
Carbon Cycle Game
Fossil Fuels
bull created when large numbers of organisms die and are buried in sediment lacking oxygen
bull In absence of oxygen at high pressures and after very long periods of time organic remains are ultimately transformed into coal oil and natural gas
bull burning coal oil and natural gas releases large amounts of carbon dioxide
bull increases average CO2 concentration in the atmosphere
bull current level of CO2 in the atmosphere is the highest it has been in almost half a million years
119
Global CO2 levels are rising in
general but they also exhibit a
sharp rise and fall within each
year ndash why
120
121
The Nitrogen Cycle
122
The Nitrogen Cycle
Fertilizers
bull Because it is necessary for the production of every plant
protein and because all nitrogen must first be made
usable by bacteria plant growth is often limited by
nitrogen levels in the soil
bull For this reason most fertilizers contain nitrogen in a
form usable by plants
123
124
125
126
127
Oxygen reduction downstream of a source of
organic pollution
128
Algal growth and eutrophication in an Australian
outback waterway
129
Sulfur Cycle
bull component of protein
bull cycles in both a gas and sedimentary cycle
bull source earths crust
bull enters the atmosphere as hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
during fossil fuel combustion volcanic eruptions
gas exchange at ocean surfaces decomposition
130
Sulfur Cycle
bull H2S is immediately oxidized to sulfur dioxide (SO2)
bull SO2 + water vapor H2SO4 (falls to earth in rain)
bull sulfur in soluble form is taken up by plant roots
incorporated into amino acids such as cysteine
bull travels through food chain
bull eventually released through decomposition
131
How is carbon recycled back to the
atmosphere in the carbon cycle
1 It is ldquofixedrdquo by bacteria
2 It is a product of cellular respiration
3 Burning of fossil fuels
4 2 and 3
5 All of the above
132
Why do commercial fertilizers usually
contain usable forms of nitrogen and
phosphorous
1 These chemicals are not efficiently recycled in
the soil
2 Nitrogen and phosphorous need to be ldquofixedrdquo
by bacteria or the plant
3 Nitrogen and phosphorous are found at high
levels in the atmosphere but not in the soil
4 Nitrogen and phosphorous only enter the soil
through erosion
133
Take-home message
bull Chemicals essential to lifemdashincluding carbon nitrogen and phosphorusmdashcycle through ecosystems
bull They are usually captured from the atmosphere soil or water by growing organisms passed from one trophic level to the next as organisms eat other organisms and returned to the environment through respiration decomposition and erosion
bull These cycles can be disrupted as human activities significantly increase the amounts of the chemicals utilized or released to the environment
134
Symbiotic Relationships
bull Symbiosis close relationship between organisms of
two different species
bull At least one participant gains some sort of benefit
(usually nutritional)
bull Types of symbiosis
bull Parasitism
bull Commensalism
bull Mutualism
bull Predation
135
Symbiotic Relationships in the
Ocean
bull Click here for an explanation of the
relationships of marine animals
including sharks rays and various
fishes
136
Parasitism bull Parasite derives nutrition from the host
bull This harms the host but a true parasite does
not usually kill its host (directly)
137
Ectoparasites
Remain outside the host
Ticks fleas leeches
138
Endoparasites
Live inside the hostrsquos body
Tapeworms malarial parasites
139
Parasite Transmission
bull Many parasites live on or in a single organism
bull Some will alternate between 2 or more host species
bull Vertical transmission ndash from mother offspring
bull Horizontal transmission ndash between members of a
population
bull Direct contact (head lice)
bull Vectors (mosquitos)
140
141
Commensalism
bull Neither species is totally dependent on the other
bull One benefits ndash no effect on the other
bull Feeding or protection
bull Porcelain anemone crabs and anemones
142
Mutualism
bull Both species benefit
bull Food or shelter
bull Examples
bull Plants and microbes (rhizobium in root nodules)
bull Plants and fungi (orchids and mycorrhizae)
bull Protists and fungi (lichen)
bull Plants and insects (pollination)
bull Animals and bacteria (ruminants)
bull Animals and other animals (crocodiles and
plover birds)
143
Mutualism shrimp and moray
Cleaner shrimp cleaning a zebra moray eel Mutualistic
relationships such as these promote the well-being of the
host fishes and provide food for those that do the cleaning 144
Rhizobium
Rhizobium in root nodules of certain plants convert
nitrogen in soil to usable form
145
Orchid Mycorrhizae
Fungi aid the plant in the uptake of nutrients
Fungi ingest some of the food from plant
photosynthesis 146
Lichen
Most of the lichen is composed of fungal filaments
but living among the filaments are algal cells
usually from a green alga or a cyanobacterium
The lichen fungus provides its partner(s) a benefit
(protection) and gains nutrients in return 147
Ruminants
Ruminants are characterized by their four-chambered
stomach and cud-chewing behavior Cud is a food bolus
that is regurgitated rechewed and reswallowed The
rumen is a large fermentation vat containing billions of
microorganisms including bacteria and protozoa which
allow ruminants to digest fibrous feeds such as grass and
hay that other animals cannot efficiently utilize 148
Crocodiles amp
Plover Birds
The bird gets into the crocodiles mouth and picks out
the tiny bits of food stuck in his teeth then eats it (the
tiny bits)
This cleans the crocodiles teeth and keeps his mouth
fresh and free from infections 149
Predation
bull Consumption of one living organism by
another
bull Predators must have offensive strategies
bull ways of finding catching and eating
their prey
bull Prey organisms must have defensive
strategies
bull ways of avoiding or discouraging this
activity
150
Predation
bull Encompasses all levels within an
ecological food chainweb
bull plant-herbivore systems
bull herbivore-carnivore systems
bull three-way interactions of
interdependent plant-herbivore-
carnivore systems
151
This goshawk is the tertiary consumer in his ecosystem
and the mouse in his beak is the secondary consumer
Beneath the mouse on the ecological pyramid lies his
foodsource likely a worm which fed on the primary
producer leafy plants 152
Ecosystem of Life in Floridas
Springs
bull Click here for a close-up look of life
in Floridas springs and the various
predator-prey interactions there
153
A grasshopper eats a plant A mouse eats the
grasshopper A snake eats the mouse A hawk
could eat the snake or the mouse In this food
web how would we categorize the hawk
1 Producer
2 Primary consumer
3 Secondary consumer
4 Tertiary consumer
5 Quaternary consumer
6 4 and 5
100
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps
bull First it is converted to chemical energy in
photosynthesis
bull Herbivores then consume the primary producers the
herbivores are consumed by carnivores and the
carnivores in turn may be consumed by top carnivores
101
Take-home message
bull Detritivores and decomposers extract energy from
organic waste and the remains of organisms that have
died
bull At each step in a food chain some usable energy is lost
as heat
102
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy pyramids reveal the inefficiency of
food chains
103
Biomass
bull biomass total weight of all living organisms in a given
area
bull only about 10 of the plants in an ecosystem is
converted into biomass
bull Food Energy Pyramid
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
bull African savannas and grasslands sustain more species
of higher-order carnivores than any other terrestrial
ecosystem
104
105
Food Energy Pyramids
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
106
107
108
You go out to eat at a fancy restaurant You
have a salad salmon and for dessert ice
cream Which part of the meal was the most
energy efficient food for you to eat
1 Salad
2 Salmon
3 Ice cream
4 2 and 3
109
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps known as trophic levels
bull Energy pyramids reveal that the biomass of primary
producers in an ecosystem tends to be far greater than
the biomass of herbivores
bull The biomass transferred at each step along the food chain tends to be only about 10 of the biomass of the organisms being consumed due to energy lost in cellular respiration
bull As a consequence of this inefficiency food chains rarely exceed four levels
110
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Essential chemicals cycle through
ecosystems
111
Chemical Reservoirs
bull Each chemical is stored in a non-living part of the environment
bull Organisms acquire the chemical from the reservoir a non-living part of the environment
bull The chemical cycles through the food chain (biogeochemical cycles)
bull Eventually the chemical is returned to the reservoir
112
Hydrologic Cycle and the Florida Springs
bull Click here for a description of how falling rain feeds underground aquifers in Florida and forms springs
113
The Most Important Chemical Cycles
1) Carbon
2) Nitrogen
3) Phosphorus
4) Sulfur
114
115
The
Carbon
Cycle
116
The Carbon Cycle
Keeping Up With Carbon
NASA video provides key information on the carbon cycle
117
118
Carbon Cycle Game
Fossil Fuels
bull created when large numbers of organisms die and are buried in sediment lacking oxygen
bull In absence of oxygen at high pressures and after very long periods of time organic remains are ultimately transformed into coal oil and natural gas
bull burning coal oil and natural gas releases large amounts of carbon dioxide
bull increases average CO2 concentration in the atmosphere
bull current level of CO2 in the atmosphere is the highest it has been in almost half a million years
119
Global CO2 levels are rising in
general but they also exhibit a
sharp rise and fall within each
year ndash why
120
121
The Nitrogen Cycle
122
The Nitrogen Cycle
Fertilizers
bull Because it is necessary for the production of every plant
protein and because all nitrogen must first be made
usable by bacteria plant growth is often limited by
nitrogen levels in the soil
bull For this reason most fertilizers contain nitrogen in a
form usable by plants
123
124
125
126
127
Oxygen reduction downstream of a source of
organic pollution
128
Algal growth and eutrophication in an Australian
outback waterway
129
Sulfur Cycle
bull component of protein
bull cycles in both a gas and sedimentary cycle
bull source earths crust
bull enters the atmosphere as hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
during fossil fuel combustion volcanic eruptions
gas exchange at ocean surfaces decomposition
130
Sulfur Cycle
bull H2S is immediately oxidized to sulfur dioxide (SO2)
bull SO2 + water vapor H2SO4 (falls to earth in rain)
bull sulfur in soluble form is taken up by plant roots
incorporated into amino acids such as cysteine
bull travels through food chain
bull eventually released through decomposition
131
How is carbon recycled back to the
atmosphere in the carbon cycle
1 It is ldquofixedrdquo by bacteria
2 It is a product of cellular respiration
3 Burning of fossil fuels
4 2 and 3
5 All of the above
132
Why do commercial fertilizers usually
contain usable forms of nitrogen and
phosphorous
1 These chemicals are not efficiently recycled in
the soil
2 Nitrogen and phosphorous need to be ldquofixedrdquo
by bacteria or the plant
3 Nitrogen and phosphorous are found at high
levels in the atmosphere but not in the soil
4 Nitrogen and phosphorous only enter the soil
through erosion
133
Take-home message
bull Chemicals essential to lifemdashincluding carbon nitrogen and phosphorusmdashcycle through ecosystems
bull They are usually captured from the atmosphere soil or water by growing organisms passed from one trophic level to the next as organisms eat other organisms and returned to the environment through respiration decomposition and erosion
bull These cycles can be disrupted as human activities significantly increase the amounts of the chemicals utilized or released to the environment
134
Symbiotic Relationships
bull Symbiosis close relationship between organisms of
two different species
bull At least one participant gains some sort of benefit
(usually nutritional)
bull Types of symbiosis
bull Parasitism
bull Commensalism
bull Mutualism
bull Predation
135
Symbiotic Relationships in the
Ocean
bull Click here for an explanation of the
relationships of marine animals
including sharks rays and various
fishes
136
Parasitism bull Parasite derives nutrition from the host
bull This harms the host but a true parasite does
not usually kill its host (directly)
137
Ectoparasites
Remain outside the host
Ticks fleas leeches
138
Endoparasites
Live inside the hostrsquos body
Tapeworms malarial parasites
139
Parasite Transmission
bull Many parasites live on or in a single organism
bull Some will alternate between 2 or more host species
bull Vertical transmission ndash from mother offspring
bull Horizontal transmission ndash between members of a
population
bull Direct contact (head lice)
bull Vectors (mosquitos)
140
141
Commensalism
bull Neither species is totally dependent on the other
bull One benefits ndash no effect on the other
bull Feeding or protection
bull Porcelain anemone crabs and anemones
142
Mutualism
bull Both species benefit
bull Food or shelter
bull Examples
bull Plants and microbes (rhizobium in root nodules)
bull Plants and fungi (orchids and mycorrhizae)
bull Protists and fungi (lichen)
bull Plants and insects (pollination)
bull Animals and bacteria (ruminants)
bull Animals and other animals (crocodiles and
plover birds)
143
Mutualism shrimp and moray
Cleaner shrimp cleaning a zebra moray eel Mutualistic
relationships such as these promote the well-being of the
host fishes and provide food for those that do the cleaning 144
Rhizobium
Rhizobium in root nodules of certain plants convert
nitrogen in soil to usable form
145
Orchid Mycorrhizae
Fungi aid the plant in the uptake of nutrients
Fungi ingest some of the food from plant
photosynthesis 146
Lichen
Most of the lichen is composed of fungal filaments
but living among the filaments are algal cells
usually from a green alga or a cyanobacterium
The lichen fungus provides its partner(s) a benefit
(protection) and gains nutrients in return 147
Ruminants
Ruminants are characterized by their four-chambered
stomach and cud-chewing behavior Cud is a food bolus
that is regurgitated rechewed and reswallowed The
rumen is a large fermentation vat containing billions of
microorganisms including bacteria and protozoa which
allow ruminants to digest fibrous feeds such as grass and
hay that other animals cannot efficiently utilize 148
Crocodiles amp
Plover Birds
The bird gets into the crocodiles mouth and picks out
the tiny bits of food stuck in his teeth then eats it (the
tiny bits)
This cleans the crocodiles teeth and keeps his mouth
fresh and free from infections 149
Predation
bull Consumption of one living organism by
another
bull Predators must have offensive strategies
bull ways of finding catching and eating
their prey
bull Prey organisms must have defensive
strategies
bull ways of avoiding or discouraging this
activity
150
Predation
bull Encompasses all levels within an
ecological food chainweb
bull plant-herbivore systems
bull herbivore-carnivore systems
bull three-way interactions of
interdependent plant-herbivore-
carnivore systems
151
This goshawk is the tertiary consumer in his ecosystem
and the mouse in his beak is the secondary consumer
Beneath the mouse on the ecological pyramid lies his
foodsource likely a worm which fed on the primary
producer leafy plants 152
Ecosystem of Life in Floridas
Springs
bull Click here for a close-up look of life
in Floridas springs and the various
predator-prey interactions there
153
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps
bull First it is converted to chemical energy in
photosynthesis
bull Herbivores then consume the primary producers the
herbivores are consumed by carnivores and the
carnivores in turn may be consumed by top carnivores
101
Take-home message
bull Detritivores and decomposers extract energy from
organic waste and the remains of organisms that have
died
bull At each step in a food chain some usable energy is lost
as heat
102
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy pyramids reveal the inefficiency of
food chains
103
Biomass
bull biomass total weight of all living organisms in a given
area
bull only about 10 of the plants in an ecosystem is
converted into biomass
bull Food Energy Pyramid
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
bull African savannas and grasslands sustain more species
of higher-order carnivores than any other terrestrial
ecosystem
104
105
Food Energy Pyramids
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
106
107
108
You go out to eat at a fancy restaurant You
have a salad salmon and for dessert ice
cream Which part of the meal was the most
energy efficient food for you to eat
1 Salad
2 Salmon
3 Ice cream
4 2 and 3
109
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps known as trophic levels
bull Energy pyramids reveal that the biomass of primary
producers in an ecosystem tends to be far greater than
the biomass of herbivores
bull The biomass transferred at each step along the food chain tends to be only about 10 of the biomass of the organisms being consumed due to energy lost in cellular respiration
bull As a consequence of this inefficiency food chains rarely exceed four levels
110
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Essential chemicals cycle through
ecosystems
111
Chemical Reservoirs
bull Each chemical is stored in a non-living part of the environment
bull Organisms acquire the chemical from the reservoir a non-living part of the environment
bull The chemical cycles through the food chain (biogeochemical cycles)
bull Eventually the chemical is returned to the reservoir
112
Hydrologic Cycle and the Florida Springs
bull Click here for a description of how falling rain feeds underground aquifers in Florida and forms springs
113
The Most Important Chemical Cycles
1) Carbon
2) Nitrogen
3) Phosphorus
4) Sulfur
114
115
The
Carbon
Cycle
116
The Carbon Cycle
Keeping Up With Carbon
NASA video provides key information on the carbon cycle
117
118
Carbon Cycle Game
Fossil Fuels
bull created when large numbers of organisms die and are buried in sediment lacking oxygen
bull In absence of oxygen at high pressures and after very long periods of time organic remains are ultimately transformed into coal oil and natural gas
bull burning coal oil and natural gas releases large amounts of carbon dioxide
bull increases average CO2 concentration in the atmosphere
bull current level of CO2 in the atmosphere is the highest it has been in almost half a million years
119
Global CO2 levels are rising in
general but they also exhibit a
sharp rise and fall within each
year ndash why
120
121
The Nitrogen Cycle
122
The Nitrogen Cycle
Fertilizers
bull Because it is necessary for the production of every plant
protein and because all nitrogen must first be made
usable by bacteria plant growth is often limited by
nitrogen levels in the soil
bull For this reason most fertilizers contain nitrogen in a
form usable by plants
123
124
125
126
127
Oxygen reduction downstream of a source of
organic pollution
128
Algal growth and eutrophication in an Australian
outback waterway
129
Sulfur Cycle
bull component of protein
bull cycles in both a gas and sedimentary cycle
bull source earths crust
bull enters the atmosphere as hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
during fossil fuel combustion volcanic eruptions
gas exchange at ocean surfaces decomposition
130
Sulfur Cycle
bull H2S is immediately oxidized to sulfur dioxide (SO2)
bull SO2 + water vapor H2SO4 (falls to earth in rain)
bull sulfur in soluble form is taken up by plant roots
incorporated into amino acids such as cysteine
bull travels through food chain
bull eventually released through decomposition
131
How is carbon recycled back to the
atmosphere in the carbon cycle
1 It is ldquofixedrdquo by bacteria
2 It is a product of cellular respiration
3 Burning of fossil fuels
4 2 and 3
5 All of the above
132
Why do commercial fertilizers usually
contain usable forms of nitrogen and
phosphorous
1 These chemicals are not efficiently recycled in
the soil
2 Nitrogen and phosphorous need to be ldquofixedrdquo
by bacteria or the plant
3 Nitrogen and phosphorous are found at high
levels in the atmosphere but not in the soil
4 Nitrogen and phosphorous only enter the soil
through erosion
133
Take-home message
bull Chemicals essential to lifemdashincluding carbon nitrogen and phosphorusmdashcycle through ecosystems
bull They are usually captured from the atmosphere soil or water by growing organisms passed from one trophic level to the next as organisms eat other organisms and returned to the environment through respiration decomposition and erosion
bull These cycles can be disrupted as human activities significantly increase the amounts of the chemicals utilized or released to the environment
134
Symbiotic Relationships
bull Symbiosis close relationship between organisms of
two different species
bull At least one participant gains some sort of benefit
(usually nutritional)
bull Types of symbiosis
bull Parasitism
bull Commensalism
bull Mutualism
bull Predation
135
Symbiotic Relationships in the
Ocean
bull Click here for an explanation of the
relationships of marine animals
including sharks rays and various
fishes
136
Parasitism bull Parasite derives nutrition from the host
bull This harms the host but a true parasite does
not usually kill its host (directly)
137
Ectoparasites
Remain outside the host
Ticks fleas leeches
138
Endoparasites
Live inside the hostrsquos body
Tapeworms malarial parasites
139
Parasite Transmission
bull Many parasites live on or in a single organism
bull Some will alternate between 2 or more host species
bull Vertical transmission ndash from mother offspring
bull Horizontal transmission ndash between members of a
population
bull Direct contact (head lice)
bull Vectors (mosquitos)
140
141
Commensalism
bull Neither species is totally dependent on the other
bull One benefits ndash no effect on the other
bull Feeding or protection
bull Porcelain anemone crabs and anemones
142
Mutualism
bull Both species benefit
bull Food or shelter
bull Examples
bull Plants and microbes (rhizobium in root nodules)
bull Plants and fungi (orchids and mycorrhizae)
bull Protists and fungi (lichen)
bull Plants and insects (pollination)
bull Animals and bacteria (ruminants)
bull Animals and other animals (crocodiles and
plover birds)
143
Mutualism shrimp and moray
Cleaner shrimp cleaning a zebra moray eel Mutualistic
relationships such as these promote the well-being of the
host fishes and provide food for those that do the cleaning 144
Rhizobium
Rhizobium in root nodules of certain plants convert
nitrogen in soil to usable form
145
Orchid Mycorrhizae
Fungi aid the plant in the uptake of nutrients
Fungi ingest some of the food from plant
photosynthesis 146
Lichen
Most of the lichen is composed of fungal filaments
but living among the filaments are algal cells
usually from a green alga or a cyanobacterium
The lichen fungus provides its partner(s) a benefit
(protection) and gains nutrients in return 147
Ruminants
Ruminants are characterized by their four-chambered
stomach and cud-chewing behavior Cud is a food bolus
that is regurgitated rechewed and reswallowed The
rumen is a large fermentation vat containing billions of
microorganisms including bacteria and protozoa which
allow ruminants to digest fibrous feeds such as grass and
hay that other animals cannot efficiently utilize 148
Crocodiles amp
Plover Birds
The bird gets into the crocodiles mouth and picks out
the tiny bits of food stuck in his teeth then eats it (the
tiny bits)
This cleans the crocodiles teeth and keeps his mouth
fresh and free from infections 149
Predation
bull Consumption of one living organism by
another
bull Predators must have offensive strategies
bull ways of finding catching and eating
their prey
bull Prey organisms must have defensive
strategies
bull ways of avoiding or discouraging this
activity
150
Predation
bull Encompasses all levels within an
ecological food chainweb
bull plant-herbivore systems
bull herbivore-carnivore systems
bull three-way interactions of
interdependent plant-herbivore-
carnivore systems
151
This goshawk is the tertiary consumer in his ecosystem
and the mouse in his beak is the secondary consumer
Beneath the mouse on the ecological pyramid lies his
foodsource likely a worm which fed on the primary
producer leafy plants 152
Ecosystem of Life in Floridas
Springs
bull Click here for a close-up look of life
in Floridas springs and the various
predator-prey interactions there
153
Take-home message
bull Detritivores and decomposers extract energy from
organic waste and the remains of organisms that have
died
bull At each step in a food chain some usable energy is lost
as heat
102
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy pyramids reveal the inefficiency of
food chains
103
Biomass
bull biomass total weight of all living organisms in a given
area
bull only about 10 of the plants in an ecosystem is
converted into biomass
bull Food Energy Pyramid
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
bull African savannas and grasslands sustain more species
of higher-order carnivores than any other terrestrial
ecosystem
104
105
Food Energy Pyramids
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
106
107
108
You go out to eat at a fancy restaurant You
have a salad salmon and for dessert ice
cream Which part of the meal was the most
energy efficient food for you to eat
1 Salad
2 Salmon
3 Ice cream
4 2 and 3
109
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps known as trophic levels
bull Energy pyramids reveal that the biomass of primary
producers in an ecosystem tends to be far greater than
the biomass of herbivores
bull The biomass transferred at each step along the food chain tends to be only about 10 of the biomass of the organisms being consumed due to energy lost in cellular respiration
bull As a consequence of this inefficiency food chains rarely exceed four levels
110
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Essential chemicals cycle through
ecosystems
111
Chemical Reservoirs
bull Each chemical is stored in a non-living part of the environment
bull Organisms acquire the chemical from the reservoir a non-living part of the environment
bull The chemical cycles through the food chain (biogeochemical cycles)
bull Eventually the chemical is returned to the reservoir
112
Hydrologic Cycle and the Florida Springs
bull Click here for a description of how falling rain feeds underground aquifers in Florida and forms springs
113
The Most Important Chemical Cycles
1) Carbon
2) Nitrogen
3) Phosphorus
4) Sulfur
114
115
The
Carbon
Cycle
116
The Carbon Cycle
Keeping Up With Carbon
NASA video provides key information on the carbon cycle
117
118
Carbon Cycle Game
Fossil Fuels
bull created when large numbers of organisms die and are buried in sediment lacking oxygen
bull In absence of oxygen at high pressures and after very long periods of time organic remains are ultimately transformed into coal oil and natural gas
bull burning coal oil and natural gas releases large amounts of carbon dioxide
bull increases average CO2 concentration in the atmosphere
bull current level of CO2 in the atmosphere is the highest it has been in almost half a million years
119
Global CO2 levels are rising in
general but they also exhibit a
sharp rise and fall within each
year ndash why
120
121
The Nitrogen Cycle
122
The Nitrogen Cycle
Fertilizers
bull Because it is necessary for the production of every plant
protein and because all nitrogen must first be made
usable by bacteria plant growth is often limited by
nitrogen levels in the soil
bull For this reason most fertilizers contain nitrogen in a
form usable by plants
123
124
125
126
127
Oxygen reduction downstream of a source of
organic pollution
128
Algal growth and eutrophication in an Australian
outback waterway
129
Sulfur Cycle
bull component of protein
bull cycles in both a gas and sedimentary cycle
bull source earths crust
bull enters the atmosphere as hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
during fossil fuel combustion volcanic eruptions
gas exchange at ocean surfaces decomposition
130
Sulfur Cycle
bull H2S is immediately oxidized to sulfur dioxide (SO2)
bull SO2 + water vapor H2SO4 (falls to earth in rain)
bull sulfur in soluble form is taken up by plant roots
incorporated into amino acids such as cysteine
bull travels through food chain
bull eventually released through decomposition
131
How is carbon recycled back to the
atmosphere in the carbon cycle
1 It is ldquofixedrdquo by bacteria
2 It is a product of cellular respiration
3 Burning of fossil fuels
4 2 and 3
5 All of the above
132
Why do commercial fertilizers usually
contain usable forms of nitrogen and
phosphorous
1 These chemicals are not efficiently recycled in
the soil
2 Nitrogen and phosphorous need to be ldquofixedrdquo
by bacteria or the plant
3 Nitrogen and phosphorous are found at high
levels in the atmosphere but not in the soil
4 Nitrogen and phosphorous only enter the soil
through erosion
133
Take-home message
bull Chemicals essential to lifemdashincluding carbon nitrogen and phosphorusmdashcycle through ecosystems
bull They are usually captured from the atmosphere soil or water by growing organisms passed from one trophic level to the next as organisms eat other organisms and returned to the environment through respiration decomposition and erosion
bull These cycles can be disrupted as human activities significantly increase the amounts of the chemicals utilized or released to the environment
134
Symbiotic Relationships
bull Symbiosis close relationship between organisms of
two different species
bull At least one participant gains some sort of benefit
(usually nutritional)
bull Types of symbiosis
bull Parasitism
bull Commensalism
bull Mutualism
bull Predation
135
Symbiotic Relationships in the
Ocean
bull Click here for an explanation of the
relationships of marine animals
including sharks rays and various
fishes
136
Parasitism bull Parasite derives nutrition from the host
bull This harms the host but a true parasite does
not usually kill its host (directly)
137
Ectoparasites
Remain outside the host
Ticks fleas leeches
138
Endoparasites
Live inside the hostrsquos body
Tapeworms malarial parasites
139
Parasite Transmission
bull Many parasites live on or in a single organism
bull Some will alternate between 2 or more host species
bull Vertical transmission ndash from mother offspring
bull Horizontal transmission ndash between members of a
population
bull Direct contact (head lice)
bull Vectors (mosquitos)
140
141
Commensalism
bull Neither species is totally dependent on the other
bull One benefits ndash no effect on the other
bull Feeding or protection
bull Porcelain anemone crabs and anemones
142
Mutualism
bull Both species benefit
bull Food or shelter
bull Examples
bull Plants and microbes (rhizobium in root nodules)
bull Plants and fungi (orchids and mycorrhizae)
bull Protists and fungi (lichen)
bull Plants and insects (pollination)
bull Animals and bacteria (ruminants)
bull Animals and other animals (crocodiles and
plover birds)
143
Mutualism shrimp and moray
Cleaner shrimp cleaning a zebra moray eel Mutualistic
relationships such as these promote the well-being of the
host fishes and provide food for those that do the cleaning 144
Rhizobium
Rhizobium in root nodules of certain plants convert
nitrogen in soil to usable form
145
Orchid Mycorrhizae
Fungi aid the plant in the uptake of nutrients
Fungi ingest some of the food from plant
photosynthesis 146
Lichen
Most of the lichen is composed of fungal filaments
but living among the filaments are algal cells
usually from a green alga or a cyanobacterium
The lichen fungus provides its partner(s) a benefit
(protection) and gains nutrients in return 147
Ruminants
Ruminants are characterized by their four-chambered
stomach and cud-chewing behavior Cud is a food bolus
that is regurgitated rechewed and reswallowed The
rumen is a large fermentation vat containing billions of
microorganisms including bacteria and protozoa which
allow ruminants to digest fibrous feeds such as grass and
hay that other animals cannot efficiently utilize 148
Crocodiles amp
Plover Birds
The bird gets into the crocodiles mouth and picks out
the tiny bits of food stuck in his teeth then eats it (the
tiny bits)
This cleans the crocodiles teeth and keeps his mouth
fresh and free from infections 149
Predation
bull Consumption of one living organism by
another
bull Predators must have offensive strategies
bull ways of finding catching and eating
their prey
bull Prey organisms must have defensive
strategies
bull ways of avoiding or discouraging this
activity
150
Predation
bull Encompasses all levels within an
ecological food chainweb
bull plant-herbivore systems
bull herbivore-carnivore systems
bull three-way interactions of
interdependent plant-herbivore-
carnivore systems
151
This goshawk is the tertiary consumer in his ecosystem
and the mouse in his beak is the secondary consumer
Beneath the mouse on the ecological pyramid lies his
foodsource likely a worm which fed on the primary
producer leafy plants 152
Ecosystem of Life in Floridas
Springs
bull Click here for a close-up look of life
in Floridas springs and the various
predator-prey interactions there
153
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Energy pyramids reveal the inefficiency of
food chains
103
Biomass
bull biomass total weight of all living organisms in a given
area
bull only about 10 of the plants in an ecosystem is
converted into biomass
bull Food Energy Pyramid
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
bull African savannas and grasslands sustain more species
of higher-order carnivores than any other terrestrial
ecosystem
104
105
Food Energy Pyramids
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
106
107
108
You go out to eat at a fancy restaurant You
have a salad salmon and for dessert ice
cream Which part of the meal was the most
energy efficient food for you to eat
1 Salad
2 Salmon
3 Ice cream
4 2 and 3
109
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps known as trophic levels
bull Energy pyramids reveal that the biomass of primary
producers in an ecosystem tends to be far greater than
the biomass of herbivores
bull The biomass transferred at each step along the food chain tends to be only about 10 of the biomass of the organisms being consumed due to energy lost in cellular respiration
bull As a consequence of this inefficiency food chains rarely exceed four levels
110
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Essential chemicals cycle through
ecosystems
111
Chemical Reservoirs
bull Each chemical is stored in a non-living part of the environment
bull Organisms acquire the chemical from the reservoir a non-living part of the environment
bull The chemical cycles through the food chain (biogeochemical cycles)
bull Eventually the chemical is returned to the reservoir
112
Hydrologic Cycle and the Florida Springs
bull Click here for a description of how falling rain feeds underground aquifers in Florida and forms springs
113
The Most Important Chemical Cycles
1) Carbon
2) Nitrogen
3) Phosphorus
4) Sulfur
114
115
The
Carbon
Cycle
116
The Carbon Cycle
Keeping Up With Carbon
NASA video provides key information on the carbon cycle
117
118
Carbon Cycle Game
Fossil Fuels
bull created when large numbers of organisms die and are buried in sediment lacking oxygen
bull In absence of oxygen at high pressures and after very long periods of time organic remains are ultimately transformed into coal oil and natural gas
bull burning coal oil and natural gas releases large amounts of carbon dioxide
bull increases average CO2 concentration in the atmosphere
bull current level of CO2 in the atmosphere is the highest it has been in almost half a million years
119
Global CO2 levels are rising in
general but they also exhibit a
sharp rise and fall within each
year ndash why
120
121
The Nitrogen Cycle
122
The Nitrogen Cycle
Fertilizers
bull Because it is necessary for the production of every plant
protein and because all nitrogen must first be made
usable by bacteria plant growth is often limited by
nitrogen levels in the soil
bull For this reason most fertilizers contain nitrogen in a
form usable by plants
123
124
125
126
127
Oxygen reduction downstream of a source of
organic pollution
128
Algal growth and eutrophication in an Australian
outback waterway
129
Sulfur Cycle
bull component of protein
bull cycles in both a gas and sedimentary cycle
bull source earths crust
bull enters the atmosphere as hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
during fossil fuel combustion volcanic eruptions
gas exchange at ocean surfaces decomposition
130
Sulfur Cycle
bull H2S is immediately oxidized to sulfur dioxide (SO2)
bull SO2 + water vapor H2SO4 (falls to earth in rain)
bull sulfur in soluble form is taken up by plant roots
incorporated into amino acids such as cysteine
bull travels through food chain
bull eventually released through decomposition
131
How is carbon recycled back to the
atmosphere in the carbon cycle
1 It is ldquofixedrdquo by bacteria
2 It is a product of cellular respiration
3 Burning of fossil fuels
4 2 and 3
5 All of the above
132
Why do commercial fertilizers usually
contain usable forms of nitrogen and
phosphorous
1 These chemicals are not efficiently recycled in
the soil
2 Nitrogen and phosphorous need to be ldquofixedrdquo
by bacteria or the plant
3 Nitrogen and phosphorous are found at high
levels in the atmosphere but not in the soil
4 Nitrogen and phosphorous only enter the soil
through erosion
133
Take-home message
bull Chemicals essential to lifemdashincluding carbon nitrogen and phosphorusmdashcycle through ecosystems
bull They are usually captured from the atmosphere soil or water by growing organisms passed from one trophic level to the next as organisms eat other organisms and returned to the environment through respiration decomposition and erosion
bull These cycles can be disrupted as human activities significantly increase the amounts of the chemicals utilized or released to the environment
134
Symbiotic Relationships
bull Symbiosis close relationship between organisms of
two different species
bull At least one participant gains some sort of benefit
(usually nutritional)
bull Types of symbiosis
bull Parasitism
bull Commensalism
bull Mutualism
bull Predation
135
Symbiotic Relationships in the
Ocean
bull Click here for an explanation of the
relationships of marine animals
including sharks rays and various
fishes
136
Parasitism bull Parasite derives nutrition from the host
bull This harms the host but a true parasite does
not usually kill its host (directly)
137
Ectoparasites
Remain outside the host
Ticks fleas leeches
138
Endoparasites
Live inside the hostrsquos body
Tapeworms malarial parasites
139
Parasite Transmission
bull Many parasites live on or in a single organism
bull Some will alternate between 2 or more host species
bull Vertical transmission ndash from mother offspring
bull Horizontal transmission ndash between members of a
population
bull Direct contact (head lice)
bull Vectors (mosquitos)
140
141
Commensalism
bull Neither species is totally dependent on the other
bull One benefits ndash no effect on the other
bull Feeding or protection
bull Porcelain anemone crabs and anemones
142
Mutualism
bull Both species benefit
bull Food or shelter
bull Examples
bull Plants and microbes (rhizobium in root nodules)
bull Plants and fungi (orchids and mycorrhizae)
bull Protists and fungi (lichen)
bull Plants and insects (pollination)
bull Animals and bacteria (ruminants)
bull Animals and other animals (crocodiles and
plover birds)
143
Mutualism shrimp and moray
Cleaner shrimp cleaning a zebra moray eel Mutualistic
relationships such as these promote the well-being of the
host fishes and provide food for those that do the cleaning 144
Rhizobium
Rhizobium in root nodules of certain plants convert
nitrogen in soil to usable form
145
Orchid Mycorrhizae
Fungi aid the plant in the uptake of nutrients
Fungi ingest some of the food from plant
photosynthesis 146
Lichen
Most of the lichen is composed of fungal filaments
but living among the filaments are algal cells
usually from a green alga or a cyanobacterium
The lichen fungus provides its partner(s) a benefit
(protection) and gains nutrients in return 147
Ruminants
Ruminants are characterized by their four-chambered
stomach and cud-chewing behavior Cud is a food bolus
that is regurgitated rechewed and reswallowed The
rumen is a large fermentation vat containing billions of
microorganisms including bacteria and protozoa which
allow ruminants to digest fibrous feeds such as grass and
hay that other animals cannot efficiently utilize 148
Crocodiles amp
Plover Birds
The bird gets into the crocodiles mouth and picks out
the tiny bits of food stuck in his teeth then eats it (the
tiny bits)
This cleans the crocodiles teeth and keeps his mouth
fresh and free from infections 149
Predation
bull Consumption of one living organism by
another
bull Predators must have offensive strategies
bull ways of finding catching and eating
their prey
bull Prey organisms must have defensive
strategies
bull ways of avoiding or discouraging this
activity
150
Predation
bull Encompasses all levels within an
ecological food chainweb
bull plant-herbivore systems
bull herbivore-carnivore systems
bull three-way interactions of
interdependent plant-herbivore-
carnivore systems
151
This goshawk is the tertiary consumer in his ecosystem
and the mouse in his beak is the secondary consumer
Beneath the mouse on the ecological pyramid lies his
foodsource likely a worm which fed on the primary
producer leafy plants 152
Ecosystem of Life in Floridas
Springs
bull Click here for a close-up look of life
in Floridas springs and the various
predator-prey interactions there
153
Biomass
bull biomass total weight of all living organisms in a given
area
bull only about 10 of the plants in an ecosystem is
converted into biomass
bull Food Energy Pyramid
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
bull African savannas and grasslands sustain more species
of higher-order carnivores than any other terrestrial
ecosystem
104
105
Food Energy Pyramids
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
106
107
108
You go out to eat at a fancy restaurant You
have a salad salmon and for dessert ice
cream Which part of the meal was the most
energy efficient food for you to eat
1 Salad
2 Salmon
3 Ice cream
4 2 and 3
109
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps known as trophic levels
bull Energy pyramids reveal that the biomass of primary
producers in an ecosystem tends to be far greater than
the biomass of herbivores
bull The biomass transferred at each step along the food chain tends to be only about 10 of the biomass of the organisms being consumed due to energy lost in cellular respiration
bull As a consequence of this inefficiency food chains rarely exceed four levels
110
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Essential chemicals cycle through
ecosystems
111
Chemical Reservoirs
bull Each chemical is stored in a non-living part of the environment
bull Organisms acquire the chemical from the reservoir a non-living part of the environment
bull The chemical cycles through the food chain (biogeochemical cycles)
bull Eventually the chemical is returned to the reservoir
112
Hydrologic Cycle and the Florida Springs
bull Click here for a description of how falling rain feeds underground aquifers in Florida and forms springs
113
The Most Important Chemical Cycles
1) Carbon
2) Nitrogen
3) Phosphorus
4) Sulfur
114
115
The
Carbon
Cycle
116
The Carbon Cycle
Keeping Up With Carbon
NASA video provides key information on the carbon cycle
117
118
Carbon Cycle Game
Fossil Fuels
bull created when large numbers of organisms die and are buried in sediment lacking oxygen
bull In absence of oxygen at high pressures and after very long periods of time organic remains are ultimately transformed into coal oil and natural gas
bull burning coal oil and natural gas releases large amounts of carbon dioxide
bull increases average CO2 concentration in the atmosphere
bull current level of CO2 in the atmosphere is the highest it has been in almost half a million years
119
Global CO2 levels are rising in
general but they also exhibit a
sharp rise and fall within each
year ndash why
120
121
The Nitrogen Cycle
122
The Nitrogen Cycle
Fertilizers
bull Because it is necessary for the production of every plant
protein and because all nitrogen must first be made
usable by bacteria plant growth is often limited by
nitrogen levels in the soil
bull For this reason most fertilizers contain nitrogen in a
form usable by plants
123
124
125
126
127
Oxygen reduction downstream of a source of
organic pollution
128
Algal growth and eutrophication in an Australian
outback waterway
129
Sulfur Cycle
bull component of protein
bull cycles in both a gas and sedimentary cycle
bull source earths crust
bull enters the atmosphere as hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
during fossil fuel combustion volcanic eruptions
gas exchange at ocean surfaces decomposition
130
Sulfur Cycle
bull H2S is immediately oxidized to sulfur dioxide (SO2)
bull SO2 + water vapor H2SO4 (falls to earth in rain)
bull sulfur in soluble form is taken up by plant roots
incorporated into amino acids such as cysteine
bull travels through food chain
bull eventually released through decomposition
131
How is carbon recycled back to the
atmosphere in the carbon cycle
1 It is ldquofixedrdquo by bacteria
2 It is a product of cellular respiration
3 Burning of fossil fuels
4 2 and 3
5 All of the above
132
Why do commercial fertilizers usually
contain usable forms of nitrogen and
phosphorous
1 These chemicals are not efficiently recycled in
the soil
2 Nitrogen and phosphorous need to be ldquofixedrdquo
by bacteria or the plant
3 Nitrogen and phosphorous are found at high
levels in the atmosphere but not in the soil
4 Nitrogen and phosphorous only enter the soil
through erosion
133
Take-home message
bull Chemicals essential to lifemdashincluding carbon nitrogen and phosphorusmdashcycle through ecosystems
bull They are usually captured from the atmosphere soil or water by growing organisms passed from one trophic level to the next as organisms eat other organisms and returned to the environment through respiration decomposition and erosion
bull These cycles can be disrupted as human activities significantly increase the amounts of the chemicals utilized or released to the environment
134
Symbiotic Relationships
bull Symbiosis close relationship between organisms of
two different species
bull At least one participant gains some sort of benefit
(usually nutritional)
bull Types of symbiosis
bull Parasitism
bull Commensalism
bull Mutualism
bull Predation
135
Symbiotic Relationships in the
Ocean
bull Click here for an explanation of the
relationships of marine animals
including sharks rays and various
fishes
136
Parasitism bull Parasite derives nutrition from the host
bull This harms the host but a true parasite does
not usually kill its host (directly)
137
Ectoparasites
Remain outside the host
Ticks fleas leeches
138
Endoparasites
Live inside the hostrsquos body
Tapeworms malarial parasites
139
Parasite Transmission
bull Many parasites live on or in a single organism
bull Some will alternate between 2 or more host species
bull Vertical transmission ndash from mother offspring
bull Horizontal transmission ndash between members of a
population
bull Direct contact (head lice)
bull Vectors (mosquitos)
140
141
Commensalism
bull Neither species is totally dependent on the other
bull One benefits ndash no effect on the other
bull Feeding or protection
bull Porcelain anemone crabs and anemones
142
Mutualism
bull Both species benefit
bull Food or shelter
bull Examples
bull Plants and microbes (rhizobium in root nodules)
bull Plants and fungi (orchids and mycorrhizae)
bull Protists and fungi (lichen)
bull Plants and insects (pollination)
bull Animals and bacteria (ruminants)
bull Animals and other animals (crocodiles and
plover birds)
143
Mutualism shrimp and moray
Cleaner shrimp cleaning a zebra moray eel Mutualistic
relationships such as these promote the well-being of the
host fishes and provide food for those that do the cleaning 144
Rhizobium
Rhizobium in root nodules of certain plants convert
nitrogen in soil to usable form
145
Orchid Mycorrhizae
Fungi aid the plant in the uptake of nutrients
Fungi ingest some of the food from plant
photosynthesis 146
Lichen
Most of the lichen is composed of fungal filaments
but living among the filaments are algal cells
usually from a green alga or a cyanobacterium
The lichen fungus provides its partner(s) a benefit
(protection) and gains nutrients in return 147
Ruminants
Ruminants are characterized by their four-chambered
stomach and cud-chewing behavior Cud is a food bolus
that is regurgitated rechewed and reswallowed The
rumen is a large fermentation vat containing billions of
microorganisms including bacteria and protozoa which
allow ruminants to digest fibrous feeds such as grass and
hay that other animals cannot efficiently utilize 148
Crocodiles amp
Plover Birds
The bird gets into the crocodiles mouth and picks out
the tiny bits of food stuck in his teeth then eats it (the
tiny bits)
This cleans the crocodiles teeth and keeps his mouth
fresh and free from infections 149
Predation
bull Consumption of one living organism by
another
bull Predators must have offensive strategies
bull ways of finding catching and eating
their prey
bull Prey organisms must have defensive
strategies
bull ways of avoiding or discouraging this
activity
150
Predation
bull Encompasses all levels within an
ecological food chainweb
bull plant-herbivore systems
bull herbivore-carnivore systems
bull three-way interactions of
interdependent plant-herbivore-
carnivore systems
151
This goshawk is the tertiary consumer in his ecosystem
and the mouse in his beak is the secondary consumer
Beneath the mouse on the ecological pyramid lies his
foodsource likely a worm which fed on the primary
producer leafy plants 152
Ecosystem of Life in Floridas
Springs
bull Click here for a close-up look of life
in Floridas springs and the various
predator-prey interactions there
153
105
Food Energy Pyramids
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
106
107
108
You go out to eat at a fancy restaurant You
have a salad salmon and for dessert ice
cream Which part of the meal was the most
energy efficient food for you to eat
1 Salad
2 Salmon
3 Ice cream
4 2 and 3
109
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps known as trophic levels
bull Energy pyramids reveal that the biomass of primary
producers in an ecosystem tends to be far greater than
the biomass of herbivores
bull The biomass transferred at each step along the food chain tends to be only about 10 of the biomass of the organisms being consumed due to energy lost in cellular respiration
bull As a consequence of this inefficiency food chains rarely exceed four levels
110
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Essential chemicals cycle through
ecosystems
111
Chemical Reservoirs
bull Each chemical is stored in a non-living part of the environment
bull Organisms acquire the chemical from the reservoir a non-living part of the environment
bull The chemical cycles through the food chain (biogeochemical cycles)
bull Eventually the chemical is returned to the reservoir
112
Hydrologic Cycle and the Florida Springs
bull Click here for a description of how falling rain feeds underground aquifers in Florida and forms springs
113
The Most Important Chemical Cycles
1) Carbon
2) Nitrogen
3) Phosphorus
4) Sulfur
114
115
The
Carbon
Cycle
116
The Carbon Cycle
Keeping Up With Carbon
NASA video provides key information on the carbon cycle
117
118
Carbon Cycle Game
Fossil Fuels
bull created when large numbers of organisms die and are buried in sediment lacking oxygen
bull In absence of oxygen at high pressures and after very long periods of time organic remains are ultimately transformed into coal oil and natural gas
bull burning coal oil and natural gas releases large amounts of carbon dioxide
bull increases average CO2 concentration in the atmosphere
bull current level of CO2 in the atmosphere is the highest it has been in almost half a million years
119
Global CO2 levels are rising in
general but they also exhibit a
sharp rise and fall within each
year ndash why
120
121
The Nitrogen Cycle
122
The Nitrogen Cycle
Fertilizers
bull Because it is necessary for the production of every plant
protein and because all nitrogen must first be made
usable by bacteria plant growth is often limited by
nitrogen levels in the soil
bull For this reason most fertilizers contain nitrogen in a
form usable by plants
123
124
125
126
127
Oxygen reduction downstream of a source of
organic pollution
128
Algal growth and eutrophication in an Australian
outback waterway
129
Sulfur Cycle
bull component of protein
bull cycles in both a gas and sedimentary cycle
bull source earths crust
bull enters the atmosphere as hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
during fossil fuel combustion volcanic eruptions
gas exchange at ocean surfaces decomposition
130
Sulfur Cycle
bull H2S is immediately oxidized to sulfur dioxide (SO2)
bull SO2 + water vapor H2SO4 (falls to earth in rain)
bull sulfur in soluble form is taken up by plant roots
incorporated into amino acids such as cysteine
bull travels through food chain
bull eventually released through decomposition
131
How is carbon recycled back to the
atmosphere in the carbon cycle
1 It is ldquofixedrdquo by bacteria
2 It is a product of cellular respiration
3 Burning of fossil fuels
4 2 and 3
5 All of the above
132
Why do commercial fertilizers usually
contain usable forms of nitrogen and
phosphorous
1 These chemicals are not efficiently recycled in
the soil
2 Nitrogen and phosphorous need to be ldquofixedrdquo
by bacteria or the plant
3 Nitrogen and phosphorous are found at high
levels in the atmosphere but not in the soil
4 Nitrogen and phosphorous only enter the soil
through erosion
133
Take-home message
bull Chemicals essential to lifemdashincluding carbon nitrogen and phosphorusmdashcycle through ecosystems
bull They are usually captured from the atmosphere soil or water by growing organisms passed from one trophic level to the next as organisms eat other organisms and returned to the environment through respiration decomposition and erosion
bull These cycles can be disrupted as human activities significantly increase the amounts of the chemicals utilized or released to the environment
134
Symbiotic Relationships
bull Symbiosis close relationship between organisms of
two different species
bull At least one participant gains some sort of benefit
(usually nutritional)
bull Types of symbiosis
bull Parasitism
bull Commensalism
bull Mutualism
bull Predation
135
Symbiotic Relationships in the
Ocean
bull Click here for an explanation of the
relationships of marine animals
including sharks rays and various
fishes
136
Parasitism bull Parasite derives nutrition from the host
bull This harms the host but a true parasite does
not usually kill its host (directly)
137
Ectoparasites
Remain outside the host
Ticks fleas leeches
138
Endoparasites
Live inside the hostrsquos body
Tapeworms malarial parasites
139
Parasite Transmission
bull Many parasites live on or in a single organism
bull Some will alternate between 2 or more host species
bull Vertical transmission ndash from mother offspring
bull Horizontal transmission ndash between members of a
population
bull Direct contact (head lice)
bull Vectors (mosquitos)
140
141
Commensalism
bull Neither species is totally dependent on the other
bull One benefits ndash no effect on the other
bull Feeding or protection
bull Porcelain anemone crabs and anemones
142
Mutualism
bull Both species benefit
bull Food or shelter
bull Examples
bull Plants and microbes (rhizobium in root nodules)
bull Plants and fungi (orchids and mycorrhizae)
bull Protists and fungi (lichen)
bull Plants and insects (pollination)
bull Animals and bacteria (ruminants)
bull Animals and other animals (crocodiles and
plover birds)
143
Mutualism shrimp and moray
Cleaner shrimp cleaning a zebra moray eel Mutualistic
relationships such as these promote the well-being of the
host fishes and provide food for those that do the cleaning 144
Rhizobium
Rhizobium in root nodules of certain plants convert
nitrogen in soil to usable form
145
Orchid Mycorrhizae
Fungi aid the plant in the uptake of nutrients
Fungi ingest some of the food from plant
photosynthesis 146
Lichen
Most of the lichen is composed of fungal filaments
but living among the filaments are algal cells
usually from a green alga or a cyanobacterium
The lichen fungus provides its partner(s) a benefit
(protection) and gains nutrients in return 147
Ruminants
Ruminants are characterized by their four-chambered
stomach and cud-chewing behavior Cud is a food bolus
that is regurgitated rechewed and reswallowed The
rumen is a large fermentation vat containing billions of
microorganisms including bacteria and protozoa which
allow ruminants to digest fibrous feeds such as grass and
hay that other animals cannot efficiently utilize 148
Crocodiles amp
Plover Birds
The bird gets into the crocodiles mouth and picks out
the tiny bits of food stuck in his teeth then eats it (the
tiny bits)
This cleans the crocodiles teeth and keeps his mouth
fresh and free from infections 149
Predation
bull Consumption of one living organism by
another
bull Predators must have offensive strategies
bull ways of finding catching and eating
their prey
bull Prey organisms must have defensive
strategies
bull ways of avoiding or discouraging this
activity
150
Predation
bull Encompasses all levels within an
ecological food chainweb
bull plant-herbivore systems
bull herbivore-carnivore systems
bull three-way interactions of
interdependent plant-herbivore-
carnivore systems
151
This goshawk is the tertiary consumer in his ecosystem
and the mouse in his beak is the secondary consumer
Beneath the mouse on the ecological pyramid lies his
foodsource likely a worm which fed on the primary
producer leafy plants 152
Ecosystem of Life in Floridas
Springs
bull Click here for a close-up look of life
in Floridas springs and the various
predator-prey interactions there
153
Food Energy Pyramids
bull flow of energy through a food chain
bull trophic level position that an organism occupies in a
food chain - what it eats and what eats it
106
107
108
You go out to eat at a fancy restaurant You
have a salad salmon and for dessert ice
cream Which part of the meal was the most
energy efficient food for you to eat
1 Salad
2 Salmon
3 Ice cream
4 2 and 3
109
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps known as trophic levels
bull Energy pyramids reveal that the biomass of primary
producers in an ecosystem tends to be far greater than
the biomass of herbivores
bull The biomass transferred at each step along the food chain tends to be only about 10 of the biomass of the organisms being consumed due to energy lost in cellular respiration
bull As a consequence of this inefficiency food chains rarely exceed four levels
110
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Essential chemicals cycle through
ecosystems
111
Chemical Reservoirs
bull Each chemical is stored in a non-living part of the environment
bull Organisms acquire the chemical from the reservoir a non-living part of the environment
bull The chemical cycles through the food chain (biogeochemical cycles)
bull Eventually the chemical is returned to the reservoir
112
Hydrologic Cycle and the Florida Springs
bull Click here for a description of how falling rain feeds underground aquifers in Florida and forms springs
113
The Most Important Chemical Cycles
1) Carbon
2) Nitrogen
3) Phosphorus
4) Sulfur
114
115
The
Carbon
Cycle
116
The Carbon Cycle
Keeping Up With Carbon
NASA video provides key information on the carbon cycle
117
118
Carbon Cycle Game
Fossil Fuels
bull created when large numbers of organisms die and are buried in sediment lacking oxygen
bull In absence of oxygen at high pressures and after very long periods of time organic remains are ultimately transformed into coal oil and natural gas
bull burning coal oil and natural gas releases large amounts of carbon dioxide
bull increases average CO2 concentration in the atmosphere
bull current level of CO2 in the atmosphere is the highest it has been in almost half a million years
119
Global CO2 levels are rising in
general but they also exhibit a
sharp rise and fall within each
year ndash why
120
121
The Nitrogen Cycle
122
The Nitrogen Cycle
Fertilizers
bull Because it is necessary for the production of every plant
protein and because all nitrogen must first be made
usable by bacteria plant growth is often limited by
nitrogen levels in the soil
bull For this reason most fertilizers contain nitrogen in a
form usable by plants
123
124
125
126
127
Oxygen reduction downstream of a source of
organic pollution
128
Algal growth and eutrophication in an Australian
outback waterway
129
Sulfur Cycle
bull component of protein
bull cycles in both a gas and sedimentary cycle
bull source earths crust
bull enters the atmosphere as hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
during fossil fuel combustion volcanic eruptions
gas exchange at ocean surfaces decomposition
130
Sulfur Cycle
bull H2S is immediately oxidized to sulfur dioxide (SO2)
bull SO2 + water vapor H2SO4 (falls to earth in rain)
bull sulfur in soluble form is taken up by plant roots
incorporated into amino acids such as cysteine
bull travels through food chain
bull eventually released through decomposition
131
How is carbon recycled back to the
atmosphere in the carbon cycle
1 It is ldquofixedrdquo by bacteria
2 It is a product of cellular respiration
3 Burning of fossil fuels
4 2 and 3
5 All of the above
132
Why do commercial fertilizers usually
contain usable forms of nitrogen and
phosphorous
1 These chemicals are not efficiently recycled in
the soil
2 Nitrogen and phosphorous need to be ldquofixedrdquo
by bacteria or the plant
3 Nitrogen and phosphorous are found at high
levels in the atmosphere but not in the soil
4 Nitrogen and phosphorous only enter the soil
through erosion
133
Take-home message
bull Chemicals essential to lifemdashincluding carbon nitrogen and phosphorusmdashcycle through ecosystems
bull They are usually captured from the atmosphere soil or water by growing organisms passed from one trophic level to the next as organisms eat other organisms and returned to the environment through respiration decomposition and erosion
bull These cycles can be disrupted as human activities significantly increase the amounts of the chemicals utilized or released to the environment
134
Symbiotic Relationships
bull Symbiosis close relationship between organisms of
two different species
bull At least one participant gains some sort of benefit
(usually nutritional)
bull Types of symbiosis
bull Parasitism
bull Commensalism
bull Mutualism
bull Predation
135
Symbiotic Relationships in the
Ocean
bull Click here for an explanation of the
relationships of marine animals
including sharks rays and various
fishes
136
Parasitism bull Parasite derives nutrition from the host
bull This harms the host but a true parasite does
not usually kill its host (directly)
137
Ectoparasites
Remain outside the host
Ticks fleas leeches
138
Endoparasites
Live inside the hostrsquos body
Tapeworms malarial parasites
139
Parasite Transmission
bull Many parasites live on or in a single organism
bull Some will alternate between 2 or more host species
bull Vertical transmission ndash from mother offspring
bull Horizontal transmission ndash between members of a
population
bull Direct contact (head lice)
bull Vectors (mosquitos)
140
141
Commensalism
bull Neither species is totally dependent on the other
bull One benefits ndash no effect on the other
bull Feeding or protection
bull Porcelain anemone crabs and anemones
142
Mutualism
bull Both species benefit
bull Food or shelter
bull Examples
bull Plants and microbes (rhizobium in root nodules)
bull Plants and fungi (orchids and mycorrhizae)
bull Protists and fungi (lichen)
bull Plants and insects (pollination)
bull Animals and bacteria (ruminants)
bull Animals and other animals (crocodiles and
plover birds)
143
Mutualism shrimp and moray
Cleaner shrimp cleaning a zebra moray eel Mutualistic
relationships such as these promote the well-being of the
host fishes and provide food for those that do the cleaning 144
Rhizobium
Rhizobium in root nodules of certain plants convert
nitrogen in soil to usable form
145
Orchid Mycorrhizae
Fungi aid the plant in the uptake of nutrients
Fungi ingest some of the food from plant
photosynthesis 146
Lichen
Most of the lichen is composed of fungal filaments
but living among the filaments are algal cells
usually from a green alga or a cyanobacterium
The lichen fungus provides its partner(s) a benefit
(protection) and gains nutrients in return 147
Ruminants
Ruminants are characterized by their four-chambered
stomach and cud-chewing behavior Cud is a food bolus
that is regurgitated rechewed and reswallowed The
rumen is a large fermentation vat containing billions of
microorganisms including bacteria and protozoa which
allow ruminants to digest fibrous feeds such as grass and
hay that other animals cannot efficiently utilize 148
Crocodiles amp
Plover Birds
The bird gets into the crocodiles mouth and picks out
the tiny bits of food stuck in his teeth then eats it (the
tiny bits)
This cleans the crocodiles teeth and keeps his mouth
fresh and free from infections 149
Predation
bull Consumption of one living organism by
another
bull Predators must have offensive strategies
bull ways of finding catching and eating
their prey
bull Prey organisms must have defensive
strategies
bull ways of avoiding or discouraging this
activity
150
Predation
bull Encompasses all levels within an
ecological food chainweb
bull plant-herbivore systems
bull herbivore-carnivore systems
bull three-way interactions of
interdependent plant-herbivore-
carnivore systems
151
This goshawk is the tertiary consumer in his ecosystem
and the mouse in his beak is the secondary consumer
Beneath the mouse on the ecological pyramid lies his
foodsource likely a worm which fed on the primary
producer leafy plants 152
Ecosystem of Life in Floridas
Springs
bull Click here for a close-up look of life
in Floridas springs and the various
predator-prey interactions there
153
107
108
You go out to eat at a fancy restaurant You
have a salad salmon and for dessert ice
cream Which part of the meal was the most
energy efficient food for you to eat
1 Salad
2 Salmon
3 Ice cream
4 2 and 3
109
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps known as trophic levels
bull Energy pyramids reveal that the biomass of primary
producers in an ecosystem tends to be far greater than
the biomass of herbivores
bull The biomass transferred at each step along the food chain tends to be only about 10 of the biomass of the organisms being consumed due to energy lost in cellular respiration
bull As a consequence of this inefficiency food chains rarely exceed four levels
110
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Essential chemicals cycle through
ecosystems
111
Chemical Reservoirs
bull Each chemical is stored in a non-living part of the environment
bull Organisms acquire the chemical from the reservoir a non-living part of the environment
bull The chemical cycles through the food chain (biogeochemical cycles)
bull Eventually the chemical is returned to the reservoir
112
Hydrologic Cycle and the Florida Springs
bull Click here for a description of how falling rain feeds underground aquifers in Florida and forms springs
113
The Most Important Chemical Cycles
1) Carbon
2) Nitrogen
3) Phosphorus
4) Sulfur
114
115
The
Carbon
Cycle
116
The Carbon Cycle
Keeping Up With Carbon
NASA video provides key information on the carbon cycle
117
118
Carbon Cycle Game
Fossil Fuels
bull created when large numbers of organisms die and are buried in sediment lacking oxygen
bull In absence of oxygen at high pressures and after very long periods of time organic remains are ultimately transformed into coal oil and natural gas
bull burning coal oil and natural gas releases large amounts of carbon dioxide
bull increases average CO2 concentration in the atmosphere
bull current level of CO2 in the atmosphere is the highest it has been in almost half a million years
119
Global CO2 levels are rising in
general but they also exhibit a
sharp rise and fall within each
year ndash why
120
121
The Nitrogen Cycle
122
The Nitrogen Cycle
Fertilizers
bull Because it is necessary for the production of every plant
protein and because all nitrogen must first be made
usable by bacteria plant growth is often limited by
nitrogen levels in the soil
bull For this reason most fertilizers contain nitrogen in a
form usable by plants
123
124
125
126
127
Oxygen reduction downstream of a source of
organic pollution
128
Algal growth and eutrophication in an Australian
outback waterway
129
Sulfur Cycle
bull component of protein
bull cycles in both a gas and sedimentary cycle
bull source earths crust
bull enters the atmosphere as hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
during fossil fuel combustion volcanic eruptions
gas exchange at ocean surfaces decomposition
130
Sulfur Cycle
bull H2S is immediately oxidized to sulfur dioxide (SO2)
bull SO2 + water vapor H2SO4 (falls to earth in rain)
bull sulfur in soluble form is taken up by plant roots
incorporated into amino acids such as cysteine
bull travels through food chain
bull eventually released through decomposition
131
How is carbon recycled back to the
atmosphere in the carbon cycle
1 It is ldquofixedrdquo by bacteria
2 It is a product of cellular respiration
3 Burning of fossil fuels
4 2 and 3
5 All of the above
132
Why do commercial fertilizers usually
contain usable forms of nitrogen and
phosphorous
1 These chemicals are not efficiently recycled in
the soil
2 Nitrogen and phosphorous need to be ldquofixedrdquo
by bacteria or the plant
3 Nitrogen and phosphorous are found at high
levels in the atmosphere but not in the soil
4 Nitrogen and phosphorous only enter the soil
through erosion
133
Take-home message
bull Chemicals essential to lifemdashincluding carbon nitrogen and phosphorusmdashcycle through ecosystems
bull They are usually captured from the atmosphere soil or water by growing organisms passed from one trophic level to the next as organisms eat other organisms and returned to the environment through respiration decomposition and erosion
bull These cycles can be disrupted as human activities significantly increase the amounts of the chemicals utilized or released to the environment
134
Symbiotic Relationships
bull Symbiosis close relationship between organisms of
two different species
bull At least one participant gains some sort of benefit
(usually nutritional)
bull Types of symbiosis
bull Parasitism
bull Commensalism
bull Mutualism
bull Predation
135
Symbiotic Relationships in the
Ocean
bull Click here for an explanation of the
relationships of marine animals
including sharks rays and various
fishes
136
Parasitism bull Parasite derives nutrition from the host
bull This harms the host but a true parasite does
not usually kill its host (directly)
137
Ectoparasites
Remain outside the host
Ticks fleas leeches
138
Endoparasites
Live inside the hostrsquos body
Tapeworms malarial parasites
139
Parasite Transmission
bull Many parasites live on or in a single organism
bull Some will alternate between 2 or more host species
bull Vertical transmission ndash from mother offspring
bull Horizontal transmission ndash between members of a
population
bull Direct contact (head lice)
bull Vectors (mosquitos)
140
141
Commensalism
bull Neither species is totally dependent on the other
bull One benefits ndash no effect on the other
bull Feeding or protection
bull Porcelain anemone crabs and anemones
142
Mutualism
bull Both species benefit
bull Food or shelter
bull Examples
bull Plants and microbes (rhizobium in root nodules)
bull Plants and fungi (orchids and mycorrhizae)
bull Protists and fungi (lichen)
bull Plants and insects (pollination)
bull Animals and bacteria (ruminants)
bull Animals and other animals (crocodiles and
plover birds)
143
Mutualism shrimp and moray
Cleaner shrimp cleaning a zebra moray eel Mutualistic
relationships such as these promote the well-being of the
host fishes and provide food for those that do the cleaning 144
Rhizobium
Rhizobium in root nodules of certain plants convert
nitrogen in soil to usable form
145
Orchid Mycorrhizae
Fungi aid the plant in the uptake of nutrients
Fungi ingest some of the food from plant
photosynthesis 146
Lichen
Most of the lichen is composed of fungal filaments
but living among the filaments are algal cells
usually from a green alga or a cyanobacterium
The lichen fungus provides its partner(s) a benefit
(protection) and gains nutrients in return 147
Ruminants
Ruminants are characterized by their four-chambered
stomach and cud-chewing behavior Cud is a food bolus
that is regurgitated rechewed and reswallowed The
rumen is a large fermentation vat containing billions of
microorganisms including bacteria and protozoa which
allow ruminants to digest fibrous feeds such as grass and
hay that other animals cannot efficiently utilize 148
Crocodiles amp
Plover Birds
The bird gets into the crocodiles mouth and picks out
the tiny bits of food stuck in his teeth then eats it (the
tiny bits)
This cleans the crocodiles teeth and keeps his mouth
fresh and free from infections 149
Predation
bull Consumption of one living organism by
another
bull Predators must have offensive strategies
bull ways of finding catching and eating
their prey
bull Prey organisms must have defensive
strategies
bull ways of avoiding or discouraging this
activity
150
Predation
bull Encompasses all levels within an
ecological food chainweb
bull plant-herbivore systems
bull herbivore-carnivore systems
bull three-way interactions of
interdependent plant-herbivore-
carnivore systems
151
This goshawk is the tertiary consumer in his ecosystem
and the mouse in his beak is the secondary consumer
Beneath the mouse on the ecological pyramid lies his
foodsource likely a worm which fed on the primary
producer leafy plants 152
Ecosystem of Life in Floridas
Springs
bull Click here for a close-up look of life
in Floridas springs and the various
predator-prey interactions there
153
108
You go out to eat at a fancy restaurant You
have a salad salmon and for dessert ice
cream Which part of the meal was the most
energy efficient food for you to eat
1 Salad
2 Salmon
3 Ice cream
4 2 and 3
109
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps known as trophic levels
bull Energy pyramids reveal that the biomass of primary
producers in an ecosystem tends to be far greater than
the biomass of herbivores
bull The biomass transferred at each step along the food chain tends to be only about 10 of the biomass of the organisms being consumed due to energy lost in cellular respiration
bull As a consequence of this inefficiency food chains rarely exceed four levels
110
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Essential chemicals cycle through
ecosystems
111
Chemical Reservoirs
bull Each chemical is stored in a non-living part of the environment
bull Organisms acquire the chemical from the reservoir a non-living part of the environment
bull The chemical cycles through the food chain (biogeochemical cycles)
bull Eventually the chemical is returned to the reservoir
112
Hydrologic Cycle and the Florida Springs
bull Click here for a description of how falling rain feeds underground aquifers in Florida and forms springs
113
The Most Important Chemical Cycles
1) Carbon
2) Nitrogen
3) Phosphorus
4) Sulfur
114
115
The
Carbon
Cycle
116
The Carbon Cycle
Keeping Up With Carbon
NASA video provides key information on the carbon cycle
117
118
Carbon Cycle Game
Fossil Fuels
bull created when large numbers of organisms die and are buried in sediment lacking oxygen
bull In absence of oxygen at high pressures and after very long periods of time organic remains are ultimately transformed into coal oil and natural gas
bull burning coal oil and natural gas releases large amounts of carbon dioxide
bull increases average CO2 concentration in the atmosphere
bull current level of CO2 in the atmosphere is the highest it has been in almost half a million years
119
Global CO2 levels are rising in
general but they also exhibit a
sharp rise and fall within each
year ndash why
120
121
The Nitrogen Cycle
122
The Nitrogen Cycle
Fertilizers
bull Because it is necessary for the production of every plant
protein and because all nitrogen must first be made
usable by bacteria plant growth is often limited by
nitrogen levels in the soil
bull For this reason most fertilizers contain nitrogen in a
form usable by plants
123
124
125
126
127
Oxygen reduction downstream of a source of
organic pollution
128
Algal growth and eutrophication in an Australian
outback waterway
129
Sulfur Cycle
bull component of protein
bull cycles in both a gas and sedimentary cycle
bull source earths crust
bull enters the atmosphere as hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
during fossil fuel combustion volcanic eruptions
gas exchange at ocean surfaces decomposition
130
Sulfur Cycle
bull H2S is immediately oxidized to sulfur dioxide (SO2)
bull SO2 + water vapor H2SO4 (falls to earth in rain)
bull sulfur in soluble form is taken up by plant roots
incorporated into amino acids such as cysteine
bull travels through food chain
bull eventually released through decomposition
131
How is carbon recycled back to the
atmosphere in the carbon cycle
1 It is ldquofixedrdquo by bacteria
2 It is a product of cellular respiration
3 Burning of fossil fuels
4 2 and 3
5 All of the above
132
Why do commercial fertilizers usually
contain usable forms of nitrogen and
phosphorous
1 These chemicals are not efficiently recycled in
the soil
2 Nitrogen and phosphorous need to be ldquofixedrdquo
by bacteria or the plant
3 Nitrogen and phosphorous are found at high
levels in the atmosphere but not in the soil
4 Nitrogen and phosphorous only enter the soil
through erosion
133
Take-home message
bull Chemicals essential to lifemdashincluding carbon nitrogen and phosphorusmdashcycle through ecosystems
bull They are usually captured from the atmosphere soil or water by growing organisms passed from one trophic level to the next as organisms eat other organisms and returned to the environment through respiration decomposition and erosion
bull These cycles can be disrupted as human activities significantly increase the amounts of the chemicals utilized or released to the environment
134
Symbiotic Relationships
bull Symbiosis close relationship between organisms of
two different species
bull At least one participant gains some sort of benefit
(usually nutritional)
bull Types of symbiosis
bull Parasitism
bull Commensalism
bull Mutualism
bull Predation
135
Symbiotic Relationships in the
Ocean
bull Click here for an explanation of the
relationships of marine animals
including sharks rays and various
fishes
136
Parasitism bull Parasite derives nutrition from the host
bull This harms the host but a true parasite does
not usually kill its host (directly)
137
Ectoparasites
Remain outside the host
Ticks fleas leeches
138
Endoparasites
Live inside the hostrsquos body
Tapeworms malarial parasites
139
Parasite Transmission
bull Many parasites live on or in a single organism
bull Some will alternate between 2 or more host species
bull Vertical transmission ndash from mother offspring
bull Horizontal transmission ndash between members of a
population
bull Direct contact (head lice)
bull Vectors (mosquitos)
140
141
Commensalism
bull Neither species is totally dependent on the other
bull One benefits ndash no effect on the other
bull Feeding or protection
bull Porcelain anemone crabs and anemones
142
Mutualism
bull Both species benefit
bull Food or shelter
bull Examples
bull Plants and microbes (rhizobium in root nodules)
bull Plants and fungi (orchids and mycorrhizae)
bull Protists and fungi (lichen)
bull Plants and insects (pollination)
bull Animals and bacteria (ruminants)
bull Animals and other animals (crocodiles and
plover birds)
143
Mutualism shrimp and moray
Cleaner shrimp cleaning a zebra moray eel Mutualistic
relationships such as these promote the well-being of the
host fishes and provide food for those that do the cleaning 144
Rhizobium
Rhizobium in root nodules of certain plants convert
nitrogen in soil to usable form
145
Orchid Mycorrhizae
Fungi aid the plant in the uptake of nutrients
Fungi ingest some of the food from plant
photosynthesis 146
Lichen
Most of the lichen is composed of fungal filaments
but living among the filaments are algal cells
usually from a green alga or a cyanobacterium
The lichen fungus provides its partner(s) a benefit
(protection) and gains nutrients in return 147
Ruminants
Ruminants are characterized by their four-chambered
stomach and cud-chewing behavior Cud is a food bolus
that is regurgitated rechewed and reswallowed The
rumen is a large fermentation vat containing billions of
microorganisms including bacteria and protozoa which
allow ruminants to digest fibrous feeds such as grass and
hay that other animals cannot efficiently utilize 148
Crocodiles amp
Plover Birds
The bird gets into the crocodiles mouth and picks out
the tiny bits of food stuck in his teeth then eats it (the
tiny bits)
This cleans the crocodiles teeth and keeps his mouth
fresh and free from infections 149
Predation
bull Consumption of one living organism by
another
bull Predators must have offensive strategies
bull ways of finding catching and eating
their prey
bull Prey organisms must have defensive
strategies
bull ways of avoiding or discouraging this
activity
150
Predation
bull Encompasses all levels within an
ecological food chainweb
bull plant-herbivore systems
bull herbivore-carnivore systems
bull three-way interactions of
interdependent plant-herbivore-
carnivore systems
151
This goshawk is the tertiary consumer in his ecosystem
and the mouse in his beak is the secondary consumer
Beneath the mouse on the ecological pyramid lies his
foodsource likely a worm which fed on the primary
producer leafy plants 152
Ecosystem of Life in Floridas
Springs
bull Click here for a close-up look of life
in Floridas springs and the various
predator-prey interactions there
153
You go out to eat at a fancy restaurant You
have a salad salmon and for dessert ice
cream Which part of the meal was the most
energy efficient food for you to eat
1 Salad
2 Salmon
3 Ice cream
4 2 and 3
109
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps known as trophic levels
bull Energy pyramids reveal that the biomass of primary
producers in an ecosystem tends to be far greater than
the biomass of herbivores
bull The biomass transferred at each step along the food chain tends to be only about 10 of the biomass of the organisms being consumed due to energy lost in cellular respiration
bull As a consequence of this inefficiency food chains rarely exceed four levels
110
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Essential chemicals cycle through
ecosystems
111
Chemical Reservoirs
bull Each chemical is stored in a non-living part of the environment
bull Organisms acquire the chemical from the reservoir a non-living part of the environment
bull The chemical cycles through the food chain (biogeochemical cycles)
bull Eventually the chemical is returned to the reservoir
112
Hydrologic Cycle and the Florida Springs
bull Click here for a description of how falling rain feeds underground aquifers in Florida and forms springs
113
The Most Important Chemical Cycles
1) Carbon
2) Nitrogen
3) Phosphorus
4) Sulfur
114
115
The
Carbon
Cycle
116
The Carbon Cycle
Keeping Up With Carbon
NASA video provides key information on the carbon cycle
117
118
Carbon Cycle Game
Fossil Fuels
bull created when large numbers of organisms die and are buried in sediment lacking oxygen
bull In absence of oxygen at high pressures and after very long periods of time organic remains are ultimately transformed into coal oil and natural gas
bull burning coal oil and natural gas releases large amounts of carbon dioxide
bull increases average CO2 concentration in the atmosphere
bull current level of CO2 in the atmosphere is the highest it has been in almost half a million years
119
Global CO2 levels are rising in
general but they also exhibit a
sharp rise and fall within each
year ndash why
120
121
The Nitrogen Cycle
122
The Nitrogen Cycle
Fertilizers
bull Because it is necessary for the production of every plant
protein and because all nitrogen must first be made
usable by bacteria plant growth is often limited by
nitrogen levels in the soil
bull For this reason most fertilizers contain nitrogen in a
form usable by plants
123
124
125
126
127
Oxygen reduction downstream of a source of
organic pollution
128
Algal growth and eutrophication in an Australian
outback waterway
129
Sulfur Cycle
bull component of protein
bull cycles in both a gas and sedimentary cycle
bull source earths crust
bull enters the atmosphere as hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
during fossil fuel combustion volcanic eruptions
gas exchange at ocean surfaces decomposition
130
Sulfur Cycle
bull H2S is immediately oxidized to sulfur dioxide (SO2)
bull SO2 + water vapor H2SO4 (falls to earth in rain)
bull sulfur in soluble form is taken up by plant roots
incorporated into amino acids such as cysteine
bull travels through food chain
bull eventually released through decomposition
131
How is carbon recycled back to the
atmosphere in the carbon cycle
1 It is ldquofixedrdquo by bacteria
2 It is a product of cellular respiration
3 Burning of fossil fuels
4 2 and 3
5 All of the above
132
Why do commercial fertilizers usually
contain usable forms of nitrogen and
phosphorous
1 These chemicals are not efficiently recycled in
the soil
2 Nitrogen and phosphorous need to be ldquofixedrdquo
by bacteria or the plant
3 Nitrogen and phosphorous are found at high
levels in the atmosphere but not in the soil
4 Nitrogen and phosphorous only enter the soil
through erosion
133
Take-home message
bull Chemicals essential to lifemdashincluding carbon nitrogen and phosphorusmdashcycle through ecosystems
bull They are usually captured from the atmosphere soil or water by growing organisms passed from one trophic level to the next as organisms eat other organisms and returned to the environment through respiration decomposition and erosion
bull These cycles can be disrupted as human activities significantly increase the amounts of the chemicals utilized or released to the environment
134
Symbiotic Relationships
bull Symbiosis close relationship between organisms of
two different species
bull At least one participant gains some sort of benefit
(usually nutritional)
bull Types of symbiosis
bull Parasitism
bull Commensalism
bull Mutualism
bull Predation
135
Symbiotic Relationships in the
Ocean
bull Click here for an explanation of the
relationships of marine animals
including sharks rays and various
fishes
136
Parasitism bull Parasite derives nutrition from the host
bull This harms the host but a true parasite does
not usually kill its host (directly)
137
Ectoparasites
Remain outside the host
Ticks fleas leeches
138
Endoparasites
Live inside the hostrsquos body
Tapeworms malarial parasites
139
Parasite Transmission
bull Many parasites live on or in a single organism
bull Some will alternate between 2 or more host species
bull Vertical transmission ndash from mother offspring
bull Horizontal transmission ndash between members of a
population
bull Direct contact (head lice)
bull Vectors (mosquitos)
140
141
Commensalism
bull Neither species is totally dependent on the other
bull One benefits ndash no effect on the other
bull Feeding or protection
bull Porcelain anemone crabs and anemones
142
Mutualism
bull Both species benefit
bull Food or shelter
bull Examples
bull Plants and microbes (rhizobium in root nodules)
bull Plants and fungi (orchids and mycorrhizae)
bull Protists and fungi (lichen)
bull Plants and insects (pollination)
bull Animals and bacteria (ruminants)
bull Animals and other animals (crocodiles and
plover birds)
143
Mutualism shrimp and moray
Cleaner shrimp cleaning a zebra moray eel Mutualistic
relationships such as these promote the well-being of the
host fishes and provide food for those that do the cleaning 144
Rhizobium
Rhizobium in root nodules of certain plants convert
nitrogen in soil to usable form
145
Orchid Mycorrhizae
Fungi aid the plant in the uptake of nutrients
Fungi ingest some of the food from plant
photosynthesis 146
Lichen
Most of the lichen is composed of fungal filaments
but living among the filaments are algal cells
usually from a green alga or a cyanobacterium
The lichen fungus provides its partner(s) a benefit
(protection) and gains nutrients in return 147
Ruminants
Ruminants are characterized by their four-chambered
stomach and cud-chewing behavior Cud is a food bolus
that is regurgitated rechewed and reswallowed The
rumen is a large fermentation vat containing billions of
microorganisms including bacteria and protozoa which
allow ruminants to digest fibrous feeds such as grass and
hay that other animals cannot efficiently utilize 148
Crocodiles amp
Plover Birds
The bird gets into the crocodiles mouth and picks out
the tiny bits of food stuck in his teeth then eats it (the
tiny bits)
This cleans the crocodiles teeth and keeps his mouth
fresh and free from infections 149
Predation
bull Consumption of one living organism by
another
bull Predators must have offensive strategies
bull ways of finding catching and eating
their prey
bull Prey organisms must have defensive
strategies
bull ways of avoiding or discouraging this
activity
150
Predation
bull Encompasses all levels within an
ecological food chainweb
bull plant-herbivore systems
bull herbivore-carnivore systems
bull three-way interactions of
interdependent plant-herbivore-
carnivore systems
151
This goshawk is the tertiary consumer in his ecosystem
and the mouse in his beak is the secondary consumer
Beneath the mouse on the ecological pyramid lies his
foodsource likely a worm which fed on the primary
producer leafy plants 152
Ecosystem of Life in Floridas
Springs
bull Click here for a close-up look of life
in Floridas springs and the various
predator-prey interactions there
153
Take-home message
bull Energy from the sun passes through an ecosystem in
several steps known as trophic levels
bull Energy pyramids reveal that the biomass of primary
producers in an ecosystem tends to be far greater than
the biomass of herbivores
bull The biomass transferred at each step along the food chain tends to be only about 10 of the biomass of the organisms being consumed due to energy lost in cellular respiration
bull As a consequence of this inefficiency food chains rarely exceed four levels
110
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Essential chemicals cycle through
ecosystems
111
Chemical Reservoirs
bull Each chemical is stored in a non-living part of the environment
bull Organisms acquire the chemical from the reservoir a non-living part of the environment
bull The chemical cycles through the food chain (biogeochemical cycles)
bull Eventually the chemical is returned to the reservoir
112
Hydrologic Cycle and the Florida Springs
bull Click here for a description of how falling rain feeds underground aquifers in Florida and forms springs
113
The Most Important Chemical Cycles
1) Carbon
2) Nitrogen
3) Phosphorus
4) Sulfur
114
115
The
Carbon
Cycle
116
The Carbon Cycle
Keeping Up With Carbon
NASA video provides key information on the carbon cycle
117
118
Carbon Cycle Game
Fossil Fuels
bull created when large numbers of organisms die and are buried in sediment lacking oxygen
bull In absence of oxygen at high pressures and after very long periods of time organic remains are ultimately transformed into coal oil and natural gas
bull burning coal oil and natural gas releases large amounts of carbon dioxide
bull increases average CO2 concentration in the atmosphere
bull current level of CO2 in the atmosphere is the highest it has been in almost half a million years
119
Global CO2 levels are rising in
general but they also exhibit a
sharp rise and fall within each
year ndash why
120
121
The Nitrogen Cycle
122
The Nitrogen Cycle
Fertilizers
bull Because it is necessary for the production of every plant
protein and because all nitrogen must first be made
usable by bacteria plant growth is often limited by
nitrogen levels in the soil
bull For this reason most fertilizers contain nitrogen in a
form usable by plants
123
124
125
126
127
Oxygen reduction downstream of a source of
organic pollution
128
Algal growth and eutrophication in an Australian
outback waterway
129
Sulfur Cycle
bull component of protein
bull cycles in both a gas and sedimentary cycle
bull source earths crust
bull enters the atmosphere as hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
during fossil fuel combustion volcanic eruptions
gas exchange at ocean surfaces decomposition
130
Sulfur Cycle
bull H2S is immediately oxidized to sulfur dioxide (SO2)
bull SO2 + water vapor H2SO4 (falls to earth in rain)
bull sulfur in soluble form is taken up by plant roots
incorporated into amino acids such as cysteine
bull travels through food chain
bull eventually released through decomposition
131
How is carbon recycled back to the
atmosphere in the carbon cycle
1 It is ldquofixedrdquo by bacteria
2 It is a product of cellular respiration
3 Burning of fossil fuels
4 2 and 3
5 All of the above
132
Why do commercial fertilizers usually
contain usable forms of nitrogen and
phosphorous
1 These chemicals are not efficiently recycled in
the soil
2 Nitrogen and phosphorous need to be ldquofixedrdquo
by bacteria or the plant
3 Nitrogen and phosphorous are found at high
levels in the atmosphere but not in the soil
4 Nitrogen and phosphorous only enter the soil
through erosion
133
Take-home message
bull Chemicals essential to lifemdashincluding carbon nitrogen and phosphorusmdashcycle through ecosystems
bull They are usually captured from the atmosphere soil or water by growing organisms passed from one trophic level to the next as organisms eat other organisms and returned to the environment through respiration decomposition and erosion
bull These cycles can be disrupted as human activities significantly increase the amounts of the chemicals utilized or released to the environment
134
Symbiotic Relationships
bull Symbiosis close relationship between organisms of
two different species
bull At least one participant gains some sort of benefit
(usually nutritional)
bull Types of symbiosis
bull Parasitism
bull Commensalism
bull Mutualism
bull Predation
135
Symbiotic Relationships in the
Ocean
bull Click here for an explanation of the
relationships of marine animals
including sharks rays and various
fishes
136
Parasitism bull Parasite derives nutrition from the host
bull This harms the host but a true parasite does
not usually kill its host (directly)
137
Ectoparasites
Remain outside the host
Ticks fleas leeches
138
Endoparasites
Live inside the hostrsquos body
Tapeworms malarial parasites
139
Parasite Transmission
bull Many parasites live on or in a single organism
bull Some will alternate between 2 or more host species
bull Vertical transmission ndash from mother offspring
bull Horizontal transmission ndash between members of a
population
bull Direct contact (head lice)
bull Vectors (mosquitos)
140
141
Commensalism
bull Neither species is totally dependent on the other
bull One benefits ndash no effect on the other
bull Feeding or protection
bull Porcelain anemone crabs and anemones
142
Mutualism
bull Both species benefit
bull Food or shelter
bull Examples
bull Plants and microbes (rhizobium in root nodules)
bull Plants and fungi (orchids and mycorrhizae)
bull Protists and fungi (lichen)
bull Plants and insects (pollination)
bull Animals and bacteria (ruminants)
bull Animals and other animals (crocodiles and
plover birds)
143
Mutualism shrimp and moray
Cleaner shrimp cleaning a zebra moray eel Mutualistic
relationships such as these promote the well-being of the
host fishes and provide food for those that do the cleaning 144
Rhizobium
Rhizobium in root nodules of certain plants convert
nitrogen in soil to usable form
145
Orchid Mycorrhizae
Fungi aid the plant in the uptake of nutrients
Fungi ingest some of the food from plant
photosynthesis 146
Lichen
Most of the lichen is composed of fungal filaments
but living among the filaments are algal cells
usually from a green alga or a cyanobacterium
The lichen fungus provides its partner(s) a benefit
(protection) and gains nutrients in return 147
Ruminants
Ruminants are characterized by their four-chambered
stomach and cud-chewing behavior Cud is a food bolus
that is regurgitated rechewed and reswallowed The
rumen is a large fermentation vat containing billions of
microorganisms including bacteria and protozoa which
allow ruminants to digest fibrous feeds such as grass and
hay that other animals cannot efficiently utilize 148
Crocodiles amp
Plover Birds
The bird gets into the crocodiles mouth and picks out
the tiny bits of food stuck in his teeth then eats it (the
tiny bits)
This cleans the crocodiles teeth and keeps his mouth
fresh and free from infections 149
Predation
bull Consumption of one living organism by
another
bull Predators must have offensive strategies
bull ways of finding catching and eating
their prey
bull Prey organisms must have defensive
strategies
bull ways of avoiding or discouraging this
activity
150
Predation
bull Encompasses all levels within an
ecological food chainweb
bull plant-herbivore systems
bull herbivore-carnivore systems
bull three-way interactions of
interdependent plant-herbivore-
carnivore systems
151
This goshawk is the tertiary consumer in his ecosystem
and the mouse in his beak is the secondary consumer
Beneath the mouse on the ecological pyramid lies his
foodsource likely a worm which fed on the primary
producer leafy plants 152
Ecosystem of Life in Floridas
Springs
bull Click here for a close-up look of life
in Floridas springs and the various
predator-prey interactions there
153
Energy and chemicals flow within
ecosystems
Essential chemicals cycle through
ecosystems
111
Chemical Reservoirs
bull Each chemical is stored in a non-living part of the environment
bull Organisms acquire the chemical from the reservoir a non-living part of the environment
bull The chemical cycles through the food chain (biogeochemical cycles)
bull Eventually the chemical is returned to the reservoir
112
Hydrologic Cycle and the Florida Springs
bull Click here for a description of how falling rain feeds underground aquifers in Florida and forms springs
113
The Most Important Chemical Cycles
1) Carbon
2) Nitrogen
3) Phosphorus
4) Sulfur
114
115
The
Carbon
Cycle
116
The Carbon Cycle
Keeping Up With Carbon
NASA video provides key information on the carbon cycle
117
118
Carbon Cycle Game
Fossil Fuels
bull created when large numbers of organisms die and are buried in sediment lacking oxygen
bull In absence of oxygen at high pressures and after very long periods of time organic remains are ultimately transformed into coal oil and natural gas
bull burning coal oil and natural gas releases large amounts of carbon dioxide
bull increases average CO2 concentration in the atmosphere
bull current level of CO2 in the atmosphere is the highest it has been in almost half a million years
119
Global CO2 levels are rising in
general but they also exhibit a
sharp rise and fall within each
year ndash why
120
121
The Nitrogen Cycle
122
The Nitrogen Cycle
Fertilizers
bull Because it is necessary for the production of every plant
protein and because all nitrogen must first be made
usable by bacteria plant growth is often limited by
nitrogen levels in the soil
bull For this reason most fertilizers contain nitrogen in a
form usable by plants
123
124
125
126
127
Oxygen reduction downstream of a source of
organic pollution
128
Algal growth and eutrophication in an Australian
outback waterway
129
Sulfur Cycle
bull component of protein
bull cycles in both a gas and sedimentary cycle
bull source earths crust
bull enters the atmosphere as hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
during fossil fuel combustion volcanic eruptions
gas exchange at ocean surfaces decomposition
130
Sulfur Cycle
bull H2S is immediately oxidized to sulfur dioxide (SO2)
bull SO2 + water vapor H2SO4 (falls to earth in rain)
bull sulfur in soluble form is taken up by plant roots
incorporated into amino acids such as cysteine
bull travels through food chain
bull eventually released through decomposition
131
How is carbon recycled back to the
atmosphere in the carbon cycle
1 It is ldquofixedrdquo by bacteria
2 It is a product of cellular respiration
3 Burning of fossil fuels
4 2 and 3
5 All of the above
132
Why do commercial fertilizers usually
contain usable forms of nitrogen and
phosphorous
1 These chemicals are not efficiently recycled in
the soil
2 Nitrogen and phosphorous need to be ldquofixedrdquo
by bacteria or the plant
3 Nitrogen and phosphorous are found at high
levels in the atmosphere but not in the soil
4 Nitrogen and phosphorous only enter the soil
through erosion
133
Take-home message
bull Chemicals essential to lifemdashincluding carbon nitrogen and phosphorusmdashcycle through ecosystems
bull They are usually captured from the atmosphere soil or water by growing organisms passed from one trophic level to the next as organisms eat other organisms and returned to the environment through respiration decomposition and erosion
bull These cycles can be disrupted as human activities significantly increase the amounts of the chemicals utilized or released to the environment
134
Symbiotic Relationships
bull Symbiosis close relationship between organisms of
two different species
bull At least one participant gains some sort of benefit
(usually nutritional)
bull Types of symbiosis
bull Parasitism
bull Commensalism
bull Mutualism
bull Predation
135
Symbiotic Relationships in the
Ocean
bull Click here for an explanation of the
relationships of marine animals
including sharks rays and various
fishes
136
Parasitism bull Parasite derives nutrition from the host
bull This harms the host but a true parasite does
not usually kill its host (directly)
137
Ectoparasites
Remain outside the host
Ticks fleas leeches
138
Endoparasites
Live inside the hostrsquos body
Tapeworms malarial parasites
139
Parasite Transmission
bull Many parasites live on or in a single organism
bull Some will alternate between 2 or more host species
bull Vertical transmission ndash from mother offspring
bull Horizontal transmission ndash between members of a
population
bull Direct contact (head lice)
bull Vectors (mosquitos)
140
141
Commensalism
bull Neither species is totally dependent on the other
bull One benefits ndash no effect on the other
bull Feeding or protection
bull Porcelain anemone crabs and anemones
142
Mutualism
bull Both species benefit
bull Food or shelter
bull Examples
bull Plants and microbes (rhizobium in root nodules)
bull Plants and fungi (orchids and mycorrhizae)
bull Protists and fungi (lichen)
bull Plants and insects (pollination)
bull Animals and bacteria (ruminants)
bull Animals and other animals (crocodiles and
plover birds)
143
Mutualism shrimp and moray
Cleaner shrimp cleaning a zebra moray eel Mutualistic
relationships such as these promote the well-being of the
host fishes and provide food for those that do the cleaning 144
Rhizobium
Rhizobium in root nodules of certain plants convert
nitrogen in soil to usable form
145
Orchid Mycorrhizae
Fungi aid the plant in the uptake of nutrients
Fungi ingest some of the food from plant
photosynthesis 146
Lichen
Most of the lichen is composed of fungal filaments
but living among the filaments are algal cells
usually from a green alga or a cyanobacterium
The lichen fungus provides its partner(s) a benefit
(protection) and gains nutrients in return 147
Ruminants
Ruminants are characterized by their four-chambered
stomach and cud-chewing behavior Cud is a food bolus
that is regurgitated rechewed and reswallowed The
rumen is a large fermentation vat containing billions of
microorganisms including bacteria and protozoa which
allow ruminants to digest fibrous feeds such as grass and
hay that other animals cannot efficiently utilize 148
Crocodiles amp
Plover Birds
The bird gets into the crocodiles mouth and picks out
the tiny bits of food stuck in his teeth then eats it (the
tiny bits)
This cleans the crocodiles teeth and keeps his mouth
fresh and free from infections 149
Predation
bull Consumption of one living organism by
another
bull Predators must have offensive strategies
bull ways of finding catching and eating
their prey
bull Prey organisms must have defensive
strategies
bull ways of avoiding or discouraging this
activity
150
Predation
bull Encompasses all levels within an
ecological food chainweb
bull plant-herbivore systems
bull herbivore-carnivore systems
bull three-way interactions of
interdependent plant-herbivore-
carnivore systems
151
This goshawk is the tertiary consumer in his ecosystem
and the mouse in his beak is the secondary consumer
Beneath the mouse on the ecological pyramid lies his
foodsource likely a worm which fed on the primary
producer leafy plants 152
Ecosystem of Life in Floridas
Springs
bull Click here for a close-up look of life
in Floridas springs and the various
predator-prey interactions there
153
Chemical Reservoirs
bull Each chemical is stored in a non-living part of the environment
bull Organisms acquire the chemical from the reservoir a non-living part of the environment
bull The chemical cycles through the food chain (biogeochemical cycles)
bull Eventually the chemical is returned to the reservoir
112
Hydrologic Cycle and the Florida Springs
bull Click here for a description of how falling rain feeds underground aquifers in Florida and forms springs
113
The Most Important Chemical Cycles
1) Carbon
2) Nitrogen
3) Phosphorus
4) Sulfur
114
115
The
Carbon
Cycle
116
The Carbon Cycle
Keeping Up With Carbon
NASA video provides key information on the carbon cycle
117
118
Carbon Cycle Game
Fossil Fuels
bull created when large numbers of organisms die and are buried in sediment lacking oxygen
bull In absence of oxygen at high pressures and after very long periods of time organic remains are ultimately transformed into coal oil and natural gas
bull burning coal oil and natural gas releases large amounts of carbon dioxide
bull increases average CO2 concentration in the atmosphere
bull current level of CO2 in the atmosphere is the highest it has been in almost half a million years
119
Global CO2 levels are rising in
general but they also exhibit a
sharp rise and fall within each
year ndash why
120
121
The Nitrogen Cycle
122
The Nitrogen Cycle
Fertilizers
bull Because it is necessary for the production of every plant
protein and because all nitrogen must first be made
usable by bacteria plant growth is often limited by
nitrogen levels in the soil
bull For this reason most fertilizers contain nitrogen in a
form usable by plants
123
124
125
126
127
Oxygen reduction downstream of a source of
organic pollution
128
Algal growth and eutrophication in an Australian
outback waterway
129
Sulfur Cycle
bull component of protein
bull cycles in both a gas and sedimentary cycle
bull source earths crust
bull enters the atmosphere as hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
during fossil fuel combustion volcanic eruptions
gas exchange at ocean surfaces decomposition
130
Sulfur Cycle
bull H2S is immediately oxidized to sulfur dioxide (SO2)
bull SO2 + water vapor H2SO4 (falls to earth in rain)
bull sulfur in soluble form is taken up by plant roots
incorporated into amino acids such as cysteine
bull travels through food chain
bull eventually released through decomposition
131
How is carbon recycled back to the
atmosphere in the carbon cycle
1 It is ldquofixedrdquo by bacteria
2 It is a product of cellular respiration
3 Burning of fossil fuels
4 2 and 3
5 All of the above
132
Why do commercial fertilizers usually
contain usable forms of nitrogen and
phosphorous
1 These chemicals are not efficiently recycled in
the soil
2 Nitrogen and phosphorous need to be ldquofixedrdquo
by bacteria or the plant
3 Nitrogen and phosphorous are found at high
levels in the atmosphere but not in the soil
4 Nitrogen and phosphorous only enter the soil
through erosion
133
Take-home message
bull Chemicals essential to lifemdashincluding carbon nitrogen and phosphorusmdashcycle through ecosystems
bull They are usually captured from the atmosphere soil or water by growing organisms passed from one trophic level to the next as organisms eat other organisms and returned to the environment through respiration decomposition and erosion
bull These cycles can be disrupted as human activities significantly increase the amounts of the chemicals utilized or released to the environment
134
Symbiotic Relationships
bull Symbiosis close relationship between organisms of
two different species
bull At least one participant gains some sort of benefit
(usually nutritional)
bull Types of symbiosis
bull Parasitism
bull Commensalism
bull Mutualism
bull Predation
135
Symbiotic Relationships in the
Ocean
bull Click here for an explanation of the
relationships of marine animals
including sharks rays and various
fishes
136
Parasitism bull Parasite derives nutrition from the host
bull This harms the host but a true parasite does
not usually kill its host (directly)
137
Ectoparasites
Remain outside the host
Ticks fleas leeches
138
Endoparasites
Live inside the hostrsquos body
Tapeworms malarial parasites
139
Parasite Transmission
bull Many parasites live on or in a single organism
bull Some will alternate between 2 or more host species
bull Vertical transmission ndash from mother offspring
bull Horizontal transmission ndash between members of a
population
bull Direct contact (head lice)
bull Vectors (mosquitos)
140
141
Commensalism
bull Neither species is totally dependent on the other
bull One benefits ndash no effect on the other
bull Feeding or protection
bull Porcelain anemone crabs and anemones
142
Mutualism
bull Both species benefit
bull Food or shelter
bull Examples
bull Plants and microbes (rhizobium in root nodules)
bull Plants and fungi (orchids and mycorrhizae)
bull Protists and fungi (lichen)
bull Plants and insects (pollination)
bull Animals and bacteria (ruminants)
bull Animals and other animals (crocodiles and
plover birds)
143
Mutualism shrimp and moray
Cleaner shrimp cleaning a zebra moray eel Mutualistic
relationships such as these promote the well-being of the
host fishes and provide food for those that do the cleaning 144
Rhizobium
Rhizobium in root nodules of certain plants convert
nitrogen in soil to usable form
145
Orchid Mycorrhizae
Fungi aid the plant in the uptake of nutrients
Fungi ingest some of the food from plant
photosynthesis 146
Lichen
Most of the lichen is composed of fungal filaments
but living among the filaments are algal cells
usually from a green alga or a cyanobacterium
The lichen fungus provides its partner(s) a benefit
(protection) and gains nutrients in return 147
Ruminants
Ruminants are characterized by their four-chambered
stomach and cud-chewing behavior Cud is a food bolus
that is regurgitated rechewed and reswallowed The
rumen is a large fermentation vat containing billions of
microorganisms including bacteria and protozoa which
allow ruminants to digest fibrous feeds such as grass and
hay that other animals cannot efficiently utilize 148
Crocodiles amp
Plover Birds
The bird gets into the crocodiles mouth and picks out
the tiny bits of food stuck in his teeth then eats it (the
tiny bits)
This cleans the crocodiles teeth and keeps his mouth
fresh and free from infections 149
Predation
bull Consumption of one living organism by
another
bull Predators must have offensive strategies
bull ways of finding catching and eating
their prey
bull Prey organisms must have defensive
strategies
bull ways of avoiding or discouraging this
activity
150
Predation
bull Encompasses all levels within an
ecological food chainweb
bull plant-herbivore systems
bull herbivore-carnivore systems
bull three-way interactions of
interdependent plant-herbivore-
carnivore systems
151
This goshawk is the tertiary consumer in his ecosystem
and the mouse in his beak is the secondary consumer
Beneath the mouse on the ecological pyramid lies his
foodsource likely a worm which fed on the primary
producer leafy plants 152
Ecosystem of Life in Floridas
Springs
bull Click here for a close-up look of life
in Floridas springs and the various
predator-prey interactions there
153
Hydrologic Cycle and the Florida Springs
bull Click here for a description of how falling rain feeds underground aquifers in Florida and forms springs
113
The Most Important Chemical Cycles
1) Carbon
2) Nitrogen
3) Phosphorus
4) Sulfur
114
115
The
Carbon
Cycle
116
The Carbon Cycle
Keeping Up With Carbon
NASA video provides key information on the carbon cycle
117
118
Carbon Cycle Game
Fossil Fuels
bull created when large numbers of organisms die and are buried in sediment lacking oxygen
bull In absence of oxygen at high pressures and after very long periods of time organic remains are ultimately transformed into coal oil and natural gas
bull burning coal oil and natural gas releases large amounts of carbon dioxide
bull increases average CO2 concentration in the atmosphere
bull current level of CO2 in the atmosphere is the highest it has been in almost half a million years
119
Global CO2 levels are rising in
general but they also exhibit a
sharp rise and fall within each
year ndash why
120
121
The Nitrogen Cycle
122
The Nitrogen Cycle
Fertilizers
bull Because it is necessary for the production of every plant
protein and because all nitrogen must first be made
usable by bacteria plant growth is often limited by
nitrogen levels in the soil
bull For this reason most fertilizers contain nitrogen in a
form usable by plants
123
124
125
126
127
Oxygen reduction downstream of a source of
organic pollution
128
Algal growth and eutrophication in an Australian
outback waterway
129
Sulfur Cycle
bull component of protein
bull cycles in both a gas and sedimentary cycle
bull source earths crust
bull enters the atmosphere as hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
during fossil fuel combustion volcanic eruptions
gas exchange at ocean surfaces decomposition
130
Sulfur Cycle
bull H2S is immediately oxidized to sulfur dioxide (SO2)
bull SO2 + water vapor H2SO4 (falls to earth in rain)
bull sulfur in soluble form is taken up by plant roots
incorporated into amino acids such as cysteine
bull travels through food chain
bull eventually released through decomposition
131
How is carbon recycled back to the
atmosphere in the carbon cycle
1 It is ldquofixedrdquo by bacteria
2 It is a product of cellular respiration
3 Burning of fossil fuels
4 2 and 3
5 All of the above
132
Why do commercial fertilizers usually
contain usable forms of nitrogen and
phosphorous
1 These chemicals are not efficiently recycled in
the soil
2 Nitrogen and phosphorous need to be ldquofixedrdquo
by bacteria or the plant
3 Nitrogen and phosphorous are found at high
levels in the atmosphere but not in the soil
4 Nitrogen and phosphorous only enter the soil
through erosion
133
Take-home message
bull Chemicals essential to lifemdashincluding carbon nitrogen and phosphorusmdashcycle through ecosystems
bull They are usually captured from the atmosphere soil or water by growing organisms passed from one trophic level to the next as organisms eat other organisms and returned to the environment through respiration decomposition and erosion
bull These cycles can be disrupted as human activities significantly increase the amounts of the chemicals utilized or released to the environment
134
Symbiotic Relationships
bull Symbiosis close relationship between organisms of
two different species
bull At least one participant gains some sort of benefit
(usually nutritional)
bull Types of symbiosis
bull Parasitism
bull Commensalism
bull Mutualism
bull Predation
135
Symbiotic Relationships in the
Ocean
bull Click here for an explanation of the
relationships of marine animals
including sharks rays and various
fishes
136
Parasitism bull Parasite derives nutrition from the host
bull This harms the host but a true parasite does
not usually kill its host (directly)
137
Ectoparasites
Remain outside the host
Ticks fleas leeches
138
Endoparasites
Live inside the hostrsquos body
Tapeworms malarial parasites
139
Parasite Transmission
bull Many parasites live on or in a single organism
bull Some will alternate between 2 or more host species
bull Vertical transmission ndash from mother offspring
bull Horizontal transmission ndash between members of a
population
bull Direct contact (head lice)
bull Vectors (mosquitos)
140
141
Commensalism
bull Neither species is totally dependent on the other
bull One benefits ndash no effect on the other
bull Feeding or protection
bull Porcelain anemone crabs and anemones
142
Mutualism
bull Both species benefit
bull Food or shelter
bull Examples
bull Plants and microbes (rhizobium in root nodules)
bull Plants and fungi (orchids and mycorrhizae)
bull Protists and fungi (lichen)
bull Plants and insects (pollination)
bull Animals and bacteria (ruminants)
bull Animals and other animals (crocodiles and
plover birds)
143
Mutualism shrimp and moray
Cleaner shrimp cleaning a zebra moray eel Mutualistic
relationships such as these promote the well-being of the
host fishes and provide food for those that do the cleaning 144
Rhizobium
Rhizobium in root nodules of certain plants convert
nitrogen in soil to usable form
145
Orchid Mycorrhizae
Fungi aid the plant in the uptake of nutrients
Fungi ingest some of the food from plant
photosynthesis 146
Lichen
Most of the lichen is composed of fungal filaments
but living among the filaments are algal cells
usually from a green alga or a cyanobacterium
The lichen fungus provides its partner(s) a benefit
(protection) and gains nutrients in return 147
Ruminants
Ruminants are characterized by their four-chambered
stomach and cud-chewing behavior Cud is a food bolus
that is regurgitated rechewed and reswallowed The
rumen is a large fermentation vat containing billions of
microorganisms including bacteria and protozoa which
allow ruminants to digest fibrous feeds such as grass and
hay that other animals cannot efficiently utilize 148
Crocodiles amp
Plover Birds
The bird gets into the crocodiles mouth and picks out
the tiny bits of food stuck in his teeth then eats it (the
tiny bits)
This cleans the crocodiles teeth and keeps his mouth
fresh and free from infections 149
Predation
bull Consumption of one living organism by
another
bull Predators must have offensive strategies
bull ways of finding catching and eating
their prey
bull Prey organisms must have defensive
strategies
bull ways of avoiding or discouraging this
activity
150
Predation
bull Encompasses all levels within an
ecological food chainweb
bull plant-herbivore systems
bull herbivore-carnivore systems
bull three-way interactions of
interdependent plant-herbivore-
carnivore systems
151
This goshawk is the tertiary consumer in his ecosystem
and the mouse in his beak is the secondary consumer
Beneath the mouse on the ecological pyramid lies his
foodsource likely a worm which fed on the primary
producer leafy plants 152
Ecosystem of Life in Floridas
Springs
bull Click here for a close-up look of life
in Floridas springs and the various
predator-prey interactions there
153
The Most Important Chemical Cycles
1) Carbon
2) Nitrogen
3) Phosphorus
4) Sulfur
114
115
The
Carbon
Cycle
116
The Carbon Cycle
Keeping Up With Carbon
NASA video provides key information on the carbon cycle
117
118
Carbon Cycle Game
Fossil Fuels
bull created when large numbers of organisms die and are buried in sediment lacking oxygen
bull In absence of oxygen at high pressures and after very long periods of time organic remains are ultimately transformed into coal oil and natural gas
bull burning coal oil and natural gas releases large amounts of carbon dioxide
bull increases average CO2 concentration in the atmosphere
bull current level of CO2 in the atmosphere is the highest it has been in almost half a million years
119
Global CO2 levels are rising in
general but they also exhibit a
sharp rise and fall within each
year ndash why
120
121
The Nitrogen Cycle
122
The Nitrogen Cycle
Fertilizers
bull Because it is necessary for the production of every plant
protein and because all nitrogen must first be made
usable by bacteria plant growth is often limited by
nitrogen levels in the soil
bull For this reason most fertilizers contain nitrogen in a
form usable by plants
123
124
125
126
127
Oxygen reduction downstream of a source of
organic pollution
128
Algal growth and eutrophication in an Australian
outback waterway
129
Sulfur Cycle
bull component of protein
bull cycles in both a gas and sedimentary cycle
bull source earths crust
bull enters the atmosphere as hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
during fossil fuel combustion volcanic eruptions
gas exchange at ocean surfaces decomposition
130
Sulfur Cycle
bull H2S is immediately oxidized to sulfur dioxide (SO2)
bull SO2 + water vapor H2SO4 (falls to earth in rain)
bull sulfur in soluble form is taken up by plant roots
incorporated into amino acids such as cysteine
bull travels through food chain
bull eventually released through decomposition
131
How is carbon recycled back to the
atmosphere in the carbon cycle
1 It is ldquofixedrdquo by bacteria
2 It is a product of cellular respiration
3 Burning of fossil fuels
4 2 and 3
5 All of the above
132
Why do commercial fertilizers usually
contain usable forms of nitrogen and
phosphorous
1 These chemicals are not efficiently recycled in
the soil
2 Nitrogen and phosphorous need to be ldquofixedrdquo
by bacteria or the plant
3 Nitrogen and phosphorous are found at high
levels in the atmosphere but not in the soil
4 Nitrogen and phosphorous only enter the soil
through erosion
133
Take-home message
bull Chemicals essential to lifemdashincluding carbon nitrogen and phosphorusmdashcycle through ecosystems
bull They are usually captured from the atmosphere soil or water by growing organisms passed from one trophic level to the next as organisms eat other organisms and returned to the environment through respiration decomposition and erosion
bull These cycles can be disrupted as human activities significantly increase the amounts of the chemicals utilized or released to the environment
134
Symbiotic Relationships
bull Symbiosis close relationship between organisms of
two different species
bull At least one participant gains some sort of benefit
(usually nutritional)
bull Types of symbiosis
bull Parasitism
bull Commensalism
bull Mutualism
bull Predation
135
Symbiotic Relationships in the
Ocean
bull Click here for an explanation of the
relationships of marine animals
including sharks rays and various
fishes
136
Parasitism bull Parasite derives nutrition from the host
bull This harms the host but a true parasite does
not usually kill its host (directly)
137
Ectoparasites
Remain outside the host
Ticks fleas leeches
138
Endoparasites
Live inside the hostrsquos body
Tapeworms malarial parasites
139
Parasite Transmission
bull Many parasites live on or in a single organism
bull Some will alternate between 2 or more host species
bull Vertical transmission ndash from mother offspring
bull Horizontal transmission ndash between members of a
population
bull Direct contact (head lice)
bull Vectors (mosquitos)
140
141
Commensalism
bull Neither species is totally dependent on the other
bull One benefits ndash no effect on the other
bull Feeding or protection
bull Porcelain anemone crabs and anemones
142
Mutualism
bull Both species benefit
bull Food or shelter
bull Examples
bull Plants and microbes (rhizobium in root nodules)
bull Plants and fungi (orchids and mycorrhizae)
bull Protists and fungi (lichen)
bull Plants and insects (pollination)
bull Animals and bacteria (ruminants)
bull Animals and other animals (crocodiles and
plover birds)
143
Mutualism shrimp and moray
Cleaner shrimp cleaning a zebra moray eel Mutualistic
relationships such as these promote the well-being of the
host fishes and provide food for those that do the cleaning 144
Rhizobium
Rhizobium in root nodules of certain plants convert
nitrogen in soil to usable form
145
Orchid Mycorrhizae
Fungi aid the plant in the uptake of nutrients
Fungi ingest some of the food from plant
photosynthesis 146
Lichen
Most of the lichen is composed of fungal filaments
but living among the filaments are algal cells
usually from a green alga or a cyanobacterium
The lichen fungus provides its partner(s) a benefit
(protection) and gains nutrients in return 147
Ruminants
Ruminants are characterized by their four-chambered
stomach and cud-chewing behavior Cud is a food bolus
that is regurgitated rechewed and reswallowed The
rumen is a large fermentation vat containing billions of
microorganisms including bacteria and protozoa which
allow ruminants to digest fibrous feeds such as grass and
hay that other animals cannot efficiently utilize 148
Crocodiles amp
Plover Birds
The bird gets into the crocodiles mouth and picks out
the tiny bits of food stuck in his teeth then eats it (the
tiny bits)
This cleans the crocodiles teeth and keeps his mouth
fresh and free from infections 149
Predation
bull Consumption of one living organism by
another
bull Predators must have offensive strategies
bull ways of finding catching and eating
their prey
bull Prey organisms must have defensive
strategies
bull ways of avoiding or discouraging this
activity
150
Predation
bull Encompasses all levels within an
ecological food chainweb
bull plant-herbivore systems
bull herbivore-carnivore systems
bull three-way interactions of
interdependent plant-herbivore-
carnivore systems
151
This goshawk is the tertiary consumer in his ecosystem
and the mouse in his beak is the secondary consumer
Beneath the mouse on the ecological pyramid lies his
foodsource likely a worm which fed on the primary
producer leafy plants 152
Ecosystem of Life in Floridas
Springs
bull Click here for a close-up look of life
in Floridas springs and the various
predator-prey interactions there
153
115
The
Carbon
Cycle
116
The Carbon Cycle
Keeping Up With Carbon
NASA video provides key information on the carbon cycle
117
118
Carbon Cycle Game
Fossil Fuels
bull created when large numbers of organisms die and are buried in sediment lacking oxygen
bull In absence of oxygen at high pressures and after very long periods of time organic remains are ultimately transformed into coal oil and natural gas
bull burning coal oil and natural gas releases large amounts of carbon dioxide
bull increases average CO2 concentration in the atmosphere
bull current level of CO2 in the atmosphere is the highest it has been in almost half a million years
119
Global CO2 levels are rising in
general but they also exhibit a
sharp rise and fall within each
year ndash why
120
121
The Nitrogen Cycle
122
The Nitrogen Cycle
Fertilizers
bull Because it is necessary for the production of every plant
protein and because all nitrogen must first be made
usable by bacteria plant growth is often limited by
nitrogen levels in the soil
bull For this reason most fertilizers contain nitrogen in a
form usable by plants
123
124
125
126
127
Oxygen reduction downstream of a source of
organic pollution
128
Algal growth and eutrophication in an Australian
outback waterway
129
Sulfur Cycle
bull component of protein
bull cycles in both a gas and sedimentary cycle
bull source earths crust
bull enters the atmosphere as hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
during fossil fuel combustion volcanic eruptions
gas exchange at ocean surfaces decomposition
130
Sulfur Cycle
bull H2S is immediately oxidized to sulfur dioxide (SO2)
bull SO2 + water vapor H2SO4 (falls to earth in rain)
bull sulfur in soluble form is taken up by plant roots
incorporated into amino acids such as cysteine
bull travels through food chain
bull eventually released through decomposition
131
How is carbon recycled back to the
atmosphere in the carbon cycle
1 It is ldquofixedrdquo by bacteria
2 It is a product of cellular respiration
3 Burning of fossil fuels
4 2 and 3
5 All of the above
132
Why do commercial fertilizers usually
contain usable forms of nitrogen and
phosphorous
1 These chemicals are not efficiently recycled in
the soil
2 Nitrogen and phosphorous need to be ldquofixedrdquo
by bacteria or the plant
3 Nitrogen and phosphorous are found at high
levels in the atmosphere but not in the soil
4 Nitrogen and phosphorous only enter the soil
through erosion
133
Take-home message
bull Chemicals essential to lifemdashincluding carbon nitrogen and phosphorusmdashcycle through ecosystems
bull They are usually captured from the atmosphere soil or water by growing organisms passed from one trophic level to the next as organisms eat other organisms and returned to the environment through respiration decomposition and erosion
bull These cycles can be disrupted as human activities significantly increase the amounts of the chemicals utilized or released to the environment
134
Symbiotic Relationships
bull Symbiosis close relationship between organisms of
two different species
bull At least one participant gains some sort of benefit
(usually nutritional)
bull Types of symbiosis
bull Parasitism
bull Commensalism
bull Mutualism
bull Predation
135
Symbiotic Relationships in the
Ocean
bull Click here for an explanation of the
relationships of marine animals
including sharks rays and various
fishes
136
Parasitism bull Parasite derives nutrition from the host
bull This harms the host but a true parasite does
not usually kill its host (directly)
137
Ectoparasites
Remain outside the host
Ticks fleas leeches
138
Endoparasites
Live inside the hostrsquos body
Tapeworms malarial parasites
139
Parasite Transmission
bull Many parasites live on or in a single organism
bull Some will alternate between 2 or more host species
bull Vertical transmission ndash from mother offspring
bull Horizontal transmission ndash between members of a
population
bull Direct contact (head lice)
bull Vectors (mosquitos)
140
141
Commensalism
bull Neither species is totally dependent on the other
bull One benefits ndash no effect on the other
bull Feeding or protection
bull Porcelain anemone crabs and anemones
142
Mutualism
bull Both species benefit
bull Food or shelter
bull Examples
bull Plants and microbes (rhizobium in root nodules)
bull Plants and fungi (orchids and mycorrhizae)
bull Protists and fungi (lichen)
bull Plants and insects (pollination)
bull Animals and bacteria (ruminants)
bull Animals and other animals (crocodiles and
plover birds)
143
Mutualism shrimp and moray
Cleaner shrimp cleaning a zebra moray eel Mutualistic
relationships such as these promote the well-being of the
host fishes and provide food for those that do the cleaning 144
Rhizobium
Rhizobium in root nodules of certain plants convert
nitrogen in soil to usable form
145
Orchid Mycorrhizae
Fungi aid the plant in the uptake of nutrients
Fungi ingest some of the food from plant
photosynthesis 146
Lichen
Most of the lichen is composed of fungal filaments
but living among the filaments are algal cells
usually from a green alga or a cyanobacterium
The lichen fungus provides its partner(s) a benefit
(protection) and gains nutrients in return 147
Ruminants
Ruminants are characterized by their four-chambered
stomach and cud-chewing behavior Cud is a food bolus
that is regurgitated rechewed and reswallowed The
rumen is a large fermentation vat containing billions of
microorganisms including bacteria and protozoa which
allow ruminants to digest fibrous feeds such as grass and
hay that other animals cannot efficiently utilize 148
Crocodiles amp
Plover Birds
The bird gets into the crocodiles mouth and picks out
the tiny bits of food stuck in his teeth then eats it (the
tiny bits)
This cleans the crocodiles teeth and keeps his mouth
fresh and free from infections 149
Predation
bull Consumption of one living organism by
another
bull Predators must have offensive strategies
bull ways of finding catching and eating
their prey
bull Prey organisms must have defensive
strategies
bull ways of avoiding or discouraging this
activity
150
Predation
bull Encompasses all levels within an
ecological food chainweb
bull plant-herbivore systems
bull herbivore-carnivore systems
bull three-way interactions of
interdependent plant-herbivore-
carnivore systems
151
This goshawk is the tertiary consumer in his ecosystem
and the mouse in his beak is the secondary consumer
Beneath the mouse on the ecological pyramid lies his
foodsource likely a worm which fed on the primary
producer leafy plants 152
Ecosystem of Life in Floridas
Springs
bull Click here for a close-up look of life
in Floridas springs and the various
predator-prey interactions there
153
116
The Carbon Cycle
Keeping Up With Carbon
NASA video provides key information on the carbon cycle
117
118
Carbon Cycle Game
Fossil Fuels
bull created when large numbers of organisms die and are buried in sediment lacking oxygen
bull In absence of oxygen at high pressures and after very long periods of time organic remains are ultimately transformed into coal oil and natural gas
bull burning coal oil and natural gas releases large amounts of carbon dioxide
bull increases average CO2 concentration in the atmosphere
bull current level of CO2 in the atmosphere is the highest it has been in almost half a million years
119
Global CO2 levels are rising in
general but they also exhibit a
sharp rise and fall within each
year ndash why
120
121
The Nitrogen Cycle
122
The Nitrogen Cycle
Fertilizers
bull Because it is necessary for the production of every plant
protein and because all nitrogen must first be made
usable by bacteria plant growth is often limited by
nitrogen levels in the soil
bull For this reason most fertilizers contain nitrogen in a
form usable by plants
123
124
125
126
127
Oxygen reduction downstream of a source of
organic pollution
128
Algal growth and eutrophication in an Australian
outback waterway
129
Sulfur Cycle
bull component of protein
bull cycles in both a gas and sedimentary cycle
bull source earths crust
bull enters the atmosphere as hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
during fossil fuel combustion volcanic eruptions
gas exchange at ocean surfaces decomposition
130
Sulfur Cycle
bull H2S is immediately oxidized to sulfur dioxide (SO2)
bull SO2 + water vapor H2SO4 (falls to earth in rain)
bull sulfur in soluble form is taken up by plant roots
incorporated into amino acids such as cysteine
bull travels through food chain
bull eventually released through decomposition
131
How is carbon recycled back to the
atmosphere in the carbon cycle
1 It is ldquofixedrdquo by bacteria
2 It is a product of cellular respiration
3 Burning of fossil fuels
4 2 and 3
5 All of the above
132
Why do commercial fertilizers usually
contain usable forms of nitrogen and
phosphorous
1 These chemicals are not efficiently recycled in
the soil
2 Nitrogen and phosphorous need to be ldquofixedrdquo
by bacteria or the plant
3 Nitrogen and phosphorous are found at high
levels in the atmosphere but not in the soil
4 Nitrogen and phosphorous only enter the soil
through erosion
133
Take-home message
bull Chemicals essential to lifemdashincluding carbon nitrogen and phosphorusmdashcycle through ecosystems
bull They are usually captured from the atmosphere soil or water by growing organisms passed from one trophic level to the next as organisms eat other organisms and returned to the environment through respiration decomposition and erosion
bull These cycles can be disrupted as human activities significantly increase the amounts of the chemicals utilized or released to the environment
134
Symbiotic Relationships
bull Symbiosis close relationship between organisms of
two different species
bull At least one participant gains some sort of benefit
(usually nutritional)
bull Types of symbiosis
bull Parasitism
bull Commensalism
bull Mutualism
bull Predation
135
Symbiotic Relationships in the
Ocean
bull Click here for an explanation of the
relationships of marine animals
including sharks rays and various
fishes
136
Parasitism bull Parasite derives nutrition from the host
bull This harms the host but a true parasite does
not usually kill its host (directly)
137
Ectoparasites
Remain outside the host
Ticks fleas leeches
138
Endoparasites
Live inside the hostrsquos body
Tapeworms malarial parasites
139
Parasite Transmission
bull Many parasites live on or in a single organism
bull Some will alternate between 2 or more host species
bull Vertical transmission ndash from mother offspring
bull Horizontal transmission ndash between members of a
population
bull Direct contact (head lice)
bull Vectors (mosquitos)
140
141
Commensalism
bull Neither species is totally dependent on the other
bull One benefits ndash no effect on the other
bull Feeding or protection
bull Porcelain anemone crabs and anemones
142
Mutualism
bull Both species benefit
bull Food or shelter
bull Examples
bull Plants and microbes (rhizobium in root nodules)
bull Plants and fungi (orchids and mycorrhizae)
bull Protists and fungi (lichen)
bull Plants and insects (pollination)
bull Animals and bacteria (ruminants)
bull Animals and other animals (crocodiles and
plover birds)
143
Mutualism shrimp and moray
Cleaner shrimp cleaning a zebra moray eel Mutualistic
relationships such as these promote the well-being of the
host fishes and provide food for those that do the cleaning 144
Rhizobium
Rhizobium in root nodules of certain plants convert
nitrogen in soil to usable form
145
Orchid Mycorrhizae
Fungi aid the plant in the uptake of nutrients
Fungi ingest some of the food from plant
photosynthesis 146
Lichen
Most of the lichen is composed of fungal filaments
but living among the filaments are algal cells
usually from a green alga or a cyanobacterium
The lichen fungus provides its partner(s) a benefit
(protection) and gains nutrients in return 147
Ruminants
Ruminants are characterized by their four-chambered
stomach and cud-chewing behavior Cud is a food bolus
that is regurgitated rechewed and reswallowed The
rumen is a large fermentation vat containing billions of
microorganisms including bacteria and protozoa which
allow ruminants to digest fibrous feeds such as grass and
hay that other animals cannot efficiently utilize 148
Crocodiles amp
Plover Birds
The bird gets into the crocodiles mouth and picks out
the tiny bits of food stuck in his teeth then eats it (the
tiny bits)
This cleans the crocodiles teeth and keeps his mouth
fresh and free from infections 149
Predation
bull Consumption of one living organism by
another
bull Predators must have offensive strategies
bull ways of finding catching and eating
their prey
bull Prey organisms must have defensive
strategies
bull ways of avoiding or discouraging this
activity
150
Predation
bull Encompasses all levels within an
ecological food chainweb
bull plant-herbivore systems
bull herbivore-carnivore systems
bull three-way interactions of
interdependent plant-herbivore-
carnivore systems
151
This goshawk is the tertiary consumer in his ecosystem
and the mouse in his beak is the secondary consumer
Beneath the mouse on the ecological pyramid lies his
foodsource likely a worm which fed on the primary
producer leafy plants 152
Ecosystem of Life in Floridas
Springs
bull Click here for a close-up look of life
in Floridas springs and the various
predator-prey interactions there
153
Keeping Up With Carbon
NASA video provides key information on the carbon cycle
117
118
Carbon Cycle Game
Fossil Fuels
bull created when large numbers of organisms die and are buried in sediment lacking oxygen
bull In absence of oxygen at high pressures and after very long periods of time organic remains are ultimately transformed into coal oil and natural gas
bull burning coal oil and natural gas releases large amounts of carbon dioxide
bull increases average CO2 concentration in the atmosphere
bull current level of CO2 in the atmosphere is the highest it has been in almost half a million years
119
Global CO2 levels are rising in
general but they also exhibit a
sharp rise and fall within each
year ndash why
120
121
The Nitrogen Cycle
122
The Nitrogen Cycle
Fertilizers
bull Because it is necessary for the production of every plant
protein and because all nitrogen must first be made
usable by bacteria plant growth is often limited by
nitrogen levels in the soil
bull For this reason most fertilizers contain nitrogen in a
form usable by plants
123
124
125
126
127
Oxygen reduction downstream of a source of
organic pollution
128
Algal growth and eutrophication in an Australian
outback waterway
129
Sulfur Cycle
bull component of protein
bull cycles in both a gas and sedimentary cycle
bull source earths crust
bull enters the atmosphere as hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
during fossil fuel combustion volcanic eruptions
gas exchange at ocean surfaces decomposition
130
Sulfur Cycle
bull H2S is immediately oxidized to sulfur dioxide (SO2)
bull SO2 + water vapor H2SO4 (falls to earth in rain)
bull sulfur in soluble form is taken up by plant roots
incorporated into amino acids such as cysteine
bull travels through food chain
bull eventually released through decomposition
131
How is carbon recycled back to the
atmosphere in the carbon cycle
1 It is ldquofixedrdquo by bacteria
2 It is a product of cellular respiration
3 Burning of fossil fuels
4 2 and 3
5 All of the above
132
Why do commercial fertilizers usually
contain usable forms of nitrogen and
phosphorous
1 These chemicals are not efficiently recycled in
the soil
2 Nitrogen and phosphorous need to be ldquofixedrdquo
by bacteria or the plant
3 Nitrogen and phosphorous are found at high
levels in the atmosphere but not in the soil
4 Nitrogen and phosphorous only enter the soil
through erosion
133
Take-home message
bull Chemicals essential to lifemdashincluding carbon nitrogen and phosphorusmdashcycle through ecosystems
bull They are usually captured from the atmosphere soil or water by growing organisms passed from one trophic level to the next as organisms eat other organisms and returned to the environment through respiration decomposition and erosion
bull These cycles can be disrupted as human activities significantly increase the amounts of the chemicals utilized or released to the environment
134
Symbiotic Relationships
bull Symbiosis close relationship between organisms of
two different species
bull At least one participant gains some sort of benefit
(usually nutritional)
bull Types of symbiosis
bull Parasitism
bull Commensalism
bull Mutualism
bull Predation
135
Symbiotic Relationships in the
Ocean
bull Click here for an explanation of the
relationships of marine animals
including sharks rays and various
fishes
136
Parasitism bull Parasite derives nutrition from the host
bull This harms the host but a true parasite does
not usually kill its host (directly)
137
Ectoparasites
Remain outside the host
Ticks fleas leeches
138
Endoparasites
Live inside the hostrsquos body
Tapeworms malarial parasites
139
Parasite Transmission
bull Many parasites live on or in a single organism
bull Some will alternate between 2 or more host species
bull Vertical transmission ndash from mother offspring
bull Horizontal transmission ndash between members of a
population
bull Direct contact (head lice)
bull Vectors (mosquitos)
140
141
Commensalism
bull Neither species is totally dependent on the other
bull One benefits ndash no effect on the other
bull Feeding or protection
bull Porcelain anemone crabs and anemones
142
Mutualism
bull Both species benefit
bull Food or shelter
bull Examples
bull Plants and microbes (rhizobium in root nodules)
bull Plants and fungi (orchids and mycorrhizae)
bull Protists and fungi (lichen)
bull Plants and insects (pollination)
bull Animals and bacteria (ruminants)
bull Animals and other animals (crocodiles and
plover birds)
143
Mutualism shrimp and moray
Cleaner shrimp cleaning a zebra moray eel Mutualistic
relationships such as these promote the well-being of the
host fishes and provide food for those that do the cleaning 144
Rhizobium
Rhizobium in root nodules of certain plants convert
nitrogen in soil to usable form
145
Orchid Mycorrhizae
Fungi aid the plant in the uptake of nutrients
Fungi ingest some of the food from plant
photosynthesis 146
Lichen
Most of the lichen is composed of fungal filaments
but living among the filaments are algal cells
usually from a green alga or a cyanobacterium
The lichen fungus provides its partner(s) a benefit
(protection) and gains nutrients in return 147
Ruminants
Ruminants are characterized by their four-chambered
stomach and cud-chewing behavior Cud is a food bolus
that is regurgitated rechewed and reswallowed The
rumen is a large fermentation vat containing billions of
microorganisms including bacteria and protozoa which
allow ruminants to digest fibrous feeds such as grass and
hay that other animals cannot efficiently utilize 148
Crocodiles amp
Plover Birds
The bird gets into the crocodiles mouth and picks out
the tiny bits of food stuck in his teeth then eats it (the
tiny bits)
This cleans the crocodiles teeth and keeps his mouth
fresh and free from infections 149
Predation
bull Consumption of one living organism by
another
bull Predators must have offensive strategies
bull ways of finding catching and eating
their prey
bull Prey organisms must have defensive
strategies
bull ways of avoiding or discouraging this
activity
150
Predation
bull Encompasses all levels within an
ecological food chainweb
bull plant-herbivore systems
bull herbivore-carnivore systems
bull three-way interactions of
interdependent plant-herbivore-
carnivore systems
151
This goshawk is the tertiary consumer in his ecosystem
and the mouse in his beak is the secondary consumer
Beneath the mouse on the ecological pyramid lies his
foodsource likely a worm which fed on the primary
producer leafy plants 152
Ecosystem of Life in Floridas
Springs
bull Click here for a close-up look of life
in Floridas springs and the various
predator-prey interactions there
153
118
Carbon Cycle Game
Fossil Fuels
bull created when large numbers of organisms die and are buried in sediment lacking oxygen
bull In absence of oxygen at high pressures and after very long periods of time organic remains are ultimately transformed into coal oil and natural gas
bull burning coal oil and natural gas releases large amounts of carbon dioxide
bull increases average CO2 concentration in the atmosphere
bull current level of CO2 in the atmosphere is the highest it has been in almost half a million years
119
Global CO2 levels are rising in
general but they also exhibit a
sharp rise and fall within each
year ndash why
120
121
The Nitrogen Cycle
122
The Nitrogen Cycle
Fertilizers
bull Because it is necessary for the production of every plant
protein and because all nitrogen must first be made
usable by bacteria plant growth is often limited by
nitrogen levels in the soil
bull For this reason most fertilizers contain nitrogen in a
form usable by plants
123
124
125
126
127
Oxygen reduction downstream of a source of
organic pollution
128
Algal growth and eutrophication in an Australian
outback waterway
129
Sulfur Cycle
bull component of protein
bull cycles in both a gas and sedimentary cycle
bull source earths crust
bull enters the atmosphere as hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
during fossil fuel combustion volcanic eruptions
gas exchange at ocean surfaces decomposition
130
Sulfur Cycle
bull H2S is immediately oxidized to sulfur dioxide (SO2)
bull SO2 + water vapor H2SO4 (falls to earth in rain)
bull sulfur in soluble form is taken up by plant roots
incorporated into amino acids such as cysteine
bull travels through food chain
bull eventually released through decomposition
131
How is carbon recycled back to the
atmosphere in the carbon cycle
1 It is ldquofixedrdquo by bacteria
2 It is a product of cellular respiration
3 Burning of fossil fuels
4 2 and 3
5 All of the above
132
Why do commercial fertilizers usually
contain usable forms of nitrogen and
phosphorous
1 These chemicals are not efficiently recycled in
the soil
2 Nitrogen and phosphorous need to be ldquofixedrdquo
by bacteria or the plant
3 Nitrogen and phosphorous are found at high
levels in the atmosphere but not in the soil
4 Nitrogen and phosphorous only enter the soil
through erosion
133
Take-home message
bull Chemicals essential to lifemdashincluding carbon nitrogen and phosphorusmdashcycle through ecosystems
bull They are usually captured from the atmosphere soil or water by growing organisms passed from one trophic level to the next as organisms eat other organisms and returned to the environment through respiration decomposition and erosion
bull These cycles can be disrupted as human activities significantly increase the amounts of the chemicals utilized or released to the environment
134
Symbiotic Relationships
bull Symbiosis close relationship between organisms of
two different species
bull At least one participant gains some sort of benefit
(usually nutritional)
bull Types of symbiosis
bull Parasitism
bull Commensalism
bull Mutualism
bull Predation
135
Symbiotic Relationships in the
Ocean
bull Click here for an explanation of the
relationships of marine animals
including sharks rays and various
fishes
136
Parasitism bull Parasite derives nutrition from the host
bull This harms the host but a true parasite does
not usually kill its host (directly)
137
Ectoparasites
Remain outside the host
Ticks fleas leeches
138
Endoparasites
Live inside the hostrsquos body
Tapeworms malarial parasites
139
Parasite Transmission
bull Many parasites live on or in a single organism
bull Some will alternate between 2 or more host species
bull Vertical transmission ndash from mother offspring
bull Horizontal transmission ndash between members of a
population
bull Direct contact (head lice)
bull Vectors (mosquitos)
140
141
Commensalism
bull Neither species is totally dependent on the other
bull One benefits ndash no effect on the other
bull Feeding or protection
bull Porcelain anemone crabs and anemones
142
Mutualism
bull Both species benefit
bull Food or shelter
bull Examples
bull Plants and microbes (rhizobium in root nodules)
bull Plants and fungi (orchids and mycorrhizae)
bull Protists and fungi (lichen)
bull Plants and insects (pollination)
bull Animals and bacteria (ruminants)
bull Animals and other animals (crocodiles and
plover birds)
143
Mutualism shrimp and moray
Cleaner shrimp cleaning a zebra moray eel Mutualistic
relationships such as these promote the well-being of the
host fishes and provide food for those that do the cleaning 144
Rhizobium
Rhizobium in root nodules of certain plants convert
nitrogen in soil to usable form
145
Orchid Mycorrhizae
Fungi aid the plant in the uptake of nutrients
Fungi ingest some of the food from plant
photosynthesis 146
Lichen
Most of the lichen is composed of fungal filaments
but living among the filaments are algal cells
usually from a green alga or a cyanobacterium
The lichen fungus provides its partner(s) a benefit
(protection) and gains nutrients in return 147
Ruminants
Ruminants are characterized by their four-chambered
stomach and cud-chewing behavior Cud is a food bolus
that is regurgitated rechewed and reswallowed The
rumen is a large fermentation vat containing billions of
microorganisms including bacteria and protozoa which
allow ruminants to digest fibrous feeds such as grass and
hay that other animals cannot efficiently utilize 148
Crocodiles amp
Plover Birds
The bird gets into the crocodiles mouth and picks out
the tiny bits of food stuck in his teeth then eats it (the
tiny bits)
This cleans the crocodiles teeth and keeps his mouth
fresh and free from infections 149
Predation
bull Consumption of one living organism by
another
bull Predators must have offensive strategies
bull ways of finding catching and eating
their prey
bull Prey organisms must have defensive
strategies
bull ways of avoiding or discouraging this
activity
150
Predation
bull Encompasses all levels within an
ecological food chainweb
bull plant-herbivore systems
bull herbivore-carnivore systems
bull three-way interactions of
interdependent plant-herbivore-
carnivore systems
151
This goshawk is the tertiary consumer in his ecosystem
and the mouse in his beak is the secondary consumer
Beneath the mouse on the ecological pyramid lies his
foodsource likely a worm which fed on the primary
producer leafy plants 152
Ecosystem of Life in Floridas
Springs
bull Click here for a close-up look of life
in Floridas springs and the various
predator-prey interactions there
153
Fossil Fuels
bull created when large numbers of organisms die and are buried in sediment lacking oxygen
bull In absence of oxygen at high pressures and after very long periods of time organic remains are ultimately transformed into coal oil and natural gas
bull burning coal oil and natural gas releases large amounts of carbon dioxide
bull increases average CO2 concentration in the atmosphere
bull current level of CO2 in the atmosphere is the highest it has been in almost half a million years
119
Global CO2 levels are rising in
general but they also exhibit a
sharp rise and fall within each
year ndash why
120
121
The Nitrogen Cycle
122
The Nitrogen Cycle
Fertilizers
bull Because it is necessary for the production of every plant
protein and because all nitrogen must first be made
usable by bacteria plant growth is often limited by
nitrogen levels in the soil
bull For this reason most fertilizers contain nitrogen in a
form usable by plants
123
124
125
126
127
Oxygen reduction downstream of a source of
organic pollution
128
Algal growth and eutrophication in an Australian
outback waterway
129
Sulfur Cycle
bull component of protein
bull cycles in both a gas and sedimentary cycle
bull source earths crust
bull enters the atmosphere as hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
during fossil fuel combustion volcanic eruptions
gas exchange at ocean surfaces decomposition
130
Sulfur Cycle
bull H2S is immediately oxidized to sulfur dioxide (SO2)
bull SO2 + water vapor H2SO4 (falls to earth in rain)
bull sulfur in soluble form is taken up by plant roots
incorporated into amino acids such as cysteine
bull travels through food chain
bull eventually released through decomposition
131
How is carbon recycled back to the
atmosphere in the carbon cycle
1 It is ldquofixedrdquo by bacteria
2 It is a product of cellular respiration
3 Burning of fossil fuels
4 2 and 3
5 All of the above
132
Why do commercial fertilizers usually
contain usable forms of nitrogen and
phosphorous
1 These chemicals are not efficiently recycled in
the soil
2 Nitrogen and phosphorous need to be ldquofixedrdquo
by bacteria or the plant
3 Nitrogen and phosphorous are found at high
levels in the atmosphere but not in the soil
4 Nitrogen and phosphorous only enter the soil
through erosion
133
Take-home message
bull Chemicals essential to lifemdashincluding carbon nitrogen and phosphorusmdashcycle through ecosystems
bull They are usually captured from the atmosphere soil or water by growing organisms passed from one trophic level to the next as organisms eat other organisms and returned to the environment through respiration decomposition and erosion
bull These cycles can be disrupted as human activities significantly increase the amounts of the chemicals utilized or released to the environment
134
Symbiotic Relationships
bull Symbiosis close relationship between organisms of
two different species
bull At least one participant gains some sort of benefit
(usually nutritional)
bull Types of symbiosis
bull Parasitism
bull Commensalism
bull Mutualism
bull Predation
135
Symbiotic Relationships in the
Ocean
bull Click here for an explanation of the
relationships of marine animals
including sharks rays and various
fishes
136
Parasitism bull Parasite derives nutrition from the host
bull This harms the host but a true parasite does
not usually kill its host (directly)
137
Ectoparasites
Remain outside the host
Ticks fleas leeches
138
Endoparasites
Live inside the hostrsquos body
Tapeworms malarial parasites
139
Parasite Transmission
bull Many parasites live on or in a single organism
bull Some will alternate between 2 or more host species
bull Vertical transmission ndash from mother offspring
bull Horizontal transmission ndash between members of a
population
bull Direct contact (head lice)
bull Vectors (mosquitos)
140
141
Commensalism
bull Neither species is totally dependent on the other
bull One benefits ndash no effect on the other
bull Feeding or protection
bull Porcelain anemone crabs and anemones
142
Mutualism
bull Both species benefit
bull Food or shelter
bull Examples
bull Plants and microbes (rhizobium in root nodules)
bull Plants and fungi (orchids and mycorrhizae)
bull Protists and fungi (lichen)
bull Plants and insects (pollination)
bull Animals and bacteria (ruminants)
bull Animals and other animals (crocodiles and
plover birds)
143
Mutualism shrimp and moray
Cleaner shrimp cleaning a zebra moray eel Mutualistic
relationships such as these promote the well-being of the
host fishes and provide food for those that do the cleaning 144
Rhizobium
Rhizobium in root nodules of certain plants convert
nitrogen in soil to usable form
145
Orchid Mycorrhizae
Fungi aid the plant in the uptake of nutrients
Fungi ingest some of the food from plant
photosynthesis 146
Lichen
Most of the lichen is composed of fungal filaments
but living among the filaments are algal cells
usually from a green alga or a cyanobacterium
The lichen fungus provides its partner(s) a benefit
(protection) and gains nutrients in return 147
Ruminants
Ruminants are characterized by their four-chambered
stomach and cud-chewing behavior Cud is a food bolus
that is regurgitated rechewed and reswallowed The
rumen is a large fermentation vat containing billions of
microorganisms including bacteria and protozoa which
allow ruminants to digest fibrous feeds such as grass and
hay that other animals cannot efficiently utilize 148
Crocodiles amp
Plover Birds
The bird gets into the crocodiles mouth and picks out
the tiny bits of food stuck in his teeth then eats it (the
tiny bits)
This cleans the crocodiles teeth and keeps his mouth
fresh and free from infections 149
Predation
bull Consumption of one living organism by
another
bull Predators must have offensive strategies
bull ways of finding catching and eating
their prey
bull Prey organisms must have defensive
strategies
bull ways of avoiding or discouraging this
activity
150
Predation
bull Encompasses all levels within an
ecological food chainweb
bull plant-herbivore systems
bull herbivore-carnivore systems
bull three-way interactions of
interdependent plant-herbivore-
carnivore systems
151
This goshawk is the tertiary consumer in his ecosystem
and the mouse in his beak is the secondary consumer
Beneath the mouse on the ecological pyramid lies his
foodsource likely a worm which fed on the primary
producer leafy plants 152
Ecosystem of Life in Floridas
Springs
bull Click here for a close-up look of life
in Floridas springs and the various
predator-prey interactions there
153
Global CO2 levels are rising in
general but they also exhibit a
sharp rise and fall within each
year ndash why
120
121
The Nitrogen Cycle
122
The Nitrogen Cycle
Fertilizers
bull Because it is necessary for the production of every plant
protein and because all nitrogen must first be made
usable by bacteria plant growth is often limited by
nitrogen levels in the soil
bull For this reason most fertilizers contain nitrogen in a
form usable by plants
123
124
125
126
127
Oxygen reduction downstream of a source of
organic pollution
128
Algal growth and eutrophication in an Australian
outback waterway
129
Sulfur Cycle
bull component of protein
bull cycles in both a gas and sedimentary cycle
bull source earths crust
bull enters the atmosphere as hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
during fossil fuel combustion volcanic eruptions
gas exchange at ocean surfaces decomposition
130
Sulfur Cycle
bull H2S is immediately oxidized to sulfur dioxide (SO2)
bull SO2 + water vapor H2SO4 (falls to earth in rain)
bull sulfur in soluble form is taken up by plant roots
incorporated into amino acids such as cysteine
bull travels through food chain
bull eventually released through decomposition
131
How is carbon recycled back to the
atmosphere in the carbon cycle
1 It is ldquofixedrdquo by bacteria
2 It is a product of cellular respiration
3 Burning of fossil fuels
4 2 and 3
5 All of the above
132
Why do commercial fertilizers usually
contain usable forms of nitrogen and
phosphorous
1 These chemicals are not efficiently recycled in
the soil
2 Nitrogen and phosphorous need to be ldquofixedrdquo
by bacteria or the plant
3 Nitrogen and phosphorous are found at high
levels in the atmosphere but not in the soil
4 Nitrogen and phosphorous only enter the soil
through erosion
133
Take-home message
bull Chemicals essential to lifemdashincluding carbon nitrogen and phosphorusmdashcycle through ecosystems
bull They are usually captured from the atmosphere soil or water by growing organisms passed from one trophic level to the next as organisms eat other organisms and returned to the environment through respiration decomposition and erosion
bull These cycles can be disrupted as human activities significantly increase the amounts of the chemicals utilized or released to the environment
134
Symbiotic Relationships
bull Symbiosis close relationship between organisms of
two different species
bull At least one participant gains some sort of benefit
(usually nutritional)
bull Types of symbiosis
bull Parasitism
bull Commensalism
bull Mutualism
bull Predation
135
Symbiotic Relationships in the
Ocean
bull Click here for an explanation of the
relationships of marine animals
including sharks rays and various
fishes
136
Parasitism bull Parasite derives nutrition from the host
bull This harms the host but a true parasite does
not usually kill its host (directly)
137
Ectoparasites
Remain outside the host
Ticks fleas leeches
138
Endoparasites
Live inside the hostrsquos body
Tapeworms malarial parasites
139
Parasite Transmission
bull Many parasites live on or in a single organism
bull Some will alternate between 2 or more host species
bull Vertical transmission ndash from mother offspring
bull Horizontal transmission ndash between members of a
population
bull Direct contact (head lice)
bull Vectors (mosquitos)
140
141
Commensalism
bull Neither species is totally dependent on the other
bull One benefits ndash no effect on the other
bull Feeding or protection
bull Porcelain anemone crabs and anemones
142
Mutualism
bull Both species benefit
bull Food or shelter
bull Examples
bull Plants and microbes (rhizobium in root nodules)
bull Plants and fungi (orchids and mycorrhizae)
bull Protists and fungi (lichen)
bull Plants and insects (pollination)
bull Animals and bacteria (ruminants)
bull Animals and other animals (crocodiles and
plover birds)
143
Mutualism shrimp and moray
Cleaner shrimp cleaning a zebra moray eel Mutualistic
relationships such as these promote the well-being of the
host fishes and provide food for those that do the cleaning 144
Rhizobium
Rhizobium in root nodules of certain plants convert
nitrogen in soil to usable form
145
Orchid Mycorrhizae
Fungi aid the plant in the uptake of nutrients
Fungi ingest some of the food from plant
photosynthesis 146
Lichen
Most of the lichen is composed of fungal filaments
but living among the filaments are algal cells
usually from a green alga or a cyanobacterium
The lichen fungus provides its partner(s) a benefit
(protection) and gains nutrients in return 147
Ruminants
Ruminants are characterized by their four-chambered
stomach and cud-chewing behavior Cud is a food bolus
that is regurgitated rechewed and reswallowed The
rumen is a large fermentation vat containing billions of
microorganisms including bacteria and protozoa which
allow ruminants to digest fibrous feeds such as grass and
hay that other animals cannot efficiently utilize 148
Crocodiles amp
Plover Birds
The bird gets into the crocodiles mouth and picks out
the tiny bits of food stuck in his teeth then eats it (the
tiny bits)
This cleans the crocodiles teeth and keeps his mouth
fresh and free from infections 149
Predation
bull Consumption of one living organism by
another
bull Predators must have offensive strategies
bull ways of finding catching and eating
their prey
bull Prey organisms must have defensive
strategies
bull ways of avoiding or discouraging this
activity
150
Predation
bull Encompasses all levels within an
ecological food chainweb
bull plant-herbivore systems
bull herbivore-carnivore systems
bull three-way interactions of
interdependent plant-herbivore-
carnivore systems
151
This goshawk is the tertiary consumer in his ecosystem
and the mouse in his beak is the secondary consumer
Beneath the mouse on the ecological pyramid lies his
foodsource likely a worm which fed on the primary
producer leafy plants 152
Ecosystem of Life in Floridas
Springs
bull Click here for a close-up look of life
in Floridas springs and the various
predator-prey interactions there
153
121
The Nitrogen Cycle
122
The Nitrogen Cycle
Fertilizers
bull Because it is necessary for the production of every plant
protein and because all nitrogen must first be made
usable by bacteria plant growth is often limited by
nitrogen levels in the soil
bull For this reason most fertilizers contain nitrogen in a
form usable by plants
123
124
125
126
127
Oxygen reduction downstream of a source of
organic pollution
128
Algal growth and eutrophication in an Australian
outback waterway
129
Sulfur Cycle
bull component of protein
bull cycles in both a gas and sedimentary cycle
bull source earths crust
bull enters the atmosphere as hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
during fossil fuel combustion volcanic eruptions
gas exchange at ocean surfaces decomposition
130
Sulfur Cycle
bull H2S is immediately oxidized to sulfur dioxide (SO2)
bull SO2 + water vapor H2SO4 (falls to earth in rain)
bull sulfur in soluble form is taken up by plant roots
incorporated into amino acids such as cysteine
bull travels through food chain
bull eventually released through decomposition
131
How is carbon recycled back to the
atmosphere in the carbon cycle
1 It is ldquofixedrdquo by bacteria
2 It is a product of cellular respiration
3 Burning of fossil fuels
4 2 and 3
5 All of the above
132
Why do commercial fertilizers usually
contain usable forms of nitrogen and
phosphorous
1 These chemicals are not efficiently recycled in
the soil
2 Nitrogen and phosphorous need to be ldquofixedrdquo
by bacteria or the plant
3 Nitrogen and phosphorous are found at high
levels in the atmosphere but not in the soil
4 Nitrogen and phosphorous only enter the soil
through erosion
133
Take-home message
bull Chemicals essential to lifemdashincluding carbon nitrogen and phosphorusmdashcycle through ecosystems
bull They are usually captured from the atmosphere soil or water by growing organisms passed from one trophic level to the next as organisms eat other organisms and returned to the environment through respiration decomposition and erosion
bull These cycles can be disrupted as human activities significantly increase the amounts of the chemicals utilized or released to the environment
134
Symbiotic Relationships
bull Symbiosis close relationship between organisms of
two different species
bull At least one participant gains some sort of benefit
(usually nutritional)
bull Types of symbiosis
bull Parasitism
bull Commensalism
bull Mutualism
bull Predation
135
Symbiotic Relationships in the
Ocean
bull Click here for an explanation of the
relationships of marine animals
including sharks rays and various
fishes
136
Parasitism bull Parasite derives nutrition from the host
bull This harms the host but a true parasite does
not usually kill its host (directly)
137
Ectoparasites
Remain outside the host
Ticks fleas leeches
138
Endoparasites
Live inside the hostrsquos body
Tapeworms malarial parasites
139
Parasite Transmission
bull Many parasites live on or in a single organism
bull Some will alternate between 2 or more host species
bull Vertical transmission ndash from mother offspring
bull Horizontal transmission ndash between members of a
population
bull Direct contact (head lice)
bull Vectors (mosquitos)
140
141
Commensalism
bull Neither species is totally dependent on the other
bull One benefits ndash no effect on the other
bull Feeding or protection
bull Porcelain anemone crabs and anemones
142
Mutualism
bull Both species benefit
bull Food or shelter
bull Examples
bull Plants and microbes (rhizobium in root nodules)
bull Plants and fungi (orchids and mycorrhizae)
bull Protists and fungi (lichen)
bull Plants and insects (pollination)
bull Animals and bacteria (ruminants)
bull Animals and other animals (crocodiles and
plover birds)
143
Mutualism shrimp and moray
Cleaner shrimp cleaning a zebra moray eel Mutualistic
relationships such as these promote the well-being of the
host fishes and provide food for those that do the cleaning 144
Rhizobium
Rhizobium in root nodules of certain plants convert
nitrogen in soil to usable form
145
Orchid Mycorrhizae
Fungi aid the plant in the uptake of nutrients
Fungi ingest some of the food from plant
photosynthesis 146
Lichen
Most of the lichen is composed of fungal filaments
but living among the filaments are algal cells
usually from a green alga or a cyanobacterium
The lichen fungus provides its partner(s) a benefit
(protection) and gains nutrients in return 147
Ruminants
Ruminants are characterized by their four-chambered
stomach and cud-chewing behavior Cud is a food bolus
that is regurgitated rechewed and reswallowed The
rumen is a large fermentation vat containing billions of
microorganisms including bacteria and protozoa which
allow ruminants to digest fibrous feeds such as grass and
hay that other animals cannot efficiently utilize 148
Crocodiles amp
Plover Birds
The bird gets into the crocodiles mouth and picks out
the tiny bits of food stuck in his teeth then eats it (the
tiny bits)
This cleans the crocodiles teeth and keeps his mouth
fresh and free from infections 149
Predation
bull Consumption of one living organism by
another
bull Predators must have offensive strategies
bull ways of finding catching and eating
their prey
bull Prey organisms must have defensive
strategies
bull ways of avoiding or discouraging this
activity
150
Predation
bull Encompasses all levels within an
ecological food chainweb
bull plant-herbivore systems
bull herbivore-carnivore systems
bull three-way interactions of
interdependent plant-herbivore-
carnivore systems
151
This goshawk is the tertiary consumer in his ecosystem
and the mouse in his beak is the secondary consumer
Beneath the mouse on the ecological pyramid lies his
foodsource likely a worm which fed on the primary
producer leafy plants 152
Ecosystem of Life in Floridas
Springs
bull Click here for a close-up look of life
in Floridas springs and the various
predator-prey interactions there
153
122
The Nitrogen Cycle
Fertilizers
bull Because it is necessary for the production of every plant
protein and because all nitrogen must first be made
usable by bacteria plant growth is often limited by
nitrogen levels in the soil
bull For this reason most fertilizers contain nitrogen in a
form usable by plants
123
124
125
126
127
Oxygen reduction downstream of a source of
organic pollution
128
Algal growth and eutrophication in an Australian
outback waterway
129
Sulfur Cycle
bull component of protein
bull cycles in both a gas and sedimentary cycle
bull source earths crust
bull enters the atmosphere as hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
during fossil fuel combustion volcanic eruptions
gas exchange at ocean surfaces decomposition
130
Sulfur Cycle
bull H2S is immediately oxidized to sulfur dioxide (SO2)
bull SO2 + water vapor H2SO4 (falls to earth in rain)
bull sulfur in soluble form is taken up by plant roots
incorporated into amino acids such as cysteine
bull travels through food chain
bull eventually released through decomposition
131
How is carbon recycled back to the
atmosphere in the carbon cycle
1 It is ldquofixedrdquo by bacteria
2 It is a product of cellular respiration
3 Burning of fossil fuels
4 2 and 3
5 All of the above
132
Why do commercial fertilizers usually
contain usable forms of nitrogen and
phosphorous
1 These chemicals are not efficiently recycled in
the soil
2 Nitrogen and phosphorous need to be ldquofixedrdquo
by bacteria or the plant
3 Nitrogen and phosphorous are found at high
levels in the atmosphere but not in the soil
4 Nitrogen and phosphorous only enter the soil
through erosion
133
Take-home message
bull Chemicals essential to lifemdashincluding carbon nitrogen and phosphorusmdashcycle through ecosystems
bull They are usually captured from the atmosphere soil or water by growing organisms passed from one trophic level to the next as organisms eat other organisms and returned to the environment through respiration decomposition and erosion
bull These cycles can be disrupted as human activities significantly increase the amounts of the chemicals utilized or released to the environment
134
Symbiotic Relationships
bull Symbiosis close relationship between organisms of
two different species
bull At least one participant gains some sort of benefit
(usually nutritional)
bull Types of symbiosis
bull Parasitism
bull Commensalism
bull Mutualism
bull Predation
135
Symbiotic Relationships in the
Ocean
bull Click here for an explanation of the
relationships of marine animals
including sharks rays and various
fishes
136
Parasitism bull Parasite derives nutrition from the host
bull This harms the host but a true parasite does
not usually kill its host (directly)
137
Ectoparasites
Remain outside the host
Ticks fleas leeches
138
Endoparasites
Live inside the hostrsquos body
Tapeworms malarial parasites
139
Parasite Transmission
bull Many parasites live on or in a single organism
bull Some will alternate between 2 or more host species
bull Vertical transmission ndash from mother offspring
bull Horizontal transmission ndash between members of a
population
bull Direct contact (head lice)
bull Vectors (mosquitos)
140
141
Commensalism
bull Neither species is totally dependent on the other
bull One benefits ndash no effect on the other
bull Feeding or protection
bull Porcelain anemone crabs and anemones
142
Mutualism
bull Both species benefit
bull Food or shelter
bull Examples
bull Plants and microbes (rhizobium in root nodules)
bull Plants and fungi (orchids and mycorrhizae)
bull Protists and fungi (lichen)
bull Plants and insects (pollination)
bull Animals and bacteria (ruminants)
bull Animals and other animals (crocodiles and
plover birds)
143
Mutualism shrimp and moray
Cleaner shrimp cleaning a zebra moray eel Mutualistic
relationships such as these promote the well-being of the
host fishes and provide food for those that do the cleaning 144
Rhizobium
Rhizobium in root nodules of certain plants convert
nitrogen in soil to usable form
145
Orchid Mycorrhizae
Fungi aid the plant in the uptake of nutrients
Fungi ingest some of the food from plant
photosynthesis 146
Lichen
Most of the lichen is composed of fungal filaments
but living among the filaments are algal cells
usually from a green alga or a cyanobacterium
The lichen fungus provides its partner(s) a benefit
(protection) and gains nutrients in return 147
Ruminants
Ruminants are characterized by their four-chambered
stomach and cud-chewing behavior Cud is a food bolus
that is regurgitated rechewed and reswallowed The
rumen is a large fermentation vat containing billions of
microorganisms including bacteria and protozoa which
allow ruminants to digest fibrous feeds such as grass and
hay that other animals cannot efficiently utilize 148
Crocodiles amp
Plover Birds
The bird gets into the crocodiles mouth and picks out
the tiny bits of food stuck in his teeth then eats it (the
tiny bits)
This cleans the crocodiles teeth and keeps his mouth
fresh and free from infections 149
Predation
bull Consumption of one living organism by
another
bull Predators must have offensive strategies
bull ways of finding catching and eating
their prey
bull Prey organisms must have defensive
strategies
bull ways of avoiding or discouraging this
activity
150
Predation
bull Encompasses all levels within an
ecological food chainweb
bull plant-herbivore systems
bull herbivore-carnivore systems
bull three-way interactions of
interdependent plant-herbivore-
carnivore systems
151
This goshawk is the tertiary consumer in his ecosystem
and the mouse in his beak is the secondary consumer
Beneath the mouse on the ecological pyramid lies his
foodsource likely a worm which fed on the primary
producer leafy plants 152
Ecosystem of Life in Floridas
Springs
bull Click here for a close-up look of life
in Floridas springs and the various
predator-prey interactions there
153
Fertilizers
bull Because it is necessary for the production of every plant
protein and because all nitrogen must first be made
usable by bacteria plant growth is often limited by
nitrogen levels in the soil
bull For this reason most fertilizers contain nitrogen in a
form usable by plants
123
124
125
126
127
Oxygen reduction downstream of a source of
organic pollution
128
Algal growth and eutrophication in an Australian
outback waterway
129
Sulfur Cycle
bull component of protein
bull cycles in both a gas and sedimentary cycle
bull source earths crust
bull enters the atmosphere as hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
during fossil fuel combustion volcanic eruptions
gas exchange at ocean surfaces decomposition
130
Sulfur Cycle
bull H2S is immediately oxidized to sulfur dioxide (SO2)
bull SO2 + water vapor H2SO4 (falls to earth in rain)
bull sulfur in soluble form is taken up by plant roots
incorporated into amino acids such as cysteine
bull travels through food chain
bull eventually released through decomposition
131
How is carbon recycled back to the
atmosphere in the carbon cycle
1 It is ldquofixedrdquo by bacteria
2 It is a product of cellular respiration
3 Burning of fossil fuels
4 2 and 3
5 All of the above
132
Why do commercial fertilizers usually
contain usable forms of nitrogen and
phosphorous
1 These chemicals are not efficiently recycled in
the soil
2 Nitrogen and phosphorous need to be ldquofixedrdquo
by bacteria or the plant
3 Nitrogen and phosphorous are found at high
levels in the atmosphere but not in the soil
4 Nitrogen and phosphorous only enter the soil
through erosion
133
Take-home message
bull Chemicals essential to lifemdashincluding carbon nitrogen and phosphorusmdashcycle through ecosystems
bull They are usually captured from the atmosphere soil or water by growing organisms passed from one trophic level to the next as organisms eat other organisms and returned to the environment through respiration decomposition and erosion
bull These cycles can be disrupted as human activities significantly increase the amounts of the chemicals utilized or released to the environment
134
Symbiotic Relationships
bull Symbiosis close relationship between organisms of
two different species
bull At least one participant gains some sort of benefit
(usually nutritional)
bull Types of symbiosis
bull Parasitism
bull Commensalism
bull Mutualism
bull Predation
135
Symbiotic Relationships in the
Ocean
bull Click here for an explanation of the
relationships of marine animals
including sharks rays and various
fishes
136
Parasitism bull Parasite derives nutrition from the host
bull This harms the host but a true parasite does
not usually kill its host (directly)
137
Ectoparasites
Remain outside the host
Ticks fleas leeches
138
Endoparasites
Live inside the hostrsquos body
Tapeworms malarial parasites
139
Parasite Transmission
bull Many parasites live on or in a single organism
bull Some will alternate between 2 or more host species
bull Vertical transmission ndash from mother offspring
bull Horizontal transmission ndash between members of a
population
bull Direct contact (head lice)
bull Vectors (mosquitos)
140
141
Commensalism
bull Neither species is totally dependent on the other
bull One benefits ndash no effect on the other
bull Feeding or protection
bull Porcelain anemone crabs and anemones
142
Mutualism
bull Both species benefit
bull Food or shelter
bull Examples
bull Plants and microbes (rhizobium in root nodules)
bull Plants and fungi (orchids and mycorrhizae)
bull Protists and fungi (lichen)
bull Plants and insects (pollination)
bull Animals and bacteria (ruminants)
bull Animals and other animals (crocodiles and
plover birds)
143
Mutualism shrimp and moray
Cleaner shrimp cleaning a zebra moray eel Mutualistic
relationships such as these promote the well-being of the
host fishes and provide food for those that do the cleaning 144
Rhizobium
Rhizobium in root nodules of certain plants convert
nitrogen in soil to usable form
145
Orchid Mycorrhizae
Fungi aid the plant in the uptake of nutrients
Fungi ingest some of the food from plant
photosynthesis 146
Lichen
Most of the lichen is composed of fungal filaments
but living among the filaments are algal cells
usually from a green alga or a cyanobacterium
The lichen fungus provides its partner(s) a benefit
(protection) and gains nutrients in return 147
Ruminants
Ruminants are characterized by their four-chambered
stomach and cud-chewing behavior Cud is a food bolus
that is regurgitated rechewed and reswallowed The
rumen is a large fermentation vat containing billions of
microorganisms including bacteria and protozoa which
allow ruminants to digest fibrous feeds such as grass and
hay that other animals cannot efficiently utilize 148
Crocodiles amp
Plover Birds
The bird gets into the crocodiles mouth and picks out
the tiny bits of food stuck in his teeth then eats it (the
tiny bits)
This cleans the crocodiles teeth and keeps his mouth
fresh and free from infections 149
Predation
bull Consumption of one living organism by
another
bull Predators must have offensive strategies
bull ways of finding catching and eating
their prey
bull Prey organisms must have defensive
strategies
bull ways of avoiding or discouraging this
activity
150
Predation
bull Encompasses all levels within an
ecological food chainweb
bull plant-herbivore systems
bull herbivore-carnivore systems
bull three-way interactions of
interdependent plant-herbivore-
carnivore systems
151
This goshawk is the tertiary consumer in his ecosystem
and the mouse in his beak is the secondary consumer
Beneath the mouse on the ecological pyramid lies his
foodsource likely a worm which fed on the primary
producer leafy plants 152
Ecosystem of Life in Floridas
Springs
bull Click here for a close-up look of life
in Floridas springs and the various
predator-prey interactions there
153
124
125
126
127
Oxygen reduction downstream of a source of
organic pollution
128
Algal growth and eutrophication in an Australian
outback waterway
129
Sulfur Cycle
bull component of protein
bull cycles in both a gas and sedimentary cycle
bull source earths crust
bull enters the atmosphere as hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
during fossil fuel combustion volcanic eruptions
gas exchange at ocean surfaces decomposition
130
Sulfur Cycle
bull H2S is immediately oxidized to sulfur dioxide (SO2)
bull SO2 + water vapor H2SO4 (falls to earth in rain)
bull sulfur in soluble form is taken up by plant roots
incorporated into amino acids such as cysteine
bull travels through food chain
bull eventually released through decomposition
131
How is carbon recycled back to the
atmosphere in the carbon cycle
1 It is ldquofixedrdquo by bacteria
2 It is a product of cellular respiration
3 Burning of fossil fuels
4 2 and 3
5 All of the above
132
Why do commercial fertilizers usually
contain usable forms of nitrogen and
phosphorous
1 These chemicals are not efficiently recycled in
the soil
2 Nitrogen and phosphorous need to be ldquofixedrdquo
by bacteria or the plant
3 Nitrogen and phosphorous are found at high
levels in the atmosphere but not in the soil
4 Nitrogen and phosphorous only enter the soil
through erosion
133
Take-home message
bull Chemicals essential to lifemdashincluding carbon nitrogen and phosphorusmdashcycle through ecosystems
bull They are usually captured from the atmosphere soil or water by growing organisms passed from one trophic level to the next as organisms eat other organisms and returned to the environment through respiration decomposition and erosion
bull These cycles can be disrupted as human activities significantly increase the amounts of the chemicals utilized or released to the environment
134
Symbiotic Relationships
bull Symbiosis close relationship between organisms of
two different species
bull At least one participant gains some sort of benefit
(usually nutritional)
bull Types of symbiosis
bull Parasitism
bull Commensalism
bull Mutualism
bull Predation
135
Symbiotic Relationships in the
Ocean
bull Click here for an explanation of the
relationships of marine animals
including sharks rays and various
fishes
136
Parasitism bull Parasite derives nutrition from the host
bull This harms the host but a true parasite does
not usually kill its host (directly)
137
Ectoparasites
Remain outside the host
Ticks fleas leeches
138
Endoparasites
Live inside the hostrsquos body
Tapeworms malarial parasites
139
Parasite Transmission
bull Many parasites live on or in a single organism
bull Some will alternate between 2 or more host species
bull Vertical transmission ndash from mother offspring
bull Horizontal transmission ndash between members of a
population
bull Direct contact (head lice)
bull Vectors (mosquitos)
140
141
Commensalism
bull Neither species is totally dependent on the other
bull One benefits ndash no effect on the other
bull Feeding or protection
bull Porcelain anemone crabs and anemones
142
Mutualism
bull Both species benefit
bull Food or shelter
bull Examples
bull Plants and microbes (rhizobium in root nodules)
bull Plants and fungi (orchids and mycorrhizae)
bull Protists and fungi (lichen)
bull Plants and insects (pollination)
bull Animals and bacteria (ruminants)
bull Animals and other animals (crocodiles and
plover birds)
143
Mutualism shrimp and moray
Cleaner shrimp cleaning a zebra moray eel Mutualistic
relationships such as these promote the well-being of the
host fishes and provide food for those that do the cleaning 144
Rhizobium
Rhizobium in root nodules of certain plants convert
nitrogen in soil to usable form
145
Orchid Mycorrhizae
Fungi aid the plant in the uptake of nutrients
Fungi ingest some of the food from plant
photosynthesis 146
Lichen
Most of the lichen is composed of fungal filaments
but living among the filaments are algal cells
usually from a green alga or a cyanobacterium
The lichen fungus provides its partner(s) a benefit
(protection) and gains nutrients in return 147
Ruminants
Ruminants are characterized by their four-chambered
stomach and cud-chewing behavior Cud is a food bolus
that is regurgitated rechewed and reswallowed The
rumen is a large fermentation vat containing billions of
microorganisms including bacteria and protozoa which
allow ruminants to digest fibrous feeds such as grass and
hay that other animals cannot efficiently utilize 148
Crocodiles amp
Plover Birds
The bird gets into the crocodiles mouth and picks out
the tiny bits of food stuck in his teeth then eats it (the
tiny bits)
This cleans the crocodiles teeth and keeps his mouth
fresh and free from infections 149
Predation
bull Consumption of one living organism by
another
bull Predators must have offensive strategies
bull ways of finding catching and eating
their prey
bull Prey organisms must have defensive
strategies
bull ways of avoiding or discouraging this
activity
150
Predation
bull Encompasses all levels within an
ecological food chainweb
bull plant-herbivore systems
bull herbivore-carnivore systems
bull three-way interactions of
interdependent plant-herbivore-
carnivore systems
151
This goshawk is the tertiary consumer in his ecosystem
and the mouse in his beak is the secondary consumer
Beneath the mouse on the ecological pyramid lies his
foodsource likely a worm which fed on the primary
producer leafy plants 152
Ecosystem of Life in Floridas
Springs
bull Click here for a close-up look of life
in Floridas springs and the various
predator-prey interactions there
153
125
126
127
Oxygen reduction downstream of a source of
organic pollution
128
Algal growth and eutrophication in an Australian
outback waterway
129
Sulfur Cycle
bull component of protein
bull cycles in both a gas and sedimentary cycle
bull source earths crust
bull enters the atmosphere as hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
during fossil fuel combustion volcanic eruptions
gas exchange at ocean surfaces decomposition
130
Sulfur Cycle
bull H2S is immediately oxidized to sulfur dioxide (SO2)
bull SO2 + water vapor H2SO4 (falls to earth in rain)
bull sulfur in soluble form is taken up by plant roots
incorporated into amino acids such as cysteine
bull travels through food chain
bull eventually released through decomposition
131
How is carbon recycled back to the
atmosphere in the carbon cycle
1 It is ldquofixedrdquo by bacteria
2 It is a product of cellular respiration
3 Burning of fossil fuels
4 2 and 3
5 All of the above
132
Why do commercial fertilizers usually
contain usable forms of nitrogen and
phosphorous
1 These chemicals are not efficiently recycled in
the soil
2 Nitrogen and phosphorous need to be ldquofixedrdquo
by bacteria or the plant
3 Nitrogen and phosphorous are found at high
levels in the atmosphere but not in the soil
4 Nitrogen and phosphorous only enter the soil
through erosion
133
Take-home message
bull Chemicals essential to lifemdashincluding carbon nitrogen and phosphorusmdashcycle through ecosystems
bull They are usually captured from the atmosphere soil or water by growing organisms passed from one trophic level to the next as organisms eat other organisms and returned to the environment through respiration decomposition and erosion
bull These cycles can be disrupted as human activities significantly increase the amounts of the chemicals utilized or released to the environment
134
Symbiotic Relationships
bull Symbiosis close relationship between organisms of
two different species
bull At least one participant gains some sort of benefit
(usually nutritional)
bull Types of symbiosis
bull Parasitism
bull Commensalism
bull Mutualism
bull Predation
135
Symbiotic Relationships in the
Ocean
bull Click here for an explanation of the
relationships of marine animals
including sharks rays and various
fishes
136
Parasitism bull Parasite derives nutrition from the host
bull This harms the host but a true parasite does
not usually kill its host (directly)
137
Ectoparasites
Remain outside the host
Ticks fleas leeches
138
Endoparasites
Live inside the hostrsquos body
Tapeworms malarial parasites
139
Parasite Transmission
bull Many parasites live on or in a single organism
bull Some will alternate between 2 or more host species
bull Vertical transmission ndash from mother offspring
bull Horizontal transmission ndash between members of a
population
bull Direct contact (head lice)
bull Vectors (mosquitos)
140
141
Commensalism
bull Neither species is totally dependent on the other
bull One benefits ndash no effect on the other
bull Feeding or protection
bull Porcelain anemone crabs and anemones
142
Mutualism
bull Both species benefit
bull Food or shelter
bull Examples
bull Plants and microbes (rhizobium in root nodules)
bull Plants and fungi (orchids and mycorrhizae)
bull Protists and fungi (lichen)
bull Plants and insects (pollination)
bull Animals and bacteria (ruminants)
bull Animals and other animals (crocodiles and
plover birds)
143
Mutualism shrimp and moray
Cleaner shrimp cleaning a zebra moray eel Mutualistic
relationships such as these promote the well-being of the
host fishes and provide food for those that do the cleaning 144
Rhizobium
Rhizobium in root nodules of certain plants convert
nitrogen in soil to usable form
145
Orchid Mycorrhizae
Fungi aid the plant in the uptake of nutrients
Fungi ingest some of the food from plant
photosynthesis 146
Lichen
Most of the lichen is composed of fungal filaments
but living among the filaments are algal cells
usually from a green alga or a cyanobacterium
The lichen fungus provides its partner(s) a benefit
(protection) and gains nutrients in return 147
Ruminants
Ruminants are characterized by their four-chambered
stomach and cud-chewing behavior Cud is a food bolus
that is regurgitated rechewed and reswallowed The
rumen is a large fermentation vat containing billions of
microorganisms including bacteria and protozoa which
allow ruminants to digest fibrous feeds such as grass and
hay that other animals cannot efficiently utilize 148
Crocodiles amp
Plover Birds
The bird gets into the crocodiles mouth and picks out
the tiny bits of food stuck in his teeth then eats it (the
tiny bits)
This cleans the crocodiles teeth and keeps his mouth
fresh and free from infections 149
Predation
bull Consumption of one living organism by
another
bull Predators must have offensive strategies
bull ways of finding catching and eating
their prey
bull Prey organisms must have defensive
strategies
bull ways of avoiding or discouraging this
activity
150
Predation
bull Encompasses all levels within an
ecological food chainweb
bull plant-herbivore systems
bull herbivore-carnivore systems
bull three-way interactions of
interdependent plant-herbivore-
carnivore systems
151
This goshawk is the tertiary consumer in his ecosystem
and the mouse in his beak is the secondary consumer
Beneath the mouse on the ecological pyramid lies his
foodsource likely a worm which fed on the primary
producer leafy plants 152
Ecosystem of Life in Floridas
Springs
bull Click here for a close-up look of life
in Floridas springs and the various
predator-prey interactions there
153
126
127
Oxygen reduction downstream of a source of
organic pollution
128
Algal growth and eutrophication in an Australian
outback waterway
129
Sulfur Cycle
bull component of protein
bull cycles in both a gas and sedimentary cycle
bull source earths crust
bull enters the atmosphere as hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
during fossil fuel combustion volcanic eruptions
gas exchange at ocean surfaces decomposition
130
Sulfur Cycle
bull H2S is immediately oxidized to sulfur dioxide (SO2)
bull SO2 + water vapor H2SO4 (falls to earth in rain)
bull sulfur in soluble form is taken up by plant roots
incorporated into amino acids such as cysteine
bull travels through food chain
bull eventually released through decomposition
131
How is carbon recycled back to the
atmosphere in the carbon cycle
1 It is ldquofixedrdquo by bacteria
2 It is a product of cellular respiration
3 Burning of fossil fuels
4 2 and 3
5 All of the above
132
Why do commercial fertilizers usually
contain usable forms of nitrogen and
phosphorous
1 These chemicals are not efficiently recycled in
the soil
2 Nitrogen and phosphorous need to be ldquofixedrdquo
by bacteria or the plant
3 Nitrogen and phosphorous are found at high
levels in the atmosphere but not in the soil
4 Nitrogen and phosphorous only enter the soil
through erosion
133
Take-home message
bull Chemicals essential to lifemdashincluding carbon nitrogen and phosphorusmdashcycle through ecosystems
bull They are usually captured from the atmosphere soil or water by growing organisms passed from one trophic level to the next as organisms eat other organisms and returned to the environment through respiration decomposition and erosion
bull These cycles can be disrupted as human activities significantly increase the amounts of the chemicals utilized or released to the environment
134
Symbiotic Relationships
bull Symbiosis close relationship between organisms of
two different species
bull At least one participant gains some sort of benefit
(usually nutritional)
bull Types of symbiosis
bull Parasitism
bull Commensalism
bull Mutualism
bull Predation
135
Symbiotic Relationships in the
Ocean
bull Click here for an explanation of the
relationships of marine animals
including sharks rays and various
fishes
136
Parasitism bull Parasite derives nutrition from the host
bull This harms the host but a true parasite does
not usually kill its host (directly)
137
Ectoparasites
Remain outside the host
Ticks fleas leeches
138
Endoparasites
Live inside the hostrsquos body
Tapeworms malarial parasites
139
Parasite Transmission
bull Many parasites live on or in a single organism
bull Some will alternate between 2 or more host species
bull Vertical transmission ndash from mother offspring
bull Horizontal transmission ndash between members of a
population
bull Direct contact (head lice)
bull Vectors (mosquitos)
140
141
Commensalism
bull Neither species is totally dependent on the other
bull One benefits ndash no effect on the other
bull Feeding or protection
bull Porcelain anemone crabs and anemones
142
Mutualism
bull Both species benefit
bull Food or shelter
bull Examples
bull Plants and microbes (rhizobium in root nodules)
bull Plants and fungi (orchids and mycorrhizae)
bull Protists and fungi (lichen)
bull Plants and insects (pollination)
bull Animals and bacteria (ruminants)
bull Animals and other animals (crocodiles and
plover birds)
143
Mutualism shrimp and moray
Cleaner shrimp cleaning a zebra moray eel Mutualistic
relationships such as these promote the well-being of the
host fishes and provide food for those that do the cleaning 144
Rhizobium
Rhizobium in root nodules of certain plants convert
nitrogen in soil to usable form
145
Orchid Mycorrhizae
Fungi aid the plant in the uptake of nutrients
Fungi ingest some of the food from plant
photosynthesis 146
Lichen
Most of the lichen is composed of fungal filaments
but living among the filaments are algal cells
usually from a green alga or a cyanobacterium
The lichen fungus provides its partner(s) a benefit
(protection) and gains nutrients in return 147
Ruminants
Ruminants are characterized by their four-chambered
stomach and cud-chewing behavior Cud is a food bolus
that is regurgitated rechewed and reswallowed The
rumen is a large fermentation vat containing billions of
microorganisms including bacteria and protozoa which
allow ruminants to digest fibrous feeds such as grass and
hay that other animals cannot efficiently utilize 148
Crocodiles amp
Plover Birds
The bird gets into the crocodiles mouth and picks out
the tiny bits of food stuck in his teeth then eats it (the
tiny bits)
This cleans the crocodiles teeth and keeps his mouth
fresh and free from infections 149
Predation
bull Consumption of one living organism by
another
bull Predators must have offensive strategies
bull ways of finding catching and eating
their prey
bull Prey organisms must have defensive
strategies
bull ways of avoiding or discouraging this
activity
150
Predation
bull Encompasses all levels within an
ecological food chainweb
bull plant-herbivore systems
bull herbivore-carnivore systems
bull three-way interactions of
interdependent plant-herbivore-
carnivore systems
151
This goshawk is the tertiary consumer in his ecosystem
and the mouse in his beak is the secondary consumer
Beneath the mouse on the ecological pyramid lies his
foodsource likely a worm which fed on the primary
producer leafy plants 152
Ecosystem of Life in Floridas
Springs
bull Click here for a close-up look of life
in Floridas springs and the various
predator-prey interactions there
153
127
Oxygen reduction downstream of a source of
organic pollution
128
Algal growth and eutrophication in an Australian
outback waterway
129
Sulfur Cycle
bull component of protein
bull cycles in both a gas and sedimentary cycle
bull source earths crust
bull enters the atmosphere as hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
during fossil fuel combustion volcanic eruptions
gas exchange at ocean surfaces decomposition
130
Sulfur Cycle
bull H2S is immediately oxidized to sulfur dioxide (SO2)
bull SO2 + water vapor H2SO4 (falls to earth in rain)
bull sulfur in soluble form is taken up by plant roots
incorporated into amino acids such as cysteine
bull travels through food chain
bull eventually released through decomposition
131
How is carbon recycled back to the
atmosphere in the carbon cycle
1 It is ldquofixedrdquo by bacteria
2 It is a product of cellular respiration
3 Burning of fossil fuels
4 2 and 3
5 All of the above
132
Why do commercial fertilizers usually
contain usable forms of nitrogen and
phosphorous
1 These chemicals are not efficiently recycled in
the soil
2 Nitrogen and phosphorous need to be ldquofixedrdquo
by bacteria or the plant
3 Nitrogen and phosphorous are found at high
levels in the atmosphere but not in the soil
4 Nitrogen and phosphorous only enter the soil
through erosion
133
Take-home message
bull Chemicals essential to lifemdashincluding carbon nitrogen and phosphorusmdashcycle through ecosystems
bull They are usually captured from the atmosphere soil or water by growing organisms passed from one trophic level to the next as organisms eat other organisms and returned to the environment through respiration decomposition and erosion
bull These cycles can be disrupted as human activities significantly increase the amounts of the chemicals utilized or released to the environment
134
Symbiotic Relationships
bull Symbiosis close relationship between organisms of
two different species
bull At least one participant gains some sort of benefit
(usually nutritional)
bull Types of symbiosis
bull Parasitism
bull Commensalism
bull Mutualism
bull Predation
135
Symbiotic Relationships in the
Ocean
bull Click here for an explanation of the
relationships of marine animals
including sharks rays and various
fishes
136
Parasitism bull Parasite derives nutrition from the host
bull This harms the host but a true parasite does
not usually kill its host (directly)
137
Ectoparasites
Remain outside the host
Ticks fleas leeches
138
Endoparasites
Live inside the hostrsquos body
Tapeworms malarial parasites
139
Parasite Transmission
bull Many parasites live on or in a single organism
bull Some will alternate between 2 or more host species
bull Vertical transmission ndash from mother offspring
bull Horizontal transmission ndash between members of a
population
bull Direct contact (head lice)
bull Vectors (mosquitos)
140
141
Commensalism
bull Neither species is totally dependent on the other
bull One benefits ndash no effect on the other
bull Feeding or protection
bull Porcelain anemone crabs and anemones
142
Mutualism
bull Both species benefit
bull Food or shelter
bull Examples
bull Plants and microbes (rhizobium in root nodules)
bull Plants and fungi (orchids and mycorrhizae)
bull Protists and fungi (lichen)
bull Plants and insects (pollination)
bull Animals and bacteria (ruminants)
bull Animals and other animals (crocodiles and
plover birds)
143
Mutualism shrimp and moray
Cleaner shrimp cleaning a zebra moray eel Mutualistic
relationships such as these promote the well-being of the
host fishes and provide food for those that do the cleaning 144
Rhizobium
Rhizobium in root nodules of certain plants convert
nitrogen in soil to usable form
145
Orchid Mycorrhizae
Fungi aid the plant in the uptake of nutrients
Fungi ingest some of the food from plant
photosynthesis 146
Lichen
Most of the lichen is composed of fungal filaments
but living among the filaments are algal cells
usually from a green alga or a cyanobacterium
The lichen fungus provides its partner(s) a benefit
(protection) and gains nutrients in return 147
Ruminants
Ruminants are characterized by their four-chambered
stomach and cud-chewing behavior Cud is a food bolus
that is regurgitated rechewed and reswallowed The
rumen is a large fermentation vat containing billions of
microorganisms including bacteria and protozoa which
allow ruminants to digest fibrous feeds such as grass and
hay that other animals cannot efficiently utilize 148
Crocodiles amp
Plover Birds
The bird gets into the crocodiles mouth and picks out
the tiny bits of food stuck in his teeth then eats it (the
tiny bits)
This cleans the crocodiles teeth and keeps his mouth
fresh and free from infections 149
Predation
bull Consumption of one living organism by
another
bull Predators must have offensive strategies
bull ways of finding catching and eating
their prey
bull Prey organisms must have defensive
strategies
bull ways of avoiding or discouraging this
activity
150
Predation
bull Encompasses all levels within an
ecological food chainweb
bull plant-herbivore systems
bull herbivore-carnivore systems
bull three-way interactions of
interdependent plant-herbivore-
carnivore systems
151
This goshawk is the tertiary consumer in his ecosystem
and the mouse in his beak is the secondary consumer
Beneath the mouse on the ecological pyramid lies his
foodsource likely a worm which fed on the primary
producer leafy plants 152
Ecosystem of Life in Floridas
Springs
bull Click here for a close-up look of life
in Floridas springs and the various
predator-prey interactions there
153
128
Algal growth and eutrophication in an Australian
outback waterway
129
Sulfur Cycle
bull component of protein
bull cycles in both a gas and sedimentary cycle
bull source earths crust
bull enters the atmosphere as hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
during fossil fuel combustion volcanic eruptions
gas exchange at ocean surfaces decomposition
130
Sulfur Cycle
bull H2S is immediately oxidized to sulfur dioxide (SO2)
bull SO2 + water vapor H2SO4 (falls to earth in rain)
bull sulfur in soluble form is taken up by plant roots
incorporated into amino acids such as cysteine
bull travels through food chain
bull eventually released through decomposition
131
How is carbon recycled back to the
atmosphere in the carbon cycle
1 It is ldquofixedrdquo by bacteria
2 It is a product of cellular respiration
3 Burning of fossil fuels
4 2 and 3
5 All of the above
132
Why do commercial fertilizers usually
contain usable forms of nitrogen and
phosphorous
1 These chemicals are not efficiently recycled in
the soil
2 Nitrogen and phosphorous need to be ldquofixedrdquo
by bacteria or the plant
3 Nitrogen and phosphorous are found at high
levels in the atmosphere but not in the soil
4 Nitrogen and phosphorous only enter the soil
through erosion
133
Take-home message
bull Chemicals essential to lifemdashincluding carbon nitrogen and phosphorusmdashcycle through ecosystems
bull They are usually captured from the atmosphere soil or water by growing organisms passed from one trophic level to the next as organisms eat other organisms and returned to the environment through respiration decomposition and erosion
bull These cycles can be disrupted as human activities significantly increase the amounts of the chemicals utilized or released to the environment
134
Symbiotic Relationships
bull Symbiosis close relationship between organisms of
two different species
bull At least one participant gains some sort of benefit
(usually nutritional)
bull Types of symbiosis
bull Parasitism
bull Commensalism
bull Mutualism
bull Predation
135
Symbiotic Relationships in the
Ocean
bull Click here for an explanation of the
relationships of marine animals
including sharks rays and various
fishes
136
Parasitism bull Parasite derives nutrition from the host
bull This harms the host but a true parasite does
not usually kill its host (directly)
137
Ectoparasites
Remain outside the host
Ticks fleas leeches
138
Endoparasites
Live inside the hostrsquos body
Tapeworms malarial parasites
139
Parasite Transmission
bull Many parasites live on or in a single organism
bull Some will alternate between 2 or more host species
bull Vertical transmission ndash from mother offspring
bull Horizontal transmission ndash between members of a
population
bull Direct contact (head lice)
bull Vectors (mosquitos)
140
141
Commensalism
bull Neither species is totally dependent on the other
bull One benefits ndash no effect on the other
bull Feeding or protection
bull Porcelain anemone crabs and anemones
142
Mutualism
bull Both species benefit
bull Food or shelter
bull Examples
bull Plants and microbes (rhizobium in root nodules)
bull Plants and fungi (orchids and mycorrhizae)
bull Protists and fungi (lichen)
bull Plants and insects (pollination)
bull Animals and bacteria (ruminants)
bull Animals and other animals (crocodiles and
plover birds)
143
Mutualism shrimp and moray
Cleaner shrimp cleaning a zebra moray eel Mutualistic
relationships such as these promote the well-being of the
host fishes and provide food for those that do the cleaning 144
Rhizobium
Rhizobium in root nodules of certain plants convert
nitrogen in soil to usable form
145
Orchid Mycorrhizae
Fungi aid the plant in the uptake of nutrients
Fungi ingest some of the food from plant
photosynthesis 146
Lichen
Most of the lichen is composed of fungal filaments
but living among the filaments are algal cells
usually from a green alga or a cyanobacterium
The lichen fungus provides its partner(s) a benefit
(protection) and gains nutrients in return 147
Ruminants
Ruminants are characterized by their four-chambered
stomach and cud-chewing behavior Cud is a food bolus
that is regurgitated rechewed and reswallowed The
rumen is a large fermentation vat containing billions of
microorganisms including bacteria and protozoa which
allow ruminants to digest fibrous feeds such as grass and
hay that other animals cannot efficiently utilize 148
Crocodiles amp
Plover Birds
The bird gets into the crocodiles mouth and picks out
the tiny bits of food stuck in his teeth then eats it (the
tiny bits)
This cleans the crocodiles teeth and keeps his mouth
fresh and free from infections 149
Predation
bull Consumption of one living organism by
another
bull Predators must have offensive strategies
bull ways of finding catching and eating
their prey
bull Prey organisms must have defensive
strategies
bull ways of avoiding or discouraging this
activity
150
Predation
bull Encompasses all levels within an
ecological food chainweb
bull plant-herbivore systems
bull herbivore-carnivore systems
bull three-way interactions of
interdependent plant-herbivore-
carnivore systems
151
This goshawk is the tertiary consumer in his ecosystem
and the mouse in his beak is the secondary consumer
Beneath the mouse on the ecological pyramid lies his
foodsource likely a worm which fed on the primary
producer leafy plants 152
Ecosystem of Life in Floridas
Springs
bull Click here for a close-up look of life
in Floridas springs and the various
predator-prey interactions there
153
129
Sulfur Cycle
bull component of protein
bull cycles in both a gas and sedimentary cycle
bull source earths crust
bull enters the atmosphere as hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
during fossil fuel combustion volcanic eruptions
gas exchange at ocean surfaces decomposition
130
Sulfur Cycle
bull H2S is immediately oxidized to sulfur dioxide (SO2)
bull SO2 + water vapor H2SO4 (falls to earth in rain)
bull sulfur in soluble form is taken up by plant roots
incorporated into amino acids such as cysteine
bull travels through food chain
bull eventually released through decomposition
131
How is carbon recycled back to the
atmosphere in the carbon cycle
1 It is ldquofixedrdquo by bacteria
2 It is a product of cellular respiration
3 Burning of fossil fuels
4 2 and 3
5 All of the above
132
Why do commercial fertilizers usually
contain usable forms of nitrogen and
phosphorous
1 These chemicals are not efficiently recycled in
the soil
2 Nitrogen and phosphorous need to be ldquofixedrdquo
by bacteria or the plant
3 Nitrogen and phosphorous are found at high
levels in the atmosphere but not in the soil
4 Nitrogen and phosphorous only enter the soil
through erosion
133
Take-home message
bull Chemicals essential to lifemdashincluding carbon nitrogen and phosphorusmdashcycle through ecosystems
bull They are usually captured from the atmosphere soil or water by growing organisms passed from one trophic level to the next as organisms eat other organisms and returned to the environment through respiration decomposition and erosion
bull These cycles can be disrupted as human activities significantly increase the amounts of the chemicals utilized or released to the environment
134
Symbiotic Relationships
bull Symbiosis close relationship between organisms of
two different species
bull At least one participant gains some sort of benefit
(usually nutritional)
bull Types of symbiosis
bull Parasitism
bull Commensalism
bull Mutualism
bull Predation
135
Symbiotic Relationships in the
Ocean
bull Click here for an explanation of the
relationships of marine animals
including sharks rays and various
fishes
136
Parasitism bull Parasite derives nutrition from the host
bull This harms the host but a true parasite does
not usually kill its host (directly)
137
Ectoparasites
Remain outside the host
Ticks fleas leeches
138
Endoparasites
Live inside the hostrsquos body
Tapeworms malarial parasites
139
Parasite Transmission
bull Many parasites live on or in a single organism
bull Some will alternate between 2 or more host species
bull Vertical transmission ndash from mother offspring
bull Horizontal transmission ndash between members of a
population
bull Direct contact (head lice)
bull Vectors (mosquitos)
140
141
Commensalism
bull Neither species is totally dependent on the other
bull One benefits ndash no effect on the other
bull Feeding or protection
bull Porcelain anemone crabs and anemones
142
Mutualism
bull Both species benefit
bull Food or shelter
bull Examples
bull Plants and microbes (rhizobium in root nodules)
bull Plants and fungi (orchids and mycorrhizae)
bull Protists and fungi (lichen)
bull Plants and insects (pollination)
bull Animals and bacteria (ruminants)
bull Animals and other animals (crocodiles and
plover birds)
143
Mutualism shrimp and moray
Cleaner shrimp cleaning a zebra moray eel Mutualistic
relationships such as these promote the well-being of the
host fishes and provide food for those that do the cleaning 144
Rhizobium
Rhizobium in root nodules of certain plants convert
nitrogen in soil to usable form
145
Orchid Mycorrhizae
Fungi aid the plant in the uptake of nutrients
Fungi ingest some of the food from plant
photosynthesis 146
Lichen
Most of the lichen is composed of fungal filaments
but living among the filaments are algal cells
usually from a green alga or a cyanobacterium
The lichen fungus provides its partner(s) a benefit
(protection) and gains nutrients in return 147
Ruminants
Ruminants are characterized by their four-chambered
stomach and cud-chewing behavior Cud is a food bolus
that is regurgitated rechewed and reswallowed The
rumen is a large fermentation vat containing billions of
microorganisms including bacteria and protozoa which
allow ruminants to digest fibrous feeds such as grass and
hay that other animals cannot efficiently utilize 148
Crocodiles amp
Plover Birds
The bird gets into the crocodiles mouth and picks out
the tiny bits of food stuck in his teeth then eats it (the
tiny bits)
This cleans the crocodiles teeth and keeps his mouth
fresh and free from infections 149
Predation
bull Consumption of one living organism by
another
bull Predators must have offensive strategies
bull ways of finding catching and eating
their prey
bull Prey organisms must have defensive
strategies
bull ways of avoiding or discouraging this
activity
150
Predation
bull Encompasses all levels within an
ecological food chainweb
bull plant-herbivore systems
bull herbivore-carnivore systems
bull three-way interactions of
interdependent plant-herbivore-
carnivore systems
151
This goshawk is the tertiary consumer in his ecosystem
and the mouse in his beak is the secondary consumer
Beneath the mouse on the ecological pyramid lies his
foodsource likely a worm which fed on the primary
producer leafy plants 152
Ecosystem of Life in Floridas
Springs
bull Click here for a close-up look of life
in Floridas springs and the various
predator-prey interactions there
153
Sulfur Cycle
bull component of protein
bull cycles in both a gas and sedimentary cycle
bull source earths crust
bull enters the atmosphere as hydrogen sulfide (H2S)
during fossil fuel combustion volcanic eruptions
gas exchange at ocean surfaces decomposition
130
Sulfur Cycle
bull H2S is immediately oxidized to sulfur dioxide (SO2)
bull SO2 + water vapor H2SO4 (falls to earth in rain)
bull sulfur in soluble form is taken up by plant roots
incorporated into amino acids such as cysteine
bull travels through food chain
bull eventually released through decomposition
131
How is carbon recycled back to the
atmosphere in the carbon cycle
1 It is ldquofixedrdquo by bacteria
2 It is a product of cellular respiration
3 Burning of fossil fuels
4 2 and 3
5 All of the above
132
Why do commercial fertilizers usually
contain usable forms of nitrogen and
phosphorous
1 These chemicals are not efficiently recycled in
the soil
2 Nitrogen and phosphorous need to be ldquofixedrdquo
by bacteria or the plant
3 Nitrogen and phosphorous are found at high
levels in the atmosphere but not in the soil
4 Nitrogen and phosphorous only enter the soil
through erosion
133
Take-home message
bull Chemicals essential to lifemdashincluding carbon nitrogen and phosphorusmdashcycle through ecosystems
bull They are usually captured from the atmosphere soil or water by growing organisms passed from one trophic level to the next as organisms eat other organisms and returned to the environment through respiration decomposition and erosion
bull These cycles can be disrupted as human activities significantly increase the amounts of the chemicals utilized or released to the environment
134
Symbiotic Relationships
bull Symbiosis close relationship between organisms of
two different species
bull At least one participant gains some sort of benefit
(usually nutritional)
bull Types of symbiosis
bull Parasitism
bull Commensalism
bull Mutualism
bull Predation
135
Symbiotic Relationships in the
Ocean
bull Click here for an explanation of the
relationships of marine animals
including sharks rays and various
fishes
136
Parasitism bull Parasite derives nutrition from the host
bull This harms the host but a true parasite does
not usually kill its host (directly)
137
Ectoparasites
Remain outside the host
Ticks fleas leeches
138
Endoparasites
Live inside the hostrsquos body
Tapeworms malarial parasites
139
Parasite Transmission
bull Many parasites live on or in a single organism
bull Some will alternate between 2 or more host species
bull Vertical transmission ndash from mother offspring
bull Horizontal transmission ndash between members of a
population
bull Direct contact (head lice)
bull Vectors (mosquitos)
140
141
Commensalism
bull Neither species is totally dependent on the other
bull One benefits ndash no effect on the other
bull Feeding or protection
bull Porcelain anemone crabs and anemones
142
Mutualism
bull Both species benefit
bull Food or shelter
bull Examples
bull Plants and microbes (rhizobium in root nodules)
bull Plants and fungi (orchids and mycorrhizae)
bull Protists and fungi (lichen)
bull Plants and insects (pollination)
bull Animals and bacteria (ruminants)
bull Animals and other animals (crocodiles and
plover birds)
143
Mutualism shrimp and moray
Cleaner shrimp cleaning a zebra moray eel Mutualistic
relationships such as these promote the well-being of the
host fishes and provide food for those that do the cleaning 144
Rhizobium
Rhizobium in root nodules of certain plants convert
nitrogen in soil to usable form
145
Orchid Mycorrhizae
Fungi aid the plant in the uptake of nutrients
Fungi ingest some of the food from plant
photosynthesis 146
Lichen
Most of the lichen is composed of fungal filaments
but living among the filaments are algal cells
usually from a green alga or a cyanobacterium
The lichen fungus provides its partner(s) a benefit
(protection) and gains nutrients in return 147
Ruminants
Ruminants are characterized by their four-chambered
stomach and cud-chewing behavior Cud is a food bolus
that is regurgitated rechewed and reswallowed The
rumen is a large fermentation vat containing billions of
microorganisms including bacteria and protozoa which
allow ruminants to digest fibrous feeds such as grass and
hay that other animals cannot efficiently utilize 148
Crocodiles amp
Plover Birds
The bird gets into the crocodiles mouth and picks out
the tiny bits of food stuck in his teeth then eats it (the
tiny bits)
This cleans the crocodiles teeth and keeps his mouth
fresh and free from infections 149
Predation
bull Consumption of one living organism by
another
bull Predators must have offensive strategies
bull ways of finding catching and eating
their prey
bull Prey organisms must have defensive
strategies
bull ways of avoiding or discouraging this
activity
150
Predation
bull Encompasses all levels within an
ecological food chainweb
bull plant-herbivore systems
bull herbivore-carnivore systems
bull three-way interactions of
interdependent plant-herbivore-
carnivore systems
151
This goshawk is the tertiary consumer in his ecosystem
and the mouse in his beak is the secondary consumer
Beneath the mouse on the ecological pyramid lies his
foodsource likely a worm which fed on the primary
producer leafy plants 152
Ecosystem of Life in Floridas
Springs
bull Click here for a close-up look of life
in Floridas springs and the various
predator-prey interactions there
153
Sulfur Cycle
bull H2S is immediately oxidized to sulfur dioxide (SO2)
bull SO2 + water vapor H2SO4 (falls to earth in rain)
bull sulfur in soluble form is taken up by plant roots
incorporated into amino acids such as cysteine
bull travels through food chain
bull eventually released through decomposition
131
How is carbon recycled back to the
atmosphere in the carbon cycle
1 It is ldquofixedrdquo by bacteria
2 It is a product of cellular respiration
3 Burning of fossil fuels
4 2 and 3
5 All of the above
132
Why do commercial fertilizers usually
contain usable forms of nitrogen and
phosphorous
1 These chemicals are not efficiently recycled in
the soil
2 Nitrogen and phosphorous need to be ldquofixedrdquo
by bacteria or the plant
3 Nitrogen and phosphorous are found at high
levels in the atmosphere but not in the soil
4 Nitrogen and phosphorous only enter the soil
through erosion
133
Take-home message
bull Chemicals essential to lifemdashincluding carbon nitrogen and phosphorusmdashcycle through ecosystems
bull They are usually captured from the atmosphere soil or water by growing organisms passed from one trophic level to the next as organisms eat other organisms and returned to the environment through respiration decomposition and erosion
bull These cycles can be disrupted as human activities significantly increase the amounts of the chemicals utilized or released to the environment
134
Symbiotic Relationships
bull Symbiosis close relationship between organisms of
two different species
bull At least one participant gains some sort of benefit
(usually nutritional)
bull Types of symbiosis
bull Parasitism
bull Commensalism
bull Mutualism
bull Predation
135
Symbiotic Relationships in the
Ocean
bull Click here for an explanation of the
relationships of marine animals
including sharks rays and various
fishes
136
Parasitism bull Parasite derives nutrition from the host
bull This harms the host but a true parasite does
not usually kill its host (directly)
137
Ectoparasites
Remain outside the host
Ticks fleas leeches
138
Endoparasites
Live inside the hostrsquos body
Tapeworms malarial parasites
139
Parasite Transmission
bull Many parasites live on or in a single organism
bull Some will alternate between 2 or more host species
bull Vertical transmission ndash from mother offspring
bull Horizontal transmission ndash between members of a
population
bull Direct contact (head lice)
bull Vectors (mosquitos)
140
141
Commensalism
bull Neither species is totally dependent on the other
bull One benefits ndash no effect on the other
bull Feeding or protection
bull Porcelain anemone crabs and anemones
142
Mutualism
bull Both species benefit
bull Food or shelter
bull Examples
bull Plants and microbes (rhizobium in root nodules)
bull Plants and fungi (orchids and mycorrhizae)
bull Protists and fungi (lichen)
bull Plants and insects (pollination)
bull Animals and bacteria (ruminants)
bull Animals and other animals (crocodiles and
plover birds)
143
Mutualism shrimp and moray
Cleaner shrimp cleaning a zebra moray eel Mutualistic
relationships such as these promote the well-being of the
host fishes and provide food for those that do the cleaning 144
Rhizobium
Rhizobium in root nodules of certain plants convert
nitrogen in soil to usable form
145
Orchid Mycorrhizae
Fungi aid the plant in the uptake of nutrients
Fungi ingest some of the food from plant
photosynthesis 146
Lichen
Most of the lichen is composed of fungal filaments
but living among the filaments are algal cells
usually from a green alga or a cyanobacterium
The lichen fungus provides its partner(s) a benefit
(protection) and gains nutrients in return 147
Ruminants
Ruminants are characterized by their four-chambered
stomach and cud-chewing behavior Cud is a food bolus
that is regurgitated rechewed and reswallowed The
rumen is a large fermentation vat containing billions of
microorganisms including bacteria and protozoa which
allow ruminants to digest fibrous feeds such as grass and
hay that other animals cannot efficiently utilize 148
Crocodiles amp
Plover Birds
The bird gets into the crocodiles mouth and picks out
the tiny bits of food stuck in his teeth then eats it (the
tiny bits)
This cleans the crocodiles teeth and keeps his mouth
fresh and free from infections 149
Predation
bull Consumption of one living organism by
another
bull Predators must have offensive strategies
bull ways of finding catching and eating
their prey
bull Prey organisms must have defensive
strategies
bull ways of avoiding or discouraging this
activity
150
Predation
bull Encompasses all levels within an
ecological food chainweb
bull plant-herbivore systems
bull herbivore-carnivore systems
bull three-way interactions of
interdependent plant-herbivore-
carnivore systems
151
This goshawk is the tertiary consumer in his ecosystem
and the mouse in his beak is the secondary consumer
Beneath the mouse on the ecological pyramid lies his
foodsource likely a worm which fed on the primary
producer leafy plants 152
Ecosystem of Life in Floridas
Springs
bull Click here for a close-up look of life
in Floridas springs and the various
predator-prey interactions there
153
How is carbon recycled back to the
atmosphere in the carbon cycle
1 It is ldquofixedrdquo by bacteria
2 It is a product of cellular respiration
3 Burning of fossil fuels
4 2 and 3
5 All of the above
132
Why do commercial fertilizers usually
contain usable forms of nitrogen and
phosphorous
1 These chemicals are not efficiently recycled in
the soil
2 Nitrogen and phosphorous need to be ldquofixedrdquo
by bacteria or the plant
3 Nitrogen and phosphorous are found at high
levels in the atmosphere but not in the soil
4 Nitrogen and phosphorous only enter the soil
through erosion
133
Take-home message
bull Chemicals essential to lifemdashincluding carbon nitrogen and phosphorusmdashcycle through ecosystems
bull They are usually captured from the atmosphere soil or water by growing organisms passed from one trophic level to the next as organisms eat other organisms and returned to the environment through respiration decomposition and erosion
bull These cycles can be disrupted as human activities significantly increase the amounts of the chemicals utilized or released to the environment
134
Symbiotic Relationships
bull Symbiosis close relationship between organisms of
two different species
bull At least one participant gains some sort of benefit
(usually nutritional)
bull Types of symbiosis
bull Parasitism
bull Commensalism
bull Mutualism
bull Predation
135
Symbiotic Relationships in the
Ocean
bull Click here for an explanation of the
relationships of marine animals
including sharks rays and various
fishes
136
Parasitism bull Parasite derives nutrition from the host
bull This harms the host but a true parasite does
not usually kill its host (directly)
137
Ectoparasites
Remain outside the host
Ticks fleas leeches
138
Endoparasites
Live inside the hostrsquos body
Tapeworms malarial parasites
139
Parasite Transmission
bull Many parasites live on or in a single organism
bull Some will alternate between 2 or more host species
bull Vertical transmission ndash from mother offspring
bull Horizontal transmission ndash between members of a
population
bull Direct contact (head lice)
bull Vectors (mosquitos)
140
141
Commensalism
bull Neither species is totally dependent on the other
bull One benefits ndash no effect on the other
bull Feeding or protection
bull Porcelain anemone crabs and anemones
142
Mutualism
bull Both species benefit
bull Food or shelter
bull Examples
bull Plants and microbes (rhizobium in root nodules)
bull Plants and fungi (orchids and mycorrhizae)
bull Protists and fungi (lichen)
bull Plants and insects (pollination)
bull Animals and bacteria (ruminants)
bull Animals and other animals (crocodiles and
plover birds)
143
Mutualism shrimp and moray
Cleaner shrimp cleaning a zebra moray eel Mutualistic
relationships such as these promote the well-being of the
host fishes and provide food for those that do the cleaning 144
Rhizobium
Rhizobium in root nodules of certain plants convert
nitrogen in soil to usable form
145
Orchid Mycorrhizae
Fungi aid the plant in the uptake of nutrients
Fungi ingest some of the food from plant
photosynthesis 146
Lichen
Most of the lichen is composed of fungal filaments
but living among the filaments are algal cells
usually from a green alga or a cyanobacterium
The lichen fungus provides its partner(s) a benefit
(protection) and gains nutrients in return 147
Ruminants
Ruminants are characterized by their four-chambered
stomach and cud-chewing behavior Cud is a food bolus
that is regurgitated rechewed and reswallowed The
rumen is a large fermentation vat containing billions of
microorganisms including bacteria and protozoa which
allow ruminants to digest fibrous feeds such as grass and
hay that other animals cannot efficiently utilize 148
Crocodiles amp
Plover Birds
The bird gets into the crocodiles mouth and picks out
the tiny bits of food stuck in his teeth then eats it (the
tiny bits)
This cleans the crocodiles teeth and keeps his mouth
fresh and free from infections 149
Predation
bull Consumption of one living organism by
another
bull Predators must have offensive strategies
bull ways of finding catching and eating
their prey
bull Prey organisms must have defensive
strategies
bull ways of avoiding or discouraging this
activity
150
Predation
bull Encompasses all levels within an
ecological food chainweb
bull plant-herbivore systems
bull herbivore-carnivore systems
bull three-way interactions of
interdependent plant-herbivore-
carnivore systems
151
This goshawk is the tertiary consumer in his ecosystem
and the mouse in his beak is the secondary consumer
Beneath the mouse on the ecological pyramid lies his
foodsource likely a worm which fed on the primary
producer leafy plants 152
Ecosystem of Life in Floridas
Springs
bull Click here for a close-up look of life
in Floridas springs and the various
predator-prey interactions there
153
Why do commercial fertilizers usually
contain usable forms of nitrogen and
phosphorous
1 These chemicals are not efficiently recycled in
the soil
2 Nitrogen and phosphorous need to be ldquofixedrdquo
by bacteria or the plant
3 Nitrogen and phosphorous are found at high
levels in the atmosphere but not in the soil
4 Nitrogen and phosphorous only enter the soil
through erosion
133
Take-home message
bull Chemicals essential to lifemdashincluding carbon nitrogen and phosphorusmdashcycle through ecosystems
bull They are usually captured from the atmosphere soil or water by growing organisms passed from one trophic level to the next as organisms eat other organisms and returned to the environment through respiration decomposition and erosion
bull These cycles can be disrupted as human activities significantly increase the amounts of the chemicals utilized or released to the environment
134
Symbiotic Relationships
bull Symbiosis close relationship between organisms of
two different species
bull At least one participant gains some sort of benefit
(usually nutritional)
bull Types of symbiosis
bull Parasitism
bull Commensalism
bull Mutualism
bull Predation
135
Symbiotic Relationships in the
Ocean
bull Click here for an explanation of the
relationships of marine animals
including sharks rays and various
fishes
136
Parasitism bull Parasite derives nutrition from the host
bull This harms the host but a true parasite does
not usually kill its host (directly)
137
Ectoparasites
Remain outside the host
Ticks fleas leeches
138
Endoparasites
Live inside the hostrsquos body
Tapeworms malarial parasites
139
Parasite Transmission
bull Many parasites live on or in a single organism
bull Some will alternate between 2 or more host species
bull Vertical transmission ndash from mother offspring
bull Horizontal transmission ndash between members of a
population
bull Direct contact (head lice)
bull Vectors (mosquitos)
140
141
Commensalism
bull Neither species is totally dependent on the other
bull One benefits ndash no effect on the other
bull Feeding or protection
bull Porcelain anemone crabs and anemones
142
Mutualism
bull Both species benefit
bull Food or shelter
bull Examples
bull Plants and microbes (rhizobium in root nodules)
bull Plants and fungi (orchids and mycorrhizae)
bull Protists and fungi (lichen)
bull Plants and insects (pollination)
bull Animals and bacteria (ruminants)
bull Animals and other animals (crocodiles and
plover birds)
143
Mutualism shrimp and moray
Cleaner shrimp cleaning a zebra moray eel Mutualistic
relationships such as these promote the well-being of the
host fishes and provide food for those that do the cleaning 144
Rhizobium
Rhizobium in root nodules of certain plants convert
nitrogen in soil to usable form
145
Orchid Mycorrhizae
Fungi aid the plant in the uptake of nutrients
Fungi ingest some of the food from plant
photosynthesis 146
Lichen
Most of the lichen is composed of fungal filaments
but living among the filaments are algal cells
usually from a green alga or a cyanobacterium
The lichen fungus provides its partner(s) a benefit
(protection) and gains nutrients in return 147
Ruminants
Ruminants are characterized by their four-chambered
stomach and cud-chewing behavior Cud is a food bolus
that is regurgitated rechewed and reswallowed The
rumen is a large fermentation vat containing billions of
microorganisms including bacteria and protozoa which
allow ruminants to digest fibrous feeds such as grass and
hay that other animals cannot efficiently utilize 148
Crocodiles amp
Plover Birds
The bird gets into the crocodiles mouth and picks out
the tiny bits of food stuck in his teeth then eats it (the
tiny bits)
This cleans the crocodiles teeth and keeps his mouth
fresh and free from infections 149
Predation
bull Consumption of one living organism by
another
bull Predators must have offensive strategies
bull ways of finding catching and eating
their prey
bull Prey organisms must have defensive
strategies
bull ways of avoiding or discouraging this
activity
150
Predation
bull Encompasses all levels within an
ecological food chainweb
bull plant-herbivore systems
bull herbivore-carnivore systems
bull three-way interactions of
interdependent plant-herbivore-
carnivore systems
151
This goshawk is the tertiary consumer in his ecosystem
and the mouse in his beak is the secondary consumer
Beneath the mouse on the ecological pyramid lies his
foodsource likely a worm which fed on the primary
producer leafy plants 152
Ecosystem of Life in Floridas
Springs
bull Click here for a close-up look of life
in Floridas springs and the various
predator-prey interactions there
153
Take-home message
bull Chemicals essential to lifemdashincluding carbon nitrogen and phosphorusmdashcycle through ecosystems
bull They are usually captured from the atmosphere soil or water by growing organisms passed from one trophic level to the next as organisms eat other organisms and returned to the environment through respiration decomposition and erosion
bull These cycles can be disrupted as human activities significantly increase the amounts of the chemicals utilized or released to the environment
134
Symbiotic Relationships
bull Symbiosis close relationship between organisms of
two different species
bull At least one participant gains some sort of benefit
(usually nutritional)
bull Types of symbiosis
bull Parasitism
bull Commensalism
bull Mutualism
bull Predation
135
Symbiotic Relationships in the
Ocean
bull Click here for an explanation of the
relationships of marine animals
including sharks rays and various
fishes
136
Parasitism bull Parasite derives nutrition from the host
bull This harms the host but a true parasite does
not usually kill its host (directly)
137
Ectoparasites
Remain outside the host
Ticks fleas leeches
138
Endoparasites
Live inside the hostrsquos body
Tapeworms malarial parasites
139
Parasite Transmission
bull Many parasites live on or in a single organism
bull Some will alternate between 2 or more host species
bull Vertical transmission ndash from mother offspring
bull Horizontal transmission ndash between members of a
population
bull Direct contact (head lice)
bull Vectors (mosquitos)
140
141
Commensalism
bull Neither species is totally dependent on the other
bull One benefits ndash no effect on the other
bull Feeding or protection
bull Porcelain anemone crabs and anemones
142
Mutualism
bull Both species benefit
bull Food or shelter
bull Examples
bull Plants and microbes (rhizobium in root nodules)
bull Plants and fungi (orchids and mycorrhizae)
bull Protists and fungi (lichen)
bull Plants and insects (pollination)
bull Animals and bacteria (ruminants)
bull Animals and other animals (crocodiles and
plover birds)
143
Mutualism shrimp and moray
Cleaner shrimp cleaning a zebra moray eel Mutualistic
relationships such as these promote the well-being of the
host fishes and provide food for those that do the cleaning 144
Rhizobium
Rhizobium in root nodules of certain plants convert
nitrogen in soil to usable form
145
Orchid Mycorrhizae
Fungi aid the plant in the uptake of nutrients
Fungi ingest some of the food from plant
photosynthesis 146
Lichen
Most of the lichen is composed of fungal filaments
but living among the filaments are algal cells
usually from a green alga or a cyanobacterium
The lichen fungus provides its partner(s) a benefit
(protection) and gains nutrients in return 147
Ruminants
Ruminants are characterized by their four-chambered
stomach and cud-chewing behavior Cud is a food bolus
that is regurgitated rechewed and reswallowed The
rumen is a large fermentation vat containing billions of
microorganisms including bacteria and protozoa which
allow ruminants to digest fibrous feeds such as grass and
hay that other animals cannot efficiently utilize 148
Crocodiles amp
Plover Birds
The bird gets into the crocodiles mouth and picks out
the tiny bits of food stuck in his teeth then eats it (the
tiny bits)
This cleans the crocodiles teeth and keeps his mouth
fresh and free from infections 149
Predation
bull Consumption of one living organism by
another
bull Predators must have offensive strategies
bull ways of finding catching and eating
their prey
bull Prey organisms must have defensive
strategies
bull ways of avoiding or discouraging this
activity
150
Predation
bull Encompasses all levels within an
ecological food chainweb
bull plant-herbivore systems
bull herbivore-carnivore systems
bull three-way interactions of
interdependent plant-herbivore-
carnivore systems
151
This goshawk is the tertiary consumer in his ecosystem
and the mouse in his beak is the secondary consumer
Beneath the mouse on the ecological pyramid lies his
foodsource likely a worm which fed on the primary
producer leafy plants 152
Ecosystem of Life in Floridas
Springs
bull Click here for a close-up look of life
in Floridas springs and the various
predator-prey interactions there
153
Symbiotic Relationships
bull Symbiosis close relationship between organisms of
two different species
bull At least one participant gains some sort of benefit
(usually nutritional)
bull Types of symbiosis
bull Parasitism
bull Commensalism
bull Mutualism
bull Predation
135
Symbiotic Relationships in the
Ocean
bull Click here for an explanation of the
relationships of marine animals
including sharks rays and various
fishes
136
Parasitism bull Parasite derives nutrition from the host
bull This harms the host but a true parasite does
not usually kill its host (directly)
137
Ectoparasites
Remain outside the host
Ticks fleas leeches
138
Endoparasites
Live inside the hostrsquos body
Tapeworms malarial parasites
139
Parasite Transmission
bull Many parasites live on or in a single organism
bull Some will alternate between 2 or more host species
bull Vertical transmission ndash from mother offspring
bull Horizontal transmission ndash between members of a
population
bull Direct contact (head lice)
bull Vectors (mosquitos)
140
141
Commensalism
bull Neither species is totally dependent on the other
bull One benefits ndash no effect on the other
bull Feeding or protection
bull Porcelain anemone crabs and anemones
142
Mutualism
bull Both species benefit
bull Food or shelter
bull Examples
bull Plants and microbes (rhizobium in root nodules)
bull Plants and fungi (orchids and mycorrhizae)
bull Protists and fungi (lichen)
bull Plants and insects (pollination)
bull Animals and bacteria (ruminants)
bull Animals and other animals (crocodiles and
plover birds)
143
Mutualism shrimp and moray
Cleaner shrimp cleaning a zebra moray eel Mutualistic
relationships such as these promote the well-being of the
host fishes and provide food for those that do the cleaning 144
Rhizobium
Rhizobium in root nodules of certain plants convert
nitrogen in soil to usable form
145
Orchid Mycorrhizae
Fungi aid the plant in the uptake of nutrients
Fungi ingest some of the food from plant
photosynthesis 146
Lichen
Most of the lichen is composed of fungal filaments
but living among the filaments are algal cells
usually from a green alga or a cyanobacterium
The lichen fungus provides its partner(s) a benefit
(protection) and gains nutrients in return 147
Ruminants
Ruminants are characterized by their four-chambered
stomach and cud-chewing behavior Cud is a food bolus
that is regurgitated rechewed and reswallowed The
rumen is a large fermentation vat containing billions of
microorganisms including bacteria and protozoa which
allow ruminants to digest fibrous feeds such as grass and
hay that other animals cannot efficiently utilize 148
Crocodiles amp
Plover Birds
The bird gets into the crocodiles mouth and picks out
the tiny bits of food stuck in his teeth then eats it (the
tiny bits)
This cleans the crocodiles teeth and keeps his mouth
fresh and free from infections 149
Predation
bull Consumption of one living organism by
another
bull Predators must have offensive strategies
bull ways of finding catching and eating
their prey
bull Prey organisms must have defensive
strategies
bull ways of avoiding or discouraging this
activity
150
Predation
bull Encompasses all levels within an
ecological food chainweb
bull plant-herbivore systems
bull herbivore-carnivore systems
bull three-way interactions of
interdependent plant-herbivore-
carnivore systems
151
This goshawk is the tertiary consumer in his ecosystem
and the mouse in his beak is the secondary consumer
Beneath the mouse on the ecological pyramid lies his
foodsource likely a worm which fed on the primary
producer leafy plants 152
Ecosystem of Life in Floridas
Springs
bull Click here for a close-up look of life
in Floridas springs and the various
predator-prey interactions there
153
Symbiotic Relationships in the
Ocean
bull Click here for an explanation of the
relationships of marine animals
including sharks rays and various
fishes
136
Parasitism bull Parasite derives nutrition from the host
bull This harms the host but a true parasite does
not usually kill its host (directly)
137
Ectoparasites
Remain outside the host
Ticks fleas leeches
138
Endoparasites
Live inside the hostrsquos body
Tapeworms malarial parasites
139
Parasite Transmission
bull Many parasites live on or in a single organism
bull Some will alternate between 2 or more host species
bull Vertical transmission ndash from mother offspring
bull Horizontal transmission ndash between members of a
population
bull Direct contact (head lice)
bull Vectors (mosquitos)
140
141
Commensalism
bull Neither species is totally dependent on the other
bull One benefits ndash no effect on the other
bull Feeding or protection
bull Porcelain anemone crabs and anemones
142
Mutualism
bull Both species benefit
bull Food or shelter
bull Examples
bull Plants and microbes (rhizobium in root nodules)
bull Plants and fungi (orchids and mycorrhizae)
bull Protists and fungi (lichen)
bull Plants and insects (pollination)
bull Animals and bacteria (ruminants)
bull Animals and other animals (crocodiles and
plover birds)
143
Mutualism shrimp and moray
Cleaner shrimp cleaning a zebra moray eel Mutualistic
relationships such as these promote the well-being of the
host fishes and provide food for those that do the cleaning 144
Rhizobium
Rhizobium in root nodules of certain plants convert
nitrogen in soil to usable form
145
Orchid Mycorrhizae
Fungi aid the plant in the uptake of nutrients
Fungi ingest some of the food from plant
photosynthesis 146
Lichen
Most of the lichen is composed of fungal filaments
but living among the filaments are algal cells
usually from a green alga or a cyanobacterium
The lichen fungus provides its partner(s) a benefit
(protection) and gains nutrients in return 147
Ruminants
Ruminants are characterized by their four-chambered
stomach and cud-chewing behavior Cud is a food bolus
that is regurgitated rechewed and reswallowed The
rumen is a large fermentation vat containing billions of
microorganisms including bacteria and protozoa which
allow ruminants to digest fibrous feeds such as grass and
hay that other animals cannot efficiently utilize 148
Crocodiles amp
Plover Birds
The bird gets into the crocodiles mouth and picks out
the tiny bits of food stuck in his teeth then eats it (the
tiny bits)
This cleans the crocodiles teeth and keeps his mouth
fresh and free from infections 149
Predation
bull Consumption of one living organism by
another
bull Predators must have offensive strategies
bull ways of finding catching and eating
their prey
bull Prey organisms must have defensive
strategies
bull ways of avoiding or discouraging this
activity
150
Predation
bull Encompasses all levels within an
ecological food chainweb
bull plant-herbivore systems
bull herbivore-carnivore systems
bull three-way interactions of
interdependent plant-herbivore-
carnivore systems
151
This goshawk is the tertiary consumer in his ecosystem
and the mouse in his beak is the secondary consumer
Beneath the mouse on the ecological pyramid lies his
foodsource likely a worm which fed on the primary
producer leafy plants 152
Ecosystem of Life in Floridas
Springs
bull Click here for a close-up look of life
in Floridas springs and the various
predator-prey interactions there
153
Parasitism bull Parasite derives nutrition from the host
bull This harms the host but a true parasite does
not usually kill its host (directly)
137
Ectoparasites
Remain outside the host
Ticks fleas leeches
138
Endoparasites
Live inside the hostrsquos body
Tapeworms malarial parasites
139
Parasite Transmission
bull Many parasites live on or in a single organism
bull Some will alternate between 2 or more host species
bull Vertical transmission ndash from mother offspring
bull Horizontal transmission ndash between members of a
population
bull Direct contact (head lice)
bull Vectors (mosquitos)
140
141
Commensalism
bull Neither species is totally dependent on the other
bull One benefits ndash no effect on the other
bull Feeding or protection
bull Porcelain anemone crabs and anemones
142
Mutualism
bull Both species benefit
bull Food or shelter
bull Examples
bull Plants and microbes (rhizobium in root nodules)
bull Plants and fungi (orchids and mycorrhizae)
bull Protists and fungi (lichen)
bull Plants and insects (pollination)
bull Animals and bacteria (ruminants)
bull Animals and other animals (crocodiles and
plover birds)
143
Mutualism shrimp and moray
Cleaner shrimp cleaning a zebra moray eel Mutualistic
relationships such as these promote the well-being of the
host fishes and provide food for those that do the cleaning 144
Rhizobium
Rhizobium in root nodules of certain plants convert
nitrogen in soil to usable form
145
Orchid Mycorrhizae
Fungi aid the plant in the uptake of nutrients
Fungi ingest some of the food from plant
photosynthesis 146
Lichen
Most of the lichen is composed of fungal filaments
but living among the filaments are algal cells
usually from a green alga or a cyanobacterium
The lichen fungus provides its partner(s) a benefit
(protection) and gains nutrients in return 147
Ruminants
Ruminants are characterized by their four-chambered
stomach and cud-chewing behavior Cud is a food bolus
that is regurgitated rechewed and reswallowed The
rumen is a large fermentation vat containing billions of
microorganisms including bacteria and protozoa which
allow ruminants to digest fibrous feeds such as grass and
hay that other animals cannot efficiently utilize 148
Crocodiles amp
Plover Birds
The bird gets into the crocodiles mouth and picks out
the tiny bits of food stuck in his teeth then eats it (the
tiny bits)
This cleans the crocodiles teeth and keeps his mouth
fresh and free from infections 149
Predation
bull Consumption of one living organism by
another
bull Predators must have offensive strategies
bull ways of finding catching and eating
their prey
bull Prey organisms must have defensive
strategies
bull ways of avoiding or discouraging this
activity
150
Predation
bull Encompasses all levels within an
ecological food chainweb
bull plant-herbivore systems
bull herbivore-carnivore systems
bull three-way interactions of
interdependent plant-herbivore-
carnivore systems
151
This goshawk is the tertiary consumer in his ecosystem
and the mouse in his beak is the secondary consumer
Beneath the mouse on the ecological pyramid lies his
foodsource likely a worm which fed on the primary
producer leafy plants 152
Ecosystem of Life in Floridas
Springs
bull Click here for a close-up look of life
in Floridas springs and the various
predator-prey interactions there
153
Ectoparasites
Remain outside the host
Ticks fleas leeches
138
Endoparasites
Live inside the hostrsquos body
Tapeworms malarial parasites
139
Parasite Transmission
bull Many parasites live on or in a single organism
bull Some will alternate between 2 or more host species
bull Vertical transmission ndash from mother offspring
bull Horizontal transmission ndash between members of a
population
bull Direct contact (head lice)
bull Vectors (mosquitos)
140
141
Commensalism
bull Neither species is totally dependent on the other
bull One benefits ndash no effect on the other
bull Feeding or protection
bull Porcelain anemone crabs and anemones
142
Mutualism
bull Both species benefit
bull Food or shelter
bull Examples
bull Plants and microbes (rhizobium in root nodules)
bull Plants and fungi (orchids and mycorrhizae)
bull Protists and fungi (lichen)
bull Plants and insects (pollination)
bull Animals and bacteria (ruminants)
bull Animals and other animals (crocodiles and
plover birds)
143
Mutualism shrimp and moray
Cleaner shrimp cleaning a zebra moray eel Mutualistic
relationships such as these promote the well-being of the
host fishes and provide food for those that do the cleaning 144
Rhizobium
Rhizobium in root nodules of certain plants convert
nitrogen in soil to usable form
145
Orchid Mycorrhizae
Fungi aid the plant in the uptake of nutrients
Fungi ingest some of the food from plant
photosynthesis 146
Lichen
Most of the lichen is composed of fungal filaments
but living among the filaments are algal cells
usually from a green alga or a cyanobacterium
The lichen fungus provides its partner(s) a benefit
(protection) and gains nutrients in return 147
Ruminants
Ruminants are characterized by their four-chambered
stomach and cud-chewing behavior Cud is a food bolus
that is regurgitated rechewed and reswallowed The
rumen is a large fermentation vat containing billions of
microorganisms including bacteria and protozoa which
allow ruminants to digest fibrous feeds such as grass and
hay that other animals cannot efficiently utilize 148
Crocodiles amp
Plover Birds
The bird gets into the crocodiles mouth and picks out
the tiny bits of food stuck in his teeth then eats it (the
tiny bits)
This cleans the crocodiles teeth and keeps his mouth
fresh and free from infections 149
Predation
bull Consumption of one living organism by
another
bull Predators must have offensive strategies
bull ways of finding catching and eating
their prey
bull Prey organisms must have defensive
strategies
bull ways of avoiding or discouraging this
activity
150
Predation
bull Encompasses all levels within an
ecological food chainweb
bull plant-herbivore systems
bull herbivore-carnivore systems
bull three-way interactions of
interdependent plant-herbivore-
carnivore systems
151
This goshawk is the tertiary consumer in his ecosystem
and the mouse in his beak is the secondary consumer
Beneath the mouse on the ecological pyramid lies his
foodsource likely a worm which fed on the primary
producer leafy plants 152
Ecosystem of Life in Floridas
Springs
bull Click here for a close-up look of life
in Floridas springs and the various
predator-prey interactions there
153
Endoparasites
Live inside the hostrsquos body
Tapeworms malarial parasites
139
Parasite Transmission
bull Many parasites live on or in a single organism
bull Some will alternate between 2 or more host species
bull Vertical transmission ndash from mother offspring
bull Horizontal transmission ndash between members of a
population
bull Direct contact (head lice)
bull Vectors (mosquitos)
140
141
Commensalism
bull Neither species is totally dependent on the other
bull One benefits ndash no effect on the other
bull Feeding or protection
bull Porcelain anemone crabs and anemones
142
Mutualism
bull Both species benefit
bull Food or shelter
bull Examples
bull Plants and microbes (rhizobium in root nodules)
bull Plants and fungi (orchids and mycorrhizae)
bull Protists and fungi (lichen)
bull Plants and insects (pollination)
bull Animals and bacteria (ruminants)
bull Animals and other animals (crocodiles and
plover birds)
143
Mutualism shrimp and moray
Cleaner shrimp cleaning a zebra moray eel Mutualistic
relationships such as these promote the well-being of the
host fishes and provide food for those that do the cleaning 144
Rhizobium
Rhizobium in root nodules of certain plants convert
nitrogen in soil to usable form
145
Orchid Mycorrhizae
Fungi aid the plant in the uptake of nutrients
Fungi ingest some of the food from plant
photosynthesis 146
Lichen
Most of the lichen is composed of fungal filaments
but living among the filaments are algal cells
usually from a green alga or a cyanobacterium
The lichen fungus provides its partner(s) a benefit
(protection) and gains nutrients in return 147
Ruminants
Ruminants are characterized by their four-chambered
stomach and cud-chewing behavior Cud is a food bolus
that is regurgitated rechewed and reswallowed The
rumen is a large fermentation vat containing billions of
microorganisms including bacteria and protozoa which
allow ruminants to digest fibrous feeds such as grass and
hay that other animals cannot efficiently utilize 148
Crocodiles amp
Plover Birds
The bird gets into the crocodiles mouth and picks out
the tiny bits of food stuck in his teeth then eats it (the
tiny bits)
This cleans the crocodiles teeth and keeps his mouth
fresh and free from infections 149
Predation
bull Consumption of one living organism by
another
bull Predators must have offensive strategies
bull ways of finding catching and eating
their prey
bull Prey organisms must have defensive
strategies
bull ways of avoiding or discouraging this
activity
150
Predation
bull Encompasses all levels within an
ecological food chainweb
bull plant-herbivore systems
bull herbivore-carnivore systems
bull three-way interactions of
interdependent plant-herbivore-
carnivore systems
151
This goshawk is the tertiary consumer in his ecosystem
and the mouse in his beak is the secondary consumer
Beneath the mouse on the ecological pyramid lies his
foodsource likely a worm which fed on the primary
producer leafy plants 152
Ecosystem of Life in Floridas
Springs
bull Click here for a close-up look of life
in Floridas springs and the various
predator-prey interactions there
153
Parasite Transmission
bull Many parasites live on or in a single organism
bull Some will alternate between 2 or more host species
bull Vertical transmission ndash from mother offspring
bull Horizontal transmission ndash between members of a
population
bull Direct contact (head lice)
bull Vectors (mosquitos)
140
141
Commensalism
bull Neither species is totally dependent on the other
bull One benefits ndash no effect on the other
bull Feeding or protection
bull Porcelain anemone crabs and anemones
142
Mutualism
bull Both species benefit
bull Food or shelter
bull Examples
bull Plants and microbes (rhizobium in root nodules)
bull Plants and fungi (orchids and mycorrhizae)
bull Protists and fungi (lichen)
bull Plants and insects (pollination)
bull Animals and bacteria (ruminants)
bull Animals and other animals (crocodiles and
plover birds)
143
Mutualism shrimp and moray
Cleaner shrimp cleaning a zebra moray eel Mutualistic
relationships such as these promote the well-being of the
host fishes and provide food for those that do the cleaning 144
Rhizobium
Rhizobium in root nodules of certain plants convert
nitrogen in soil to usable form
145
Orchid Mycorrhizae
Fungi aid the plant in the uptake of nutrients
Fungi ingest some of the food from plant
photosynthesis 146
Lichen
Most of the lichen is composed of fungal filaments
but living among the filaments are algal cells
usually from a green alga or a cyanobacterium
The lichen fungus provides its partner(s) a benefit
(protection) and gains nutrients in return 147
Ruminants
Ruminants are characterized by their four-chambered
stomach and cud-chewing behavior Cud is a food bolus
that is regurgitated rechewed and reswallowed The
rumen is a large fermentation vat containing billions of
microorganisms including bacteria and protozoa which
allow ruminants to digest fibrous feeds such as grass and
hay that other animals cannot efficiently utilize 148
Crocodiles amp
Plover Birds
The bird gets into the crocodiles mouth and picks out
the tiny bits of food stuck in his teeth then eats it (the
tiny bits)
This cleans the crocodiles teeth and keeps his mouth
fresh and free from infections 149
Predation
bull Consumption of one living organism by
another
bull Predators must have offensive strategies
bull ways of finding catching and eating
their prey
bull Prey organisms must have defensive
strategies
bull ways of avoiding or discouraging this
activity
150
Predation
bull Encompasses all levels within an
ecological food chainweb
bull plant-herbivore systems
bull herbivore-carnivore systems
bull three-way interactions of
interdependent plant-herbivore-
carnivore systems
151
This goshawk is the tertiary consumer in his ecosystem
and the mouse in his beak is the secondary consumer
Beneath the mouse on the ecological pyramid lies his
foodsource likely a worm which fed on the primary
producer leafy plants 152
Ecosystem of Life in Floridas
Springs
bull Click here for a close-up look of life
in Floridas springs and the various
predator-prey interactions there
153
141
Commensalism
bull Neither species is totally dependent on the other
bull One benefits ndash no effect on the other
bull Feeding or protection
bull Porcelain anemone crabs and anemones
142
Mutualism
bull Both species benefit
bull Food or shelter
bull Examples
bull Plants and microbes (rhizobium in root nodules)
bull Plants and fungi (orchids and mycorrhizae)
bull Protists and fungi (lichen)
bull Plants and insects (pollination)
bull Animals and bacteria (ruminants)
bull Animals and other animals (crocodiles and
plover birds)
143
Mutualism shrimp and moray
Cleaner shrimp cleaning a zebra moray eel Mutualistic
relationships such as these promote the well-being of the
host fishes and provide food for those that do the cleaning 144
Rhizobium
Rhizobium in root nodules of certain plants convert
nitrogen in soil to usable form
145
Orchid Mycorrhizae
Fungi aid the plant in the uptake of nutrients
Fungi ingest some of the food from plant
photosynthesis 146
Lichen
Most of the lichen is composed of fungal filaments
but living among the filaments are algal cells
usually from a green alga or a cyanobacterium
The lichen fungus provides its partner(s) a benefit
(protection) and gains nutrients in return 147
Ruminants
Ruminants are characterized by their four-chambered
stomach and cud-chewing behavior Cud is a food bolus
that is regurgitated rechewed and reswallowed The
rumen is a large fermentation vat containing billions of
microorganisms including bacteria and protozoa which
allow ruminants to digest fibrous feeds such as grass and
hay that other animals cannot efficiently utilize 148
Crocodiles amp
Plover Birds
The bird gets into the crocodiles mouth and picks out
the tiny bits of food stuck in his teeth then eats it (the
tiny bits)
This cleans the crocodiles teeth and keeps his mouth
fresh and free from infections 149
Predation
bull Consumption of one living organism by
another
bull Predators must have offensive strategies
bull ways of finding catching and eating
their prey
bull Prey organisms must have defensive
strategies
bull ways of avoiding or discouraging this
activity
150
Predation
bull Encompasses all levels within an
ecological food chainweb
bull plant-herbivore systems
bull herbivore-carnivore systems
bull three-way interactions of
interdependent plant-herbivore-
carnivore systems
151
This goshawk is the tertiary consumer in his ecosystem
and the mouse in his beak is the secondary consumer
Beneath the mouse on the ecological pyramid lies his
foodsource likely a worm which fed on the primary
producer leafy plants 152
Ecosystem of Life in Floridas
Springs
bull Click here for a close-up look of life
in Floridas springs and the various
predator-prey interactions there
153
Commensalism
bull Neither species is totally dependent on the other
bull One benefits ndash no effect on the other
bull Feeding or protection
bull Porcelain anemone crabs and anemones
142
Mutualism
bull Both species benefit
bull Food or shelter
bull Examples
bull Plants and microbes (rhizobium in root nodules)
bull Plants and fungi (orchids and mycorrhizae)
bull Protists and fungi (lichen)
bull Plants and insects (pollination)
bull Animals and bacteria (ruminants)
bull Animals and other animals (crocodiles and
plover birds)
143
Mutualism shrimp and moray
Cleaner shrimp cleaning a zebra moray eel Mutualistic
relationships such as these promote the well-being of the
host fishes and provide food for those that do the cleaning 144
Rhizobium
Rhizobium in root nodules of certain plants convert
nitrogen in soil to usable form
145
Orchid Mycorrhizae
Fungi aid the plant in the uptake of nutrients
Fungi ingest some of the food from plant
photosynthesis 146
Lichen
Most of the lichen is composed of fungal filaments
but living among the filaments are algal cells
usually from a green alga or a cyanobacterium
The lichen fungus provides its partner(s) a benefit
(protection) and gains nutrients in return 147
Ruminants
Ruminants are characterized by their four-chambered
stomach and cud-chewing behavior Cud is a food bolus
that is regurgitated rechewed and reswallowed The
rumen is a large fermentation vat containing billions of
microorganisms including bacteria and protozoa which
allow ruminants to digest fibrous feeds such as grass and
hay that other animals cannot efficiently utilize 148
Crocodiles amp
Plover Birds
The bird gets into the crocodiles mouth and picks out
the tiny bits of food stuck in his teeth then eats it (the
tiny bits)
This cleans the crocodiles teeth and keeps his mouth
fresh and free from infections 149
Predation
bull Consumption of one living organism by
another
bull Predators must have offensive strategies
bull ways of finding catching and eating
their prey
bull Prey organisms must have defensive
strategies
bull ways of avoiding or discouraging this
activity
150
Predation
bull Encompasses all levels within an
ecological food chainweb
bull plant-herbivore systems
bull herbivore-carnivore systems
bull three-way interactions of
interdependent plant-herbivore-
carnivore systems
151
This goshawk is the tertiary consumer in his ecosystem
and the mouse in his beak is the secondary consumer
Beneath the mouse on the ecological pyramid lies his
foodsource likely a worm which fed on the primary
producer leafy plants 152
Ecosystem of Life in Floridas
Springs
bull Click here for a close-up look of life
in Floridas springs and the various
predator-prey interactions there
153
Mutualism
bull Both species benefit
bull Food or shelter
bull Examples
bull Plants and microbes (rhizobium in root nodules)
bull Plants and fungi (orchids and mycorrhizae)
bull Protists and fungi (lichen)
bull Plants and insects (pollination)
bull Animals and bacteria (ruminants)
bull Animals and other animals (crocodiles and
plover birds)
143
Mutualism shrimp and moray
Cleaner shrimp cleaning a zebra moray eel Mutualistic
relationships such as these promote the well-being of the
host fishes and provide food for those that do the cleaning 144
Rhizobium
Rhizobium in root nodules of certain plants convert
nitrogen in soil to usable form
145
Orchid Mycorrhizae
Fungi aid the plant in the uptake of nutrients
Fungi ingest some of the food from plant
photosynthesis 146
Lichen
Most of the lichen is composed of fungal filaments
but living among the filaments are algal cells
usually from a green alga or a cyanobacterium
The lichen fungus provides its partner(s) a benefit
(protection) and gains nutrients in return 147
Ruminants
Ruminants are characterized by their four-chambered
stomach and cud-chewing behavior Cud is a food bolus
that is regurgitated rechewed and reswallowed The
rumen is a large fermentation vat containing billions of
microorganisms including bacteria and protozoa which
allow ruminants to digest fibrous feeds such as grass and
hay that other animals cannot efficiently utilize 148
Crocodiles amp
Plover Birds
The bird gets into the crocodiles mouth and picks out
the tiny bits of food stuck in his teeth then eats it (the
tiny bits)
This cleans the crocodiles teeth and keeps his mouth
fresh and free from infections 149
Predation
bull Consumption of one living organism by
another
bull Predators must have offensive strategies
bull ways of finding catching and eating
their prey
bull Prey organisms must have defensive
strategies
bull ways of avoiding or discouraging this
activity
150
Predation
bull Encompasses all levels within an
ecological food chainweb
bull plant-herbivore systems
bull herbivore-carnivore systems
bull three-way interactions of
interdependent plant-herbivore-
carnivore systems
151
This goshawk is the tertiary consumer in his ecosystem
and the mouse in his beak is the secondary consumer
Beneath the mouse on the ecological pyramid lies his
foodsource likely a worm which fed on the primary
producer leafy plants 152
Ecosystem of Life in Floridas
Springs
bull Click here for a close-up look of life
in Floridas springs and the various
predator-prey interactions there
153
Mutualism shrimp and moray
Cleaner shrimp cleaning a zebra moray eel Mutualistic
relationships such as these promote the well-being of the
host fishes and provide food for those that do the cleaning 144
Rhizobium
Rhizobium in root nodules of certain plants convert
nitrogen in soil to usable form
145
Orchid Mycorrhizae
Fungi aid the plant in the uptake of nutrients
Fungi ingest some of the food from plant
photosynthesis 146
Lichen
Most of the lichen is composed of fungal filaments
but living among the filaments are algal cells
usually from a green alga or a cyanobacterium
The lichen fungus provides its partner(s) a benefit
(protection) and gains nutrients in return 147
Ruminants
Ruminants are characterized by their four-chambered
stomach and cud-chewing behavior Cud is a food bolus
that is regurgitated rechewed and reswallowed The
rumen is a large fermentation vat containing billions of
microorganisms including bacteria and protozoa which
allow ruminants to digest fibrous feeds such as grass and
hay that other animals cannot efficiently utilize 148
Crocodiles amp
Plover Birds
The bird gets into the crocodiles mouth and picks out
the tiny bits of food stuck in his teeth then eats it (the
tiny bits)
This cleans the crocodiles teeth and keeps his mouth
fresh and free from infections 149
Predation
bull Consumption of one living organism by
another
bull Predators must have offensive strategies
bull ways of finding catching and eating
their prey
bull Prey organisms must have defensive
strategies
bull ways of avoiding or discouraging this
activity
150
Predation
bull Encompasses all levels within an
ecological food chainweb
bull plant-herbivore systems
bull herbivore-carnivore systems
bull three-way interactions of
interdependent plant-herbivore-
carnivore systems
151
This goshawk is the tertiary consumer in his ecosystem
and the mouse in his beak is the secondary consumer
Beneath the mouse on the ecological pyramid lies his
foodsource likely a worm which fed on the primary
producer leafy plants 152
Ecosystem of Life in Floridas
Springs
bull Click here for a close-up look of life
in Floridas springs and the various
predator-prey interactions there
153
Rhizobium
Rhizobium in root nodules of certain plants convert
nitrogen in soil to usable form
145
Orchid Mycorrhizae
Fungi aid the plant in the uptake of nutrients
Fungi ingest some of the food from plant
photosynthesis 146
Lichen
Most of the lichen is composed of fungal filaments
but living among the filaments are algal cells
usually from a green alga or a cyanobacterium
The lichen fungus provides its partner(s) a benefit
(protection) and gains nutrients in return 147
Ruminants
Ruminants are characterized by their four-chambered
stomach and cud-chewing behavior Cud is a food bolus
that is regurgitated rechewed and reswallowed The
rumen is a large fermentation vat containing billions of
microorganisms including bacteria and protozoa which
allow ruminants to digest fibrous feeds such as grass and
hay that other animals cannot efficiently utilize 148
Crocodiles amp
Plover Birds
The bird gets into the crocodiles mouth and picks out
the tiny bits of food stuck in his teeth then eats it (the
tiny bits)
This cleans the crocodiles teeth and keeps his mouth
fresh and free from infections 149
Predation
bull Consumption of one living organism by
another
bull Predators must have offensive strategies
bull ways of finding catching and eating
their prey
bull Prey organisms must have defensive
strategies
bull ways of avoiding or discouraging this
activity
150
Predation
bull Encompasses all levels within an
ecological food chainweb
bull plant-herbivore systems
bull herbivore-carnivore systems
bull three-way interactions of
interdependent plant-herbivore-
carnivore systems
151
This goshawk is the tertiary consumer in his ecosystem
and the mouse in his beak is the secondary consumer
Beneath the mouse on the ecological pyramid lies his
foodsource likely a worm which fed on the primary
producer leafy plants 152
Ecosystem of Life in Floridas
Springs
bull Click here for a close-up look of life
in Floridas springs and the various
predator-prey interactions there
153
Orchid Mycorrhizae
Fungi aid the plant in the uptake of nutrients
Fungi ingest some of the food from plant
photosynthesis 146
Lichen
Most of the lichen is composed of fungal filaments
but living among the filaments are algal cells
usually from a green alga or a cyanobacterium
The lichen fungus provides its partner(s) a benefit
(protection) and gains nutrients in return 147
Ruminants
Ruminants are characterized by their four-chambered
stomach and cud-chewing behavior Cud is a food bolus
that is regurgitated rechewed and reswallowed The
rumen is a large fermentation vat containing billions of
microorganisms including bacteria and protozoa which
allow ruminants to digest fibrous feeds such as grass and
hay that other animals cannot efficiently utilize 148
Crocodiles amp
Plover Birds
The bird gets into the crocodiles mouth and picks out
the tiny bits of food stuck in his teeth then eats it (the
tiny bits)
This cleans the crocodiles teeth and keeps his mouth
fresh and free from infections 149
Predation
bull Consumption of one living organism by
another
bull Predators must have offensive strategies
bull ways of finding catching and eating
their prey
bull Prey organisms must have defensive
strategies
bull ways of avoiding or discouraging this
activity
150
Predation
bull Encompasses all levels within an
ecological food chainweb
bull plant-herbivore systems
bull herbivore-carnivore systems
bull three-way interactions of
interdependent plant-herbivore-
carnivore systems
151
This goshawk is the tertiary consumer in his ecosystem
and the mouse in his beak is the secondary consumer
Beneath the mouse on the ecological pyramid lies his
foodsource likely a worm which fed on the primary
producer leafy plants 152
Ecosystem of Life in Floridas
Springs
bull Click here for a close-up look of life
in Floridas springs and the various
predator-prey interactions there
153
Lichen
Most of the lichen is composed of fungal filaments
but living among the filaments are algal cells
usually from a green alga or a cyanobacterium
The lichen fungus provides its partner(s) a benefit
(protection) and gains nutrients in return 147
Ruminants
Ruminants are characterized by their four-chambered
stomach and cud-chewing behavior Cud is a food bolus
that is regurgitated rechewed and reswallowed The
rumen is a large fermentation vat containing billions of
microorganisms including bacteria and protozoa which
allow ruminants to digest fibrous feeds such as grass and
hay that other animals cannot efficiently utilize 148
Crocodiles amp
Plover Birds
The bird gets into the crocodiles mouth and picks out
the tiny bits of food stuck in his teeth then eats it (the
tiny bits)
This cleans the crocodiles teeth and keeps his mouth
fresh and free from infections 149
Predation
bull Consumption of one living organism by
another
bull Predators must have offensive strategies
bull ways of finding catching and eating
their prey
bull Prey organisms must have defensive
strategies
bull ways of avoiding or discouraging this
activity
150
Predation
bull Encompasses all levels within an
ecological food chainweb
bull plant-herbivore systems
bull herbivore-carnivore systems
bull three-way interactions of
interdependent plant-herbivore-
carnivore systems
151
This goshawk is the tertiary consumer in his ecosystem
and the mouse in his beak is the secondary consumer
Beneath the mouse on the ecological pyramid lies his
foodsource likely a worm which fed on the primary
producer leafy plants 152
Ecosystem of Life in Floridas
Springs
bull Click here for a close-up look of life
in Floridas springs and the various
predator-prey interactions there
153
Ruminants
Ruminants are characterized by their four-chambered
stomach and cud-chewing behavior Cud is a food bolus
that is regurgitated rechewed and reswallowed The
rumen is a large fermentation vat containing billions of
microorganisms including bacteria and protozoa which
allow ruminants to digest fibrous feeds such as grass and
hay that other animals cannot efficiently utilize 148
Crocodiles amp
Plover Birds
The bird gets into the crocodiles mouth and picks out
the tiny bits of food stuck in his teeth then eats it (the
tiny bits)
This cleans the crocodiles teeth and keeps his mouth
fresh and free from infections 149
Predation
bull Consumption of one living organism by
another
bull Predators must have offensive strategies
bull ways of finding catching and eating
their prey
bull Prey organisms must have defensive
strategies
bull ways of avoiding or discouraging this
activity
150
Predation
bull Encompasses all levels within an
ecological food chainweb
bull plant-herbivore systems
bull herbivore-carnivore systems
bull three-way interactions of
interdependent plant-herbivore-
carnivore systems
151
This goshawk is the tertiary consumer in his ecosystem
and the mouse in his beak is the secondary consumer
Beneath the mouse on the ecological pyramid lies his
foodsource likely a worm which fed on the primary
producer leafy plants 152
Ecosystem of Life in Floridas
Springs
bull Click here for a close-up look of life
in Floridas springs and the various
predator-prey interactions there
153
Crocodiles amp
Plover Birds
The bird gets into the crocodiles mouth and picks out
the tiny bits of food stuck in his teeth then eats it (the
tiny bits)
This cleans the crocodiles teeth and keeps his mouth
fresh and free from infections 149
Predation
bull Consumption of one living organism by
another
bull Predators must have offensive strategies
bull ways of finding catching and eating
their prey
bull Prey organisms must have defensive
strategies
bull ways of avoiding or discouraging this
activity
150
Predation
bull Encompasses all levels within an
ecological food chainweb
bull plant-herbivore systems
bull herbivore-carnivore systems
bull three-way interactions of
interdependent plant-herbivore-
carnivore systems
151
This goshawk is the tertiary consumer in his ecosystem
and the mouse in his beak is the secondary consumer
Beneath the mouse on the ecological pyramid lies his
foodsource likely a worm which fed on the primary
producer leafy plants 152
Ecosystem of Life in Floridas
Springs
bull Click here for a close-up look of life
in Floridas springs and the various
predator-prey interactions there
153
Predation
bull Consumption of one living organism by
another
bull Predators must have offensive strategies
bull ways of finding catching and eating
their prey
bull Prey organisms must have defensive
strategies
bull ways of avoiding or discouraging this
activity
150
Predation
bull Encompasses all levels within an
ecological food chainweb
bull plant-herbivore systems
bull herbivore-carnivore systems
bull three-way interactions of
interdependent plant-herbivore-
carnivore systems
151
This goshawk is the tertiary consumer in his ecosystem
and the mouse in his beak is the secondary consumer
Beneath the mouse on the ecological pyramid lies his
foodsource likely a worm which fed on the primary
producer leafy plants 152
Ecosystem of Life in Floridas
Springs
bull Click here for a close-up look of life
in Floridas springs and the various
predator-prey interactions there
153
Predation
bull Encompasses all levels within an
ecological food chainweb
bull plant-herbivore systems
bull herbivore-carnivore systems
bull three-way interactions of
interdependent plant-herbivore-
carnivore systems
151
This goshawk is the tertiary consumer in his ecosystem
and the mouse in his beak is the secondary consumer
Beneath the mouse on the ecological pyramid lies his
foodsource likely a worm which fed on the primary
producer leafy plants 152
Ecosystem of Life in Floridas
Springs
bull Click here for a close-up look of life
in Floridas springs and the various
predator-prey interactions there
153
This goshawk is the tertiary consumer in his ecosystem
and the mouse in his beak is the secondary consumer
Beneath the mouse on the ecological pyramid lies his
foodsource likely a worm which fed on the primary
producer leafy plants 152
Ecosystem of Life in Floridas
Springs
bull Click here for a close-up look of life
in Floridas springs and the various
predator-prey interactions there
153